GIFT  or 

E.  Janes 


HISTORY 


OF   THE 


CHRISTIAN   CHURCH; 

BY 

DR.  CHARLES  HASE, 

PROFESSOR  OF  THEOLOGY  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY   OF  JENA. 

JErattslatofc  fr0m  %  Stlwrtfc.iroi  Mtlj  iwpatei  (Senro  <3rftiii0n, 

BY 

CHARLES  E.  BLUMENTHAL, 

PROFESSOR   OF   HEBREW   AND   OF   MODERN   LANGUAGES   IN   DICKINSON   COLLEGE, 


CON  WAY  P.  WING, 

PASTOR  OF  THE  FIRST  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  CARLISLE,  PENNSYLVANIA. 


NEW    YORK: 

D.   APPLETON"   &  CO.,  90,  92   &   94   GRAND  STREET. 

1870. 


OY\  IT^ 

U     -3    O 

n  ^^ 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S£5,  tf 

D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY. 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE. 


THIS  translation  was  undertaken  because  its  authors  knew  of  no 
work  in  English  which  precisely  corresponded  with  it.  The  his- 
tories of  Milner,  Waddington,  Milman,  Stebbing,  Hardwicke 
and  Robertson,  and  the  translations  of  Mosheim,  Neander,  Dol- 
linger,  Thiersch  and  Schaff,  have  severally  specific  merits^  with 
reference  to  the  objects  of  their  composition  ;  but  many  of  them 
are  incomplete  as  general  histories,  most  of  them  were  written 
so  as  to  give  undue  prominence  to  some  single  aspect  of  the 
characters  and  events  of  which  they  treat,  and  all  of  them  are  too 
large  to  be  used  either  as  manuals  for  the  scholar,  as  text-books 
for  the  instructor,  or  as  compendiums  for  the  general  reader. 
Some  attempts  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  Palmer,  Timpson, 
Foulkes,  Hinds,  Goodrich  and  Enter,  have  met  with  no  very 
general  acceptance.  A  miniature  representation  of  a  vast  mass 
of  facts,  in  which  each  personage  and  event  shall  appear  in  their 
individual  freshness  and  relative  proportions,  requires  for  its  exe- 
cution peculiar  talents  and  rare  opportunities.  The  Germans 
appear  to  possess  these  in  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  people. 
Their  learned  men  highly  appreciate  the  value  of  such  manuals, 
and  their  literature  abounds  in  them.  One  of  these,  by  Dr. 
Gieselei,  has  been  translated,  and  is  almost  invaluable.  Bat  its 
text  is  a  mere  epitome  of  results,  and  bears  no  proportion  to  the 
v  at  materials  in  the  notes  ,  and  the  narrative  awakens  no  in- 
terest. It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  graphic  picture,  or  an  ex- 


IV  TRANSLATOR  S   PKEFACE. 

pression  of  feeling  in  the  whole  work.  Even  the  posthumous 
ivolumie  which  has  been  promised,  will  leave  the  history  incomplete. 
The  delay  which  has  taken  place  in  the  appearance  of  this 
^vork  has  afforded  many  opportunities  of  learning  how  much  this 
deficiency  was  appreciated  by  competent  scholars  in  England  and 
America.  From  the  letters  we  have  received,  and  from  public 
journals,  we  might  present  many  testimonies,  not  only  that  such 
a  work  was  needed,  but  that  nothing  in  the  literature  of  the 
present  day  was  so  likely  to  supply  the  deficiency  as  a  transla- 
tion of  the  work  we  had  announced.  The  style  of  our  author  is 
especially  adapted  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  mind ;  his  astonishing- 
power  of  condensed  expression, — his  aesthetic,  if  not  religious  sym- 
pathies, with  every  variety  of  intellectual  and  moral  greatness, — 
his  skilful  daguerreotypes  of  characters  by  means  of  the  trans- 
mitted light  of  contemporary  language, — the  delicate  irony  and 
genial  humor  which  pervade  his  descriptions, — the  picturesque 
liveliness  with  which  a  single  character  or  incident  brings  out 
the  manners  and  spirit  of  an  age, — the  precision  with  which 
his  scientific  arrangement  is  preserved,  the  critical  judgment 
with  which  the  minutest  results  of  recent  investigations  are  in- 
troduced,— and  the  graceful  proportion  and  animation  with  which 
the  whole  stands  out  before  us,  render  his  history  attractive  to 
all  kinds  of  readers.  He  throws  away  every  name  or  event  which 
has  no  historical  utility  or  organic  life  ;  he  appreciates  an  heroic 
spirit  wherever  it  appears,  and  each  period  is  estimated  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  its  own  light.  His  is  not  merely  a  history  of  the 
hierarchy,  of  the  nobility,  or  of  great  men,  but  of  the  Church. 
His  descriptions,  therefore,  embrace  especially  traits  of  common 
life,  the  progress  of  the  arts,  and  indications  of  advancement  in 
social  freedom.  If  his  theological  opinions  do  not  quite  coincide 
with  our  own,  he  seldom,  at  least  in  this  work,  obtrudes  them 
upon  our  attention.  His  object  seems  to  have  been  to  maintain 
historical  accuracy,  rather  than  to  exhibit  his  own  opinions  ;  and 
if  sometimes  our  favorite  characters,  or  views,  do  not  appear  in 
the  light  in  which  we  have  usually  contemplated  them,  his  uni- 
form impartiality  and  intelligence  make  us  suspect  our  earlier 
judgments.  None  but  those  who  observe  the  structure  rather 
than  the  particular  dogmatic  expressions  of  this  work,  will  be 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE.  v 

likely  to  detect  the  author's  peculiar  views,  and  such  readers  can 
afford  to  give  them  whatever  consideration  they  deserve.  A  strik- 
ing comparison  has  been  drawn  between  him  and  a  living  English 
historian  and  essayist,  but  the  reference  can  be  only  to  the  live- 
liness and  brilliancy  of  his  historical  scenes,  and  not  to  the  mi- 
nute space  in  which  the  picture  of  more  than  eighteen  centuries 
is  presented. 

As  soon  as  we  had  determined  to  translate  the  work,  the 
author  was  informed  of  our  intention,  and  we  publish  his  reply 
to  our  communication.  Unforeseen  difficulties,  however,  delayed, 
the  publication  of  our  work,  and  when  more  than  a  hundred 
pages  had  been  stereotyped,  we  received  a  copy  of  the  seventh 
edition,  with  numerous  corrections  and  additions.  We  have  cer- 
tainly no  reason  to  regret  such  an  occurrence,  although  it  im- 
posed on  us  the  necessity  of  recalling  and  rewriting  a  large' 
portion  of  our  manuscript.  We  submitted,  however,  with  cheer- 
fulness to  the  necessity,  since  we  are  now  able  to  present  an? 
edition  in  which  some  errors  have  been  corrected,  the  results  of 
recent  research,  especially  with  respect  to  the  second  and  third 
centuries,  have  been  incorporated,  and  the  eventful  history  of  the 
last  seven  years  has  been  added.  In  an  Appendix,  we  present 
every  thing  of  importance  added  by  the  author  in  the  part  which 
had  been  already  struck  off.  But  as  we  were  obliged  in  this  first 
part  to  retain  the  numbers  of  the  sections  used  in  the  sixth 
edition,  and  subsequently  to  adopt  those  used  in  the  seventh, 
some  confusion  has  necessarily  been  created.  Should  a  new 
edition  be  called  for,  we  hope  not  only  to  remove  this  defect,  but 
to  adapt  the  work  to  an  American  position.  The  section  on 
America  (§  462)  has  been  already,  with  the  author's  concur- 
rence, rewritten  and  enlarged.  Considerable  pains  have  also 
been  taken  to  adapt  the  references  and  authorities  to  the  present 
state  of  English  literature,  and  some  references  to  German  trans- 
lations of  English  and  French  works  have  been  omitted,  but 
every  addition  is  indicated  by  brackets.  We  are  well  aware  that 
our  work  has  many  faults  after  all  our  revisions  and  efforts  to 
correct  them,  but,  like  the  author,  we  see  no  end  to  the  labor 
which  might  be  bestowed  on  that  which  is,  by  its  nature,  neces- 
sarily imperfect.  Dr.  Hase  has  given  a  large  part  of  his  atten- 


vi  TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE. 

tion  to  the  original  history  for  more  than  twenty  years.  He  was 
born  in  the  year  1800  at  Steinbach.  In  1823,  he  was  a  private 
instructor  in  Theology  at  Tubingen  ;  in  1829,  he  was  elected  a 
Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Leipsic  ;  and  in  1830.  he  became  a 
Professor  of  Theology  in  Jena,  where  he  still  continues.  His 
other  works  are  :  The  Old  Pastor's  Testament,  Tub.  1824  ;  The 
Murder  of  Justice,  a  Vow  of  the  Church,  Lps.  1826  ;  A  Manual 
of  Evang.  Dogmatik,  Lps.  1826,  4th  and  much  enlarged  edit., 
Lps.  1850 ;  Gnosis,  Lps.  1827-29,  3  vols.  ;  Hutterus  Bedivivus, 
or  Dogmatik  of  the  Evang.  Luth.  Church,  Lps.  1829,  7  ed.  in 
1848  (a  work  whose  purely  historical  account  involved  him  in 
a  controversy  with  Kohr,  the  great  champion  of  nationalism, 
and  led  to  a  series  of  polemical  works  on  that  subject)  ;  The 
Life  of  Christ,  Lps.  1829,  4th  imp.  edit.  1854  ;  Libri  Symbolic! 
Ecclesiae  Evangelicae  sive  Concordia,  of  which  the  3d  ed.  ap- 
peared in  Lps.  1846  ;  The  Two  Archbishops,  (referring  to  the 
difficulties  in  the  dioceses  of  Cologne  and  Posen,)  Lps.  1839  ; 
The  Good  Old  Law  of  the  Church,  two  academical  discourses, 
2d  ed.  Lps.  1847  ;  The  Evang.  Prot.  Church  of  the  German 
Empire,  on  Ecclesiastical  Law,  2d  ed.  Lps.  1852  ;  The  Modern 
Prophets,  three  Lectures  on  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  Savonarola, 
and  the  Kingdom  of  the  Anabaptists,  Lps.  1851.  He  has  also 
recently  been  engaged  in  the  publication  of  Didot's  new  edition 
of  Stephanus'  Thesaurus  Grecae  Linguae,  of  which  the  seventh 
part  has  just  appeared. 


AUTHOR'S  LETTER  TO  THE  TRANSLATORS. 


To  Prof.  C.  E.  Blumenthal  and  Rev.  C.  P.  Wing : — 

DEAR  SIRS  : — Between  him  who  incorporates  in  a  book  the  results 
of  his  most  serious  and  profound  mental  labors,  and  those  who  from  a 
cordial  preference  endeavor  to  introduce  and  interpret  it  to  a  foreign 
nation,  must  naturally  spring  up  such  an  intimate  intellectual  sympathy, 
that  it  would  seem  surprising  for  them,  if  contemporaries,  to  remain 
strangers  to  each  other.  I,  therefore,  hail  with  grateful  feelings  the 
kind  letter  you  have  sent  me  across  the  ocean,  and  in  imagination  grasp 
the  hand  of  fraternal  fellowship  extended  to  me  from  the  land  of 
William  Penn. 

You  have  doubtless  already  discovered  that  no  ordinary  obstacles 
were  to  be  surmounted  before  a  good  translation  of  my  Church  History 
could  be  made,  as  my  object  was  to  compress  the  most  perfect  picture 
of  the  religious  life  developed  in  the  Church  into  the  smallest  frame ; 
and  hence  I  was  compelled  to  be  very  parsimonious  in  the  use  of  words, 
and  to  refer  to  the  original  authorities  for  many  things  plain  to  the 
learned,  but  obscure  to  the  learner.  A  French  translation,  once  at- 
tempted, split  upon  this  rock.  I  hope,  however,  that  in  a  sister  lan- 
guage, so  essentially  Germanic  as  the  English,  these  difficulties  may  be 
more  easily  overcome,  and  such  a  confidence  is  encouraged  by  the  fact, 
that  in  a  Danish  translation  they  have  been  completely  vanquished. 

If  I  remember  correctly,  an  attempt  to  translate  my  work  was  once 
made  in  England,  but  was  abandoned  on  account  of  its  supposed  incon- 
sistency with  the  views  of  the  Established  Church.  You  have  doubtless 
considered  how  far  this  objection  should  prevail  with  reference  to  the 
Church  of  your  country,  if  the  numerous  and  varied  communities  which 
have  pitched  their  tents  under  the  banner  of  the  stars  and  stripes  may 


viii  AUTHOR'S  LETTER  TO  THE  TRANSLATORS. 

be  truly  spoken  of  as  a  single  Church.  I  trust,  however,  that  among 
those  who  study  history  from  a  higher  position  than  that  of  a  party,  an 
assimilation  of  views  will  gradually  prevail  respecting  the  silent  opin- 
ions and  facts  which  lie  behind  us  in  the  past.  I  have  at  least  honestly 
aimed  to  recognize  in  its  proper  light  every  element  in  any  way  drawn 
around  our  common  Lord.  I  have  thus  endeavored  to  approach  as 
nearly  as  possible  that  exalted  position  from  which  the  history  of  his 
Church  will  be  regarded  by  Christ  himself,  not  merely  as  the  Judge  of 
^uick  and  dead,  but  as  the  faithful  Shepherd  seeking  the  lost  lamb. 

May  my  poor  book,  therefore,  be  dressed  once  more  in  a  language 
spoken  on  every  ocean  and  coast,  and  so  come  back  to  me  from  a  world 
to  which,  as  to  another  holy  land,  hosts  of  peaceful  crusaders  are  an- 
nually pouring  to  plant  anew  their  hopes,  and  to  realize  their  long- 
cherished  ideals  in  subsequent  generations.  The  brief  notice  of  the 
Church  in  the  United  States  you  propose  to  substitute  for  my  section 
on  that  subject,  will  doubtless  better  adapt  the  work  to  your  country. 
Whenever  the  universal  interest  of  the  Church  was  the  topic,  I  have 
myself  given  more  space  to  the  Church  of  my  fathers.  I  have  no 
doubt  that  the  alliance  commenced  between  German  and  American  the- 
ology will  prove  a  blessing  to  both.  Both  nations  have  certainly  a 
great  mission  assigned  them  in  ecclesiastical  history,  which  each  must 
accomplish  in  its  own  peculiar  manner. 

The  sixth  edition  made  its  appearance  just  before  the  storm  which 
has  since  broken  over  central  Europe.  Pius  IX.,  having  been  driven 
from  his  beautiful  Babylon  by  an  insurrection  which  he  could  not  allay 
by  kindness,  has  been  restored  by  republican  France,  to  substitute  a 
government  of  priests  and  Jesuits  for  a  Roman  Republic.  The  French 
clergy  have  also  hastily  concluded  to  send  up  the  petition  "  Domine, 
salvam  fac  rempublicam,"  as  long  as  a  democratic  republic  can  be  main- 
tained in  France.  In  Germany,  our  national  Assembly  at  Frankfort 
not  only  proclaimed  the  gospel  of  liberty  for  the  Church,  and  the  fun- 
damental rights  of  the  German  nation,  but  going  beyond  the  people 
whom  they  professed  to  regard  as  their  model,  they  threatened  to  di- 
vest the  state  of  all  Christian  or  religious  character.  The  more  con- 
siderate of  our  nation  sent  forth  their  warnings  against  such  a  rupture 
with  all  historical  traditions,  and  painful  political  events  have  since 
shown  that  the  immediate  object  of  the  Protestant  German  Church 
should  be  much  more  cautious  and  consonant  with  the  national  spirit 
This  object  unquestionably  is,  to  give  to  the  Church  the  administration 
of  its  own  affairs,  in  alliance  with  a  state  under  which  the  right  of 
citizenship  shall  depend  upon  no  creed,  and  the  gospel  of  Christ  shall 
be  proclaimed  as  the  highest  principle  of  right. 


AUTHOR'S  LETTER  TO  THE  TRANSLATORS.  ix 

In  the  Catholic  Church,  the  independence  of  the  state  secured  tc 
the  hierarchy  by  the  revolution,  was  made  subservient  to  such  an  enor- 
mous increase  of  its  'powers,  that  the  freedom  of  the  inferior  clergy  and 
of  the  congregations  is  seriously  endangered.  What  was  called  Ger- 
man Catholicism,  has  shown,  as  the  more  sagacious  perceived  from  the 
commencement,  that  it  lacked  the  religious  energy  necessary  to  effect  a 
reform  in  the  Christian  Church.  Since  it  has  ceased  to  be  harassed  by 
political  obstructions  it  has  dwindled  into  an  insignificant  sect.  But  in 
the  contest  between  a  merely  prescriptive  Christianity,  and  the  pro- 
gressive spirit  of  modern  improvement,  many  a  severe  conflict  must 
doubtless  yet  take  place,  before  Christ  in  this  respect  also  will  manifest 
himself  as  the  Mediator. 

KAEL  HASE. 

JENA,  May  *lt\  1850. 


PEEFACE  TO  THE  FIEST  EDITION. 


IN  composing  the  following  work,  my  intention  was  to  present  a  text- 
book to  the  public,  and  to  accomplish  this,  I  resolved  to  devote  to  it  all 
the  severe  labor  and  concentration  of  effort  which  such  an  object  requires. 
But  I  was  aware  that  however  the  general  outline  might  be  condensed,  the 
living  freshness  which  we  find  in  the  original  monuments  and  documents 
of  each  historical  period,  should  be  preserved  unimpaired.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  endeavoring,  like  most  of  those  who  have  prepared  such 
works,  to  present  only  that  which  is  general  and  indefinite,  I  have  con- 
tinually aimed  to  hold  up  that  which  in  each  age  possessed  most  of  in- 
dividual and  distinct  character ;  and  when  it  became  indispensable  that 
some  general  grand  features  should  be  rendered  prominent,  I  have 
sought  to  make  these  so  suggestive  of  the  particular  facts,  that  recollec- 
tions of  the  most  minute  circumstances  should  throng  the  mind  of  the 
instructor.  In  this  way,  the  attention  will  be  aroused  while  in  the  pro- 
cess of  preparation,  and  the  memory  will  be  strengthened  in  its  recollec- 
tions, since  whatever  is  characteristic  awakens  sympathy,  and  fastens 
itself  in  the  memory.  In  this  respect,  it  may  be  said  that  what  belongs 
to  a  good  text-book,  is  also  an  essential  part  of  every  historical  repre- 
sentation. In  every  century  many  noble  spirits  have  found  their  prin- 
cipal delight,  and  expended  all  their  energies,  in  investigating  subjects 
connected  with  ecclesiastical  history.  And  yet  for  a  long  time  the  com- 
position of  ecclesiastical  history  seems  by  no  means  to  have  retained  the 
eminent  relative  position  which  it  held  in  former  days.  Without  refer- 
ring to  historians  of  an  earlier  period,  where  have  we  any  works  upon 
Church  History  whose  excellence  as  historical  compositions  can  be  com- 
pared with  those  of  Macjiiavel,  Hume,  and  John  M tiller  ?  Even 
among  the  most  recent  ecclesiastical  histories,  that  of  Spittler  is  the 
only  work  which  can  stand  the  test  of  a  critical  examination  by  the  con- 
temporary literary  world ;  but  its  Christian  character  is  so  obviously 
one-sided,  that  every  one  perceives  that  in  this  respect  it  is  far  inferior 


PREFACE   TO   THE   FIRST   EDITION.  XI 

to  that  of  Neander.  In  thus  expressing  my  general  design,  my  object 
is  to  show  what  has  been  my  aim,  however  far  I  have  come  short  of  at- 
taining it.  In  these  remarks,  however,  I  have  had  very  little  reference 
to  the  mere  literary  style  ;  for,  with  respect  to  this,  we  in  Germany 
generally  need,  and  actually  receive,  much  allowance  for  the  dry  form 
of  a  compendium.  I  rather  refer  to  such  a  careful  study  of  original 
authorities  that  the  objects  and  events  assume  the  living  freshness  of 
reality,  and  to  a  complete  intellectual  apprehension  of  the  facts.  I  have 
also  bestowed  some  attention  upon  a  peculiar  department  of  history, 
which,  though  it  has  in  former  times  been  noticed  by  all  genuine  eccle- 
siastical historians,  never  became  prominent  until  the  appearance  of  the 
venerable  Neander's  History  of  the  Christian  Religion.  I  do  not,  how- 
ever, by  any  means  expect  that  my  present  work  will  receive  very  de- 
cided favor  from  those  who,  in  a  peculiar  sense,  belong  to  the  school  of 
Neander,  since  it  was  certainly  not  so  much  my  special  object  to  search 
out  what  was  spiritual  and  devotional  among  the  people,  as  it  was  al- 
ways to  seize  upon  what  was  characteristic  of  the  popular  religion.  In 
the  greatness  and  completeness  of  such  a  representation,  there  must  of 
course  always  be  much  adapted  to  inspire  devotional  feelings,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, I  have  constantly  felt  that  I  was  writing  the  history  of  the 
actual  kingdom  of  God  on  earth.  But  as  men  have  often  turned 
that  which  was  really  sublime  into  a  caricature,  many  individual  points 
must  necessarily  be  far  enough  from  edifying. 

There  are  some  subjects  not  usually  introduced  into  an  ecclesiastical 
history,  to  which  I  have  awarded  a  right  to  a  position  there,  because 
they  had  their  origin  in  the  Church.  Indeed,  in  most  of  the  larger 
Church  Histories,  nearly  all  of  them  have  had  a  certain  kind  of  con- 
sideration already  bestowed  upon  them.  Such  is,  e.  g.,  the  treatment 
which  Schroeckh  has  given  to  the  subject  of  Christian  art,  although  the 
style  in  which  he  has  written  must  be  confessed  to  have  been  singularly 
awkward.  In  his  Encyclopedia,  Rosenkranz  has  also  assigned  a  due 
degree  of  importance  to  the  subject  of  ecclesiastical  architecture.  On 
the  other  hand,  I  have  omitted  many  things  ordinarily  mentioned  even 
in  the  smallest  compendiums.  I  have,  however,  so  little  disposition  to 
offer  an  apology  for  this,  that  I  am  rather  inclined  to  reproach  myself 
that,  especially  on  the  subject  of  Patristies,  I  so  far  yielded  to  usage 
that  I  allowed  many  topics  to  retain  their  ordinary  position,  which 
certainly  have  no  right  to  a  place  in  history.  On  various  occasions  it 
has  recently  been  asserted  that  ecclesiastical  history  ought,  at  least  in 
a  course  of  academical  instruction,  to  throw  out  a  portion  of  its  ballast. 
And  yet  we  can  hardly  think  that  a  proper  remedy  for  our  difficulties 
would  be  found  in  the  plan  proposed  by  Tittmann,  according  to  which 


xii  PREFACE   TO   THE    FIRST    EDITION. 

our  future  histories  must  be  confined  to  an  account  of  the  promulgation 
of  Christianity,  and  of  the  internal  constitution  of  the  Church.  For,  it 
must  readily  be  perceived,  that  no  true  representation  of  the  actual 
oondition  of  the  Church  could  ever  be  made  by  one  who  confined  him- 
self to  such  arbitrary  restrictions.  If,  indeed,  an  ecclesiastical  history 
should  attempt  merely  to  present  a  connected  account  of  all  theological 
.  iterature,  it  would  go  beyond  its  peculiar  province,  and  become  an  en- 
cyclopedia of  theological  knowledge.  No  particular  event  connected 
with  theological  science  ever  needs  to  be  noticed,  except  when  it  becomes 
important  as  a  prominent  circumstance  belonging  to  the  age,  and  may 
properly  be  regarded  as  characteristic  of  the  times.  We  cannot,  how- 
ever, entirely  dispense  with  some  account  of  the  received  doctrines  of 
the  Church.  Although  a  separate  history  of  these  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  the  interests  of  theological  science,  the  ecclesiastical  his- 
torian cannot  on  that  account  omit  all  reference  to  the  subject;  for  how 
could  the  ecclesiastical  movements  of  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  centuries 
be  adequately  described  without  noticing  the  various  forms  and  processes 
through  which  the  doctrinal  views  of  the  Church,  and  its  different  sects, 
then  passed,  and  by  which  the  character  of  those  great  movements  was 
determined  ?  Indeed,  how  could  a  clear  representation  be  given  of  any 
period  of  the  Church,  unless  it  included  some  account  of  the  system  of 
faith  which  animates  and  sustains  the  whole.  There  is,  in  reality,  only 
a  formal  distinction  between  the  history  of  doctrines  as  a  special  science, 
and  as  an  element  in  the  general  history  of  the  Church ;  for,  aside  from 
the  difference  in  the  outward  extent  with  which  the  subject  is  necessarily 
treated,  they  only  refer  to  the  different  poles  of  the  same  axis, — the 
former  presenting  the  doctrine  rather  as  an  idea  unfolding  its  own  self, 
and  the  latter  exhibiting  it  in  its  relation  to  surrounding  events.  But 
the  principal  method  by  which  ecclesiastical  history  was  to  be  simplified, 
was  by  discarding  a  mass  of  useless  material.  Nothing  is  a  part  of 
history  which  has  not  at  some  period  possessed  actual  life,  and  con- 
sequently become  immortal,  by  exhibiting  in  itself  a  true  refraction  of 
the  Christian  spirit ;  for,  as  God  is  only  the  God  of  the  living,  so  history 
is  not  a  record  of  that  which  is  lifeless  and  dead,  but  of  that  which  has 
a  perpetual  life.  We  have,  however,  hitherto  dragged  along  a  vast 
multitude  of  these  still-born  trifles.  Of  what  benefit  can  it  be,  at  least 
for  students,  to  have  it  in  their  power  to  repeat  the  names  of  all  those 
persons  who  have  been  only  remotely  connected  with  the  different  events 
mentioned  in  history, — of  Synods  which  decided  upon  nothing,  of  popes 
who  never  governed,  and  of  authors  who  wrote  nothing  of  importance. 
A  veneration  for  the  names  of  these  silent  personages,  of  whom  nothing 
is  recorded  but  the  year  of  their  death,  has  induced  many  even  of  our 


PKEFACE    TO    THE    FIRST   EDITION.  Xlll 

greatest  ecclesiastical  historians  to  fill  whole  pages  of  their  works  with 
the  useless  catalogue.  Should  any  one  think  that  it  is  the  business  of 
the  instructor  to  quicken  these  dry  bones  by  giving  an  account  of  their 
works,  he  certainly  has  very  little  idea  of  the  range  of  topics  embraced 
in  the  academic  lecture ;  and  I  appeal  to  the  experience  of  any  one  who 
has  ever  gone  through  with  the  text-book  of  Staudlin  or  of  Muenscher, 
and  inquire  whether  he  has  found  it  possible  to  animate  the  masses 
found  in  them ;  or  if  he  has  been  successful  in  this,  whether  he  has 
found  any  advantages  worth  the  trouble  1  I  have  endeavored,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  avoid  such  useless  verbiage  in  the  text,  for,  although  a  man- 
ual should  be  expected  to  require  much  explanation  from  the  living 
teacher,  it  should  also  possess  some  character  of  its  own.  By  adopting 
this  plan,  opportunity  has  been  acquired  for  a  more  extensive  notice  of 
those  matters  which  were  really  important,  and  it  will  sometimes  be 
found  that  I  have  given  to  such  topics  as  much  space  as  they  ordinarily 
receive  in  larger  works.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  that  a  degree  of  dispro- 
portion may  be  discovered  between  the  attention  bestowed  upon  different 
individual  subjects ;  but  it  was  never  intended  that  the  most  diffuse  por- 
tions should  take  the  place  of  the  oral  lecture,  but  rather  excite  the 
reader  to  examine  more  thoroughly  into  the  minutest  particulars.  The 
principle  on  which  this  has  been  done  may  be  found  expressed  in  the 
third  section  of  the  work.  The  academic  instruction  will  at  least  assist 
the  student  in  gaining  a  complete  view  of  an  age,  if  it  only  presents  that 
age  most  thoroughly  in  the  lives  of  its  individual  men ;  and  it  is  pre- 
cisely by  such  a  concrete  representation  of  exalted  particular  agents 
that  the  most  distinct  impression  is  produced  upon  the  memory. 
Shakspeare  says,  in  one  of  his  prologues,  "  I  pray  you,  look  upon  the 
broil  of  a  few  players  as  if  it  were  a  real  battle  ! "  In  like  manner,  the 
historian  may  request  his  readers  to  regard  the  intellectual  chiefs  and 
representatives  of  a  particular  period  as  the  age  itself.  Such  a  course 
is  not  one  which  I  have  myself  originally  discovered,  but  it  is  the 
necessary  result  of  the  multiplication  of  those  admirable  biographies  of 
which  Neander  has  given  us  such  eminent  specimens,  and  to  the  compo- 
sition of  which  his  example  has  so  much  contributed.  .  .  , 

The  reader  will  sometimes  meet  with  very  peculiar  expressions,  such 
as  no  one  would  reasonably  have  expected  from  my  own  pen.  .  The  ex- 
perienced reader  of  history  will  readily  perceive  that  these  are  quotations 
which  I  have  taken  as  a  kind  of  catch-words  from  the  original  authori- 
ties. I  might  frequently  have  designated  them  as  such  by  some  mark, 
but  they  are  generally  so  interwoven  and  imperceptibly  blended  with 
my  own  words,  that  if  I  had  attempted  to  distinguish  the  words  of  other 


xiv  PREFACE   TO    THE   FIRST    EDITION. 

authors  from  my  own,  my  history  would  hare  had  almost  the  aspect  of 
mosaic  work. 

Although  I  have  never  concealed  my  own  opinions,  I  have  generally 
preferred  to  let  the  facts  of  the  narrative  speak  for  themselves.  I  was 
also  far  more  anxious  to  show  why  any  particular  event  came  to  pass, 
and  how  it  was  regarded  when  it  took  place,  than  to  indulge  in  those 
pedantic  reflections,  in  which  men  every  where  attempt  to  act  as  judges. 
And  yet  even  with  respect  to  secular  matters,  I  have  never  shrunk  from 
calling  every  thing  by  its  right  name.  In  the  very  darkest  times,  those 
who  occupied  positions  purely  ecclesiastical,  were  allowed  freely  to  call 
that  unchristian  which  was  really  so.  But  probably  most  persons  will 
think  that  when  judging  of  things  inconsistent  with  true  religion,  I  have 
used  the  full  liberty  which  naturally  belongs  to  my  position  and  my 
character  more  frequently  on  the  side  of  leniency  than  of  severity.  I 
have  no  doubt,  however,  that  in  both  respects  I  have  given  ample 
grounds  for  offence  to  those  who  apply  to  other  ages  the  standard  of  intelli- 
gence and  improvement  to  which  their  own  has  attained,  or  who  judge 
them  by  the  contracted  rules  of  piety  which  they  have  adopted ;  in 
whose  eyes  Catharine  of  Siena  was  merely  "  a  silly  kind  of  woman,"  and 
Julius  II.  "  il  novum  monstrum  ; "  and  who  say  of  Cardinal  Hildebrand, 
that,  "  the  scoundrel  even  pretended  to  work  miracles  ;  "  or  who,  on  the 
other  side,  relate  that  the  word  of  the  cross  was  ecclesiastically  abolished 
in  Weimar  in  the  year  1833.  But  judicious  men  will  not  fail  to  recog- 
nize the  same  disposition  in  all  the  apparent  changes  of  opinion  which 
have  taken  place.  They  can  regard  the  same  words  as  seasonable,  and 
indicative  of  an  exalted  mind,  when  used  by  Gregory  VII.,  which  are 
nothing  but  the  helpless  lamentations  of  a  feeble  old  age  when  they  ap- 
pear in  a  Bull  of  Gregory  XVI.  With  regard  to  the  bright  side  of  the 
mediaeval  hierarchy,  and  the  dark  side  of  the  Reformation,  I  do  not 
suppose  I  need,  in  a  purely  theological  circle  of  readers,  to  guard  against 
misconstructions  with  a  solicitude  like  that  which  Van  Raumer  recently 
exhibited,  when  writing  for  the  more  general  body  of  the  people.  I 
might,  indeed,  allege  that  the  Reformation  was  so  pure,  and  so  exalted 
in  its  nature,  that  it  needs  no  concealment  of  its  darker  passages ;  but 
even  if  this  were  untrue,  I  should  nevertheless  withhold  nothing  from 
the  light.  Something  may  be  exacted  from  those  for  whom  the  present 
work  is  intended ;  for,  though  they  may  be  young,  they  should  be  trained 
to  take  independent  and  comprehensive  views  of  history.  I  have,  there- 
fore, in  every  instance  expressed  the  whole  truth  so  far  as  I  have  myself 
known  it.  The  only  sections  in  which  I  have  allowed  any  restrictions 
were  those  which  contain  notices  of  doctrinal  history.  Among  students 
with  whom  I  am  acquainted,  it  is  always  a  rule  to  attend  lectures  upon 


PREFACE   TO    THE   FIRST   EDITION.  XV 

Ecclesiastical  History  before  those  upon  Didactic  Theology;  and  it  ap« 
pears  to  me  right  that  this  should  always  be  the  case.  I  have,  there- 
fore, in  some  instances  sacrificed  something  of  the  profundity  of  a 
scientific  investigation,  that  I  might  address  myself  more  intelligibly  to 
the  popular  mind. 

I  have  also  taken  some  liberty  in  the  general  arrangement.  No  one 
conversant  with  the  subject  would  require  that  each  historical  period 
should  be  accommodated  to  the  same  immutable  framework.  Who 
would  think  of  bringing  the  apostolic  Church  into  the  same  frame  which 
has  been  found  so  appropriate  to  the  age  of  the  Reformation  ?  And  if 
some  exceptions  must  be  conceded  by  those  who  are  most  zealous  in  be- 
half of  an  invariable  system,  we  shall  not  hesitate  to  abandon  this  phan- 
tom of  uniform  periods.  Neither  have  I  thought  it  necessary  when  no 
change  had  taken  place  in  some  particular  state  of  affairs,  in  all  instances 
to  announce  in  a  formal  manner,  that  such  was  the  fact,  or  to  introduce 
the  most  unimportant  details  as  I  should  have  felt  obliged  to  do,  if  I 
had  had  just  so  many  spaces  to  fill  in  each  period.  If  an  event  appears  not 
to  have  possessed  much  influence  until  a  period  after  that  in  which  it 
had  its  commencement,  it  will  be  mentioned  only  in  that  in  which  it  be- 
came fully  developed.  In  all  cases,  I  have  recognized  no  other  law  than 
that  which  requires  that  each  age  should  be  so  presented  that  the  clear- 
est view  of  it  may  be  obtained,  and  most  firmly  fixed  in  the  memory. 
In  some  instances,  especially  in  modern  history,  I  was  doubtful  what 
arrangement  would  be  best  adapted  to  my  purpose.  In  such  cases,  my 
final  decision  was  determined  by  a  very  slight  preponderance  of  reasons 
in  its  favor,  and  I  shall  not,  therefore,  be  surprised  if  others  should  come 
to  a  different  conclusion.  If,  however,  they  actually  consider  all  the  ad- 
vantages and  results  of  each  method,  they  will  at  least  appreciate  the 
motives  by  which  I  was  directed  in  my  selection. 

A  selected  -literature  is  the  only  thing,  in  itself  of  no  importance, 
which  is  yet  essential  to  a  text-book.  Where  it  has  been  possible,  I 
have  distinguished  between  original  authorities  and  revised  editions. 
I  have  referred  to  particular  passages  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  not 
often  as  proof-passages,  but  merely  as  significant  and  distinct  expres- 
sions of  the  age  in  which  they  were  written,  and  to  be  communicated 
verbally  by  the  lecturer  himself.  The  small  number  of  them  will  cer- 
tainly not  be  imputed  to  my  indolence  by  those  who  are  aware  how 
easily  such  citations  are  now  to  be  obtained,  and  how  trifling  an  evidence 
they  are  of  genuine  study.  They  will  be  found  most  abundant  in  the 
present  work  with  reference  to  recent  times  (though  without  regard  to 
the  views  of  the  contemporary  writers),  because  it  was  then  more  diffi- 
cult to  refer  to  general  original  authorities,  or  to  revised  editions  of  them. 


Xvi  PREFACE    TO    THE    THIRD   EDITION. 

It  is,  indeed,  possible,  that  if  I  had  waited  ten  years  longer,  I  could 
have  established  some  of  my  positions  with  more  circumspection.  But 
if  I  had  done  so,  I  might  at  that  time  have  had  neither  the  opportunity 
nor  the  inclination  to  write  such  a  work  as  is  needed  for  a  text-book ; 
and  as  I  shall  be  just  as  able  then  to  make  any  improvements  within  my 
power  upon  the  present  work,  I  hope  my  friends  will  kindly  accept 
what  I  now  have  to  present  them,  although  from  the  nature  of  such  a 
work  the  writer  is  likely  to  console  himself  at  its  close  with  the  hope 
that  he  will  at  some  future  day  be  able  to  improve  and  perfect  it. 

JENA,  Ascension  Day,  1834. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

THIS  Church  History  has  been  every  where  so  kindly  appreciated  and 
noticed,  that  I  have  nothing  but  my  thanks  to  offer,  as  I  present  to  the 
public  another  edition.  With  regard  to  the  division  into  periods,  and 
some  minor  details,  I  have  recently  had  occasion  to  explain  my  views 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  second  number  of  my  polemic  treatises. 

JENA,  March  9£A,  1836. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIKD  EDITION. 

I  CERTAINLY  have  reason  to  rejoice  in  the  reception  with  which  this 
book  has  been  favored,  as  it  has  been  circulated  far  beyond  the  sphere 
for  which  it  was  originally  intended.  Such  a  result  is  especially  pleas- 
ing, as  it  indicates  that  the  interest  recently  awakened  in  ecclesiastical 
and  kindred  subjects  is  not  confined  to  matters  pertaining  exclusively 
to  the  present  generation,  but  that  men  are  anxious  to  become  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  condition  of  things  in  earlier  times,  and  to  become 
animated  by  the  rich  life  of  the  Church  during  its  whole  past  existence. 
But  while  this  is  true,  literature  itself  certainly  gains  but  little  by  this 
rapid  succession  of  new  editions,  and  it  has  really  been  a  source  of  vex- 
ation to  me  that  I  was  obliged  to  allow  so  fine  an  opportunity  to  pass 
without  contributing  more  to  the  perfection  of  this  work.  The  improve- 
ments introduced  have  generally  been  in  matters  of  no  great  importance, 
and  even  where  some  considerable  changes  have  been  made,  they  have 
not  been  the  result  of  any  comprehensive  investigations  of  my  own,  but 


PREFACE    TO    THE    THIRD    EDITION.  XV11 

rather  of  the  labors  of  others.  Thus,  the  section  which  relates  to 
Savonarola  has  received  some  accession  to  its  materials  from  the  re- 
searches pursued  for  a  while  in  Florence,  by  my  former  beloved  col- 
league Meier,  and  the  history  of  the  Popes  since  the  Reformation  has 
gained  something  from  the  ingenious  examinations  and  careful  extracts 
from  original  documents  lately  made  by  Ranke.  Although  the  brevity 
of  a  text-book  has  not  allowed  frequent  references  to  the  German 
Mythology  of  Grimm,  this  work  has  afforded  me  much  valuable  assist- 
ance when  attempting  to  gain  a  complete  view  of  the  history  of  the 
Germanic  Church. 

Prof.  Krdbbe,  in  the  Literary  Advertiser  (1837.  N.  10-12.),  besides 
giving  a  detail  of  individual  facts,  which  is  instructive  to  any  one,  and 
is  especially  worthy  of  my  particular  thanks,  has  passed  a  judgment 
upon  the  spirit  of  my  book,  by  comparing  it  with  Neander's  Church 
History  as  a  standard.  In  this  respect,  we  Germans  are  a  very  strange 
people.  If  any  one  has  succeeded  in  accomplishing  any  thing  excellent 
in  his  own  peculiar  way,  we  always  think  that  if  another  attempts  any 
thing  in  the  same  department,  he  must  set  about  it  in  precisely  the 
same  style.  But  the  very  fact  that  this  particular  kind  of  historical 
writing  has  had  for  its  representative  and  cultivator  one  so  eminently 
endowed  as  Neander  confessedly  is,  renders  it  comparatively  needless 
that  others  should  enter  the  same  field,  and  unlikely  that  any  should 
equal  him.  "We  can  only  hope  that  he  may  have  health  sufficient,  and 
life  long  enough,  to  complete  his  great  work.  If,  however,  it  is  thought 
that  a  text-book  in  his  style  is  desirable,  Dr.  Guerike  has  certainly 
made  the  most  diligent  use  of  his  pages,  and  should  it  be  objected  that 
Guerike's  orthodoxy  is  extreme,  Neander  himself  has  trained  up  a  num- 
ber of  clever  pupils,  of  whom  more  than  one  is  competent  to  write  a 
text-book.  I  have  received  in  my  own  way  much  advantage  from 
Neander,  but  my  original  constitution  is  so  different  from  his,  and  my 
mind  has  passed  through  a  process  of  development  so  very  different, 
that  I  should  have  gained  but  little,  whatever  efforts  I  had  made  to 
imitate  him.  No  one  should  expect  to  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  though 
possibly  roses  might  be  found  upon  them. 

The  judgment  of  the  Hegelian  school  has  been  expressed  in  a  review 
by  Prof.  Hasse,  in  the  Annual  Register  of  Scientific  Criticism 
(1836.  N.  66-68.).  The  liberal  spirit  of  true  science,  and  the  friendly 
disposition  of  the  writer  cannot  be  mistaken  in  the  piece,  in  spite  of 
the  severe  terms  in  which  that  judgment  is  expressed.  He  has,  how 
ever,  done  me  some  injustice  when  he  asserts  that  I  attempted  in  my 
remarks  respecting  general  and  indefinite  expressions  in  my  first  preface, 
to  escape  from  the  universal  principles  of  philosophical  thought.  I 


XV111  PREFACE    TO    THE    THIRD    EDITION 

only  intended  there  to  speak  against  those  indefinite  phrases  which  are 
so  common  in  our  ordinary  text-books,  as,  e.  g.,  the  very  example  which 
I  then  adduced,  where  whole  pages  are  filled  with  names  distinguished 
only  by  a  cross  and  a  date,  which  give  to  them  the  appearance  of  a 
Moravian  cemetery,  rather  than  of  an  abundant  and  varied  individual 
life.  Against  the  objection  that  I  indulged  too  much  in  the  description 
of  minute  details,  which  might  be  urged  more  correctly  against  historical 
representations,  I  will  not  reply  that  it  certainly  requires  more  labor 
to  collect  such  minor  particulars  from  the  original  authorities  than  it 
does  to  make  general  reflections  upon  the  events,  for  I  am  well  aware 
that  my  worthy  opponent  would  contend  for  the  former  as  a  part  of  his 
own  plan,  and  that  he  really  would  require  such  an  earnest  investigation 
of  facts,  as  cannot  be  performed  without  a  severe  exercise  of  thought. 
But  this  earnest  inquiry  into  the  origin  and  nature  of  things,  I  have  in 
no  instance  avoided.  With  regard  to  the  general  principles  contained 
in  the  facts  of  history,  it  will  be  found  that  the  summaries  prefixed  to 
the  periods  contain  nothing  else,  and  that  the  subsequent  details  of 
particular  and  distinct  events  may  really  be  regarded  as  a  more  ex- 
tended illustration  of  them.  But  his  account  of  my  method  of  procedure 
in  this  matter  is  not  altogether  correct.  He  says;  "The  author,  e.  g., 
instead  of  giving  us  the  true  origin  of  monasticism,  presents  us  with  a 
description  of  St.  Anthony ;  and  even  of  him,  we  have  merely  a  series 
of  peculiar  traits  of  character  expressed  in  the  most  pithy  style."  And 
yet  just  before  the  section  alluded  to,  a  complete  general  view  of  the 
origin  and  spirit  of  that  whole  theory  of  religious  life  out  of  which 
necessarily  proceeded  a  style  of  living,  of  which  that  of  the  anchorets 
was  an  extreme  form,  had  been  presented  (now  §  64.),  and  in  the  next 
period,  when  that  which  properly  may  be  called  the  monastic  life  came 
before  us,  a  similar  general  representation  of  the  true  object  and  spirit 
of  this  style  of  life  is  given  (now  §  134.).  The  reviewer  proceeds: 
"  We  are  then  presented  in  a  similar  style  with  a  portraiture  of  Cyprian 
(now  §  84.),  as  the  representative  of  the  whole  ecclesiastical  life  of  his 
age,  and  a  characteristic  incident  in  the  life  of  Leo  the  Great  is  given 
as  a  specimen  of  the  mode  in  which  the  Roman  bishops  drew  into  their 
own  hands  the  administration  of  the  government  of  the  whole  Church." 
But  in  the  first  instance  here  mentioned,  the  account  of  Cyprian  was 
preceded  by  a  history  of  the  process  by  which  the  legal  relations  of  the 
Church  had  been  formed,  and  by  some  notice  of  the  general  character- 
istics of  the  ecclesiastical  life ;  and  in  the  other  case,  all  the  antecedent 
principles  had  already  been  mentioned  by  means  of  which  the  Roman 
see  had  gained  a  consciousness  of  its  future  destiny.  Cyprian  and  Leo 
are  described  to  a  greater  extent  than  others,  because  they  were  re- 


PREFACE   TO   THE   THIRD    EDITION.  XIX 

garded  as  the  natural  representatives  of  this  peculiar  phase  of  the  eccle- 
siastical life.  My  object  was  in  this  way  to  bring  the  abstract  principles 
which  I  had  laid  down  into  a  concrete  representation  by  means  of  these 
important  individual  characters,  inasmuch  as  I  had  certainly  supposed 
this  to  be  the  proper  method  in  which  history  should  be  written.  I 
suppose  I  must  submit  when  our  critic  condescends  to  impute  every 
thing  which  he  approves  in  this  history  to  what  he  calls  "  the  happy 
tact  of  the  writer,  which  enables  him  to  discover  things  as  it  were  by 
instinct  or  divination,"  because  he  did  not  find  them  proceeding  from 
Hegelian  principles,  and  they  were  not  embellished  with  the  well-known 
formulae  of  his  own  school.  I  am  not,  indeed,  one  of  those  who  strive 
to  affect  ignorance  of  those  results  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy  which 
have  had  so  general  an  influence  upon  the  history  of  our  world.  But 
with  respect  to  historical  writing,  Marheineke's  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion has  put  the  question  beyond  all  doubt,  that  a  man  can  be  an  emi- 
nent historian,  and  at  the  same  time  a  friend  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy ; 
and  yet  there  are  already  some  symptoms  that  a  zealous  Hegelian  may 
pretty  thoroughly  ruin  the  history  which  he  attempts  to  write.  Indeed, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  if  a  history  of  the  Church  were  written,  even 
by  a  writer  as  profound  as  Daub  himself,  on  the  principles  and  method 
lately  recommended  by  him  in  the  Journal  for  Speculative  Theology,  it 
would  turn  out  to  be  utterly  unreadable  to  most  of  our  race.  At  any 
rate,  we  may  console  ourselves  with  the  recollection,  that  since  the  time 
of  Thucydides  there  have  been  some  writers  who,  by  a  happy  tact,  or 
by  divination,  have  been  able  to  produce  something  like  tolerable  his- 
tories, although  it  does  not  appear  that  they  were  guided  by  Hegelian 
principles,  or  used  Hegelian  formulae. 

It  has  been  pleasant  to  me  to  find  that  some  learned  men  of  the 
Catholic  Church  have  recognized  my  honest  intention  to  be  uniformly 
just  toward  their  Church,  and  to  declare  the  whole  truth  in  every  case. 
It  would  hardly  be  candid  in  the  different  parties  generally  to  expect 
from  each  other  more  than  such  acknowledgments  of  good  will,  since  it 
must  necessarily  be  a  condition  of  their  different  ecclesiastical  positions 
that  the  same  events  should  have  a  different  aspect  in  the  view  of  each, 
and  that  one  should  always  find  something  of  which  it  disapproves  in 
the  accounts  of  the  other.  But  it  is  no  small  gain  when  both  are  con- 
vinced of  each  other's  good  will.  I  refer  particularly  to  a  criticism  by 
Prof.  Hefek,  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Tubingen,  (1836,  N.  4.)  He 
is  entirely  correct  when  he  says,  that  what  I  have  written  in  §  333, 
where  it  is  said,  "  the  idols  were  burned,"  was  not  intended  to  express 
my  own  view.  Nor  is  it  precisely  meant  as  an  expression  of  what 
Zwingle  himself  believed  on  the  subject.  It  is  rather  the  view  and  the 


XX  PREFACE   TO   THE    THIRD   EDITION. 

language  of  the  whole  generation  in  that  vicinity  from  which  this  de  • 
struction  of  the  images  proceeded ;  and  although  the  expression  is  rather 
rude,  it  was  selected  as  the  briefest  by  which  the  motives  of  the  actors 
could  be  made  known.  In  the  passage  in  which  Amsdorf 's  installation 
as  Bishop  of  Naumburg  (now  §  337),  is  mentioned,  I  am  better  agreed 
with  the  honored  Reviewer  than  he  seems  to  have  suspected.  For  when 
it  is  there  said,  "  The  elector  could  not  resist  the  temptation  to  provide 
an  apostolic  bishop  for  that  see,"  it  is  not  merely  intended  that  such 
was  the  purpose  of  the  elector  and  his  counsellors,  and  such  the  reason 
by  which  they  satisfied  their  own  consciences  in  this  proceeding,  but  a 
slight  touch  of  irony  is  blended  with  the  whole,  and  is  indicated  in  the 
expression,  that  the  elector  could  not  resist  such  a  temptation,  since  the 
apostolic  character  of ( this  bishop,  in  the  opinion  of  the  court,  consisted 
principally  in  the  fact,  that  the  new  incumbent  would  draw  but  a  small 
salary,  and  consequently  the  electoral  treasury  would  be  enriched  by 
the  ample  revenues  of  the  bishopric.  I  confess,  too,  that  I  can  see  very 
little  of  a  more  apostolic  character  in  our  Lutheran  zealot  Amsdorf 
than  in  the  mild  and  learned  Julius  von  Pflug.  But  whatever  one  may 
think  with  regard  to  these  points,  the  whole  proceeding  was  in  violation 
of  long  established  rights.  Although  a  little  surprised  that  he  should 
have  called  the  style  of  my  work  enigmatical,  I  was  happy  to  find  that 
this  Reviewer  fully  appreciated  the  view  which  I  had  expressed  with 
regard  to  the  relation  of  a  text-book  to  the  oral  lecture.  It  would 
seem,  however,  from  the  historical  examples  which  he  adduces,  that  he 
at  least  succeeded  in  completely  understanding  my  meaning  when  I  re- 
marked, that  the  subjects  which  are  more  generally  treated,  and  barely 
hinted  at,  in  the  text-book,  are  founded  upon  distinct  historical  views, 
and  are  so  presented  as  to  invite  the  instructor,  who  is  well  informed 
on  the  minute  details,  to  communicate  and  enlarge  upon  them.  Tho 
style  required  for  this  I  should  not  call  enigmatic,  merely  because 
those  who  have  not  become  familar  with  the  original  authorities  of  the 
history  may  find  something  not  properly  obscure,  but  to  be  passed  over 
more  superficially  than  other  subjects,  and  without  a  complete  exhaus- 
tion of  its  contents.  A  germ,  or  a  bud,  cannot,  indeed,  be  fully  seen 
until  it  has  become  expanded  in  the  flower ;  but  whoever  sees  the  bud, 
has  before  him  not  merely  an  enigma,  but  what  is  already  an  intelligible 
reality.  This  is  very  much  like  the  comparison  which  the  Reviewer 
made  between  the  Florentine  and  the  Roman  schools  of  painting,  to 
illustrate  the  distinction  between  Catholic  history  and  my  own,  or  the 
ordinary  orthodox  histories  of  the  Church.  Every  well-educated  person 
will  readily  perceive  the  import,  and  the  striking  nature  of  this  com 
parison.  But  any  one  familar  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  two  schools. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   FIFTH   EDITION.  XXI 

and  has  a  vivid  conception  of  their  productions,  will  appreciate  the 
profound  truth,  and  the  extensive  applicability  of  this  ingenious  com- 
parison. 

JENA,  June  4=th,  1837. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 

DURING  the  years  which  have  elapsed  while  the  previous  editions  have 
been  given  to  the  public,  I  have  had  time  and  inclination  enough  not 
only  more  thoroughly  to  investigate  many  particulars  (though  I  must 
not  withhold  my  heartiest  thanks  from  those  who  have  assisted  me),  but 
also  to  revise  the  whole,  without,  however,  changing  the  essential  char- 
acter of  the  book.  The  object  for  which  it  was  originally  intended 
would  allow  of  no  augmentation  of  its  size.  The  vastness  of  its  subject 
rendered  all  attempts  to  render  the  contents  themselves  more  perfect  in 
their  relations  and  in  their  distinctness  an  absolutely  interminable 
task.  But  on  this  anniversary  of  the  morning  on  which,  seven  years 
ago,  the  first  preface  of  this  work  was  written,  I  am  painfully  oppressed 
by  the  recollection,  that  a  large  part  of  the  most  vigorous  and  most 
tranquil  portion  of  my  life  has  been  spent  in  efforts  to  improve  a  work 
of  such  a  limited  extent ;  and  I  cannot  venture  upon  any  further  prom- 
ises with  regard  to  future  efforts  in  this  matter. 

JENA,  Ascension  Day,  1841. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIFTH  EDITION. 

THE  ten  years  to  which  I  alluded  at  the  close  of  the  preface  to  the 
first  edition  have  now  passed,  and  it  is  certain  that  in  an  animated  in- 
tercourse with  the  age  in  which  I  live,  many  of  the  positions  I  first  as- 
sumed have  either  been  more  carefully  verified,  or  have  been  changed. 
Either  in  the  German,  or  in  a  foreign  language,  this  work  has  found  its 
way  through  the  hands  of  the  youth  into  the  quiet  residences  of  many 
pastors,  and  even  into  palaces.  Thus,  under  the  divine  blessing,  may 
it  proceed  onward  in  its  course,  producing  in  the  Church  a  sound 
consciousness  of  her  historical  development  until  it  shall  have  fulfilled 
its  mission. 

JENA,  Jan.  1st,  1844. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SIXTH   EDITION. 


PEEFACE  TO  THE  SIXTH  EDITION. 

WHATEVER  is  new  in  this  edition  will  be  found  principally  in  those 
portions  relating  to  the  most  ancient  and  the  most  modern  times. 
Most  of  what  I  have  added  to  the  former  has  been  occasioned  by  the 
researches  of  the  new  school  of  Tubingen.  These  were  not  altogether 
unknown  to  me  during  the  composition  of  the  original  work,  but  in  con 
sequence  of  the  works  of  Baur,  Paulus  and  Schwegler,  with  reference  to 
the  period  immediately  after  the  apostles,  they  now  appear  in  more  per- 
fect relations.  I  was  in  no  danger  of  maintaining  an  obstinate  resistance 
to  the  fundamental  principles  of  their  historical  scheme,  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  taking  back  my  former  assertions  on  the  same  subject,  for, 
in  the  first  edition,  I  had  maintained  that  a  primary  form  of  ecclesi- 
astical orthodoxy  was  Ebionism,  although  afterwards,  in  consequence  of 
the  progress  of  other  views,  this  was  regarded  as  a  heresy.  The  very 
earliest  theological  treatise  which  I  published,  as  long  ago  as  1824,  and 
which  was  quoted  by  Dr.  Schwegler  himself,  was  written  to  show  that 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  belonged  to  an  Ebionite  party.  And  yet  I 
have  never  been  convinced  that  the  struggle  between  the  Jewish  and  the 
Pauline  parties  continued  as  late  as  a  century  after  the  death  of  the 
apostles,  and  in  countries  beyond  the  limits  of  Palestine,  and  constituted 
the  great  moving  principle  of  the  history  and  literature  of  that  century. 
It  did  not  belong  to  a  mere  text-book  to  discuss  the  ingenious  arguments 
which  Dr.  von  Baur  has  brought  forward,  but  my  present  revision  has 
certainly  gone  quite  far  enough  into  this  matter,  and  my  history  of  this 
oldest  period  of  Church  history  seems  almost  every  where  like  a  quiet 
conference  with  the  Tubingen  school,  by  adopting  or  controverting  whose 
positions  it  has  been  much  benefited.  I  was,  of  course,  unable  to  make 
use  at  that  time  of  the  new  edition  (4  ed.  1847.)  of  Neander's  history 
of  the  apostolic  Church.  The  abundant  materials  which  the  last  four 
years  have  afforded,  were  easily  added,  like  new  annual  rings  and  shoots, 
to  the  old  trunk  of  the  most  modern  history. 

I  have,  for  this  once,  spared  myself  the  disagreeable  task  of  reading 
the  proof-sheets  for  the  correction  of  typographical  errors,  but  an  un- 
pleasant mistake  has  caught  my  eye  in  note  b,  under  §  8,  where  my 
diligent  proof-reader,  even  in  opposition  to  grammatical  propriety,  has 
allowed  ab  orbe  condita  to  stand  as  in  the  preceding  edition. 

In  quoting  from  the  Fathers,  and  from  some  other  authors,  I  was 
sometimes  obliged  to  give  the  page,  and  I  therefore  here  mention  the 
editions  to  which  I  referred  :  Athanasii  Opp.  Par.  1627.  dementia 
Alex.  Opp.  ed.  Potter.  Oxon.  1715.  Cypriani  Opp.  ed.  Fell.  Amst. 


PREFACE    TO   THE   SEVENTH   EDITION.  XX111 

1713.  Epiphanii  Opp.  ed.  Petav.  Par.  1622.  Hieronymi  Opp.  ed. 
Martianay,  when  that  of  Vallarsi  is  not  expressly  mentioned.  Justini 
Opp.  ed.  Otto.  Jen.  1842s.  Leon  M.  Opp.  edd.  Ballerini.  Origenis 
Opp.  ed.  Delarue. — G-erson.  ed.  Da  Pin.  Antu.  1706.  G-uicciardini. 
Yen.  1583-4.  Mattheus  Paris.  Par.  1644.  Melancth.  Epp.  in  the 
Corpus  Reformatorum  ed.  Bretschneider.  Platina.  1664.  Dutch  edition. 
Trithemi  Annales  Hirsang.  S.  Gralli.  1690. 

In  the  notes  to  the  latest  modern  history,  the  abbreviations  A.  K. 
Z.  mean  the  (Darmstadt)  Allegemeine  Kirchen-Zeitung ;  Ev.  K.  Z. 
mean  Evangelische  Kirchen-Zeitung ;  Brl.  A.  K.  Z.  mean  Berliner 
Allgemeine  Kirchen-Zeitung;  A.  Z.  mean  Augsburger  Allgemeine 
Zeitung ;  L.  A.  Z.,  or  D.  A.  Z.,  mean  Leipziger,  afterwards  Deutsche 
Allgemeine  Zeitung.  It  may  be  that  some  public  documents  which  had 
been  published  in  the  religious,  are  quoted  from  the  political  journals, 
because  I  had  first  met  with  them  in  the  latter,  but  it  is  certainly  very 
desirable  for  future  historical  purposes,  that  our  religious  periodicals 
should  collect  in  a  more  perfect  manner  than  they  have  done  the  original 
documents,  especially  of  foreign  Churches.  This  will  become  especially 
important,  if  the  Acta  historico-ecclesiastica,  which  poor  Rheinwald  com 
menced,  should  never  be  continued. 

JENA,  First  Sunday  in  Advent,  184V. 


PKEFACE  TO  THE  SEVENTH  EDITION. 

ALTHOUGH  I  had  supposed  that  I  had  before  neglected  nothing,  the  re- 
vision of  this  work  for  a  new  impression  has  given  occasion  for  so  many 
improvements,  or  at  least  alterations,  that  the  immensity  of  the  affair 
has  once  more  forced  itself  upon  my  attention.  Hence  the  necessity, 
to  my  present  annoyance,  of  a  much  enlarged  edition.  I  might  very 
properly  excuse  myself  by  saying,  as  Pascal  did,  in  one  of  his  Provin- 
cial Letters,  that  I  have  no  time  to  make  it  briefer.  An  author  ought, 
indeed,  always  to  take  time  for  a  book,  since  generally  he  is  under  no 
necessity  of  publishing  prematurely.  But  the  publication  of  a  new 
edition  is  sometimes  beyond  his  control.  When,  last  Spring,  I  re-com- 
menced my  lectures  upon  Church  History,  a  sufficient  number  of  copies 
of  this  text-book  were  not  to  be  obtained ;  I  was  therefore  obliged  to 
supply  my  pupils  with  the  separate  sheets  as  they  came  from  the  press, 
and  to  finish  the  preparation  within  a  limited  time. 
3 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SEVENTH   EDITION. 

I  have  been  accustomed  generally  to  correct  the  last  proof-sheets 
with  my  own  hands,  but  on  the  present  occasion  I  spared  myself  the  un- 
pleasant task  of  reading  to  find  typographical  errors  ;  and  I  committed 
to  my  students  the  work  of  diligently  watching  for  these  marks  of 
human  frailty.  Their  keen  young  eyes  have  discovered  some  mistakes 
of  this  kind ;  and  not  to  mentibn  those  which  are  unimportant,  and  are 
easily  seen  and  corrected,  I  will  only  notice  that  instead  of  Eugeniu* 
VI.,  on  p.  279,  Eugenius  IV.,  should  be  inserted;  and  instead  of  1835, 

in  the  third  line  from  the  bottom  of  p.  405,  1853  should  be  printed. 

******** 

Where  quotations  are  made  from  the  Fathers,  and  some  other 
writers,  and  frequently  the  precise  number  of  the  page  must  be  men- 
tioned, I  have  referred  to  the  following  editions  :  Cypriani  Opp.  ed. 
Fell.  Amst.  1713.  Epiphanii  Opp.  ed.  Petav.  Par.  1622.  Hieronymi 
Opp.  ed.  Martianay,  where  Villarsi  is  not  expressly  mentioned.  Justini 
Opp.  ed.  Otto,  Jen.  1847s.  Leon.  M.  Opp.  ed.  Ballerinii.  Origenis 
Opp.  ed.  Delarue. — Gerson,  ed.  Du  Pin.  Antu.  1706.  Guicciardini ; 
Yen.  1583-4.  Mattheus  Paris;  Par.  1644.  Melancth.  Epp.  in  the 
Corpus  Reforrnatorum.  Platina  1664.  Dutch  edit.  Trethemii  Annales 
Hirsaug.  S.  Galli.  1690.  Sleidan.  Argent.  1555.  Sarpi  1699-4. 
Seckendorf.  Francof.  1688.  Ranke,  deutsche  Gesch.  3.  ed. 

While  the  work  was  passing  through  the  press,  and  after  those 
sections  to  which  they  referred  had  been  printed,  many  important  works 
have  appeared,  which  might  have  had  an  influence  upon  my  statements. 
I  will  not  mention  them  here,  for  after  a  few  months  such  a  list  would 
be  as  imperfect  as  before.  The  author  of  a  monograph  must  be  ex- 
pected, of  course,  to  understand  his  subject  better  than  others ;  but  he 
who  writes  a  general  history,  must  learn  from  many,  and  be  corrected 
by  almost  all. 

JEXA,  Feb.  27^,  1864. 


CONTENTS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

CHAP.  I— PLAN. 

•RCT.  PAGH 

1.  The  Church  and  the  World,           .....  1 

2.  Idea  of  Church  History,                   *    .            .            .            .            .  1 

3.  Proper  Province  of  Church  History,          .....  2 

4.  Relation  to  the  General  History  of  Religion,  ....  2 

5.  Mode  of  Treating  Church  History,            .....  3 

6.  Value  of  Church  History,        .                        .            .            .            .  3 

7.  Sources,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .8 

8.  Auxiliary  Sciences,       .......  4 

9.  Division      .........  5 

CHAP.  II— GENERAL  LITERATURE. 

10.  Polemical  Church  History,       ......  7 

11.  French  Ecclesiastical  Historians,   ......  8 

12.  Protestant  Scientific  Church  History,              ....  8 

13.  Writers  of  the  German  Catholic  Church, .            .            .            .            .  U 


ANCIENT   CHURCH   HISTORY. 
PERIOD  I. 

FROM   QHRIST   TO   CONSTANTINE. 

14.  General  View  and  Original  Authorities,    .  .  .  .  .18 

DIVISION   L— ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   CHURCH. 

CHAP.  L— INTRODUCTORY  HISTORY. 

L  CLASSIC  HEATHENISM. 

15.  Popular  Life  among  the  Greeks,    .            .            .  .            .            .15 

16.  Limits  of  Grecian  Refinement,             .            .  .            .            .             15 

17.  The  Religion  of  the  Greeks,           .            .            .  .            .            .16 

18.  Relation  of  Philosophy  to  the  Popular  Religion,  .                        .16 


XXVI  CONTENTS. 

•BCT.  FAOI 

19.  Rome  as  a  Republic,  .......      17 

20.  Decline  of  Greece,        ...  ...  18 

21.  Elevation  and  Decline  of  Rome,    .  .  .  .18 

22.  Decline  of  the  Popular  Religion,         .  .  .  .  .  19 

IL  JUDAISM. 

23.  The  Religious  Life  of  the  People,  .  .  .  .  .  .20 

24.  The  Dispersed  Jews,    .  .  .  .  .  .  21 

25.  Hellenism,  ........  21 

26.  The  Three  Sects,  .  .  ...  .  .  .  22 

27.  The  Samaritans,     ........      23 

28.  Proselytes,        ........  23 

CHAP.  IL— THE  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH. 

29.  The  First  Pentecost,  .......      24 

30.  Fortune  of  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  ....  25 

31.  Jewish  Christianity,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .26 

32.  Samaritan  Christians  and  Sects,  .....  26 

33.  Paul, 27 

34.  Peter,    .........  30 

35.  Position  of  Parties  in  the  time  of  Paul,    .  .  .  .  .31 

86.  John,     .........  33 

"37.  Parties  in  the  Time  of  John,          .  .  .  .  .  .34 

38.  Traditions  Respecting  the  Apostles,    .....  86 

39.  Apostolical  Fathers  of  the  First  Century,  .  .  .  .86 

40.  Political  Overthrow  of  Judaism,         .....  36 

41.  The  Roman  Civil  Power,    .......  87 

42.  Constitution  of  the  Local  Churches,    .....  88 

43.  Ecclesiastical  Life,              .......  39 

44.  Mode  of  Worship,        .......  40 

45.  Doctrines  of  the  Church,   .......  41 

DIVISION  IL— FORMATION  OF  THE  CATHOLIC 
CHURCH. 

CHAP.   I.— STRUGGLE  OF  THE  CHURCH  FOR  ITS  OWN  EXISTENCE. 

46.  The  Jews,   .........       42 

47.  The  Roman  People  and  Empire,          .....  43 

48.  Conduct  of  the  Individual  Emperors  of  the  Second  and  Third  Centuries,     44 

49.  Internal  History  of  Paganism,       .  .  .  .  .  .46 

50.  New-Platonism,  .......  47 

51.  Literary  Controversies  of  Christianity,     .  .  .  .  .49 

52.  The  Christian  Apologists,         ......  60 

53.  Religion  of  Barbarous  Nations,     .  .  .  .  .  .53 

54.  Spread  of  Christianity,  ......  63 

55.  The  Last  Persecution,        .......       54 

56.  The  Martyrs,    ........  55 

CHAP.  IL— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

57.  Original  Documents  on  Ecclesiastical  Law,            .            .            .  .56 

58.  The  Clergy  and  the  Laity,       .            .            .            .            ,/,'..*'.  57 

59.  Bishops,       .........       59 

60.  Synods,             ........  60 

61.  Metropolitans,         .            .            .                      •  ,            .            .  .60 

62.  The  Three  Great  Bishops,        .            .            .            .            .            .  61 

63.  The  Catholic  Church  and  its  Branches,    .            .            .            .  .62 


CONTENTS.-  XXVU 

CHAP.  HI— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

64  Christian  Morals,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .63 

65.  St.  Anthony,     ........  64 

66.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline,    ....  ...       65 

67.  The  Montanists,  .......  6£ 

68.  The  Novatians,       ........       67 

69.  Holy  Seasons,  and  the  Controversy  about  Easter,       .  .  67 

70.  Sacred  Places,  and  their  Decoration,         .  .  .  .  .69 

71.  Sacred  Services,  .....  .69 

CHAP.  IV.— DOCTRINES  OF  THE  CHUKCH,  AND   OPINIONS   OPPOSED 

TO  THEM. 

72.  Sources  from  which  the  Church  derived  its  System  of  Faith,       .  .71 

73.  Apostolic  Fathers  of  the  Second  Century.    Cont.  from  §  39,             .  72 

74.  Ecclesiastical  Literature  and  Heresy,        .                        .            .  .73 

75.  Ebionism.    Cont.  from  §  35,    .            .            .            .            .            .  74 

76.  I.  Gnosticism,         .            .            .            .                        .            .  .75 

77.  II.  Syrian  Gnostics,     .......  77 

78.  III.  Hellenistic  Gnostics,    ...'....      78 

79.  IV.  Gnostics,  in  an  especial  sense  Christian,  .            .            .            .  81 

80.  V.  Judaizing  Gnostics,       .             .             .            .             .            .  .83 

81.  VI.  Influence  of  Gnosticism  upon  the  Church,           ...  85 

82.  Manichaeism,  ....  ....       86 

83.  Historico-Ecclesiastical  Theology,        .....  88 
«4.  Thascius  Caecilianus  Cyprianus,    .            .            .            .            .  .       89 

85.  I.  The  School  of  Alexandria,  ......  91 

86.  II.    Characteristics  of  the  Alexandrian  Theology,            .            .  .93 

87.  III.   Influence  of  Origen,         .            .            .            .            .            .  94 

88.  Appendix  to  the  Literary  History,            .            .            .            .  .96 

89.  Apocryphal  Literature,            ......  96 

90.  Subordinationists  and  Monarchians,           .            .            .            .  .98 


PERIOD   II. 

FROM  OONSTANTINE  TO  CIIAKLES  THE  GEEAT. 
91.  General  View,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .101 

DIVISION  L— THE  IMPERIAL  CHURCH. 

02.  Original  Authorities,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  101 

CHAP.  I.— VICTORY  AND  DEFEAT  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

93.  Constantine  and  his  Sons,  .  ....  103 

94.  Julianus  Apostata,        ...  ...  104 

95.  The  Fall  of  Paganism,        .  .                                     ...  105 

96.  Massalians  and  Hypsistarians,  .                         .            .             ,107 

97.  Christianity  under  the  Persians,  ......  107 

98.  Abyssinia  and  the  Diaspora,  .            .            .  108 

99.  Mohammed,             .  .....  108 

100.  Victories  of  Islam,       .  .....  110 

CHAP.  IL— THEOLOGY  AND  SCIENCE. 
£01.  Conflicts  and  Sources  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Life,    .  .  .  .110 


XXVlil  CONTENTS. 

»BCT.  FA<M 

I.   THE  ARIAN  CONTROVERSY. 

102.  The  Synod  of  Nicaea.    Cont.  from  §  90,         .  .  .  .112 

103.  Athanasius  and  Arius,        .            .             .            .            .            .  .113 

104.  Minor  Controversies,    .             .             .             .             .            .          .  .  114 

105.  The  Synod  of  Constantinople  and  the  Holy  Trinity,         .           .  .115 

106.  Ecclesiastical  Literature,         .            .            .            .            .            .  116 

II.  THE  ORIGENISTIC  CONTROVERSY. 

107.  Synesius,  Epiphanius,  and  Hieronymus,    .            .            .            .  .119 

108.  Chrysostom,      ........  120 

IIL   THE  PELAGIAN  CONTROVERSY. 

109.  Pelagianism  and  Augustinism,        .            .            .            .            .  .122 

110.  Augustinus,       ........  122 

111.  Victory  of  Augustinism,    .            .            .            .            .            .  ,124 

112.  Semipelagianism,          .  .  .  .  .  .  .124 

IV.   CONTROVERSIES  RESPECTING  THE  TWO  NATURES  OF  CHRIST. 

113.  The  Nestorian  Controversy,           .            .            .            .            .  .126 

114.  The  Eutychian  Controversy,    ......  127 

115.  The  Monophy sites,              .            .            .            .            .            .  .128 

116.  Justinian,          .             .             .             .             .             .            .            .  129 

117.  The  Edict  of  Peace  and  the  Monophysite  Church,            .            .  180 

118.  The  Monothelite  Controversy,              .            .             .             .             .  131 

119.  Ecclesiastical  Literature,    .             .            .            .            .            .  .132 

CHAP.  IIL-^OCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

120.  Legislation  and  Books  of  Law,      .            .            .            .            .  .184 

121.  The  Roman  Empire,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .136 

122.  Power  of  the  Emperor  over  the  Church, .            .            .            .  .137 

123.  Power  of  the  Church  over  the  State,              ....  137 

124.  EcclesiasticalJurisdiction,             .            .            .            .           '.  .138 

125.  Church  Property,         .  .  .  .  .  .139 

126.  The  Congregation  and  the  Clergy,  .....     140 

127.  The  Patriarchs,             .......  141 

128.  The  Roman  Bishopric  before  Leo,              .            .            .            .  .142 

129.  Leo  the  Great,              .......  143 

130.  The  Papacy  after  Leo.     Gregory  the  Great,         .            .            .  .144 

131.  General  Councils  and  the  Catholic  Church,    ....  146 

CHAP.  IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

132.  Religious  Spirit  of  the  People  and  Ecclesiastical  piscipline,        .  .     147 

133.  Celibacy  and  Moral  Condition  of  the  Clergy,              .            .            .  148 
131.  Monastic  Life  in  the  East,  .            .             .             .             .            .  .149 

135.  Hermits.    Simeon  Stylites,      ......  150 

136.  Monasticism  in  the  West.     Benedictines,  .            .            .            .  .151 

137.  Veneration  for  Saints,  .            .            .            .            .            .            .  151 

138.  Public  Worship,     ........     153 

139.  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  and  Works  of  Art,           .            .            .  155 

140.  Iconoclastic  Controversy,   .            .             .             .            .             .  .156 

CHAP.  V.— OPPONENTS  OF  THE  ORDINARY  ECCLESIASTICAL  SYSTEM. 

141.  General  View,        .            .            .            .            .            .            .  .157 

142.  The  Donatists,  .                        .            .            .            .            .            .  157 

143.  Audians,  Massalians,          ...                        .  .158 

144.  Priscilianus,      .             .            .  »                      .            .            .             .  153 

145.  Protesting  Ecclesiastical  Teachers,            .            .            .            .  .159 

146.  History  of  the  Paulicians,  §  1,  .  .  .  .  .159 


CONTENTS.  XXIX 

«KCT.  P*G« 

DIVISION  IL— THE  GERMANIC  CHURCH. 

147.  Original  Authorities,  ...  .     16C 

CHAP.  I— ESTABLISHMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

148.  Religion  of  the  Germans,         .  .  .  .  .  .162 

149.  Religion  of  the  Northern  German  Nations,  .  .  .  .163 

150.  Arianism,          ........  165 

151.  Victory  of  Catholicism,      .......     166 

]  52.  British  and  Anglo-Saxon  Church,         .  .  .  .  .  166 

153.  Irruption  of  Islam  in  the  West,     .......     168 

154.  Germany,  Bonifacius,  .  .  .  .  .  .168 

155.  The  Saxons,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     169 

156.  Overthrow  of  German  Paganism,        .....  169 

,     CHAP.  II— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

157.  Original  Records  of  the  Canon  Law,          .  ...  .  .     170 

158.  Relation  of  the  Church  to  the  State,  .  .  .  .  .171 

159.  Property  of  the  Church  and  the  Clergy,  .  .  .  .  .     171 

160.  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Pope,       .....  172 

161.  Secular  Power  of  the  Pope,  '    .  .  .  .  .173 

162.  Charles  the  Great,        .......  173 

CHAP.  Ill— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

163.  Religious  Spirit^of  the  People,       .  .  .  .  .  .174 

164.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline,     "'-•'.  .  .  .  .  .  175 

165.  Morals  of  the  Clergy  and  Canonical  Life,  ....     176 

166.  Public  Worship,  .......  177 

CHAP.   IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  SCIENCE. 

167.  Preservation  of  Literature,  ......     178 

168.  Scientific  Education  under  the  Carolingians, .  .  .  .  179 

169.  Adoptionists,  ........     180 


MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY. 
PEKIOD  III. 

FEOM  CHAELES  TO  INNOCENT  III. 

170.  General  View  and  Authorities,  .....  181 

CHAP.  I.— GENERAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PAPACY. 

171.  General  View,         ........     183 

172.  Donation  of  Constantino  in  the  Ninth  Century,          .  .  .  183 

173.  Pseudo-Isidore,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .184 

174.  The  Female  Pope  Joanna,         .  .  .  .  .  .186 

175.  Nicholas  I,  858-867,  and  Hadrian  II,  867-872,  .  .  .     187 

176.  Formosus,  891-896.     Stephen  VI,  897,  .  .  .  .  188 

177.  Pornocracy,  ........     189 

178.  The  Popes  under  the  Othos,     .  .  .  .  ...  189 

179.  The  Papacy  until  the  Synod  of  Siitri,        .  .  .  .  .191 

180.  The  Popes  under  Hildebrand,  1048-1073,       ...  19J 


* 
XXX  CONTENTS. 


PECT. 


181.  Gregory  VII,  April  22,  1073-May  25,  1085,         .  .  .  .194 

182.  Gregory's  Successors,  1085-1099,         .  .  197 

183.  The  Crusades.     Conquest  of  Jerusalem,    .....     198 

184.  Paschal  II.,  1099-1118,  ......  199 

185.  Calixtus  II.,  1119-1124.     Concordat  of  Worms,    .  .  .     200 

186.  Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  .  .  201 

187.  The  Crusade  of  St.  Bernard,  ....  .     202 

188.  Frederic!  Barbarossa,  1152-1190,      ...  .  203 
189    Thomas  Becket,      .             .             .             .             .             .             .             .205 

190.  The  Crusade  against  Salaheddin,         .....  206 

191.  Henry  VI.  .........     206 

192.  Innocent  III.,  Jan.  8,  1198-July  16,  1216,       .  .  .  .207 

CHAP.   II.—  SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

193.  Gratian  and  his  Predecessors,         ......     211 

194.  The  Church  and  the  State,       .  .  .  .  .  .212 

195.  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Papacy,          .....     2J4 

196.  The  Cardinals,  ........  215 

197.  The  Bishops,  and  the  Bishops'  Chapters,  .  .  .  .  .216 

198.  Ecclesiastical  Jurisdiction,        ......  217 

199.  Property  of  the  Church,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .218 

CHAP.  III.—  ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

200.  The  Religious  Spirit  of  the  People,  .  .  .  .  .219 

201.  Manners  of  the  Clergy,   .......  221 

202.  Church  Discipline,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .222 

203.  Public  Worship,  .......  223 

204.  Monastic  Life,         ........     225 

205.  The  Congregation  of  Clugny,  ......          226 

206.  Minor  Orders  of  the  Eleventh  Century,    .....    227 

207.  The  Cistercians  and  St.  Bernard,         .....  228 

208.  Praemonstrants  and  Carmelites,     ......     229 

209.  The  Trinitarians,          .......  230 

210.  The  Humiliates,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     231 

211.  Establishment  of  the  Orders  of  Knighthood,  .  ...  231 

CHAP.   IV.-STATE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  CHURCH. 

212.  Scientific  Education  of  the  Ninth  Century,    ....  232 

213.  First  Eucharistic  Controversy,       ......  234 

214.  Gpttschalk.     Cont  from  §  12,  .  .  .  .  .  .  235 

215.  Literary  Interest  during  the  Tenth  Century,  under  the  Othos,     .  .  235 

216.  Academical  Studies  in  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Centuries,  .  .  236 

217.  The  Second  Eucharistic  Controversy,        .....  237 

218.  Scholasticism.    First  Period,   .  .....  238 

219.  Mysticism.    First  Period,  .......  240 

220.  Abelard,  1079-April  21,  1142,  .....  241 

221.  The  Sacred  Scriptures,       .  .....  243 

222.  Commencement  of  a  National  Literature  in  the  Twelfth  Century,     .  243 

CHAP.  V.—  EXTENSION  OF  THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

223.  The  Holy  Ansgar,  801-865,  .  .  .  .  .  .245 

224.  Germanic  Nations  of  the  North,          .....  246 

225.  The  Slavic  Nations,  .  ....  248 

226.  The  Hungarians,  .......  250 

227.  The  Finns,  Livonians,  and  Esthonians,  ....  250 


CONTENTS.  XXXI 

CHAP.  VI— PARTIES  PROTESTING  AGAINST  THE  CHURCH. 

228.  The  Catharists,             .......  251 

229.  Peter  of  Brays  and  Henry.     Tanchelm  and  Eon,             .            .  .     253 

230.  The  Waldenses,             ......  254 

231.  The  Albigensian  War,        .            .            .            .            .            .  .255 

CHAP.  VII.— THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCH. 

232.  Extension  of  the  Church,          ......  256 

233.  The  Roman  Empire  and  the  Church, ,        .             .             .             .  .     257 

234.  Photius, 258 

235.  Division  of  the  Church,     ...            .            .            .            .  .     259 

236.  State  of  Science,           .            .            .            .            .  260 

237.  Paulicians.     §  2.     Cont.  from  §  146,          .             .             .             .  .261 


PEEIOD    IV. 

FKOM   INNOCENT    III.    TO    LUTHER. 

238.  General  View  and  Historical  Writers,  ....  263 

CHAP.  I.— RELATION  OF  THE  PAPACY  TO  GENERAL  AFFAIRS. 

239.  Frederic  II.,             .             .             .             .             .             .             .  .265 

240.  Overthrow  of  the  House  of  Ilohenstaufen,     ....  267 

241.  St.  Louis,     .........     268 

242.  Termination  of  the  Crusades,  ......  269 

243.  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  1273-1291.    Sicilian  Vespers,      .            .  .269 

244.  The  Hermit  in  the  Papal  Chair,  July  5-Dec.  13,  1294,           .            .  270 

245.  Boniface  VIIL,  Dec.  24,  1294-Oct.  11,  1303,         .            .            .  .271 

246.  Commencement  of  the  Babylonian  Exile,        .             .             .             .  272 

247.  Louis  of  Bavaria,  1314-1347.    Joanna  I.  of  Naples,          .             .  .273 

248.  Close  of  the  Babylonian  Exile,             .....  274 

249.  The  Schism,             .......  275 

250.  Council  of  Pisa,  March  25-Aug.  7,  1409,         ...  276 

251.  Council  of  Constance,  Nov.  5,  1414-April  22,  1418,          .             .  .277 

252.  Martin  V.,  Nov.  11,  1417-Feb.  20,  1431,          .            .            .            .  278 

253.  Council  of  Basle,  1431-1443  (1449),           .             .             .             .  .279 

254.  The  Popes  until  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Century,    .            .            .  281 

255.  Alexander  VI,  Aug.  2,  1492-Aug.  18,  1503,          ...  282 

256.  Julius  II.,  Nov.  1,  1503-Feb.  21,  1513,             .             .             .  283 

257.  Leo  X.,  March  11,  1513-1517  (1521),         .             .             .             .  .285 

CHAP.  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

258.  Corpus  Juris  Canonici,        .......  286 

259.  The  State  and  the  Church,       ......  287 

260.  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Papacy, '.....  288 

261.  Ecclesiastical  Assemblies,         ......  290 

262.  The  National  Churches,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .292 

263.  The  Bishops  and  their  Jurisdiction,     .....  292 

264.  The  Inquisition,      ........  293 

CHAP.  Ill— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

265.  The  Two  Great  Mendicant  Orders,  .  .  .  .  .295 

266.  Public  Worship,  .......  300 

267.  Flourishing  Period  of  the  Imitative  Arts  in  the  Church, .  .  .     302 

268.  Worship  of  the  Saints,  ......  307 

269.  Miracles  and  Magic,  .......     309 

270.  Church  Discipline  and  Indulgences,     .  .  .  .  .311 

271.  Flagellants  and  Dancers,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .312 


XXX11  CpNTENTS. 

SKCT.  'AOR 

272.  Morals  of  the  Clergy,  .                                     .  314 

273.  Religious  Character  of  the  People,            .  .  .            .315 

274.  Survey  of  the  Monastic  Life,  ...  .  316 

275.  More  Independent  Associations,    .             .  .  .             .             .317 

276.  The  Templars  and  the  Knights  of  St.  John,    .  318 

CHAP.  IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LITERATURE. 

277.  Scholasticism.     Second  Period,      .  .  .  .  .  .320 

278.  Scholasticism.    Third  Period,  ......  321 

279.  Mysticism.     Second  Period,  ......     322 

280.  Excesses  and  Compromises,      ......  324 

281.  The  so-called  Revival  of  Literature,          .  *          .  .  .  .326 

282.  John  Reuchlin,  1455-1522,       ......  329 

283.  Desiderius  Erasmus,  1465-1536,     .  .  .  .  .  .830 

284.  The  Holy  Scriptures,   ...  ...  331 

285.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Church,          .  ...     832 

286.  Ethics  and  Casuistry,   .......  333 

CHAP.  V.— EXTENSION  OF  THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

287.  Apologetics.    Islam.    Judaism,      ......     335 

288.  Prussia.    Lithuania.    Lapland,  .....  386 

289.  Prester  John  and  the  Mongols,       .  .  .  .  .  .337 

290.  The  New  World,  .......  338 

CHAP.  VI.— OPPOSITION  AND  REFORM. 

291.  General  View,        .......  338 

L   HOSTILE  PAUTIES. 

292.  The  Stedingers  and  the  Heretical  Ghibellines,  .  .  .  339 

293.  Fraternity  of  the  Free  Spirit,        .  .  .  .  .  .340 

294.  Order  of  the  Apostles,  ......  341 

295.  Termination  of  the  Earlier  Sects,  ......     342 

II.   REFORM. 

296.  Reformation  in  the  Head  and  Members,          .  .  .  .  343 

297.  John  Wycliffe,  1324-Dec.  31,  1381,  .  .  .  .  .346 

298.  John  Huss  and  the  Hussites,    ......  347 

299.  The  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren,    .....     350 

300.  Learned  Precursors  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  .  .  351 

301.  Jerome  Savonarola,  .......     352 

CHAP.  VII.— THE  GREEK  CHURCH. 

302.  Arsenius,           ........  354 

303.  The  Light  of  God  and  Philosophy,            .             .                         .  .354 

304.  Attempts  at  Union.     Conk  from  §  235,           ....  355 

305.  End  of  the  Greek  Empire,             .            .            .            .            .  356 


MODERN  CHURCH   HISTORY. 
PERIOD  V. 

FROM   LUTHER   TO   THE    PEACE   OF   WESTPHALIA. 
$06.  General  View,        ...  .  .  .  .  .     358 

CHAP.   I— THE  GERMAN  REFORMATION. 
307.  Original  Authorities  and  Literary  History,    ....  359 


CONTENTS.  XXX111 


I.  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH  TILL  1532. 

308.  Luther's  Youth,      ........  361 

309.  The  Ninety-Five  Theses,          .                         .            .            .            .  363 

310.  Interference  of  the  Pope,   .......  363 

311.  Amicable  Negotiations,             ......  364 

312.  Deputation  at  Leipsic,  June  27-July,  16,  1519,     ....  365 

313.  Melancthon.     General  Affairs,              .  366 

314.  Appeal  to  the  Christian  Nobility  of  the  German  Nation,              .             .  367 

315.  Babylonian  Captivity  and  Christian  Freedom,            .             .             .  368 

316.  The  Fire-Signal,      .             .                          .             .             .             .             .  369 

317.  Political  Relations  till  1521,    ......  870 

318.  Diet  at  Worms,  1521,          .......  371 

319.  The  Wartburg,  and  the  Tumult  at  Wittenberg,  1521,  1522,  .             .  372 

320.  System  of  Doctrines  and  the  Scriptures,   .....  373 

321.  Diet  at  Nuremberg,  1522,  1523,           .....  373 

322.  Introduction  of  the  Reformation,  ......  374 

323.  Commencement  of  the  Division  in  Germany,  1524-1526,       .             .  376 

324.  The  King  and  the  Theologian,        .             .                          ...  877 

325.  Peasants*  Wai',  1524,  1525,       ......  377 

326.  Erasmus  and  Luther.     Cont.  from  §  285,  .                          ...  379 

327.  Luther's  Domestic  Life,  and  his  Colleagues,    .                         .            .  380 

328.  Religious  Liberty  and  the  Protestation,     .             .                          .             .  381 

329.  Synod  of  Homburg,  1526.    Saxon  Church  Visitation,  i527-1529,     .  382 

330.  The  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530,          ......  383 

331.  League  of  Smalkald  and  Peace  of  Nuremberg,           .            .            .  383 

II.  ESTABLISHMENT  OP  THE  REFORMED  CHURCH  UNTIL  1531. 

332.  Youth  and  Doctrine  of  Zwingle,    ......  384 

333.  Introduction  of  the  Reformation,         .....  386 

334.  Division  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy,            .....  388 

335.  The  Sacramentarian  Controversy,        .....  389 

III.  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH  UNTIL  1555. 

336.  Articles  of  Smalkald,          .  .  .  .  .  .  .390 

337.  Progress  and  Political  Power  of  the  Reformation,      .             .             .  391 

338.  Negotiations  for  Peace  and  Preparations  for  War,             .             .             .  393 

339.  Luther's  Death  and  Public  Character,             ....  394 

340.  The  Smalkaldic  War,  1546-7,        .  .  .  .  .  .395 

341.  The  Interim,     ........  396 

342.  Maurice,  1552,        ........  397 

343.  Religious  Peace,  Sept.  25,  1555,           .                          ...  398 

IV.  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  REFORMED  CHURCH  UNTIL  1564. 

344.  The  Concordium  of  Wittenberg.     Cont.  from  §  338,        .                         .  399 

345.  Italian  Switzerland,      .......  400 

346.  John  Calvin,  July  10,  1509-May  27,  1564,            ....  400 

CHAP.   II— ESTABLISHMENT  OF  A  PROTESTANT  ORTHODOXY. 

I.     LUTHERANISM. 

347.  The  Antinomian  and  Osiandrian  Controversies,           .             .             .  402 

348.  Lutherans  and  Philippists.     General  Affairs,        ....  404 

349.  The  Synergistic  Controversy,  ......  405 

350    Crypto-Calvinism.     Cont.  from  §  344,        .....  407 

351.  Efforts  at  Concord,       .......  409 

352.  Reaction  of  Saxon  Calvinism,         .  .  .  .  .  .410 

353.  Spirit  and  Result  of  the  Doctrinal  Controversy,         .            .            .  41] 


CONTENTS. 

•ECT.  »*•» 

II.  CALVINISM. 

354.  German  Reformed  Church,  .  .  .  .  .     412 

355    The  Netherlands,          ....  ,  414 

S56.  The  Synod  of  Dort,  Nov.  13,  1618-end  of  May,  1619,  .  .     415 

CHAR  III— PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION  THROUGH  EUROPE. 

357.  The  United  Austrian  States  until  1609,           ....  416 

S58.  Sweden,      .             .            .             .             .             .             ...  .418 

359.  Denmark  with  Norway  and  Iceland,  .....  419 

360.  Poland,  Livonia,  and  Koorland,     .             .             .             .             .  .     420 

I.  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

361.  Establishment  of  the  Anglican  Church,  ....  421 

362.  Origin  of  the  Puritans  and  Independents,  ....  423 

363.  Scotland,  ........  424 

364.  Great  Britain  under  the  Stuarte,  .  ...  425 

II.  FRANCE. 

365.  The  Night  of  St.  Bartholomew,  .....  426 

366.  The  Edict  of  Nantes,          .  .  .  .  .  .  .428 

367.  Spain  and  Italy,  ....  429 

CHAP.  IV.— FANATICS  AND  ULTBAISTS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

368.  General  Relations  of  the  Reformation,      .....  430 

369.  Anabaptists  as  Fanatics,  .  431 

370.  Anabaptists  as  an  Orderly  Community.    Collegianta,       .  .  .  432 

371.  Antitnnitarians,  .......  432 

372.  Socinians,    .........  434 

373.  Caspar  Schwenckfeld,  of  Ossing.    Sebastian  Franck,  435 

CHAP.  V.— CONDITION  AND  RESULTS  OF  PROTESTANTISM. 

374.  Protestantism  as  a  Principle,         .  .  .  .  .  .     487 

375.  Morals,  .  .  .  .  -          .  .  .  .438 

376.  Law,  .........     440 

377.  The  Clergy,  and  Church  Property,      .....  443 

378.  Public  Worship  and  Art,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .444 

379.  Humanistic  Education  and  Holy  Scriptures.     Cont.  from  §  284,       .  446 

380.  Philosophy  and  Theosophy.     Mysticism  and  Practical  Christianity,        .    447 

CHAP.  VL— THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

381.  The  Popes  in  the  Age  of  the  Reformation,  till  1585,  .  .  .460 

382.  Ignatius  de  Loyola,  1491-1556,      .  ....     452 

383.  Development  of  Jesuitism,       .  ....  453 

384.  The  Council  of  Trent,  Dec.  13,  1645-Dec.  14,  1563,          .  .  .454 

385.  Sixtus  V.,  April  27,  1585-Aug.  27,  1590,        .  .  •  456 

386.  Popes  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  .  .  .  456 

387.  Law  and  Political  Relations,   ....  .458 

388.  Great  Change  in  the  Character  of  Catholicism,    .  .  460 

389.  Fraternities  for  Instruction  and  Charity,         .  .  .  .462 

390.  The  Fine  Arts,        .  .  .  .  .  .  464 

391.  The  Sacred  Scriptures.     Cont  from  §§  286,  386,        .  .  .  465 

392.  Laws  respecting  Doctrines  and  Internal  Theological  Controversies,  466 

393.  Efforts  at  Reconciliation,  and  Controversies  with  the  Protestants,    .  468 

394.  The  Propaganda,    .......  470 

395.  The  East  Indies,  .  .  470 


CONTENTS.  XXXV 


396.  Japan,         .........     472 

397.  China, .474 

398.  West  Indies.     Cont.  from  §  290,    .  .  .  .  .475 

"  CHAP.  VII.— THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR. 

399.  Occasions,         ........  476 

400.  The  Bohemian  War.     Cont.  from  §  357,   ...  .477 

401.  The  German  War,        ......  478 

402.  The  Peace  of  Westphalia, ......  479 

CHAP.   VIIL— THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCH. 

403.  Connections  with  Protestants,  .  .  .  .  .  .         480 

404.  The  Russian  Church,          .  .  .  .  .  .  .481 

405.  The  Abyssinians  and  Maronites,          .....  482 


PEKIOD  VI. 

FEOM  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

i06.  General  View,        .            .            .            .            .            .            ...  483 

CHAP.  I.— PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  UNTIL  1750. 

407.  German  Orthodoxy,      .            .            .            ...            .            .  484 

408.  George  Calixtus,  1586-1656,          .  .  .  .  .  .486 

409.  Pietism.     Spener,  1685-1705, ......  487 

410.  Philosophical  Influences.     Cartesius  to  Wolf,        ....  489 

411.  Peaceable  Movements  in  Theology,      .....  490 

412.  Law  and  Legal  Views  in  the  German  Church,      ....  492 

413.  Legal  Relations  to  the  Catholic  Church,          .  492 

414.  Attempts  at  Union,              .             .             .             ...            .             .  495 

415.  The  English  Revolution.     Cont.  from  §  364,    .             .             .             .  497 

416.  Freethinkers  or  Deists,        .......  498 

417.  The  Quakers,    ........  502 

418.  The  United  Brethren.     Zinzendorf,  1700-1760,     .             .             .            .603 
119.  The  Methodists.     Wesley,  1703-1791.     Whitefield,  1714-1770,         .  505 

420.  The  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem.     Swedenborg,  1688-1772,    .            .  508 

421.  Minor  Fanatical  Parties,           ......  508 

422.  Spread  of  Christianity,                   .            .                         .            .            .  510 

CHAP.  II.— ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  UNTIL  1750. 

423.  The  Papacy,    .                                                  ,  511 


ipacy, 
illican 


424.  The  Gallican  Church,         ...                        .  514 

JANSENISM. 

425.  I.    Port-Royal,  ......  .516 

426.  II.   The  Constitution  Unigenitus,  ....  .     518 

427.  Mysticism,  Quietism,  and  Pious  Humor,                        .  .             .           519 

428.  Newly  Established  Orders,             .            .            .            .  .            .521 

429.  Spread  of  Christianity.    Cont.  from  §  394ss, .            .  .            .           521 

CHAP.  Ill— ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  UNTIL  1814. 

I.   MATTERS  PRELIMINARY  TO  THE  REVOLUTION. 

430.  French  Philosophy.     Cont.  from  §  416,     .             .             .  .             .522 

431.  Clement  XIII.  (1758-69)  and  the  Jesuits,        .            .  .            .           524 


CONTENTS. 

«CT. 

432.  Clement  XIV.  (1769-74)  and  the  Jesuits, . 

433.  Pius  VI  (1774-99)  and  his  Age  until  1789, 

II.  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

434.  The  National  Assembly  (Constituante),  1789-1791,           .  .     629 

435.  The  Legislative  Assembly  and  National  Convention,  1791-1795, 

436.  Theophilanthropists,  1796-1802,    . 

437.  The  Roman  Republic.     Conk  from  §  433,       .                                      .  532 

IIL  THE  EHA  OF  NAPOLEON. 

438.  Pius  VII.  and  the  Re-establishment  of  the  Gallican  Church,  .     533 

439.  Dispute  between  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope, 

440.  Overthrow  of  the  Ecclesiastical  German  Constitution,    .  .     536 

CHAP.  IV— THE  PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  TILL  1814. 

441.  The  Age  of  Enlightenment     Cont  from  §§416, 430,                        .  537 

442.  Christian  Reaction.     Prussian  Religious  Edict,     .             .  .     539 

443.  Revolution  in  German  Literature,        .....  641 

444.  Reformation  of  Philosophy  in  Germany,  .....     643 

445.  Rationalism  and  Supernaturalism,       .                         .            .  544 

446.  The  Ecclesiastical  Party  in  Germany,       .....     645 

447.  Small  Fanatical  Parties,           ......  546 

448.  Civil  Relations  of  Protestants  under  Catholic  Governments.     Confc.  from 

§413,     .                                                                .  •     647 

CHAP.  V— THE  PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  TILL  1853. 

449.  Development  of  Protestantism,  ..... 

450.  The  Philosophy  of  the  Absolute,  and  its  Ramifications,   .            .  .     650 

451.  Orthodox  Pietism  and  its  Extremes,    .             .  '           .             .             .  655 

452.  Undecided  Controversies  between  Old  and  New  Protestantism,  .  .     560 
4.53.  Prussia,  the  Union  and  the  Agenda  till  1840.     Cont  from  §  414,     .  566 

454.  Lutheranism  as  a  Sect  under  Frederic  William  III.,         .            .  .     669 

455.  Legal  Views  and  Legal  Relations  in  German  Countries,.       .            .  671 

456.  The  Prussian  National  Church  and  its  Branches  since  1840,        .  .     676 

457.  Combinations,  ........  587 

458.  The  Scriptures.     Cont  from  §§  379,  411, .                                      .  •     592 

459.  Calvinism  as  a  Sect,      .....                         •  695 

460.  Division  of  the  Church  in  Scotland  and  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud,   . .  .     697 

461.  The  Anglican  Church  and  the  Dissenters,       .                          .            •  698 

462.  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  in  the  North  American  Republic,    .             .  .601 

463.  Legal  Condition  with  respect  to  Catholic  Governments,         .            .  605 

464.  Old  and  New  Sects,             .             .             .             .            .             .  .610 

465.  Missionary  and  Bible  Societies,            .             .             .             .             .  612 

466.  Spread  of  Christianity,       .             .             .             .             .             .  .614 

CHAP.  VI.— THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TILT,  1853. 

467.  Re-establishment  of  the  Roman  Hierarchy.     Cont  from  §  439,         .  617 

468.  The  Popes  before  the  Last,  ......     619 

469.  Pius  IX.  (June  16,  1846)  and  Italy,     .....  620 

470.  The  Gallican  Church,         .             .             .             .            .             .  .624 

471.  Spain.     Portugal.     South  America,     .....  629 

472.  Belgium  and  Holland,        .......     633 

473.  Restoration  of  the  German  Church,    .        ..'•    ,         .            •            •  6"35 

474.  The  Ecclesiastical  Controversy  in  Prussian  Germany,      .             .  .     636 

475.  The  German  Church  since  1848,          ....  640 

476.  Switzerland,  ........     645 

477.  Ireland  and  England,  ...             .             .             .  649 

478.  Forms  of  Catholicism,        .  662 


CONTENTS.  XXXV11 


479.  German  Catholicism,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  656 

480.  Mystics  and  Wonder- Workers,       ..  .  .  .  .  .661 

481.  Orders,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .662 

482.  Spread  of  Christianity.     Cont.  from  §§  394,  429,  ....     668 

CHAP.  VII.— THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCH. 

483.  Catholic  and  Protestant  Influences,     .....  665- 

484.  Russia.     Cont.  from  §  404,  ......     666 

485.  Greece  and  Turkey,     ....  ^    .  .  669 

CHAP.  VIII— COMMON  DETAILS  AND  MUTUAL  RELATIONS. 

486.  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,      .  .  .  .  .  .671 

487.  The  Fine  Arts.     Cont.  from  §§  378,  390,          ....  674 

488.  Emancipation  and  Conversion  of  the  Jews,  .  .  .  .675 

489.  Abolition  of  Slavery,    ......  .  677 

490.  St.  Simonism  and  Socialism,  .  .  .  .  .  .679 

491.  The  Holy  Alliance,  .  .  .  .  .681 
Appendix,    .                                    ....     683 


INTRODUCTION. 


C.  Sagittarius,  IntrocL  in  Hist  Ecc.  Jen.  T.  1. 1694  Vol.  II.  ed.  J.  A.  Schmid,  1713.  4.  P. 
Waleh,  Grundsiitze  d.  zur  KHist  nothigen  Vorbereitungslehren  u.  Bucherkenntn.  Gott  ed.  2. 17T2. 
C.  W.  Flugge,  Einl.  in  d.  Studiam  u.  in  d.  Literatur  d.  BeL  u.  KGesch.  Gott  1801.  (J.  G.  Dow- 
ling,  Introd.  to  the  Crit  Study  of  Ecc.  Hist.  Lond.  1838.  8.  J.  Jortin,  Eemarks  on  Ecc.  Hist  Lond. 
1846.  2  vols.  8.  W.  Bates,  College  Lectt  on  Ecc.  Hist.  Lond.  1846.  8.  G.  Campbell,  Lectt  on  Ecc. 
Hist  Lond.  1834.  8.) 

CHAP.  L— PLAN. 

F.  F.  Eosegarten,  u.  Stud.  Plan  u.  Darst  d.  Allg.  KGesch.  Eeval.  1824.  Uttmann,  u.  Stellung 
des  KHist.  in  unsrer  Zeit  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1829.  p.  667ss.)  J.  A.  H.  Tiltmann,  u.  Behandl.  d. 
KGesch.  vorz.  auf  Univ.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1832.  vol.  I.  st  2.)  Daub,  d.  Fonn.  d.  Dogmen  u. 
KHist  (Zeitschr.  £  Spekul.  Th.  1836.  vol.  I.  H.  1.)  M oUer,  Einl.  in.  d.  KGesch.  (Hist  Pol.  Bl.  f. 
d.  Kath.  DentschL  1839.  vol.  IV.  H.  1-3.  u.  Gesamm.  Schrr.  vol.  II.) 

§  1.     The  Church  and  the  World. 

The  Church  was  originally  founded  by  the  Spirit  which  proceeded  from 
Jesus,  and  was  intended  to  embrace  in  its  communion  all  the  religious  life 
derived  from  Him,  or  in  connection  with  Him.  All  Churches  and  Sects  com- 
prehended in  this  spiritual  community,  are  only  different  manifestations  of 
the  same  Spirit.  The  Church  stands  in  contrast  with  the  World,  when  the 
latter  is  regarded  as  including  all  forms  of  life  which  are  merely  natural,  and 
not  of  a  religious  character.  Especially  does  it  thus  stand  contrasted  with  the 
State,  viewed  as  the  political  organization  of  the  people.  This  contrast,  how- 
ever, is  only  in  particular  relations,  since  the  State  is  also  a  divine  institution, 
and  the  world  was  created  by  God  and  is  intended  to  be  gradually  pervaded 
by  the  Church.  Indeed,  the  Church,  in  its  character  of  the  earthly  kingdom 
of  God,  can  never  be  fully  set  forth,  except  in  intimate  connection  with  the 
world. 

§  2.    Idea  of  Church  History. 

[P.  ScJiaff.  A  Vindication  of  the  Idea  of  Hist.  Development,  Philad.  1846.  12.  See  also  his  Hist. 
•»f  Apost.  Church,  New  York,  1853.] 

The  Church  is  always  in  a  progressive  state ;  i.  e.,  it  is  striving  to  be  a  per- 
petual manifestation  of  the  life  of  Christ  in  humanity.  In  other  words,  it  is 
always  aiming  to  exhibit  his  life  more  and  more  perfectly,  and  on  a  more  ex- 

1 


2  INTKODUCTION.    CHAP.  I.    PLAN. 

tensive  scale,  sometimes  in  conflict,  and  sometimes  in  connection  with  the 
world.  Church  history  is  a  representation  of  the  Church  in  this  progressive 
state,  by  an  exhibition  of  the  facts  which  have  occurred  in>  its  course.  In  its 
scientific  form,  it  is  the  combination  of  all  those  individual  elements  which 
have  had  any  influence  upon  its  composition,  since  it  is,  1)  critically,  an  im- 
partial, honest,  and  strict  inquiry  into  facts,  and  into  the  extent  of  the  confi- 
dence which  can  be  reposed  in  their  proofs,  so  that  where  certainty  cannot  be 
attained,  a  knowledge  of  this  extent  in  its  different  degrees  may  determine 
the  scientific  character  of  the  narrative ;  2)  genetically,  a  statement  of  the 
facts  in  connection  with  their  causes,  taking  care,  however,  that  no  explana- 
tions are  given  inconsistent  with  the  proper  nature  of  the  idea  developed  in 
the  events,  or  with  the  peculiar  character  of  the  active  agents  in  them ; 
8)  theologically ,  an  estimation  of  the  facts  in  their  precise  relation  to  the  reli- 
gious spirit,  allowing  no  preconceived  opinions  to  determine  what  has  actu- 
ally occurred  but  only  to  assist  in  understanding  them  as  we  find  them.  The 
correct  manner  of  narration,  or  the  historical  style,  is  that  which  the  student 
naturally  adopts  when  he  has  acquired  a  true  conception  of  the  events,  and 
then  fully  expresses  this  in  living  freshness  and  reality. 

§  3.    Proper  Province  of  Church  History. 

Within  the  appropriate  department  of  Church  History  lie  all  facts  which 
either  proceed  directly  from  the  common  Christian  spirit,  or  indirectly  are 
dependent  upon  the  opposition  or  co-operation  of  the  world.  Some  of  these 
belong  necessarily  to  the  history,  and  are  essential  points  of  development  by 
which  the  Christian  spirit  must  be  represented ;  but  others  are  only  carefully 
selected  representatives  of  the  age  in  which  they  occur,  or  peculiar  manifes- 
tations of  the  Christian  spirit  in  some  important  individuals. 

§  4.    Relation  to  the  General  History  of  Eeligion. 

Hist  g6n6rale  des  ceremonies,  mcenrs  et  coutumes  rel.  de  tousles  peuples,  represented  par  figures 
dessinees  de  la  main  de  JB,  Picard,  avec  des  explicst  hist  (Amst  1728ss.  7  vote.)  Par.  1741ss. 
8  vols.  J.  Meiners,  Allg.  Krit  Gesch.  d.  Rellgionen.  Hann.  1806s.  2  Th.  JR  V.  WeUler,  Idcen  z. 
Gesch.  d.  Entw.  <L  KeL  GL  Munch,  1808-1815.  8  Th.  Senj.  Constant,  de  la  Religion,  conslder6e  dans 
sa  source,  ses  formes  et  ses  ddveloppemens,  Par.  1824ss.  2  Th.  Ubers.  m.  Anm.  v.  Petrl.  Brl.  1824s. 
2  vols. 

The  object  of  a  general  history  of  religion,  of  which  Church  history  is 
only  a  single  department,  is  the  development  of  the  religious  spirit  of  man- 
kind in  all  the  forms  in  which  it  has  appeared.  But  the  religious  peculiari- 
ties of  unevangelized  nations  are  only  to  be  introduced  into  Church  history, 
when  they  are  in  some  way  involved  in  the  affairs  of  Christendom  (general- 
ly, at  first,  in  conflict  with  it),  or  when  they  occasion  some  new  relations  in 
it.  For,  as  the  Law  was  adapted  to  lead  the  Jew  and  Philosophy  the  Greek 
to  Christ,  the  same  result  might  be  produced  among  other  nations  by  their 
confidence  in  their  own  gods.  Accordingly,  as  Christianity  is  a  religion  for 
the  whole  human  race,  and  is  therefore  the  ultimate  point  and  perfection  of 
all  other  religions,  Church  History  should  be  the  central  point  of  all  histo- 
ries of  religion,  and  should  gradually  incorporate  within  itself  their  collected 
results. 


S  5.    MODE.    VALUE.    SOUKCES.  3 

§  5.    Mode  of  Treating  Church  History. 

The  Christian  spirit,  in  the  development  of  its  infinite  nature,  and  while 
gradually  appropriating  all  human  things  to  its  use,  is  destined  and  is  com- 
petent to  be  the  religious  spirit  of  man.  This  result,  however,  will  be  ac- 
complished by  means  accordant  with  its  own  peculiar  law.  As  the  organs  by 
which  it  operates  are  necessarily  free  individuals  and  nations,  free  even  for 
error  and  sin,  the  original  principles  of  the  historical  movement  must  neces- 
sarily assume  an  endless  diversity  of  form  in  the  lives  of  individuals.  Hence, 
the  historical. judgment,  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  representation  of  the  events, 
must  seize  upon  all  these  as  points  of  development  which  find  their  own  ar- 
rangement, and  have  each  an  appropriate  influence.  It  is  not,  however,  in- 
dispensable to  the  impartiality  of  the  historian,  that  he  should  appear  to  love 
nothing  and  to  hate  nothing.  It  is  only  needful,  first  of  all,  that  he  should  nev- 
er place  the  actual  facts  in  false  positions,  on  account  of  either  preferences  or 
aversions,  and  then,  that  he  should  recognize  those  conditions  under  which 
others  have  perhaps  necessarily  formed  opinions  and  sentiments  different 
from  his  own.  Indeed,  a  Church  History,  in  which  the  author  exhibited  no 
distinct  ecclesiastical  character,  and  did  not  imprint  this  with  clearness  upon 
his  work,  would  be  of  very  little  value  to  the  Church. 

§  6.     Value  of  Church  History. 

Griesbach,  de  H.  Eccl.  Utilitate,  Jen.  1T76.  F.  A.  liothe,  v.  Einfl.  des.  Kirchenhist  Stad.  auf  d. 
Bildung  des  Gemuths  u.  d.  Leben.  Lps.  1810. 4.  T.  A.  Uarisse,  Or.  de  Societatis  Chr.  Hist  ad  in- 
form, sacrorum  antistitem  accommodate  tradenda.  Gron.  1824. 

The  absolute  value  of  Church  History  springs  from  the  fact,  that  it  is  an 
expression  of  the  self-consciousness  of  the  Church  with  respect  to  its  com- 
plete development.  From  this  is  derived  its  practical  necessity.  "Whoever 
wishes  independently  to  direct  any  portion  of  the  Church,  must  participate 
in  this  self-consciousness,  or  he  will  neither  understand  its  present  position, 
nor  be  able  to  foresee  and  wisely  affect  its  future  course.  In  this  is  involved 
its  utility  for  controversial  and  spiritual  purposes,  or  for  the  assistance  of  oth- 
er sciences.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered,  that  when  the  value  and 
object  of  Church  history  are  too  exclusively  kept  in  view,  its  scientific  char- 
acter is  much  endangered. 

§  7.    Sources. 

F.  Walch,  Krit.  Nachr.  v.  d.  Quellen  d.  KHist.    (Lpz.  1TTO.)    Gott  1778. 

Our  certainty  with  regard  to  facts  must  depend  upon  the  sources:  1.  Ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  their  proximity  to  the  particular  events  mentioned : 
a)  Original  documents  and  monuments,  which  prove  a  fact,  inasmuch  as  they 
constitute  an  element  in  it.  5)  Accounts  by  eye-witnesses  or  contemporaries. 
c)  Historical  writers,  who  draw  directly  from  sources  now  lost.  The  more 
remote  these  authorities  are  from  the  events  narrated,  the  more  is  their  credi- 
bility liable  to  criticism.  2.  According  to  the  form  in  which  they  exist :  a) 
Writings,  public  and  private,  without  a  uniform  preference  for  the  for- 


4  INTRODUCTION.    CHAP.  I.    PLAN. 

mer.  (a)  It  is  often  very  difficult  to  prove  that  a  witness  was  either  able  or  will* 
ing  to  declare  the  whole  truth,  since  his  ability  is  often  affected  by  his  preju- 
dices, and  his  willingness  by  his  party  spirit.  I)  Monuments,  not  only  works  of 
art,  but  living  communities,  c)  Traditions,  among  which  legends,  being 
merely  the  work  of  the  hierarchy,  prove  only  what  were  the  views  of  the 
age  in  which  they  originated,  or  were  completed ;  and  popular  stories  serve 
to  establish  an  historical  probability  in  proportion  as  they  are  widespread,  and 
conformed  to  circumstances  which  have  been  otherwise  historically  authenti- 
cated. (5)  A  thorough  investigation  of  sources  is  indispensable  only  to  the 
historical  writer,  (e) 

§  8.    Auxiliary  Sciences. 

The  auxiliary  sciences  usually  mentioned,  such  as  Ecclesiastical  Philolo- 
gy, (a)  Chronology,  (&)  Diplomatics,  (c)  Geography  and  Statistics,  (d)  are  espe- 
cially necessary  only  to  the  ecclesiastical  historian.  But  General  History, 

a)  (o)  S.  Concillorum  nova  et  amplissima  collectio,  car.  J.  Dom.  Mansi,  Flor.  et  Ven.  1759ss.  81 
vols.  folio.  Canones  App.  et  ConcilL  Saec.  4-7.  rec.  If.  T.  Bruns,  Ber.  1889s.  2  Th.  (Bibl.  Eccl.  P.  I.) ; 
[Landon's  Manual  of  Councils,  comprising  the  substance  of  the  most  remarkable  and  important  ca- 
nons, Lond.  1846. 1  voL  12mo.]  (0)  Bullarium  Eoman.  Luxemb.  172T.  19  Th.  f. ;  Bullarum  ampliss. 
•ColL  op.  C.  Cocqudines,  Eom.  178998.  28  vols.  £;  Bullariam  magnum  Eom.  (1758-1880)  op.  Andr. 
Avocati  Baroarini,  Kom.  188588.  8  Th.  I ;  Eom.  Bullariam,  o.  AuszQge  d.  Merkwfirdigsten  Bullen, 
fibers,  m.  Bemerk.  v.  Eteentchmidt,  Neust  1881C  2  vols.;  Sammlung  aller  Concordate,  v.  E. 
Munch,  Lpz.  1880£  2  vols.  (7)  Codes  liturgicus  EccL  Univereae,  ill.  J.  A.  Atsemanua,  Eom. 
17493S.  18  Th.  4.  (5)  Codex  regularum  Monast  ed.  Lucas  UoUtenius,  Eom.  1661.  8  Th.  4.  aux.  M. 
Brockie,  Aug.  Vind.  1759.  6  Tb.  t  («)  Maxima  Bibllotbeca  vett  Potrum,  Lngd.  1677s&  28  Th.  f. 
Bibl.  vett  Patrum,  op.  And.  Gattandii,  Ven.  1765ss.  14  Th.  f. ;  comp.  Fabricii  Bibl.  graeca  Hamb. 
(17053S.  14  Th.)  ed.  ffartes,  179068. 12  Th.  4;  Schoenemann,  BibL  hist  literaria  Patrum  Lat  Lpz. 
1792SS.  2  Th.  (till  1475);  J.  O.  Walch,  Bibl.  patristica,  Jen.  1770.  ed.  Dam,  1834;  Roesler,  Bibl.  d 
Kirchenvater,  Lpz.  1776ss.  10  vols. ;  Avffusti,  Chrestomathia  patristica,  Lps.  1812.  2  Th. ;  J.  G.  V. 
Engelhardt,  Lit  Leita.  z.  Vorles.  JL  d.  Patristik.  ErL  1828;  J.  N.  Locherer,  Lehrb.  d.  Patrologie, 
Mainz,  1837;  J.  A.  MoMor,  Patrol  o.  Christ  Literargeech.  edit  by  Relthmayr,  Eatisb.  1840. 1  vol. ; 
[Lib.  of  tho  Fathers  of  the  H.  Cath.  Church  before  the  Division,  Transl.  by  EngL  Clergymen,  Oxf. 
1830.  26  vols.  8.]  (£)  Mi#t  du  Pin,  Bibliotheque  dee  auteurs  ecclesiastiques  (Par.  1686ss.  47  Th.) 
Amst  1690ss.  19  Th.  4,  and  Bibl.  des  auteurs  separes  de  la  communion  de  1'eglise  Eom.  Par.  1718s. 
3  Th. ;  comp.  Richard  Simon,  Critique  de  la  Bibl.  de  Mr.  du  Pin,  Par.  1780.  4  Th. ;  Cave,  Scrlpto- 
rum  Ecci  literaria  (Lond.  1689)  ed.  8  Oxon.  1740ss.  2  Th.  f. ;  J.  A.  Fabricii,  Bibl.  EccL  Hamb.  1718. 
£  Ejusd.  BibL  Latina  mediae  et  inflmae  aetatis,  Hamb.  1784ss.  6  Th.  aux  Manzi,  Palav.  1754.  8  Tb. 
4;  Hist  LittSraire  de  la  France,  par  des  relig.  B6nedictins  de  8.  Maur,  Par.  1788ss.  20  Tb.  4;  J.  & 
Assemani,  BibL  orientalis,  Eom.  1719ss.  4  Th.  t  Busse,  Grundr.  d.  Chr.  Lit  (till  15th  cent), 
Munst  1828,  2  vols.  &)  Acta  Sanctorum  quotquot  toto  orbe  coluntur,  edd.  Jo.  BoUandus  aliique, 
Antv.  1643-1794.  53  Th.  t  comp.  De  prosecutione  operis  BoUandiani,  Namur,  1838;  Bonner  Zelt- 
schr.  f.  Phil.  u.  Kath.  Th.  H.  17  &  20 ;  Vogel,  Oesch.  u.  Wurdigong  d.  Legende  (Illgen's  Hist  TheoL 
Abhh.  1824.  vol.  III.  p.  140ss.).  c)  ScJileiermacher,  Darstell.  des  TheoL  Studimus,  2  ed.  §  190f. 
[Brief  Outline  of  the  Study  of  TheoL  Ac.  Translated  by  Wm.  Farrer,  with  Eeminis.  of  8.  Edinb. 
1850.  8.  §  184.] 

a)  J.  C.  Suiceri,  Thesaurus  eccL  e  patribus  graecis,  Amst  (16S2)  1728.  2  vols.  f. ;  C.  du  Fresne, 
Glossarium  mediae  et  infimae  graecitatis,  Lugd.  168a  2  vols.  £  ;  Ejusd,  Gloss,  mediae  et  inf.  latinita- 
tis,  Par.  1733SS.  6  vols.  £  and  others;  (Adeluny)  Gloss,  manuale  ad  Scriptt  mediae  et  in£  latinitatis, 
Hal.  1772SS.  6  Th. ;  Glossaries  of  the  Germanic  and  Eomanic  Languages ;  [G.  a  Lewis,  Essay  on 
the  Origin  and  Formation  of  the  Eom.  Langg.  Oxford,  1840.  8.]  &)  Aerae:  ab  urbe  condita,  Seleuci- 
darum,  Hispanica,  Diocletiana  Bive  martyrum,  Constantinopolitana,  indictionum,  Dionysiana,  comp. 
L'Art  de  verifier  les  dates  les  felts  historiques,  par  un  relig.  B6nedictin,  Par.  1750.  8  vols.  4.  nouv.  ed. 
par  Vitou  de  &  Alais,  Par.  1818s.  28  Th.;  L.  Id-der,  Lehrb.  d.  Chronol.  BrL  1881;  E.  Brinck- 
meier,  Prakt  Handbuch  d.  Hist  ChronoL  Lpz.  1840;  \H.  Nicolas,  The  Chron.  of  Hist  2  ed.  Lond. 
1840. 1  vol.  8 ;  J.  Haydn,  Diet  of  Dates  to  All  Ages  and  Nations,  Lond.  1846;  Blair's  Chron.  and 


§  9,    DIVISION  INTO  PERIODS.  5 

the-  history  of  Jurisprudence,  and  the  history  of  Philosophy  and  of  Litera- 
ture, are  all  of  great  importance  as  preparatory  sciences  to  Church  History, 
since  they  present,  in  a  complete  form,  subjects  which,  on  account  of  their 
individual  connection  with  the  Church,,  are  touched  upon  but  slightly  in 
Church  history,  and  cannot  be  thoroughly  understood  except  in  their  com- 
plete relations. 

§  9.    Division. 

As  every  thing  in  a  progressive  state  must  be  regarded  in  an  order  of  suc- 
cession, all  history  is  necessarily  arranged  according  to  time.  But  individual 
groups  of  things,  similar  in  nature,  and  connected  together  by  causes  of  a 
more  definite  character  than  mere  temporal  contiguity,  are  often  found  spring- 
ing up  in  the  same  periods.  Hence,  the  arrangement  according  to  time,  must 
be  modified  by  another  according  to  the  subject.  The  division  according  to 
periods  aims  to  assign  some  definite  limits  for  the  scientific  view.  This  math- 
ematical division  by  arbitrary  intersections  is  the  more  inadmissible,  when 
the  lines  which  are  drawn  pass  through  some  event  which  constitutes  an 
epoch,  and  produces  a  thorough  transformation  of  the  Church.  The  essential 
developments  of  the  Christian  spirit  which  have  hitherto  been  made,  are 
Catholicism  and  Protestantism ;  and  the  principal  organs  by  which  it  has 
acted,  have  been  the  Greco-Roman  and  the  Germanic  national  spirit.  Accord- 
ingly, the  history  of  the  Church  is  naturally  divided  into  Three  Ages,  and  each 
of  these  into  Two  Periods.  I.  Ancient  Church  History,  until  the  establishment 
of  the  holy  Eoman  empire  among  the  Germanic  nations,  800 :  Greco-Roman 
civilization  in  the  ascendant,  but  gradually  declining,  partly  on  account  of  its 
own  weakness,  and  partly  because  lost  in  the  German  nationality.  The  First 
Period  extends  to  the  victory  of  the  Church  under  Constantine,  312 ;  Estab- 
lishment of  the  Church,  and  development  of  Catholicism  in  the  midst  of  tri- 
umphant conflicts  and  sufferings.  The  Second  Period  exhibits  the  Church,  on 
the  one  hand,  as  the  established  Church  of  the  empire,  attending  to  the  com- 
pletion and  establishment  of  her  faith,  and  on  the  other,  striving  to  allay  the 
storm  of  national  migrations.  IL  Medieval  Church  History,  until  the  Re- 
formation, 1517:  sway  of  Romano-Germanic  Catholicism.  The  Third  Pe- 
riod extends  to  the  time  when  the  papal  despotism  attains  its  greatest  ascend- 
ency, under  Innocent  III.,  1216 :  victory  of  the  papacy  over  aU  opposition. 
The  Fourth  Period  presents  us  with  the  gradual  decline  of  Catholicism,  and 
some  tokens  of  a  coming  reformation.  III.  Modern  Church  History  until  the 

Hist.  Tables ;  new  ed.  and  cont  to  the  present  time,  Lend.  1850.  8 ;  Oxford,  Chron.  Tables  of  An.  & 
Mod.  Hist,  cont  to  1889.  Oxf.  1839.  f.  and  Rale's  New  Analysis  of  Chron.  &  Geog.  new  ed.  cor.  and 
imp.  Lond.  1830.  4  vols.  8 ;  HaskeWs  Chron.  View.  New  York.  1845] ;  F.  Piper,  Kirchenrechnung, 
Berl.1841.  4;  [&  F.  Jarvis,  Chron.  Introd.  to  Church  Hist  New  York.  1850.8;  J.  E.  Riddle, 
Eccles.  Chron.  Lond.  1840.  8.]  c)  J.  Mabillon,  de  re  diplomatics,  ed.  2.  Par.  1709.  f. ;  Schonemann, 
Vollstund.  System  d.  Allg.  Diplomatik.  Hamb.  1801.  2  vols. ;  [Diplomatics,  as  the  Germans  use  the 
word,  is  the  Science  which  treats  of  diplomas,  e.  g.  Bulls,  Briefs,  Charters,  Patents,  Ac.]  d)  Caroli 
a  8.  Paulo,  Geographia  sacra  (Par.  1641.  f.)  Amst.  1704  f. ;  F.  Spanhemii,  Geogr.  sacra  et  ecc.  (Opp. 
Lugd.  1701. 1  Th.  f.) ;  J.  E.  T.  Wiltsch,  Handb.  d.  Kirchl.  Geogr.  u.  Statist  bis  zu  anfang  d.  16  Jahrh. 
Brl.  1846.  2  vole. ;  A.  W.  Moller,  Hierographie,  Gesch.  d.  K.  in  Landcharten,  Elberf.  1822ss.  2  Th.  f. ; 
J.  K  T.  Wiltsch,  Atlas  sacer  s.  eccl.  Goth.  1843.  f. ;  Stundlin,  KirchL  Geogr.  u.  Statistik.  Tub.  1804, 
2  Th. ;  J.  Wigger&,  Kirchl.  Statistik.  Hamb.  1842s.  2  vols. 


6  INTRODUCTION.    CHAP.  I.    PLAN. 

present  time :  conflict  of  Protestantism  with  Catholicism.  The  Fifth  Period 
extends  to  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  1648  :  partial  victory  of  Protestantism, 
and  the  new  determination  of  Catholicism.  The  Sixth  Period  shows  ns  the 
conflict  between  ecclesiastical  usages  and  religious  independence.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  of  the  arrangement  according  to  subjects  are :  1)  The  territo- 
rial extension  of  the  Church ;  (a)  2)  The  constitution  of  the  Church,  and  its 
relation  to  the  State ;  (Z»)  3)  The  development  of  the  Christian  spirit,  with 
respect  to  doctrine  and  science ;  (c)  4)  The  popular  life  of  the  Church,  (d) 
and  the  system  of  public  worship,  (e)  But  this  mechanical  framework  is 
formed  only  very  gradually.  That  relation  is  always  to  be  made  most  promi- 
nent which  is  really  predominant  in  each  age.  Some  elements,  as,  e.  g.,  the 
Papacy  (/)  and  the  Monastic  Orders,  (g)  appear  as  independent  groups  only 
in  a  few  periods.  After  the  Reformation,  the  separate  Churches  form  essen- 
tial distinctions.  Every  Period,  then,  must  form  an  arrangement  out  of  its 
own  materials,  under  the  direction  of  no  other  law  than  that  which  requires 
a  vivid  picture  of  each  age,  derived  from  all  its  ecclesiastical  relations. 

a)  J.  A.  Fabricius,  ealutaris  lax  ev.  toti  orbi  exoriens,  s.  notitia  propagatorum  chr.  sacroruin. 
Hamb.  1781.  4;  P.  C.  Gratiawut,  Vrs.  e.  Gesch.  u.  Urspr.  a.  Fortpflanz.  d.  Christenth.  in  Europa, 
Tub.  1766ss.  2  Th. ;  W.  Brown,  Hist  of  the  Propag.  of  Christ  among  Heathen  since  the  Reform. 
Lond.  1814.  2  vols. ;  C.  G.  Blumhardt,  Vrs.  e.  Allg.  Missjonsgescb.  Bas.  1823.  8  Th. ;  J.  Wiggera, 
Gesch.  d.  Evang.  Miss.  1845s.  2  vols. ;  [C.  T.  Blumhardt,  Christian  Missions,  Tract  Soc.  Lond.  1840. 
18;  J.  O.  ChouUs,  Orig.  and  Hist  of  Missions,  Boston.  1888.  2  vols.  4;  Iluie,  Hist  of  Chr.  Missions, 
from  the  Kef.  to  the  Present  Time.  Edinb.  1842.  12.]  I)  Petrus  de  Marca,  Dss.  de  concordia  sacer- 
dotii  et  imperil  s.  de.  libertatlbus  EccL  Gallic.  L  VIIL  ed.  St.  Baluaiu*,  Par.  1663.  f. ;  J.  H.  Boehmer, 
Lps.  1708.  f. ;  G.  J.  Planck,  Gesch.  d,  KirchL  Gesellschaftsverfass.  Hann.  1808ss.  5  vols. ;  C.  Ri/el, 
Gesch.  Darst  d.  Verh.  zw.  K  u.  Staat  Mainz.  1886.  1  Tb.  (till  Justinian  I.) ;  Tfiomassini,  Vetus  ct 
nova  Eccl.  disciplina  circa  beneflcia.  Luc,  1728.  8  Th.  f. ;  Richerii,  Hist.  Cone,  generalium.  Colon.  1680. 
3Th.  4;  F.  Walch,  Entw.  e.  vollst  Hist  A  KVers.  Lpz.  1759;  Staudenmaier,  Gesch.  d.  Bischor's- 
wahlen.  Tub.  1880 ;  J.  Ant.  u.  Aug.  Theiner,  Die  Einfuhr.  d.  erzwung.  Ehelosigk.  d.  Geistl.  Altenb. 
1828.  (new  tit  1845.)  8  vols.  c)  C.  W.  Flugge,  Gesch.  d.  Theol.  Wlssenscb.  (till  the  Eef.)  Hal.  I796ss. 
3  vols. ;  K.  F.  Stdudlin,  Gescb,  d.  TheoL  Wiss.  seit  Verbreitung  der  alten  Literatur.  Gott  1810.  f. 
2  vols. ;  F.  Walch,  Vollst  Hfat  d.  Ketzerelen  (till  the  image  controv.)  Lpz.  1762ss.  11  vols. ;  D.  Peta- 
vius,  Opus  de  theol.  dogmatibus  (Par.  1644ss.  4  vols.  f.)  ed  Th.  AletMnu*  (Clericus),  Antv.  (Amst.) 
1700.  6  Th.  £ ;  If.  Kite,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Mainz.  1887ss.  2  vols, ;  W.  Munacher,  Handb.  d.  DGesch. 
(till  1604.)  Marb.  1797ss.  4  vols.  ed.  8  vols.  I.-IIL  1817s.;  Ibid.  Lebrb.  d.  DGesch.  (1811- 
1819.)  m.  Belegen  u.  d.  Quellen  von  D.  v.  Colin.  Cass.  1882ss.  1  &  2  HQlfte,  1  Abth.  Fortg.  v.  Neu~ 
decker,  2  Abth.  1838;  Augusti,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Lpz.  (1805.  1811.  1820.)  1835;  Baumgarten  Cm- 
•«««,  Lehrb.  d.  DGescb.  Jen.  1832;  2  Abth.  u.  Comp.  d.  DGescb,  Lpz.  1840-46.  2  Th.;  J.  G.  V. 
Engelhardt,VQe&c\i.  Neust  1839.  2  vols.;  F.  K  Meier,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Giess.  1840;  K.  R. 
Hagenbach,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Lpz,  1840-41.  2  Th. ;  F.  Ch.  Baur,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Stuttg. 
1847 ;  Th.  Kliefoth,  Elnl.  in  d.  DGesch.  Parchim,  1889 ;  [A  Translation  of  the  Doctrinal  History  of 
Muensclier,  has  been  published  by  Dr.  Murdoch.  New  Haven.  1830.  12 :  A  Translation  of  Ilagen- 
bacWs  Doct.  Hist  by  C.  W.  Buck,  was  published  in  Clarke's  Ed.  For.  Theol.  Lib.  1846.  2  vols.  12.] 
d)  Acta  Sanctorum  (§  7  nt  b.)  Staudlin,  Gescb.  der  Sittenlehre  Jesu.  Gott  1799.  1828.  (till  1299.)  4 
vols.  u.  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Morals,  d.  TViederaufL  d.  Wiss.  Giitt  1808;  J.  G.  Mutter,  Reltqnien  alter 
Zeiten.  Lpz.  ISOSss.  4  vols. ;  Neander,  Denkwfirdigkeiten  aus  der  Gesch.  des  Christenth.  und 
Christl.  Lebens.  Brl.  (1823ss.)  1825s.  8  vols.  e)  E.  Martene,  de  antiqnis  Eccl.  ritibus,  ed.  8.  Antv. 
1736ss.  4  Th.  f. ;  A.  A.  Pelliccia,  de  Chr.  Eccl.  primaft,  mediae  et  noviss.  politia.  (Neap.  1777.  Ven. 
1782.  3  Th.)  edd.  Ritter  et  Braun.  Col.  1829-38.  3  Th.  revised  by  Binterim.  Mainz.  1825ss.  7  Th. 
In  17  vols. ;  Locherer,  Lehrb.  d.  Chr.  ArchaoL  Frankf.  1882 ;  J.  Bingham,  Origines  a.  antiquitates 
ecc.  ex.  Angl.  (Antiquities  of  the  Church,  [Lond.  new  ed.  1846.  2  vols.]  and  others,)  lat  red.  Grin- 
cTiovius.  Hal.  (1724ss.)  1752ss.  11  Th.  4;  F.  H.  Rheinwald,  Kirchl.  Arch.  BrL  1880;  Augusti, 
Handb.  d.  Chr.  Arch.  Auszug,  a.  d.  Denkwurdigkk.  (1817ss.  12  vols.)  Lpz.  1836s.  8  vols. ;  O.  C.  F. 
Siegel,  Handb.  A  Christl.  Altherthumer,  in  Alphab.  Ordn.  Lpz.  1836ss.  4  vols. ;  W.  Bohmer,  Chr. 
Kirchl.  Altherthumswiss.  BresL  1836-9.  2  vols. ;  \J.  E.  Riddle,  Man.  of  Chr.  Auth.  Lond.  1836.  8;  L. 
Coleman,  Autt  of  the  Chr  Church,  transl.  and  comp.  from  Augusti.  And.  1841.  8.] 


§  10.    FLACIUS.    HOTTINGER.    BAEONIUS. 


CHAP.  II.— GENERAL  LITERATURE. 

Staudlin,  Gesch.  u.  Literatur  d.  KGesch.  edit,  by  Hemsen.  Hann.  1827.     [K.  R.  llagenlach, 
Encykl.  u.  Methodologle  der  Theol.  Wise.  3  ed.  p.  224.  Lpz.  1851.  8.] 

§  10.    Polemical  Church  History. 

A  general  Church  History  could  not  "be  reasonably  expected,  until  the 
Church  was  sufficiently  extended  to  embrace  a  large  family  of  nations.  It 
was  not,  in  fact,  written  until  the  Church  had  become  divided  and  the  newly 
organized  party  felt  the  necessity  of  connecting  itself  with  antiquity,  and  of  dis- 
turbing the  historical  basis  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Such  was  the  object  of 
Matthias  Flacius  Illyricus,  when  he  edited  the  Magdeburg  Centuries,  (a)  in 
which  was  enlisted  all  the  Protestant  learning  of  the  age.  It  was  distin- 
guished for  its  familiarity  with  original  authorities,  for  its  frequent  citations, 
for  a  criticism  which  paid  no  deference  to  earlier  writers  on  the  same  subject, 
and  for  its  passionate  style  of  controversy.  For  more  than  a  century  after- 
wards, nothing  was  published  but  text-books  formed  from  the  materials  sup- 
plied by  the  Centuries,  and  written  in  the  same  spirit.  In  the  Reformed 
Churches,  the  elementary  studies  of  literary  men  were  turned  principally  to 
individual  portions  of  the  general  subject  to  refute  some  particular  assertions 
of  the  Catholic  writers.  J.  H.  Hottinger  was  anxious  to  compose  for  his 
Church  a  work  (&)  of  a  partisan  character  like  that  of  the  Centuries,  but  his 
History,  except  in  whatever  relates  to  the  Oriental  and  Helvetic  Churches, 
indicates  a  limited  knowledge  of  original  authorities,  and  is  mingled  with 
much  irrelevant  matter.  Spanheim's  Church  History  (c)  presents  a  very  rigid 
investigation  of  historical  questions,  but  it  was  principally  aimed  against 
Baronius.  The  Catholic  Church  soon  perceived  that  very  little  advantage 
was  to  be  gained  by  merely  contending  against  the  Centuries,  and  that  it 
must  supplant  that  work  by  another  of  a  superior  character.  Intrusted  with 
such  a  task,  Ccesar  Baronius  wrote  his  Annals  (#),  in  which  were  incorporated 
vast  treasures  of  original  documents,  selected  with  a  keen  sagacity  and  zeal 

/)  E.  S.  Cyprian,  v.  Unsprung  u.  Wachsthum  d.  Papsth.  Goth.  1719.  and  often.  Frkf.  1783;  A. 
Sower,  Hist  of  the  Popes  to  1758.  (cont.  by  8.  H.  Cox,  3  vols.  8vo.  Philad.  1840) ;  F.  Walch,  Entw.  e. 
Vollst.  Hist  d.  Piipste.  Lpz.  (1756.)  1758 ;  L.  T.  Spittler,  Gesch.  d.  Papstth.  edit  by  Gurlitt  u.  Paulus, 
Hdlb.  1826;  J.  A.  Llorente,  Gesch.  d.  Papste,  a.  d.  Fr.  Lpz.  1823.  2  vols. ;  O.  J.  Weber,  Papstth.  u. 
Papste.  Stuttg.  1834.  2  Th.  [J.  Rarike,  Hist  of  the  Popes,  transl.  by  Mrs.  Austin.  3  vols.  8vo.  Lond. 
1840.  and  by  W.  K.  Kelly.  Philad.  1848.  8 ;  De  Oormenin,  Hist,  of  the  Popes.  Philad.  1845. 1  voL  8.] 

0)  R,  Hospiniani  demonachis,  1.  VI.  (Tig.  1588. 1608.)  Gen.  1699.  f. ;  A.  D.  AUeserrae,  Asceticon 
s.  Origg.  rei  Monast.  (Par.  1674.  4.)  rec.  GlucJc.  Hal.  1782 ;  H.  Helyot,  Hist,  des  Ordres  Monastiques, 
Par.  (171488.  8  Th.)  1829ss.  10  Th.  4;  Guinc.  1840.  6  Th. ;  Uber.  Lpz.  1753ss.  8  Th.  revised  by 
Crome.  Pragm.  Gesch.  d.  Monchsord.  Lpz.  1774ss.  10  vols. ;  (O.  J.  Weber)  Die  Moncherei.  Stuttg. 
1819s.  3  vols. ;  K  Munoli,  Gesch.  d.  Monchth.  (a  collection  of  materials)  Stuttg.  1828.  2  vols. ;  [&  P. 
Day,  Monastic  Institutions,  their  Grig.  Prog.  Nat  and  Tendency.  Lond.  2  ed.  12mo.  1846 ;  G.  Emil~ 
lianne,  Hist  of  Monast  Orders.  Lond.  1693.  8.] 

a)  Ecclesiastica  Historia,  integrara  Ecclesiae  Ch.  ideam  complectens,  congesta  per  aliquot  studio- 
sos  et  pios  viros  in  urbe  Magdeburgica.  Bas.  1559-74. 13  centuries,  f. ;  New  ed.  by  Baumgarten  and 
Semler  Nurnb.  1757-65.  broken  off  with  the  6th  vol.  1)  Historia  Eccl.  N.  T.  Tig.  1651-67.  9  vols. 
till  end  of  16th  cent,  the  9th  vol.  by  J.  J.  Hottinger,  the  son.  c)  Snmma  Historiae  eccl.  (Lugd. 
1689-94)  Lpz.  1698.  4.  [His  work  is  abridged  and  transl.  with  additions  by  G.  Wright.  Lond.  Svo 
1829.]  d)  Annaleh  ecclesiastic!  a  C.  u.  ad  a.  1198.  Eom.  1588-1607. 12  Th.  f.  and  often. 


8  INTBODUCTION.    CHAP.  IL    LITEEATUEK 

in  behalf  of  the  Roman  supremacy,  from  the  archives  of  the  Vatican.  The 
errors  and  partialities  of  the  Cardinal  were  encountered  by  the  critical  labors 
of  the  Franciscan  Pagi,  in  which  were  exhibited  a  learned  love  of  truth  and 
a  Gallican  attachment  to  liberty,  (e)  In  Italy  numerous  continuations  and 
abridgments  of  the  Annals  were  produced,  in  the  same  spirit  which  the  orig- 
inal author  had  displayed,  but  not  with  equal  talent.  The  continuation  by 
Eaynaldus  [till  1565]  is  the  only  work,  which,  in  its  abundance  of  materials, 
can  be  regarded  as  nearly  a  rival  of  that  which  precedes  it.(/)  A  similar  hon- 
or was  sought  by  Sacliarelli,  (#)  in  opposition  to  the  later  historians  of  the 
Protestant  Church,  and  in  the  composition  of  his  work  he  possessed  similar 
external  advantages,  but  he  displays  hardly  equal  diligence  in  the  us«  of  them 
except  in  his  earliest  volumes. 

§  11.  French  Ecclesiastical  Historians. 

Catholic  writers  of  history  are  always  restrained  by  a  certain  prescribed  mode 
of  treating  their  subject,  but,  within  the  limits  required  by  this,  those  who  be- 
longed to  the  French  school  attained  a  scientific  character.  The  peculiar  quali- 
ties exhibited  by  them  were  the  result  not  merely  of  the  independent  spirit  and 
position  of  the  Gallican  Church,  but  of  the  influence  of  an  age  in  which  the 
learned  classes  redeemed  from  obscurity  immense  collections  of  materials.  Such 
was  the  spirit  in  which  wrote  the  Dominican  Natalis  Alexander  [Noel],  always 
learned,  dry,  and  scholastic ;  (a)  Fleury,  the  hermit  in  the  midst  of  a  court, 
devotional,  gentle,  versatile  and  copious.  (&)  Bossuet,  whose  History  of  the 
"World  is  written  in  an  ecclesiastical  spirit,  with  logical  eloquence,  and  an  ap- 
parent insight  into  the  ways  of  Providence,  which  implies  that  the  clever 
Bishop  of  Meaux  must  have  been  as  familiar  with  the  court  of  the  Most  High, 
as  he  was  with  that  of  his  sovereign ;  (c)  and  finally  the  Jansenist  (Sebastian 
le  Nam  de)  Tillemont,  whose  Memoirs  are  a  conscientious  and  ample  collec- 
tion of  the  more  ancient  original  authorities,  (ft) 

§  12.    Protestant  Scientific  Church  History. 

Instead  of  regarding  history  as  a  mere  instrument  in  the  hands  of  eccle- 
siastical disputants,  Calixtus,  in  a  series  of  monographs,  pointed  out  the  sci- 
entific advantages  of  an  unbiassed  investigation  of  facts ;  and  Arnold  was  en- 

e)  Critica  historico-chronologica  in  Annalcs  Baronii.  Antv.  (Genev.)  1705. 1727.  4  Th.  f.  /)  An- 
nales  eccL  18-21  Th.  Eom.  1646-77.  Colon.  1698ss. ;  the  whole  collection  by  Baronius,  Pagi,  Kay- 
naldus,  etc.  cur.  Mansi.  Luc.  1783-59.  88  Th.  f.  [The  Annales  Eccl.  are  to  be  continued  by  Aug. 
Theiner,  from  1572  till  now ;  8  vols.  have  appeared  in  1 858.  Eome.  1853.  f.]  g)  Historia  eccL  Born. 
1771-96.  25  Th.  4.  (till  1185.) 

a)  Selecta  Historiae  eccl.  capita  et  in  loca  ejusdem  insignia  diss.  historicae,  chron.  et.  dogm.  Par. 
1J576-86.  24  Th.  (16  centuries).  Later  editions:  Hist  eccL  Vet  et  N.  T.  ed.  Mansi.  Luc.  1738.  9  Th. 
f. ;  Bassano.  1778.  9  Th.  f.  Z>)  Hist  ecclesiastique.  Par.  1991-1720.  20  Th.  4.  and  often  (till  1414.) 
transl.  into  the  Lat  ItaL  and  Germ,  continued,  without  suitable  qualifications  for  the  work,  by 
Jean  Claud  Fabre.  Par.  1726-40.  20  Th.  4.  and  by  Alex.  La  Croix.  Par.  1776-78.  6  Th.  [The  work 
of  Fleury  is  in  part  transl.  into  Eng.  in  5  vols.  4.  and  is  in  course  of  publ.  by  J.  H.  N&ioman.  Oxon. 
1842.]  c)  Discours  sur  THistoire  universelle  depuis  le  commencement  du  monde  jnsqu'A  Tempire  de 
Charles  Magne ;  [Par.  1846.  18mo.  and  in  2  mag.  vols.  8.  transl.  by  Rich.  Spencer.  Lond.  1730.  8.] 
d)'Memoires  pour  servir  k  1'Hist  eccl.  des  six  pr6miere  slecles,  justifies  par  les  citations  des  auteure 
originaux.  Par.  1693ss.  16  Th.  4.  and  often. 


§  12.  SEMLER.  8CHROECKH.  HENKE.  9 

couraged  by  his  Pietism,  and  a  strong  predilection  for  such  studies,  to  search 
eagerly  for  traces  of  the  Christian  life  in  those  persons  who  had  in  each  cen- 
tury been  rejected  by  the  Church,  (a)  The  liberal  tendency  of  the  former,  and 
the  pious  spirit  of  the  latter  writer,  were  equally  opposed  to  the  established 
Church  of  their  day.  Weismanri's  gentle  love  of  truth,  made  him  strive  to  re- 
concile both  these  tendencies  in  his  selection  of  important  events.  (b)  Mo- 
slieim,  conscious  of  historical  talents,  with  a  power  of  combination  always 
bold,  and  sometimes  extravagant,  and  an  acquaintance  with  men  in  various 
and  friendly  relations,  is  universally  acknowledged  to  have  been  a  master  of 
ecclesiastical  historical  writing,  (c)  Next  to  him,  Cramer  was  distinguished  for 
his  accurate  delineation  and  careful  investigation  of  the  dogmatic  history  of 
the  middle  ages,  (d)  while  Semler,  with  no  attractions  of  style,  and  no  per- 
ception of  the  peculiar  condition  of  earlier  times,  but  with  a  lofty  indepen- 
dence, was  always  plunging  anew  into  the  trackless  abyss  of  ancient  sources,  (e) 
In  the  position  thus  acquired,  but  with  a  more  believing  spirit,  Schruckh  has 
written  a  Church  History,  which,  after  it  ceased  to  be  a  tedious  Header,  as  it 
seemed  to  be  in  the  earlier  volumes,  and  rose  to  the  dignity  of  a  scientific 
work,  is  equally  trustworthy  with  respect  to  its  materials,  and  ample  in  its 
details.  The  last  volumes  were  added  by  TzscMrner,  with  a  fresher  energy, 
and  more  decided  sentiments.  (/)  Writers  of  a  liberal  tendency  followed  the 
path  marked  out  by  Semler.  Spittler  gave  to  Church  History  a  more  anima- 
ted and  secular  aspect,  and  at  the  same  time  traced  more  perfectly  its  con- 
nections with  General  History,  (g)  Henke  treated  it  rather  as  if  it  were  a 
history  of  religious  errors,  and  a  court  before  which  was  to  be  arraigned  all 
kinds  of  spiritual  despotism.  "When  writing  of  events  subsequent  to  the  Ee- 
formation,  his  work  is  especially  valuable  for  its  accurate  regard  for  even  un- 
important matters ;  but  it  is  often  lifeless,  and  tinged  with  the  strongest  pre- 
judices of  his  age.  (K)  As  soon  as  the  opposition  to  the  ecclesiastical  spirit 
of  earlier  times  had  become  developed  into  a  well-defined  subjectivity,  a 
higher  scientific  character  was  supposed  to  be  attained  by  the  affectation  of 
extreme  indifference.  Schmidt  collected  materials  exclusively  from  the 
sources,  (i)  Engelhardt  gives  us  a  clear,  calm,  and  frigid  account  of  the  na- 


a)  Unpartheyische  Kitchen-  u.  Ketzer-Hist  (Frkf.  1699s.  f.  1T29.  4  Th.  4.)  Schaffh.  1740ss.  8 
Th.  f.  &)  Introductio  in  memorabilia  eccl.  maxime  Saeculorum  primorum  et  novissimorum  (Tub.  1718. 
2  vols.)  Hal.  1T45.  2  vols.  4.  c)  His  principal  complete  work  is,  Institutionum  Hist.  eccl.  antiquae 
et  recentioris,  1.  IV.  Helmst  (1755.  4.)  1764.  4 ;  Ubers.  u.  verm.  v.  J.  v.  Einem.  Lpz.  1769-78.  9  vols. 
and  by  J.  R.  Schlegel,  Heilbr.  (1  &  2  vols.  1770s.)  1786ss.  7  vols. ;  comp.  Lucke,  Narratio  de  J.  L. 
Moshemio.  GStt  1837.  4 ;  [Transl.  into  Eng.  with  notes,  by  J.  Murdoch.  New  York.  3  vols.  8vo.  8 
ed.  1841.  and  by  A.  McLaine,  with  notes,  and  often  reprinted;  his  Commentarii  d©  reb.  Chr.  ante 
Const  has  been  recently  transl.  into  Engl.  by  Dr,  Murdoch.]  d)  Bossueffs  Einl.  in  d.  Gesch.  d. 
"Welt  u.  Eel.  ubers.  mit  Abhandl.  verm.  u.  fortges.  v.  Cramer.  Lpz.  (1748ss.)  1757ss.  8  vols.. 
e)  Historiae  eccl.  selects  capita.  Hal.  1767ss.  3  Th. ;  Versuche  e.  fruchtb.  Ausz.  d.  KGesch.  Hal. 
1773ss.  3  Th. ;  Vers.  Christl.  Jahrb.  Hal.  1782.  2  vols.  /)  Christl.  KGesch.  (till  the  Reform.)  Lp>c. 
1768-1803. 35  Th.  2  ed.  1-13  vols.  1772-1802 ;  KGesch.  since  the  Eef.  Lpz.  1804-10. 10  Th.  g~)  Grund- 
riss  der  Gesch.  d.  Christl.  Kirche.  Gcitt  1782.  5  ed.  cont  till  the  present  time  by  G.  J.  Planck, 
Gott  1812 ;  in  SpUtler^  works.  Stuttg.  1827.  vol.  II.  K)  Allg.  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche  nach  d.  Zeit- 
folge.  Braunschw.  1788-1818.  8  vols.  5  ed.  of  1st  &  2d  vols.  4  ed.  of  3d  &  4th  vols.  and  2  ed.  of  5th 
&  6th  vols. ;  the  last  ed.  of  vols.  Is.  5s.  after  a  careful  revision  (so  as  even  to  lose  many  of  its  origi- 
nal peculiarities),  edited  and  cont  (7th  &  8th  vols.)  by  J.  &  Vater.  The  Hist  since  the  Reform,  vols. 
8-8.  Vater  has  also  comprised  in  1  Th.  (1823.)  and  published  as  Th.  9.  i)  Handb.  d.  Chr.  KGesch 


10  INTRODUCTION.    CHAP.  II.    LITERATURE. 

ked  facts,  and  he  often  descends  to  the  minutest  particulars.  (&)  The  publi- 
cation  of  the  original  authorities,  which  had  been  cautiously  commenced  with 
a  profusion  of  literary  treasures  by  Danz,  (T)  was  continued  by  Gieseler,  with 
much  judgment  in  his  selections  and  in  his  critical  remarks,  and  a  running 
commentary  upon  his  citations,  (ra)  Sometimes  Tables,  and  well  digested  ex- 
tracts, are  useful  in  giving  a  general  view  of  the  whole  field,  (ri)  Stdudlirfs 
Text-Book  is  a  convenient  collection  of  general  facts,  with  a  few  traces  ol 
the  Kantian  philosophy.  Narle's  was  compiled  with  diligence,  and  not  with- 
out elegance,  but  it  is  without  accuracy  or  character.  August? s  is  a  rapid 
and  convenient  survey  of  the  whole  subject,  especially  of  that  part  which 
relates  to  the  Keformation.  ReJini's  is  an  extended  table  of  contents,  espe- 
cially with  respect  to  the  secular  department  of  ecclesiastical  history. 
Lange's  is  a  return  to  the  Protestant  controversial  style  of  writing,  but  with 
a  laxer  faith  in  the  authority  of  the  Bible  and  of  human  reason  itself,  (o) 
The  attempt  which  MarJieineclce  made  to  construct  a  philosophical  system  of 
Church  History  was  abandoned  at  an  early  stage  of  the  work,  but  it  was  full 
of  promise,  (p)  The  decidedly  pietistic  tendency  was  for  a  long  time  repre- 
sented only  by  Milner,  whose  object  was  entirely  practical  and  devotional 
and  did  not  lead  him  to  study  the  sources,  (q)  until  Neander  gave  it  a  scien- 
tific character,  by  referring  to  the  original  authorities,  developing  its  doc- 
trines in  an  intelligent  manner,  and  giving  prominence  to  the  long-neglected 
representations  of  the  Christian  life.  Though  affectionately  attached  to  the 
Church,  he  was  tolerant  toward  all  who  opposed  it  on  merely  doctrinal 
grounds,  and  clothed  all  his  descriptions  with  an  ample  devotional  drapery,  (r) 
In  these  respects,  as  well  as  in  others,  the  Church  History  of  Guericke  is  only 
a  dependent  abstract  of  his  work,  characterized  by  the  same  Christian  sin- 
cerity, but  with  a  zeal  so  ardent  for  strict  Lutheranism,  that  it  finally  became 
little  more  than  a  severe  lecture  upon  the  apostasies  of  more  recent  times.  («) 
In  the  Reformed  Church,  Jacob  Homage  still  pursued  the  plan  of  repelling  Bos- 
suet's  reproaches,  by  fastening  them  upon  his  opponent's  own  Church ;  but 
he  has  imitated  too  closely  the  models  which  he  had  chosen  from  the  French 


Giess.  1801-20.  6  Th.  2  ed.  1-4  Th.  1825-27.  (till  Innocent  IIL)  cont  by  F.  W.  Rettberg,  1  Th.  Giess. 
1834.  k)  Handb.  d.  KQescb.  ErL  1888s.  4  vols.  I)  Lehrb.  d.  KGesch.  Jena.  1818-26.  2  vols. ; 
Kurzgef.  Zusammenst  d.  KGesch.  Jena.  1S24.  m)  Lehrb.  d.  KGesch.  Bonn.  1824-40.  2  vols.  and 
8  vols. ;  1  Abth.  (till  1648.)  4  ed.  of  1st  vol. ;  1  &  2  Abth.  1844s.  8  ed.  of  2d  voL ;  1  &  2  Abtb. 
1831s.;  [transl.  in  8  vols.  by  &  Davidson,  Edinb.  1846-63.]  TO)  Voter,  Bynchron.  Tabellen  d. 
KGesch.  Hal.  (1803.)  cont  by  J.  O.  Thilo,  6  ed.  Hal.  1838.  f. ;  Tetens  ffald,  Hist.  eccl.  VI.  priorum 
Saec.  synoptice  enarrata.  Havn.  1880;  Medii  aevi  (604-858.)  P.  1. 1832.  4;  J.  T.  L.  Dam,  Kirchen- 
hist.  Tab.  Jena.  1838.  f. ;  C.  Wahl,  KGesch.  in  Bildern,  fiir  Studirende  u.  Candidaten.  Meissen. 
1840.  f;  (Amusements)  L.  Lange,  Tab.  d.  K-.  n.  DGesch.  Jena.  1841.  4;  J.  M.  Schroeckh,  Hist  re- 
ligionis  et  eccl.  Christ  Ber.  1777.  ed.  7.  cur.  STarheinecke.  1828 ;  J.  G.  C.  Schmidt,  Lehrb.  d.  KGesch. 
Giess.  (1800. 1808.)  1826.  o)  Stdudlin,  Universalgesch.  der  Chr.  Kirche.  Han.  1807.  5.  verb.  u.  fortges. 
A.  v.  f.  A.  JTolzhausen.  1833;  F.  A.  Naebe,  Comp.  Hist  Eccl.  ac  sacrornm  Christ  Lpz.  1832;  Att- 
gusti,  Hist  ecc.  Epitome.  Lpz.  1834;  F.  Rehm,  Grundr.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Kirche,  mit  bes.  Rucks,  auf.  d. 
Yerfass.  ders.  Marb.  1835 ;  Lobeg.  lange,  Lehrb.  d.  Chr.  KGesch.  zur  Vertheid.  Befest  u.  Fort- 
bild.  d.  Prot  Kirche.  Lpz.  1846.  p)  Universal-Kirchenhlst  d.  Christenth.  Erlang.  1806.  1  Th. 
q)  [Hist  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  Lond.  5  vols.  8vo.  1824  4  vols.  8. 1834.  with  a  continuation  by  J. 
Seott.  Lond.  1826.  4  vols.  12;  Philad.  2  vols.  12.  1845.]  r)  Allg.  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Rel.  u.  K.  bis  auf 
Bonifaz  VIII.  10  vols.  Hamb.  1846;  [Gen.  Hist  of  the  Ohr.  Rel.  and  Church,  trausL  by  J.  Torrey, 
4  vols.  8vo.  Boston.  1847-51.]  «)  Handb.  d.  KGesch,  Hal  (1833-46.  3  vols.)  8  vols. ;  Abriss  d. 


§  12.    VENEMA.    SCHLEIEEMACIIEE.    §  13.    STOLBEEG.  1 1 

• 

literature  of  Iris  time,  (t)  VenemcCs  Church  History  is  simply  an  excellent 
collection  of  original  authorities,  (u)  A  few  compendiums  contain  all  the  re- 
sults of  the  studies  in  ecclesiastical  history,  so  far  as  these  had  been  attained 
when  they  were  respectively  written.  That  of  Royaard  especially  was  writ- 
ten with  remarkable  accuracy  and  care,  (v)  Schleiermacher,  in  his  oral  com- 
munications, endeavored  to  effect  a  union  of  the  liberal  and  pietistic  tenden- 
cies, and  has  executed  in  a  rather  fragmentary  manner,  a  plan,  in  which,  the 
ordinary  materials  being  presupposed,  is  represented  the  intensive  and  exten- 
sive development  of  the  new  principle  of  divine  life  which  emanated  from 
Christ,  (w)  Ni-edner  has  contributed,  in  addition  to  this,  a  work  which  is 
something  between  a  text-book  and  a  manual,  presenting  not  merely  a  dry  col- 
lection of  thoughts,  but  an  abundance  of  elementary  views  of  individual 
subjects,  (x)  Among  the  histories  adapted  to  popular  use,  (y}  may  be  men- 
tioned the  work  of  Gfrorer,  which  was  at  first  designed  to  be  a  history  for 
the  German  people ;  but  it  finally  became  an  ample  representation  of  the 
subject,  and  generally  depended  for  its  materials  upon  the  best  authorities. 
The  strongly  marked  peculiarity  of  this  work,  sometimes  in  a  paradoxical 
manner,  but  frequently  with  much  good  sense,  breaks  through  the  devotional 
phrases  even  of  his  authorities,  (z) 

§  13.     Writers  of  the  German  Catholic  Church. 

It  was  not  until  Joseph  II.  attempted  to  draw  away  the  German  Church 
from  its  connection  with  Rome,  that  an  independent  and  liberal,  but  rather 
rash  and  contracted  interest  in  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  previous  times, 
began  to  be  cultivated  in  Germany.  In  the  commencement  of  this  movement, 
RoyTco,  in  his  rough  style,  neglected  nothing  which  could  injure  the  hier- 
archy, (a)  Dannenmayr,  with  more  caution,  and  more  general  views,  pre- 
pared a  text-book  for  the  Austrian  schools,  (&)  and  B.  Wolf  sent  forth  what  de- 
servea  to  be  called  a  satire  rather  than  a  history,  (c)  A  movement  of  a  higher 
order  received  its  original  impulse  from  the  Protestant  Church.  Stolberg, 
with  the  zeal,  the  unction,  and  the  unconditional  faith  of  a  proselyte,  but 
with  a  benevolent  and  glowing  spirit,  has  presented  the  more  benign  aspect 
of  Catholicism,  while  writing  and  singing  the  History  of  the  Jewish  people, 

KGesch.  Hal.  1842.  t)  Histoire  de  1'eglise  depuis  Jesus  Chr.  Rotterd.  1699 ;  [Par.  1725.  2  vols.  4.] 
u)  Institutiones  Hist  eccl.  V.  et  N.  Lugd.  1777ss.  7  Th.  4  till  1600.  v)  J.  A.  Turretini,  Hist.  Eccl. 
comp.  usque  ad.  a.  1700.  Gen.  1734.  ed.  et  continuavit  J,  8/imonls.  Hal.  1750 ;  TJebers.  u.  fortges.  v. 
Tollner.  Konigsb.  1759 ;  P.  E.  JaUonski,  Institt.  Hist  Christ  Frcf.  ad  V.  1753ss.  2  Th.  ed.  3. 
emend.  E.  A.  Schulze.  1783s.  Th.  III. ;  Historiam  Saec.  18.  add.  Stosch.  1767;  emend.  ScMckedans, 
1786;  W.  Munscher,  Lehrb.  d.  KGesch.  Marb.  1804;  2d  ed.  by  Wachler,  1815;  Sded.  by  Beckhaus, 
1826 ;  P.  Jlofstede  de  Groot,  Institt.  Hist  ecc.  Gronov.  1835 ;  IT.  J.  Royaards,  Comp.  Hist  ecc. 
chr.  Traj.  ad.  Eh.  1840-5.  2  Fasc.  w)  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche,  edit  by  J&mnett.  Brl.  1840 ;  (Works, 
Abth.  I.  vol.  II.)  a)  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche,  Lehrbuch.  Lpz.  1846.  y)  Especially:  C.  Judd,  Gesch. 
d.  Chr.  Kirche.  Brl.  1838 ;  H.  Thiele,  Kurze  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche.  Zur.  1840 ;  Alb.  Baur,  d.  KGesch. 
in  gedrangter  Ubersicht.  Weim.  1846 ;  Heribert  Itau,  Allg.  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche  (deutschkath.). 
Fur  das  deutsche  Volk.  Frkf.  1846.  z)  Allg.  KGesch.  Stnttg.  1841^14.  3  vols.  (till  the  commence- 
ment of  the  llth  cent) 

a)  Synopsis  Hist  Eel.  et  Eccl.  Chr.  methodo  systematica  adumbrata.  Prag.  1785.  Eiul.  in  d.  Chr. 
Eel.  u.  KGesch.  Prag.  1788ss.  2d  (modified)  ed.  1790.  Chr.  Eel.  u.  KGesch.  (but  one  Per.)  Pr. 
1789-95. 4  vols.  &)  Institt  Hist  Eccl.  Vien.  (1788.)  1806.  2  Th.  Thread  of  the  narrative  after  Dan- 
nenm.  (Collegienheft)  2  ed.  BottweiL  1826-8.  4  Th.  c)  Gesch.  d.  Christl.  EeL  u.  Kirche.  ZQr.  1792. 


12  INTRODUCTION.    CHAP.  II.    LITEEATUEE. 

I 

and  of  the  ancient  Church.  A  continuation  of  his  history  by  another  hand 
was  merely  a  labored  effort  to  attain  the  same  style,  (d)  With  the  same  gen- 
eral views,  but  with  more  accuracy  and  science,  Katerkamp  wrote  a  history, 
in  which  he  has  exhibited  a  more  profound  acquaintance  with  the  original  au- 
thorities in  his  representations  of  the  particular  characters  and  circumstances 
of  the  Church,  (e)  The  liberal  school,  which  now  sought  to  accommodate 
matters  as  much  as  possible  with  the  hierarchy,  was  represented  by  Ritter,  (/) 
and  in  the  extensive  and  popular  work  of  Lochcrer,  (</)  in  many  respects  liko 
that  of  Schroeckh.  The  narrative  of  Buttenstock  is  carefully  limited  to  a 
mere  statement  of  facts.  (Ji)  In  other  places  the  various  parties  were  in  di- 
rect hostility  to  each  other.  The  hierarchical  method  of  writing  history  was 
defended  with  keen  wit  by  Hortig,  the  continuation  of  whose  work  by  Dul- 
linger,  is  written  in  a  less  animated,  but  in  a  more  serious  strain.  In  his  re- 
vised edition  the  latter  has  promised  a  great  work,  in  which  those  fables  of 
the  hierarchy  which  are  altogether  untenable,  are  to  be  given  up  as  indiffer- 
ent, but  every  position  capable  of  any  defence  is  to  be  maintained  with  all 
the  weapons  which  a  learned  ingenuity  can  supply.  His  text-book  contains 
merely  the  external  facts  of  history.  (*)  On  the  other  hand  Reichlin-Meldegg 
has  composed  a  prolix,  declamatory,  and  flippant  libel  upon  ecclesiastical  an- 
tiquity, and  of  course  fell  out  with  his  own  Church.  (&)  Alzog  again  pre- 
sents a  specimen  of  a  rather  clumsy  but  spirited  attempt  to  transfer  a  Protes- 
tant form  to  a  Catholic  position,  (I)  and  Annegam  has  compiled  just  such  an 
artless,  rude,  and  tiresome  History  of  the  Church,  as  was  common  in  Ger- 
many before  the  time  of  Joseph  II.,  and  as  may  even  now  be  seen  in  many 
an  obscure  seminary,  (m) 

2  Th.  d)F.L.v.  Stolberg,  Gesch.  d.  EoL  J.  C.  Hamb.  1806-1818. 15  Tb.  (till  1480.)  2  ed.  of  1.  2  Th. 
1810.  Index  by  Moritz,  Vien.  u.  Hamb.  1825.  2  Th.  oont  by  F.  R.  v.  Ktrz.  Mentz.  1825-1840. 16-42 
Th.  Index  by  Saussen.  Mentz.  1884.  «)  KGesch.  Monster.  1819-80.  4  Th.  (Oil  1078.)  /)  Handb.  d. 
KGesch.  Elberg.  Bonn.  1826-35.  8  vols.  1836.  2  ed.  of  1  &  2  vols.  ?)  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  EeL  u.  Kirche. 
Eavensb.  1824-38.  8  Th.  (till  1078.)  h)  Institt  Historiae  EccL  N.  T.  Vien.  1882-84.  8  Th.  (till  1517.) 
€)  Handb.  d.  Chr.  KGesch.  v.  Hortig,  beend.  v.  DoUinger.  Landsb.  1826.  2  Th.  Newly  revised  by 
DoUinger  (Gesch.  d.  Chr.  K.)  Landsh.  1883s.  1  vol.  1.  2  Abth.  (in  part  till  1680.)  By  tho  samo, 
Lehrb.  d.  KGesch.  Eegensb.  1886ss.  2  vols.  [J.  J.  Ig.  DoUinger,  Hist  of  the  Church.  Trans,  by 
Ed.  Cox.  Lond.  4  vols.  8vo.]  ft)  Gesch.  des  Christenth.  Freib.  1830s.  1  Th.  in  2  Abth.  (till  1824.) 
1)  Univcrsal-gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche,  Mainz.  (1841. 1848.)  1844.  m)  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche.  Munst  1842s. 
8  vols.  Comp.  Jen.  L.  Z.  1844  N.  144ss.  [Eng.  Gen.  EccL  Histt  arc.  Wm.  Palmer,  Compend.  EccL 
Hist  5  ed.  Oxford  1844  G.  Waddington,  H.  of  the  Church  to  the  Eef.  Lond.  1838.  2  vols.  &  cont 
through  the.  Ee£  Lond.  1838.  2  vols.  8.  J.  Priestley,  Gen.  H.  of  the  Chr.  Church,  Lond.  1803.  6  vols. 
a  Jones"  H.  of  the  Chr.  Church  to  the  17th  century.  Lond.  1836.  2  vols.  8.  M.  Butter,  H.  of  the  Chr. 
Church.  New  York.  8.  C.  A.  Goodrich,  Church  Hist  Burlington.  1830.  8.  U.  StebUng,  H.  of  tho  Chr, 
Church  (a  Cont  of  Milner),  8  vols.  ix>nd.  1842.] 


ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

FIRST  PERIOD. 

FKOM    CHKIST    TO    CONSTANTINE. 


§  14.     General  View  and  Original  Authorities. 

L  1)  All  ecclesiastical  writers  of  this  time.  Fragments  of  those  works  which  have  been  lost  in : 
Grale,  Spicilegium  Patrum  et  Haereticorum  Saec.  I.  II.  et  III.  Oxon.  (1698.)  1TOO.  1714.  3  vols.  Rvuth, 
Beliquiae  sacrae,  s.  auctorum  fere  deperditorum  I.  et  II.  Saec.  Fragmenta.  [Edit,  altera.  Oxon.  1847. 
4  vols.]  2)  Fragments  of  Hegesippi  vironv^p-ara.  ruv  4KK\T)ffiaariKuif  irpd^euv  in  Roufh,  vol. 
I.  p.  187ss.  Eusebii  eK/cATjo-taartK^  Iffropla.  Ed.  Valesius.  Par.  1659.  f.  K  Zimmermann,  Frcf, 
1822.  2.  P.  4  Heiniehen.  Lpz.  1827s.  3  Th.  4.  Burton,  Oxon.  1838.  3  vols.  [A  new  transl.  with  Life 
of  Ens.  Lond.  1842.  8.]  3)  Ruinart,  Acta  primorum  martyrum,  ed.  2.  Amst  1713.  f.  rep.  Galura, 
Aug.  V.  1802.  3  vols.  4)  Passages  from  writers  not  Christian :  Josephus,  Suetonius,  Tacitus,  Plinius, 
Dio  Cassius,  Scriptores  Hist.  Augustae,  etc.  explained  in  Nath.  Lardner ;  Collection  of  the  Jewish 
and  Heathen  testimonies  of  the  Christian  religion.  Lond.  1764ss.  4  vols.  4.  II.  Tillemont  (§  11.  nt  d.) 
Clerici  Hist.  ecc.  duorum  priorum  Saec.  Amst  1716.  4.  Moshemii&e  rebus  Christianorum  ante  Const 
Commentarii.  Helmst.  1753.  4.  [transl.  by  Vidal,  2  vols.  8.  Lond.  1813.]  Semleri  Obss.  quibus  Hist 
Christian,  illustratur  usque  ad  Const.  Hal.  1784.  H.  W.  Mill-man,  Hist  of  Christianity  from  the  Birth 
of  Christ  to  the  extinction  of  Paganism  in  the  Eoman  Empire.  Lond.  1840.  8  vols.  [with  notes  by 
Murdoch.  8vo.  New  York.  Kaye,  Eccles.  Hist  of  2  and  8  Centt.  8vo.  1826.  2  vols.  S.  Hinds,  Hist, 
of  the  Else  and  early  Prog,  of  Christianity.  2  vols.  8vo.  Lond.  W.  B.  Taylor,  The  Hist  of  Christian- 
ity,  from  its  Promulg.  to  its  legal  estab.  in  the  Eom.  Empire.  12mo.  Lond.  1844.  E.  Burton,  Lectures 
upon  the  Hist  of  the  Chr.  Church  from  the  Ascen.  of  J.  Christ  to  the  conversion  of  Const.  4  ed.  12mo. 
Lond.  1840.  Robert  Millar,  Hist  of  the  Propag.  of  Christ  Lond.  2  vols.  8vo.  1731.  8  ed.  Wm.  Cave, 
Lives  of  Fathers  of  the  first  four  ages  of  the  Church.  Lond.  2  vols.  fol.  1683-87.  new  ed.  by  H.  Cary, 
1840.  3  vols.  8.  H.  Cave,  Prim.  Chr.  or  Eel.  of  the  Anc.  Christians,  ed.  by  Cary.  Ox£  1840.  8.  Philip 
Schaff.  H.  of  the  Apostolic  Church,  transl.  by  E.  D.  Yeomans.  New  York.  1853.  8.  vol.  I.  Samuel 
Elliot,  Hist,  of  the  Early  Christians.  Lond.  1853.  J.  C.  Robertson,  Hist  of  the  Christian  Church  to  the 
Pontif.  of  Greg,  the  Great  Lond.  1853.  8.] 

In  the  history  of  the  world,  Classic  Heathenism  appears  as  a  single  form 
of  human  life,  on  the  development  of  which,  its  time  was  fulfilled ;  and  Ju- 
daism appears  as  a  great  prophetic  system  accomplished  hy  Christianity.  The 
Jewish  veil,  under  which  the  latter  made  its  appearance,  was  removed  by 
Paul,  and  when  the  Gospel  had  been  proclaimed  in  all  parts  of  the  Roman 


14  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  L 

empire,  the  forms  of  Greek  and  Roman  civilization  became  incorporated  in 
the  Church.  But  in  the  mean  time  a  prodigious  struggle  was  commenced  by 
the  general  spirit  of  antiquity.  The  Church,  not  so  much  by  intellectual 
weapons,  as  by  its  labors  and  sacrifices,  was  so  completely  victorious,  that  at 
the  end  of  this  period  the  Roman  empire  was  under  the  necessity  of  either 
becoming  Christian,  or  of  being  utterly  subverted.  During  this  struggle,  with 
no  aid  from  the  State,  and  with  no  external  interference,  the  Church  devel- 
oped its  appropriate  Constitution.  With  the  exception  of  individual  in- 
stances of  extravagance  or  timidity,  its  morals  and  its  discipline  were  of  the 
strictest  kind,  and  the  private  life  of  its  members  was  serious  and  heavenly. 
The  religious  feelings  of  the  people,  excited  by  Grecian  philosophy,  and  strag- 
gling with  subtle  foreign  elements,  now  sought  to  attain  definite  and  fixed 
forms  of  thought.  The  Period  may  be  naturally  divided  into  two  sections, 
the  first  containing  the  historical  conditions  under  which  Christianity  was 
introduced,  and  the  history  of  the  Apostolic  Church,  until  the  death  of  the 
last  of  the  Apostles,  near  the  close  of  the  first  century,  and  the  other  embra- 
cing the  formation  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  by 
Luke,  are  the  commencement  of  a  Church  History,  limited  by  the  personal 
knowledge,  position,  and  object  of  the  writer.  It  presents  us  with  the  actual 
establishment  of  the  Church  in  its  two  principal  departments — among  the 
Jews  by  Peter,  and  among  the  Greeks  by  Paul,  (a)  The  authentic  epistles  of 
these  apostles  are  the  most  trustworthy  monuments  of  the  Apostolic  Church. 
Hege&ippus,  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  committed  to  writing 
every  thing  he  thought  worthy  of  preservation  in  the  Apostolic  traditions.  (5) 
The  first  proper  history  of  the  Church  (till  324)  was  written  by  Ewebiw  of 
Caeswea,  under  the  impression  which  the  great  revolutions  of  his  age  pro- 
duced upon  his  mind.  Though  he  was  affected  by  the  prejudices,  he  possessed 
also  the  advantages  of  his  position,  and  while  he  probably  omitted  some  things, 
we  have  no  evidence  that  he  has  stated  what  is  untrue,  (c) 

a)  ScliMckenberger  ft.  d.  Zweck  d.  App.  Gesch.  Bern.  1841.  &)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  II.  23.  III.  16. 19. 
IV.  7s.  11.  22.  Comp.  Jlleron.  cataL  c.  22.  SchvMhesa,  lieges,  princeps  auctor  rerum  Chr.  Tur.  1882. 
c)  With  regard  to  hla  authorities  and  credibility :  ModUr,  Hafh.  1818.  (Archiv.  f.  KGesch.  vol.  IIL 
fit  1.)  Dana,  Jen.  1815.  P.  L  Kestner  Goett  1817.  4.  Keuterdahl,  Lond.  Goth.  1826.  Rienstra,  Traj. 
ad.  Eh.  1888.  Jachmann,  in  Illgens  Zeitschr.  1839.  H.  2.  F.  C,  Baur,  comparator  EUS.  Historiae  eoo. 
parens  cum  parente  Historiarum  Ilerodoto.  Tub.  1884.  4. 


CHAP.  I.    HEATHENISM.    §  15.    GEEEK  LIFE.  15 

DIVISION  I.     ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

CHAP.  I.    INTRODUCTORY  HISTOEY. 

I.  CLASSIC  HEATHENISM. 

Creuster,  Symbolik  u.  Mythologie  d.  alien  Volker,  bes.  d.  Griechen,  Lps.  u.  Darmst.  (ISlOss.)  1319ss. 
Th. ;  JBaur,  Syinb.  u.  Myth.  o.  die  Naturrel.  d.  Alterth.  Stuttg.  1825 ;  Lobeck,  Aglaophamus  s.  de 
Theol.  mysticae  Graecorum  causis.  Eegtom.  1829.  2  Th. ;  0.  Mutter,  Prolegomena  zu  e.  wiss.  MythoL 
Gott.  1825.  [Introd.  to  a  Scientific  Syst  of  Myth,  transl.  by  J.  Leitch.  Lond.  1844.  8] ;  P.  van  Lim- 
lurg  Brouwer,  Hist,  de  la  civilisation  morale  et  rel.  des  Grecs.  Groen.  1883-43.  8  Th. ;  Hegel,  Phil, 
d.  Eel.  Brl.  1833.  vol.  2.  p.  148ss.  Phil.  d.  Gesch.  Brl.  183T.  p.  232ss. ;  P.  F.  Stuhr,  die  Eel.  Systeme 
d.  Hellenen  in  ihrer  gesch.  Entw.  Brl.  1838 ;  M.  W.  Heffter,  d.  Eel.  d.  Griechen  u.  Eomer,  Brandenb. 
1845.  [W.  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  &  Eom.  Myth.  Lond.  1844-49.  3  vols.  8.  T.  Dwight,  Gr.  &  Eom.  Myth. 
New  York.  1849. 12]  ;—Benj.  Constant,  du  Polytheisme  remain.  Par.  1833. 2  Th. ;  Hartung,  d.  Eel.  d. 
Eomer.  Erl.  1836.  2  vols. ;  Ch.  Walz,  de  rel.  Eom.  antiquiss.  Tub.  1845.  4.  P.  l.—Tholuck,  U.  d.  Wesen 
u.  sittl.  Einfl.  d.  Heidenth.  (Neandor's  Denkwiirdigk,  vol.  L  modified  in  the  2d  ed.)  [A.  TholucJc. 
Nature  &  Moral  Infl.  of  Heathenism,  transl.  by  E.  Emerson,  in  Biblical  Eep.  for  1832.  and  in  Clarke'8 
Bibl.  Cab.  vol.  28.  Edinb.  1841] ;  Im.  Nitssch,  il.  d.  Eeligionsbegr.  d.  Alten.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1828. 
vol.  L  H.  8s.) ;— F.  Jacobs,  u.  d.  Erziehung  d.  Hellenen  z.  Sittlichk.  (Verm.  Schrr.  Lpz.  1829.  P.  III.) 
Heidenth.  u.  Christenth.  (Lpz.  183T.  Th.  VI.) ;  K.  Gruneisen,  iL  d.  Sittliche  d.  bild.  Kunst  b.  d. 
Griech.  Lpz.  1833.  (Illg.  Zeitschr.  vol.  III.  st.  2.)  \J.  St.  John,  Manners,  Custt.  Arts,  &c,  of  Anc.  Gr. 
Lond.  1842.  3  vols.  8;  K  ffase,  Publ.  &  Priv.  Life  of  the  An.  Greeks,  transl.  from  Germ.  Lond.  1836. 
8 ;  W.  A.  Becker,  Gallus,  or  Eom.  Scenes  of  the  time  of  Augustus,  illust  the  manners  and  custt.  of 
the  Eomans,  transl.  from  the  Germ,  by  F.  Metcalfe.  Lond.  1844.  8.  On  the  State  of  Man  before  Chris- 
tianity. Lond.  1848. 12.] 

§  15.    Popular  Life  among  the  Greeks. 

The  original  civilization  which  had  prevailed  in  some  portions  of  the 
East  had  finally  become  torpid  within  limits  immutably  fixed  by  the  com- 
bined influence  of  caste  and  despotism.  But  under  the  delightful  sky  of  beau- 
tiful Greece,  the  purely  earthly  life  of  man,  in  the  midst  of  efforts  to  attain 
social  freedom,  and  triumphant  struggles  against  the  monarch  of  the  Eastern 
world  (after  490,  B.  o.),  became  developed  in  its  fairest  natural  perfection. 
Borne  on  by  youthful  energies  and  a  noble  spirit  of  refinement,  directed  by 
a  clear  understanding  and  a  wise  moderation,  it  received  still  higher  lustre 
and  distinctness  from  a  state  of  art  which  gave  utterance  to  what  is  beyond 
expression,  and  proclaimed  the  reconciliation  of  the  spirit  with  outward  na- 
ture. Even  when  it  presented  nature  in  its  utmost  nakedness,  it  preserved  a 
chaste  moderation,  and  when  it  portrayed  the  darker  aspects  of  our  earthly 
existence,  it  always  made  liberty  and  beauty  triumphant.  Grecian  manners 
and  science  were  carried  by  travelling  expeditions  and  colonies  to  the  shores 
of  Asia  Minor,  Sicily,  and  Southern  Italy,  and  finally,  by  means  of  Alexan- 
der's conquests  (after  334),  Grecian  civilization  became  established  over  all 
the  Eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

§  16.    Limits  of  Grecian  Refinement. 

Man  was  regarded  only  as  a  citizen,  and  all  virtues  had  relation  to  the 
glory  of  his  native  land.  The  free  action  of  the  citizen  was  founded  upon 
an  order  of  slaves.  A  part  of  the  women  were  confined  within  the  narrow 
limits  of  domestic  life,  and  another  purchased  a  participation  in  manly  plea 


16  ANCIENT  CHUBCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  100. 

sures  and  more  attractive  refinements,  with  a  proportionate  loss  of  womanly 
dignity  and  domestic  happiness.  The  political  power  of  the  several  States 
was  developed  and  consumed  in  factious  contests  and  civil  wars.  Even  in 
the  brightest  days  of  Greece,  civilization  had  to  contend  with  remnants  of 
ancient  barbarism  and  its  bloody  crimes. 

§  IT.     The  Religion  of  the  Greeks. 

The  celestial  world,  in  which  the  Greeks  believed,  was  only  an  ideal 
transcript  of  their  ordinary  life,  embellished  by  the  hand  and  for  the  pur- 
poses of  art.  Even  the  fanciful  relation  of  sex,  which  they  ascribed  to  their 
deities,  though  borrowed  from  oriental  allegories,  was  so  modified  by  the 
poetic  imaginations  of  the  Greeks,  as  only  to  reflect  and  justify,  as  in  a  mir- 
ror, the  playful  spirit  of  the  people.  This,  however,  exerted  no  very  cor- 
rupting influence  upon  a  people  whose  matrimonial  life  was  guarded  by  usages 
and  laws,  and  whose  vigorous  energies  were  controlled  by  the  gymnasium, 
and  a  predominant  taste  for  the  beautiful.  But  every  thing  great  or  beauti- 
ful in  common  life,  was  adorned  and  consecrated  by  some  connection  with 
the  gods  of  their  country.  It  was  for  this  reason  that,  although  the  people 
were  sincerely  attached  to  their  deities,  and  their  religious  services  were  joy- 
ous festivals  embellished  with  all  that  art  could  contribute,  they  could  enjoy 
the  keen  wit  of  the  poet  when  he  ridiculed  the  weaknesses  of  the  gods,  no 
less  than  when  he  laughed  at  those  of  the  sovereign  people  of  \thens.  The 
religion  of  the  Hellenes  was  necessarily  a  deification  not  so  much  of  nature 
in  its  mysterious  depths,  as  of  the  spirit  in  its  various  manifestations. 
The  real  Deity  revealed  to  them  was  beauty.  The  piety  best  conformed  to 
the  national  character  was  so  far  from  rising  above  the  earth,  that  it  never 
went  even  beyond  their  native  land.  The  mysteries  could  of  course  transmit 
no  doctrine  of  religion  inconsistent  with  this  spirit  of  the  popular  faith. 
They  were  simply  celebrations  of  the  festivals  of  the  ancient  gods.  They 
served  not  only  to  preserve  the  memory  of  the  old  and  fallen  deities  of  na- 
ture, but  to  create  a  presentiment  of  a  supreme  Deity,  who,  at  some  future 
period,  would  extend  his  sovereignty  over  the  universe.  The  point  at  which 
the  Hellenic  theology  found  its  termination  and  constructed  an  altar  to  the 
Unknown  God,  was  where  it  submitted  to  an  absolute  necessity,  ruling  over 
gods  and  men. 

§  18.  Relation  of  Philosophy  to  the  Popular  Religion. 
Socrates  (469-899)  brought  back  Philosophy  from  its  attempts  to  ex- 
plain the  universe  by  ingenious  fancies,  to  its  appropriate  Grecian  object, 
which  was,  to  render  the  mind  conscious  of  its  nature,  and  thus  to  become 
the  supreme  rule  of  life  for  a  freeborn  man.  In  doing  so,  however,  he  was 
aware  that  as  a  citizen  of  a  moral  community  he  was  liable  to  come  into 
conflict  with  Athenian  usages.  From  the  position  which  he  had  attained, 
Plato  (428-348)  and  Aristotle  (384-322)  sought  to  discover  the  ultimate  prin- 
ciple of  all  knowledge  and  being.  Both  recognized  a  spiritual  and  indepen- 
dent author  of  the  universe,  and  both  appreciated  the  supreme  importance  of 
the  intellectual  and  moral  life.  Aristotle,  commencing  with  sensible  pheno- 


CHAP.  I.    HEATHENISM.    §  18.    GBECIAN  PHILOSOPHY.  17 

mena,  and  proceeding  by  successive  steps  of  reasoning  to  general  laws,  may  4 
be  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  a  healthy  intellectual  educa- 
tion among  the  Greeks.  If  Plato,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  matter  as  well  as 
the  form  of  his  speculations,  shows  that  the  highest  point  of  Grecian  life  con- 
sisted in  adorning  the  present  existence  by  moral  excellence  and  beauty,  on 
the  other,  he  far  transcends  this,  and  stands  like  a  prophet,  incomprehensible 
by  his  own  age,  on  account  of  his  earnest  consciousness  of  sinfulness,  and 
his  absolute  exaltation  of  the  eternal  above  the  temporal.*  Those  who  un- 
dertook the  further  development  of  Philosophy,  attached  themselves  once 
more  to  the  purely  practical  tendency  of  Socrates,  and  to  the  various  parties 
already  springing  up  among  his  disciples.  They,  however,  seized  upon  only 
disconnected  elements  of  Grecian  life.  Epicurus  (342-271)  laid  hold  of 
pleasure  alone,  to  which  virtue  was  subservient  as  a  necessary  means,  and 
Zeno,  his  contemporary,  selected  power,  with  which  virtue  is  herself  satisfied. 
The  former  regarded  the  universe  as  the  sport  of  chance,  and  the  latter  be- 
lieved it  animated  by  a  divine  omnipresent  soul.  In  opposition  to  the  views 
of  these  teachers,  and  especially  to  those  of  Plato,  there  arose  in  the  midst 
of  the  Academy  itself,  a  party  under  Arcesilaus  (316-241)  and  Carneades  (214- 
129),  which  advocated  a  system  of  overwrought  logic,  teaching  that  man  was 
never  designed  to  know  the  truth  with  certainty,  and  that  consequently  his 
only  peace  was  to  be  found  in  dealing  with  probabilities,  and  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  this  universal  uncertainty.  Philosophy,  in  all  its  forms,  had  passed 
beyond  the  limits  of  Polytheism.  The  Socratic  school,  however,  regarded  the 
popular  faith  as  a  mode  of  conceiving  truth  indispensable  to  a  people  bound 
in  the  fetters  of  sensuality.  Its  disciples  therefore,  without  hesitation, 
adopted  the  usages  and  modes  of  expression  prevalent  around  them.  The 
way  in  which  Epicurus  maintained  the  existence  of  the  gods  was  in  fact  an 
adroit  denial  of  it,  but,  satisfied  with  having  freed  his  followers  from  all  fear 
of  the  gods,  he  was  wise  enough  to  warn  them  of  the  danger  of  contending 
with  public  opinion.  Stoical  Pantheism  allowed  that  the  deities  existed  t 
merely  as  names  and  allegories  for  the  various  manifestations  of  the  universal 
life,  but  the  deportment  of  the  sages  toward  them  was  proud  and  independent. 
The  later  Academy  maintained  that  the  existence  or  non-existence  of  the 
gods  was  equally  probable,  and  its  adherents  thought  it  safest  to  honor  them 
with  the  ordinary  forms  of  worship.  While  therefore  Philosophy  was  not 
directly  hostile  to  the  idolatry  which  had  prevailed  from  ancient  times,  the 
educated  portion  of  the  nation  were  elevated  by  it  above  the  popular  faith. 

§  19.    Rome  as  a  Republic. 

The  Eoman  people  had  sprung  up  in  the  midst  of  violence,  they  had  been 
kept  together  by  a  rigid  discipline,  and  they  had  to  attain  maturity  in  the 
battle-field,  contending  first  for  their  existence,  and  then  for  their  greatness. 
At  an  early  period,  the  opinion  began  to  prevail,  and  soon  became  a  predomi- 

*  G.  Ackermann,  das  Christl.  im  Plato  u.  in  d.  plat  Phil.  Hainb.  1835 ;  F.  C.  JSaur,  d.  Christl.  d. 
Platonism.  o.  Sokr.  u.  Christus.  Tub.  1837 ;  [Plato  contra  Atheos,  or  Platonic  Theology,  by  T.  Lewis 
New  York.  1845.  K  Pond,  Life,  Works,  Opinions,  &c.  of  Plato.  Portland.  8.] 
2 


18  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  L    DIV.  I.  TILL.  A.  D.  100. 

naut  popular  sentiment,  that  they  were  destined  to  attain  universal  dominion 
All  the  virtues  which  constitute  the  true  hasis  of  civil  and  domestic  pros- 
perity were  practised  with  simplicity  and  purity.  But  the  keen  enjoyment 
of  life,  natural  to  youth,  hecame  passionate  only  in  individual  instances,  for 
we  find  among  them  no  general  refinement,  or  cultivation  of  the  elegant  arts. 
Religion  was  wholly  under  the  control  of  the  State,  and  its  sacred  rites 
were  for  a  long  time  only  in  the  hands  of  the  Patricians.  Its  serious  cere- 
monies pervaded  every  relation,  both  of  the  family  and  the  State.  While, 
therefore,  it  was  regarded  as  indispensable  to  society,  it  was  in  reality  only  a 
respectful  reverence  for  a  superior  power,  recognized  in  the  highest  degree  by 
the  boldest  and  mightiest  minds. 

§  20.    Decline  of  Greece. 

During  the  strifes  of  contending  factions,  political  power  had  become 
despotic,  in  the  hands  sometimes  of  the  nobles,  and  sometimes  of  the  popu- 
lace. The  consequence  was  that  Greece  was  distracted  by  internal  divisions, 
and  became  subject,  first  to  the  Macedonians,  and  then,  with  these  masters, 
(146)  to  the  Romans.  The  virtues  of  the  people,  which  had  been  founded 
upon  their  relation  to  their  native  country,  could  not,  of  course,  survive  the 
loss  of  their  independence.  The  individuality  of  character,  which  had  be- 
fore so  nobly  distinguished  them,  now  degenerated  into  selfishness ;  art  be- 
came subservient  to  the  grossest  sensuality,  and  it  now  became  evident,  in 
the  midst  of  public  misfortunes,  that  a  life  consumed  in  the  mere  embellish- 
ment of  an  earthly  existence  must  be  totally  unsatisfactory.  Yet  so  abundant 
was  the  inheritance  of  art  and  science  bequeathed  to  them  by  their  ances- 
tors, that  their  private  life  was  for  a  long  time  enriched  by  its  stores,  and 
Greece  gave  laws  to  its  conquerors. 

§  21.    Elevation  and  Decline  of  Rome. 

When  Augustus,  in  his  testament,  advised  the  Roman  people  never  to 
surpass  the  limits  which  nature  had  assigned  to  them,  as  the  permanent  bul- 
warks of  the  Empire,  all  nations  inhabiting  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
had  already  submitted  to  the  majesty  of  the  Roman  power,  and  all  nationali- 
ties had  been  broken  up  by  the  stern  unity  of  the  Empire.  As  the  Romans 
had  conquered  the  civilized  world,  they  now  resolved  to  participate  in  its  ad- 
vantages, by  enjoying  not  only  its  coarse  sensual  pleasures,  but  its  intellectual 
treasures.  But  Grecian  civilization  was  so  far  in  advance  of  them,  that  it 
could  not  be  conquered  without  calling  forth  creative  powers  in  the  con- 
querors. By  the  subjugation  and  government  of  so  many  provinces,  such  an 
inequality  in  power  and  possessions  was  introduced,  that  universal  freedom 
was  no  longer  tolerable,  and  the  popular  character  became  so  degraded,  that 
in  spite  of  republican  forms,  no  one  thought  of  combining  public  freedom 
with  the  monarchy.  The  will  of  the  prince  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  su- 
preme law,  but  the  supreme  power  was  actually  in  the  army.  Accordingly, 
the  successors  of  Augustus,  while  they  knew  that  they  were  masters  of  the 
world,  knew  quite  as  well  that  they  could  never  call  one  day  their  own. 
They  therefore  either  stupified  themselves  in  the  wildest  enjoyment  of  the 


CHAP.  L    HEATHENISM.    §  22.    DECLINE.  19 

present  moment,  or  sought  safety  in  a  reign  of  terror.  The  wretchedness  of 
the  Roman  populace,  and  the  exhausted  condition  of  the  provinces,  were  in 
desperate  and  frightful  contrast  with  an  affluence  which  strove  with  shame- 
less ingenuity  to  wrest  from  nature  more  enjoyment  than  she  was  able  to 
give  or  endure.  And  yet  for  centuries  after  the  old  Roman  virtues  had  been 
lost,  there  remained  a  noble  national  spirit,  the  valor  of  the  legions,  and  in 
private  life,  the  supremacy  of  the  law. 

§  22.    Decline  of  the  Popular  Religion. 

The  Greek  religion  was  adapted  only  to  such  as  were  in  the  enjoyment  of 
prosperity.  To  those  who  were  struggling  with  misfortune,  it  offered  neither 
consolation  nor  strength,  and  the  gods  themselves  had  apparently  deserted 
the  cities  from  which  they  were  now  invited  by  the  conquerors.  The  deifi- 
cation of  Roman  despots  threw  scandal  on  the  gods,  and  revealed  the  secret 
of  their  origin.  The  explanation  of  the  Greek  myths  undermined  also  the 
veneration  which  had  before  been  felt  for  Roman  ceremonies.*  Philosophy 
no  longer  hesitated  to  mock  a  religious  worship  already  abandoned  by  its 
deities.  The  Roman  statesmen,  it  is  true,  thought  it  necessary  to  maintain  a 
religion  of  whose  nullity  they  were  persuaded,  because  it  seemed  to  be  the 
very  foundation  of  their  State.  "When,  however,  a  people  are  governed  by  a 
falsehood,  the  fact  cannot  long  be  concealed  from  them.  The  human  mind, 
ordinarily  dissatisfied  with  infidelity,  and  especially  impatient  with  it  in 
seasons  of  peculiar  difficulty,  now  sought  for  the  peace  it  had  lost  in  all 
kinds  of  barbarous  forms  of  worship.  In  the  midst,  too,  of  those  frequent 
changes  of  fortune  to  which  despotic  governments  are  subject,  it  made  an 
effort  to  obtain  a  knowledge  and  a  control  of  the  dark  future,  by  means  of 
magical  arts.  Unbelief  and  superstition  were  thus  boldly  and  distinctly  ar- 
rayed by  the  side  of  each  other.  When  the  peculiar  spirit  of  each  nation 
had  been  destroyed,  a  popular  religion  could  no  longer  be  generally  upheld, 
and  the  gods  were  all  united  in  the  Roman  Pantheon.  Philosophy,  however, 
had  neither  the  inclination  nor  the  power  to  found  a  new  religion. 

II.    JUDAISM. 

Flav.  JosepU  Opp.  ed.  ffaverkamp,  Amst.  1T26.  2  Th.  f. ;  Small  ed.  by  Olerthur,  Wiirtzb.  1782ss. 
8  Th.  and  In  the  1  Abth,  of  the  Bibl.  sacra.  Lps.  1826ss.  5  Th.  [Transl.  into  Eng.  by  W.  Whixton,  fe- 
ed, by  IT.  SteVbing.  8vo.  Lond.  1841.  and  a  new  Transl.  by  R.  Trail,  with  notes,  Essays,  &c.  and 
ed.  by  I.  Taylor,  Lond.  &  New  York.  1847.]  F.  C.  Meier,  Judaica  s.  veterum  Scrr.  profanorum  de 
reb.  jud.  fragmm.  Jen.  1832;  Vitringa,  de  Synagoga  vet  (Franeq.  1696.)  Leucop.  1726.  4  ;  [Vitringa's 
Synag.  &  the  Church,  transl.  by  Bernard,  8vo.  Lond.]  J.  D.  Mickaelis,  mos.  Eecht.  Frkf.  1775ss. 
6  Th.  [Transl.  into  Eng.  by  A.  /Smith,  4  vols.  8vo.  Lond.  1814] ;  J.  J.  Hess,  Gesch.  d.  Israel,  Zur. 
766se.  12  Th.;  De  Wette,  Lehrb.  d.  hebr.  Archaol.  nebst  Grundr.  d.  hebr.  Gesch.  Lps.  (1814.)  1830; 
J.  M,  Jost,  allg.  Gesch.  d.  Isr.  Brl.  1832.  2  vols. ;  [Josfs  Hist  of  the  Jews,  from  the  Maccabees  to  the 
present  day,  transl.  from  Germ,  by  J.  It.  Hopkins,  1848.  New  York ;]  H.  Leo,  Vorles.  u.  d.  Gesch.  d. 
jud.  Staats.  Brl.  1828.  retracted  in  his  Lehrb.  d.  Universalgesch.  ed.  2.  vol.  I.  p.  563ss.  comp.  Stud.  u. 
Krit  1330.  vol.  I.  p.  137ss.;  Bertiwau,  zur  Gesch.  d.  Isr.  Gott  1842;  H.  Ewald,  Gesch.  d.  Yolkes 
^srael  b.  Christus.  Gott  1843ss.  3  vols. ;  J.  Salvador,  Hist,  des  Institutions  de  Moiise  et  du  peupla 
Ja6br.  Par.  1828.  8  vols.  [This  work  was  answered  by  M.  Dupin,  the  elder,  in  "  Jesus  devant  Caiphe 

*  L.  EraTiner  Grundlinien  z.  Gesch.  d.  Verfalls  d.  rom.  Staaterel.  Hal.  1837.  4. 


20  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PER.  L    DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  100. 

et  Pilate,"  Par.  1828.  8]  ;  Gramberg,  krit  Gesch.  d.  E.  Ideen  d.  A.  T.  Brl.  1829s.  2  Th. ;  Vaike,  <J 
Eel.  d.  A.  T.  Brl.  1835. 1  Th. ;  &  L.  Steiriheim,  d.  Offenb.  n.  d.  Lehrbegr.  d.  Synag.  Frk£  1885.  1  vol. 
A.  F.  Ofrorer,  d.  Jahrb.  des  Heiles.  Stuttg.  1838.  2  Abtb.— Knobel,  d.  Prophetismus  d.  Hebr.  Breel 
1837.  2  vote. ;  foster,  die  Proph.  d.  A.  u.  N.  T.  Lps.  1838 ;  \H.  H.  Milman,  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  from 
the  B.  of  Christ  to  the  AboL  of  Paganism  in  the  Eom.  Emp.  with  notes  by  Murdock.  8  vols.  New 
York.  1831 ;  J.  JSasnage,  Hist  of  the  Jews  from  Jesus  Christ  to  the  pr.  time,  being  a  cont.  of  Jose- 
phus,  transl.  by  T.  Taylor,  Lond.  1708.  f. ;  D.  Sttauss,  Helon's  Pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  A  Picture 
of  Judaism  in  the  Cent  before  Christ,  transL  from  the  Germ.  Lond.  1824.  2  vols.  8.] 

§  23.     The  Religious  Life  of  the  People. 

Jehovah  was  worshipped  as  the  only  living  and  Most  High  God.  His 
government,  by  agents,  in  direct  communication  with  himself,  collectively 
called  the  Theocracy,  was  regarded  as  the  only  legitimate  authority.  By  his 
law  the  spirit  was  wrested  from  its  hold  upon  the  natural  world,  and  his 
people  were  separated  from  all  other  nations.  "When  the  popular  life  had 
attained  full  maturity  during  the  period  between  Samuel  and  the  Exile  [1156- 
588,  B.  C.),  a  flourishing  kind  of  sacred  poetry,  with  no  great  refinement  of 
art,  became  developed,  and  the  manners  and  morals  of  the  people,  though 
rude,  were  generally  strict.  The  people,  however,  were  always  inclined  to 
apostatize  and  adopt  the  sensual  and  idolatrous  worship  of  nature,  prevalent 
among  the  neighboring  nations.  The  state,  distracted  by  the  struggle  of 
the  hierarchy  with  the  monarchy,  became  divided  (after  975)  into  the  king- 
doms of  Judah  and  Israel,  and  at  last  fell  a  prey  to  foreign  enemies.  It  was 
not  until  after  the  Exile,  that  the  spirit  of  the  people  corresponded  with  that 
of  their  law,  and  then  the  benefits  of  such  a  result,  and  the  complete  execu- 
tion of  their  political  system,  were  limited  by  the  dominion  of  the  Persians, 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  who,  without  intermission,  succeeded  one  an- 
other. A  similar  religious  improvement  was  founded  upon  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, the  type  and  mirror  of  the  popular  life.  In  the  midst  of  the  calamities 
of  the  Exile,  a  stronger  faith  in  a  future  state  of  existence  was  awakened,  in 
connection  with  the  explanation  of  moral  evil  by  demoniac  agency.  But  a 
natural  result  of  the  importance  which  the  hierarchy  consequently  gave  to 
the  outward  ritual  of  the  law,  was  soon  experienced  in  the  extreme  valuation 
of  these  observances,  without  reference  to  their  spiritual  import.  The  origi- 
nal contradiction  involved  in  the  idea  they  generally  entertained  of  a  God, 
who  was  the  sole  Lord  of  the  Universe,  and  yet  revealed  himself  as  the  God 
of  only  a  single  nation,  became  increasingly  prominent,  as  the  world  became 
more  generally  known.  Their  belief  also  in  the  exclusive  partiality  of  God 
for  themselves  as  a  people,  in  connection  with  the  continual  oppression  they 
experienced  from  their  foreign  masters,  produced  a  bitter  feeling  toward 
every  thing  foreign,  and  a  hatred  of  the  whole  human  race.  It  was  during 
this  decline,  and  as  the  precise  result  of  it,  that  the  predominant  religious  cha- 
racter of  the  nation  was  formed.  Its  fundamental  element  was  an  obstinate 
nationality,  and  a  bold  determination  to  sacrifice  every  thing  for  its  preserva- 
tion. This,  in  connection  with  their  internal  dissensions  and  moral  debase- 
ment, could  lead  to  nothing  but  a  tragical  result,  when  opposed  to  the  over- 
whelming power  of  the  Romans.  But  a  series  of  prophets  had  at  one  time 
been  produced  by  the  Theocracy,  in  connection  with  a  spiritual  tendency 
among  the  people,  which  had  taught  them  to  solve  all  the  contradictions  of 


CHAP,  L    JUDAISM.    §  24.    DISPERSED   JEWS.    §  25.    PHILO.  21 

the  present  time,  by  believing  contemplations  of  the  future.  These  Messianio 
prophecies  therefore  lived  on  in  the  hearts  of  the  people,  consoling,  but  at  the 
same  time  ensnaring  them  with  the  strong  expectation  that  Judaism  was  des- 
tined to  become  universal 

§  24.     The  dispersed  Jews  (ev  diacnropa). 

Remond,  Gesch.  d.  Ausbreit  d.  Judenth.  v.  Cyrus  bis  a.  d.  Unterg.  d.  jud.  Staats.  Lpz.  1789 ;  Groot, 
de  migrationibus  Hebrr.  extra  patriam  ante  Hieras.  a  Rom.  deletaih.  Gron.  181 T.  4;  Levyssohn,  de 
Judaeorum  sub  Caesaribus  conditione  et  de  legibus  eos  spectantibus,  Lugd.  1828.  4. 

According  to  the  laws  of  war  then  prevalent,  Jewish  colonies  were  trans- 
ferred to  other  lands,  in  the  train  of  the  various  conquerors  of  Palestine. 
Individual  Jews  also  wandered  into  the  same  countries,  for  the  sake  of  gain. 
In  the  time  of  Christ,  therefore,  Jewish  communities,  subject  to  great  vicissi- 
tudes of  fortune,  were  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  Eoman  Empire. 
With  their  characteristic  shrewdness,  and  their  indefatigable  industry,  they 
had  acquired  wealth  by  commerce,  and  by  wealth,  independence  and  privi- 
leges. They  lived  according  to  the  law  of  their  fathers,  and  paid  homage  to 
the  hierarchy  at  Jerusalem,  as  their  highest  human  authority.  In  conse- 
quence of  their  temple  tribute  (Si'Spa^a),  their  offerings,  and  their  pilgrim- 
ages, immense  wealth  flawed  into  Jerusalem  from  every  part  of  the  world, 
and  became  an  instrument  of  great  power  in  the  hands  of  the  priesthood,  and 
a  temptation  to  Koman  rapacity  and  corruption. 

§  25.    Hellenism. 

C,  G.  L.  Grossmann,  Quaestt  Philoneae.  I.  De  Theologiae  Phil,  fontibus  et  auctorit.  II.  De 
Aoyy  Phil.  Lps.  1829;  Gfrorer,  Philo  u.  d.  alex.  Theosophie,  o.  v.  Einfl.  d.  jud.  agypt  Schule  a.  d. 
N.  T.  Stuttg.  1831.  2  Abth.  (new  title,  1835);  A.  F.  Ddkne,  gesch.  Darst  d.jud.  alex.  Eel.  Phil. 
Hal.  1837.  2  Abth.  comp.  £aur,  in  d.  Jahrb.  f.  wiss.  Kritik.  1835.  p.  737-92 ;  J.  O.  L.  Georgii,  u.  d. 
ueuesten  Gegens.  in  Auffass.  d.  Alex.  Rel.  Phil.  (Illgens  Zeitschr.  1839.  H.  8.  4) ;  [J.  Bryant,  Seiitt 
of  Phil.  Jud.  on  the  Word  of  God.  Camb.  1797.  8]. 

Although  the  Jews  who  resided  in  countries  pervaded  by  Grecian  culture 
seldom  gave  up  their  national  attachments  and  spirit,  they  were  unavoidably 
much  affected  by  the  intercourse  and  science  of  those  around  them.  Such 
was  the  origin  of  the  Hellenism,  which,  in  Alexandria,  then  the  great  mart 
of  trade  even  in  science,  gave  birth  to  the  first  philosophy  of  revelation. 
This  has  been  transmitted  to  subsequent  times,  principally  by  the  writings  of 
Philo.  (a)  The  contradictory  elements  of  which  it  was  composed  were  :  an 
unconditional  faith  in  the  divine  revelation  contained  in  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
an  equal  confidence  in  the  truth  of  the  Platonic  philosophy.  These  conflict- 
ing principles  were  subjectively  harmonized  by  the  adoption  of  the  opinions 
that  the  Greek  philosophy  was  derived  from  the  Scriptures,  and  that  the  di- 
vine mind  in  the  Scriptures  was  to  be  discovered  by  the  allegorical  method  of 
interpretation.  Its  fundamental  principle  was :  such  an  extreme  refinement 
of  the  idea  of  God,  that  every  distinct  attribute  of  his  nature  disappeared, 

a)  Philoni*  Opp.  ed.  Mangey.  Lond.  1742.  2  Th.  f.  The  greater  part  of  this  is  used  in  an  ed.  cnr. 
Pfeiffer.  Erl.  (lT85ss.)  1820.  5  Th. ;  Small  ed.  embracing  the  remainder,  discovered  by  A.  Majo,  & 
Aucher,  in  2  Abth.  of  the  Bibl.  Patrnm.  Lps.  1828ss.  6  Th. ;  Creueer,  z.  Krit  d.  Schrr.  d.  Philo. 
(Stud.  n.  Krit.  1831.  H.  1)  •  Grossmann,  de  Phil,  operum  continua  serie  et  ord.  chron.  Lps.  1841.  4, 
P.L 


22  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISYOK*.    PEK.  L    DIV.  L    TILL  A.  D.  100. 

and  all  connection  between  him  and  the  world  ceased.  It  was  therefore  sup- 
posed that  certain  intermediate  heings  (\6yos  and-Aoyot)  proceeded  from  God — 
fanciful  creatures,  which  can  scarcely  be  called  personal  existences,  nor  yet 
mere  extensions  of  the  divine  essence.  These  gave  existence  to  Matter,  which 
was  not  divine,  but  was  formed  according  to  the  archetypes  of  their  own 
ideal  world,  and  was  animated  by  the  divine  breath.  Even  man,  so  far  as 
his  earthly  nature  is  concerned,  is  fallen  matter,  with  God  concealed  from  his 
view.  But  that  which  was  originally  divine  in  him,  must  be  liberated  by 
struggles  and  self-denials,  until  he  finds  his  true  life  during  some  favored  mo- 
ments even  in  this  world,  in  the  blessed  contemplation  of  the  Deity.  This 
divine  philosophy  was  reduced  to  practice  by  the  Therapeutae,  who  lived  in 
separate  huts,  chiefly  in  the  Mareotis,  near  Alexandria,  abstaining  from  all 
pleasures,  cares,  and  toils  of  an  earthly  life,  and  entirely  devoted  to  the  con- 
templation and  praise  of  the  divine  nature.  (J) 

§  26.     The  Three  Sects. 

Trium  scriptorum  illustrinm  (Dnuil,  Scaligeri,  Serarii)  de  trlbus  Judaeorum  sectis  syntagma 
ed.  Trifflandius.  Delphla.  1708.  2  Th.  4 ;  P.  Beer,  Gesch.  Lehren  n.  Meinungon  aller  rel.  Becten  d. 
Jud.  Brftnn.  1822s.  2  vols.;  Sdineckenburger,  die  Pharisuer,  Eel.  Philosophen  o.  Asketiker?  (Beitr. 
z.  Einl.  in's  N.  T.  Stuttg.  1882.  N.  7.)  Grossmann,  De  Philos.  Sadducaeor.  Lps.  1886.  II.  De  frag- 
.  mentis  Sadd.  exeg.  1887.  III.  De  statu  Sadd.  literario,  moral!  et  politico.  1838.  4. 

The  most  distinct  forms  of  Judaism  in  Palestine,  after  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  were  represented  in  three  regularly  organized  sects.  The  Phari- 
sees, i.  e.  the  Separated,  were  representatives  of  the  rigid  hierarchy,  and  of 
modern  Judaism  with  all  its  faults  and  virtues.  The  most  austere  portion  of 
this  sect  adhered  to  the  authority  of  Rabbi  Shammai,  and  a  milder  party  to 
that  of  Hillel.  In  the  latter  party,  a  tendency  toward  Hellenism  was  practi- 
cable, and  Gamaliel  is  said  to  have  participated  in  it.  The  Sadducees,  whose 
name  signifies  the  Righteous,  and  who  constituted  in  fact  the  wealthy  and 
aristocratic  portions  of  society,  maintained  the  older  Hebraism,  the  intellectual 
liberty  of  which,  in  a  corrupt  and  yet  speculative  period,  was  easily  perverted 
so  as  to  encourage  licentiousness  and  unbelief.  The  disputes  which  these  sects 
carried  on  with  each  other  became  sometimes  so  violent  that  the  government 
was  disturbed  on  account  of  them.  The  Essenes.  i.  e.  Healing  Ones,  or 
Saints,  were  those  who  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the  world,  and  in  differ- 
ent degrees  of  their  order,  according  to  the  rigidity  of  their  asceticism,  with- 
drew from  all  public  life,  to  live  in  extreme  solitude  on  the  western  coast  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  Their  doctrine,  so  far  as  it  has  been  made  known,  indicated 
some  affinity  with  the  Alexandrian  philosophy,  as  it  converged  evidently  to- 
ward a  theory  of  angel  hierarchy.  Their  moral  system  and  habits  were  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  Therapeutae,  although  they  adhered  more  decidedly  to  the 
Hebrew  prophecies.  Their  mode  of  life  was  communistic,  and  their  time  was 
wholly  occupied  in  prayer  and  labor.  Although  they  condemned  the  private 
possession  of  wealth,  individuals  might  possess  some  property  as  a  fief,  from 

V)  The  orig.  evidence  in  various  forms  in  Philo,  and  many  erroneous  statements  with  respect 
to  them  in  Eusebiua,  H.  Ecc.  II.  17;  Eettermann,  gesch.  Nachrichten  a.  d.  Alterthume  u.  Esaaei 
n.  Therapeuten.  Brl.  1821 ;  J.  Bauer,  de  Essenis  et  Therapeutis,  Yrat  1829 ;  Gfrorer,  Abth.  2.  p. 
28033. ;  Ddhne,  vol.  I.  p.  489ss. 


CIIAP.  I.    JUDAISM.    §  27.    SAMAEITANS.    §  23.    PEOSELYTES.  23 

the  common  stock.    They  never  visited  the  Temple,  because  bloody  sacrifices 
were  offered  in  it,  but  they  sent  to  it  their  sacred  gifts. 

§  27.     The  Samaritans. 

Besides  the  Jewish  sources  of  a  partisan  character,  consult  The  Samar.  Pentateuch,  even  in  the 
Arabic  translation,  and  John  iv.  5-42 ;  (Sieffert)  Pg.  de  temp,  schismatis  ecc.  Judaeos  inter,  et  Sa- 
marr.  oborti.  Eegiom.  1828.  4.  comp.  Ease's  Leben  Jesn.  p.  108s.  [Neander's  Life  of  Christ  p.  180ss. ; 
Hengsteriberg,  On  the  Pentateuch,  vol.  I.  p.  70ss. ;  M.  Stuart,  Essay  on  Sam.  Pent.  &  Lit  in  Bib. 
Eepos.  1832.  P.  4.  p.  681.  &  Essays  on  the  Old  Test  Andover,  1845.  8 ;  ditto's  Journal  of  Sac.  Lit 
July,  1853.  p.  298.] 

From  its  first  establishment,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  always  character- 
ized by  a  great  laxity  of  religious  faith,  a  dislike  to  the  Levitical  priesthood, 
and  a  fondness  for  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  surrounding  nations.  Hav- 
ing been  conquered  by  the  Assyrians  (722),  the  small  remnant  allowed  to  re- 
main in  the  country  soon  became  nearly  amalgamated  with  the  heathen  colo- 
nists introduced  among  them.  And  yet  the  inhabitants  of  Samaria,  the 
fruitful  hill  country  between  Judaea  and  Galilee,  offered  to  assist  the  returning 
Jews  in  rebuilding  the  Temple  of  Zion.  This  proposal  being  rejected,  just 
before  Alexander's  triumphant  march  through  their  country,  they  received 
through  Hanasseh,  the  exiled  brother  of  the  Jewish  high  priest,  and  the  fa- 
vor of  the  Persian  monarch,  not  only  a  copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  but  permis- 
sion to  build  a  temple  to  Jehovah  on  Mount  Gerizim.  In  spite  of  all  their 
foreign  mixtures,  both  of  sentiments  and  of  blood,  the  Samaritans  were  espe- 
cially attached  to  the  ancient  Hebraism,  and  carried  out  its  moral  and  intel- 
lectual tendencies.  They  shared  in  the  political  fortunes  of  Judaea,  and  were 
animated  by  a  similar  hatred  to  the  Romans,  but  the  State  possessed  very  little 
power,  on  account  of  the  still  greater  mutual  hatred  of  the  Jews  and  Sa- 
maritans. 

§  28.    Proselytes. 

The  contempt  which  a  people  without  refinement  in  art  or  science,  enter- 
tained for  every  thing  foreign,  was  of  course  met  by  the  Greeks  and  Eo- 
mans  with  a  similar  contempt,  (a)  And  yet  the  strength  of  religious  .faith 
among  the  Jews,  the  worship  of  one  God,  and  the  veneration  for  the  myste- 
rious rites  and  shrines  of  the  temple  of  Jehovah,  were  peculiarly  imposing. 
Modern  Judaism,  too,  was  naturally  inclined  to  conquest.  Hence  from  the 
general  inclination  toward  foreign  religions,  and  from  the  dissatisfaction  felt 
with  respect  to  the  social  relations  of  the  Empire,  many,  especially  women, 
laborers,  and  slaves,  felt  attracted  by  the  hopes  held  out  to  them  by  the 
Jews.  Some  became  proselytes  of  righteousness  to  Judaism,  and  many  re- 
nounced idolatry  by  obeying  what  were  called  the  Noachian  precepts,  and 
thus,  according  to  the  decision  of  the  milder  teachers  of  the  law,  became 
proselytes  of  the  Gate,  i.  e.  friends  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  sharers  in  many 
of  its  hopes,  without  being  subject  to  the  yoke  of  the  law,  without  adopting 
the  narrow  prejudices  of  the  Jews,  and  without  expecting  justification  by 
their  external  services.  Others  pleased  or  silenced  their  consciences  by  the 

a)  Tacit.  Hist.  V.  5 ;  Minucii  Pel.  Octavius  c.  10. 


•24  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOEY.    PER  I.    DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  100. 

practice  of  Jewish  ceremonies,  and  allowed  themselves  to  be  beguiled  by 
Jewish  conjurers.  (5) 


CHAP.  II.— THE  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH. 

Lud.  CapeUi  Hist  ap.  illustrata,  Genev.  1634  4  ed.  Fabricius,  Lps.  1691 ;  J.  F.  Buddei,  Ecc 
ap.  Jen.  1729;  J.  J.  Hess,  Gesch.  u.  Sehrr.  d.  Apostel.  Zurch.  1788.  4  e<L  182088.  8  Th. ;  F.  Lucket 
Com.  de  Ecc.  Apost  Goett  1S18.  4;  J.  G.  Planck,  Gesch.  d.  Christenth.  in  d.  Perlode  sr.  Einfuhr 
nng.  Gott.  1818;  Th.  II.  A.  Neander  [Hist  of  the  Planting  and  Training  of  the  Christian  Church 
by  the  Apostles,  Transl.  by  J.  E.  Ryland.  Phil.  1  vol.  1844] ;  F.  Ch.  Baur,  Paulus,  Stuttg.  1845;  A 
Schwegler,  das  nachapost  Zeitalt  in  d.  Hauptmomenten  sr.  Eutwickl.  Tub.  1846.  2  vols. ;  comp.  K 
Zeller,  \L  Chr.  Urchr.  u.  Unchr.  in  Schwegler's  Jahrb.  1844.  Juni ;  (  W.  0.  Dietlein,  d.  Urchristenth. 
eine  Beleucht  der.  v.  d.  Schnle  d.  Hrn.  Dr.  t>.  Baur,  u.  d.  Apost.  Zeita.  aufgestellten  Vermuthungen. 
Hal.  1845;)  [K.  R.  Hagenbach,  F.  C  Baur,  and  J.  P.  Lange,  have  each  published  Histories  of  the 
Primitive  and  Apostolic  Church,  in  Germ. ;  G.  Benson,  Hist  of  the  First  Planting  of  Christian iy, 
Lond.  1756.  8  vols.  4;  F.  W.  P.  Greenwood,  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  &c.  Bost  1846. 12;  L. 
Coleman,  Anc.  Christianity  exemplified.  Philad.  1858.  2  vols.  8 ;  IT.  W.  J.  ThiertcJi,  Hist  of  the 
Chr.  Church,  vol.  I.  Apostolic  Age,  Transl.  by  T.  Carlyle,  Lond.  1852.] 

§  29.     The  First  Pentecost. 

I.  Acts,  2. 1-41 ;  IL  Herder,  Gabe  d.  Sprachen.  Elg.  1794;  Amman,  de  novls  linguis.  ErL  1808; 
Ha.se,  Zur  Gesch.  d.  ereten  Chr.  Pflngstf. ;  (  Winer's  Zcitschr.  t  Wiss.  TheoL  1827.  H.  2 ;)  Bletk,  u. 
'd.  Gabe  des  y\uff<rais  AaAeTv.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1829.  voL  IL  H.  1 ;  comp.  Olshausen,  vol.  II.  H.  8; 
KepL  v.  Bleek,  1880.  vol.  L  H.  1.  p.  45-64;  Olthausen,  ibid.  p.  64-66.)  Baur,  Abb.  in  d.  Tub.  Zelt- 
schr.  f.  Theol.  1880.  H.  2;  Bdumlein,  Abh.  in  the  Stadien  d.  Wfirtemb.  Geistlich.  1884.  II.  2; 
Schneckenburger,  in  his  Beitr.  rur  Elnl.  In's  N.  T.  N.  &  BiUroth;  [Expos,  of  the  Epp.  of  Paul  to 
the  Cor.  (in  Edinb.  BibL  Cabinet,  No.  21.  28)  on  1  Cor.  xiv.] ;  2>.  Schulx,  d.  Geisteegaben  d.  ersten 
Christen,  insbes.  d.  sogen.  Gabe  d.  8pr.  BresL  1836;  Baur,  Krit  Uebera.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1838,  p.  61888.) 
Seinecke,  Sprachgabe  d.  ersten  Christen.  Lpz.  1842. 

As  the  founder  of  a  new  popular  religion,  and  as  the  Messiah  and  Son  of 
God,  who  must  fulfil  all  the  longings  of  the  people,  and  the  prophecies  of  the 
Scriptures,  Jesus  had  awakened  a  spirit  which  in  independent  spirituality  was 
to  rise  above  every  thing  earthly,  unite  men  in  love,  by  regeneration,  with 
the  Father  of  all,  and  regardless  of  all  national  distinctions,  bring  them  un- 
der one  great  bond  of  brotherhood  in  the  kingdom  of  God.  A  few  faithful 
disciples,  on  whom  exclusively  this  Spirit  had  before  rested,  waited  in  close 
fellowship  at  Jerusalem  for  the  promised  manifestation  of  this  Spirit.  Early 
in  the  morning  of  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  soon  after  the  Resurrection  (about 
33),  on  the  occurrence  of  a  remarkable  natural  phenomenon,  they  felt  con- 
scious of  an  extraordinary  inspiration,  which  they  regarded  as  a  shedding 
forth  of  the  divine  Spirit  upon  their  hearts,  from  without  and  above  them- 
selves. This  internal  influence  manifested  itself  to  others  principally  by  an 
animated  and  copious  style  of  speaking — a  speaking  with  tongues,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Luke,  was  generally  regarded  as  a  decisive  evidence  that  Chris- 
tianity had  arrived  at  its  completion.  («)  Such  phenomena  were  regarded  in 
the  primitive  Church  as  the  gift  of  the  Spirit,  bestowed  without  reference  to 
the  ordinary  state  of  the  heart,  and  were  indeed  frequently  abused  so  as  to 
become  subservient  to  vanity.  (&)  Such  was  the  fact  until  far  into  the  second 

o)  Juven.  Sat  VI.  543.  Senec.  de  superett  (in  August,  de  Civ.  Dei.  VL  11);  JosepM  Antiqq 
VIII.  2.  5.  XVIII.  8.  5. 

a)  Acts  10,  46s.  19,  6.  comp.  8, 15ss.    5)  1  Cor.  14. 


CHAP.  II.    APOST.  CHURCH.    §  29.  PENTECOST.    §  '80.  JERUSALEM.  25 

century,  (c)  and  even  to  a  still  later  period,  in  seasons  and  congregations 
in  which  powerful  excitements  prevailed.  At  this  feast  of  Pentecost,  accord- 
ing to  the  rather  obscure  account  of  Luke,  a  discourse  was  delivered  in  seve- 
ral foreign  languages.  A  power  to  do  this,  however,  was  not  regarded  in 
the  apostolic  Church  as  the  ordinary  attendant  of  this  gracious  gift ;  we  have 
no  account  of  its  repetition,  and  it  is  of  importance  only  as  indicating  that 
Christianity  was  destined  to  become  universal.  But  the  great  fact  which 
then  took  place,  was  the  revelation  of  the  new  spirit,  through  which  the 
Church  was  visibly  and  publicly  to  be  established. 

§  30.    Fortune  of  the  Church  of  Jerusalem. 

The  rage  of  the  people  had  been  appeased  by  the  death  of  Jesus ;  and 
when  the  recollection  of  his  benevolent  deeds  revived,  the  feeling  began  to 
prevail  throughout  the  city,  that  they  had  imbrued  their  hands  in  the  blood 
of  an  innocent  man,  and  possibly  in  that  of  their  own  Messiah.  When,  there- 
fore, his  timid  disciples  suddenly  announced  with  great  earnestness  and  con- 
fidence that  he  had  risen  from  the  dead,  thousands,  by  baptism,  professed 
themselves  his  tdisciples,  and  the  popular  favor  was  turned  toward  them. 
Alarmed  at  this,  and  divided  in  their  own  counsels  (since  many  of  the  Phari- 
sees, out  of  hatred  to  the  Sadducees,  were  willing  that  the  gospel,  which  pro- 
claimed a  resurrection,  should  prevail),  the  Sanhedrim  were  irresolute,  and 
adopted  no  efficient  measures,  while  the  apostles  were  full  of  courage,  will- 
ing to  suffer  shame  for  Christ,  and  determined  to  obey  God  rather  than  men. 
Still,  no  sooner  had  those  friendly  to  their  cause  become  connected  with 
them,  than  the  Galileans,  or  Nazareans,  became,  as  before,  a  much-hated 
sect.  A  party  zealous  for  the  law  were  allowed  to  stone  Stephen  (about  36*, 
and  Herod  Agrippa  looked  upon  it  as  a  popular  measure  to  persecute  the 
Christians.  James,  the  brother  of  John,  was  beheaded,  and  Peter  escaped 
the  same  fate  only  by  mysterious  aid  (44).  (a)  But  when,  on  the  sudden 
death  of  Herod  Agrippa,  (&)  all  Palestine  became  a  Eoman  province,  the  con- 
gregation was  allowed  to  become  tranquilly  established  and  enlarged.  When  • 
most  of  the  disciples  fled,  on  the  persecution  after  the  death  of  Stephen,  the 
apostles  remained  at  Jerusalem.  There  stood  together  those  pillars  of  the 
Church,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  even  as  late  as  near  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
tury. After  that,  James  the  Just,  the  brother  of  our  Lord,  is  mentioned  as 
the  principal  leader  among  the  Christian  Jews,  although  all  authentic  ac- 
counts agree  in  ascribing  to  him  a  high  degree  of  circumspection  and  mod- 
eration even  in  his  Judaism,  (c)  To  judge  from  the  epistle  bearing  his  name, 
he  must  have  been  a  pious  and  earnest  teacher,  especially  in  his  admonitions 
in  favor  of  morality,  but  with  no  prominent  characteristics  peculiar  to  Chris- 
tianity, (d)  By  Jewish  Christians  he  has  since  been  honored  as  a  kind  of  na- 
tional saint ;  and  although  the  disciple  of  Jesus  is  not  very  prominent  in  his 
rigid  discipline,  and  in  the  remote  occasion  of  his  death,  this  was  only  to 

c)  Iren.  V.  6. 

a)  Acts  6,  8—7,  GO;  12, 1-19.  6)  Acts  12,  20ss.  comp.  Josephi  Antiqq.  XIX.  7,  2.  c)  Gal.  2,  9. 
comp.  Acts  15, 13ss.  d )  Liter.  Review,  in  Theile,  Comm.  in  Ep.  Jac.  p.  28ss. ;  F.  IT.  fern,  Char- 
acter u.  Ursprung  d.  Br.  Jak.  (from  the  Tub.  Zeitschr.)  Tub.  1835. 


26  ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  100. 

prove  himself  more  perfectly  a  Christian  hero  when  he  was  called  actually 
to  die.  (e)  The  plain  testimony  of  history  declares,  that  the  High  Priest  Ana- 
nus,  a  Sadducee,  availing  himself  of  the  interregnum  which  took  place  after 
the  death  of  the  procurator  Felix,  had  James,  and  a  few  others,  stoned  tc 
death,  as  transgressors  of  the  Mosaic  law  (63).  (/) 

§  31.    Jewish  Christianity. 

D.  van  Neyat,  Da.  de  Judaeo-Christianismo  ejusque  vi  et  efficacitate,  quam  exseruit  In  rem  Chr. 
Saec.  I.  Lugd.  B.  1828.  comp.  §  85. 

The  dispersion  of  the  congregation  after  the  death  of  Stephen  was  the 
commencement  of  its  propagation  in  other  regions.  The  knowledge  of  Christ 
was  probahly  carried  by  pilgrims  from  Jerusalem  into  all  parts  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  and  yet  hut  a  small  part  of  the  Jewish  population  actually  he- 
came  Christian.  The  principal  Beat  of  Christian  Judaism  among  the  dis- 
persed portion  of  the  nation  was  at  Antioch,  where  the  name  of  Christian 
was  first  applied  to  the  Church  by  those  who  were  not  its  members. 
The  Jewish  law  was  observed  with  the  utmost  strictness.  Christianity  waa 
regarded  as  a  perfected  Judaism,  whose  hopes  were  already  in  part,  or  soon 
to  be  completely  fulfilled.  It  was  only  with  this  understanding  that  it  could 
have  gained  general  acceptance  in  Palestine.  The  Pharisees  were  inclined  to 
receive,  and  zealously  to  advocate  It,  so  far  as  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Jesus  was  concerned ;  and  the  Essenes  were  favorable  to  its  religious 
spirituality.  The  assertion,  that  a  Jewish  Christianity  of  an  Essene  com- 
plexion sprung  up  at  an  early  period,  by  an  accession  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  Essenes  to  the  Church,  is  rendered  probable  by  partial  affinities  be- 
tween the  two  systems,  and  certain  by  witnesses  after  the  middle  of  the  se- 
cond century.  But  as  the  gospel  was  proclaimed  principally  in  public  assem- 
blies, and  as  conversions  from  a  community  so  rigidly  secluded  must  have 
been  extremely  difficult,  we  can  hardly  suppose  that  such  an  accession  could 
have  taken  place  in  any  large  numbers,  till  after  the  dispersion  of  the  Essene 
settlements,  and  the  desolation  of  the  Jewish  country.  Besides,  it  does  not 
appear  that  Christianity,  in  its  earliest  form,  possessed  any  prominent  traits 
of  an  Essene  character.  As  it  was  believed  to  be  intended  for  all  men,  those 
who  looked  upon  it  through  an  old  Hebrew  medium,  must  have  regarded  the 
reception  of  the  law  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  process.  According  to  Luke's 
account  (Acts  x.  11-18),  Peter  could  be  induced  to  baptize  a  proselyte  of  the 
gate,  and  could  justify  himself  for  the  act  before  his  brethren,  in  no  other 
way  than  by  the  assurance  of  a  divine  revelation.  But  as  the  Church  could 
not  at  that  time  conveniently  separate  its  blessings,  the  more  rigid  Jewish 
Christians  demanded  that  baptized  proselytes  should  afterwards  be  circum- 
cised. 

§  32.    Samaritan  Christians  and  Sects. 

The  first  decisive  instance  in  which  Christianity  broke  over  the  pro- 
per limits  of  the  Jewish  nation,  was  that  in  which  the  gospel  was  car- 
ried to  Samaria.  The  seed  which  Jesus,  regardless  of  the  popular  hatred, 

e)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IL  1.  28.   f)  Josephi,  Antiqq.  XX.  9, 1. 


CHAP.  IL    APOS1.  CHUECH.    §  82.  SIMON.    §  38.  PAUL.  27 

had  sown  in  Sychem,  was  harvested  by  the  apostles,  (a)  The  Samaritans, 
however,  were  at  that  time  too  much  taken  up  with  the  claims  of  certain 
founders  of  new  religions  in  their  own  midst,  strange  phantoms  of  the  truth, 
to  he  much  interested  in  a  Messiah  from  Judea.  Dositheus,  professing  to  he 
the  prophet  promised  in  the  likeness  of  Moses  (Deut.  18,  18),  had  appeared 
among  them  with  a  severe  exaggeration  of  the  letter  of  the  law,  and  had 
finally  starved  himself  in  a  cave.  (5)  Simon  Magus  obtained  many  adherents 
in  Samaria,  and  perhaps  also  some  in  Eome.  According  to  his  own  assertion, 
or  at  least  that  of  his  followers,  he  was  an  incarnation  of  the  Spirit  which 
had  created  the  world,  to  deliver  the  soul  of  the  world,  in  bondage  to  the 
earthly  powers,  by  whom  it  had  been  confined  in  a  woman,  and  at  that  time 
in  his  own  wife,  Helena.  With  the  deliverance  of  this  world-soul,  all  be- 
lievers were  also  to  be  released  from  their  imprisonment.  He  was,  however, 
anxious  to  purchase  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  apostles,  and  trembled  before 
their  malediction,  (c)  In  some  accounts,  he  appears  degraded  to  a  mere  pan- 
der to  lewdness,  (d)  and  in  popular  traditions  he  became  the  representative  of  all 
magical  arts  and  their  fortunes  during  his  day,  in  contrast  with  the  triumph- 
ant simplicity  of  pious  faith,  (e)  Menander  also  aspired  to  the  honor  of  be- 
ing a  Messiah,  and  a  divine  incarnation,  with  power  to  make  his  followers 
immortal.  (/)  The  influence  of  each  of  these  three  impostors  was  continued 
through  some  minor  sects  until  some  time  in  the  sixth  century.  They  were 
often  confounded,  by  those  who  were  not  well  informed  on  the  subject,  with 
the  followers  of  Christ ;  and  perhaps  some  of  them,  like  Simon  himself,  at 
one  time,  from  worldly  policy,  may  have  passed  themselves  off  as  such.  It 
is  possible,  too,  that  they  may  sometimes  have  really  claimed  to  be  Chris- 
tians, in  accordance  with  a  doctrine  by  which  all  religions  were  mingled  to- 
gether, and  the  same  God  was  said  to  have  revealed  himself  to  the  Samari- 
tans as  the  Father,  to  the  Jews  as  the  Son,  and  to  the  Gentiles  as  the  Spirit 

§  33.    Paul. 

J.  Pearson,  Annales  Paul.  Hal.  1718.  [Lond.  1638.  4.  transl.  into  Eng.  by  Williams,  Cambr. 
1826. 12.]  W.  Paley,  Horae  Paul,  or  the  Truth  of  the  Scriptural  Hist  of  Paul  evinced.  [With  a 
suppl.  by  E.  Biley.  Lond.  1840.  Illustrated  by  Tate.  Lond.  183T.  Publ.  in  New  York.  1843.  In 
works.  Cambr.  (Mass.)  1830.]  J.  T.  Hemsen,  der  Ap.  P.  Gott.  1830 ;  K.  Schroder,  der  Ap.  P.  Lpz. 
1830SS.  5  vols.;  Tholuck,  Lebensumstande,  Character  u.  Sprache  d.  P.;  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1835.  H.  2. 
and  Verm.  Schrr.  vol.  II.  p.  272ss.)  [Life  and  Char,  of  Paul,  transl.  from  the  Germ,  of  A.  Tho- 
luck,  and  publ.  in  the  Edinb.  Bibl.  Cabinet,  vol.  28.]  IT.  A.  Schott,  ErSrtr.  einiger  Chronol.  Punkte 
in  d.  Lebensgesch.  d.  P.  Jena.  1832 ;  J.  F.  Warm,  ii.  d.  Zeitbest  im  Leben  d.  P. ;  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  f. 
Theol.  1838.  H.  1) ;— L.  Usteri,  Entw.  d."P.  Lehrbegr.  Ziir.  1824.  ed.  5. 1834.  A.  F.  Dahne,  Entw. 
d.  P.  Lehrbegr.  Hal.  1835 ;— Baur,  Panlus  (p.  24.) 

The  development  of  Christianity  as  a  spiritual  religion  for  the  whole 
world,  was  accomplished  principally  by  the  agency  of  Saul,  called  after  the 
Eoman  form  Paul.  The  idea  of  its  liberation  from  Judaism  did  not,  indeed, 
originate  with  him,  for  certain  Hellenists  from  Cyprus  had  before  preached 

a)  Acts  8,  5-1T;  John  4,  85-88.  V)  Orig.  de  princ.  IV,  IT.  (vol.  I.  p.  1T8)  in  Jo.  torn.  13.  (vol.  IV 
p.  237);  Epiphan.  Opp.,  vol.  I.  p.  30.  c)  Acts  8,  9-24;  Justin.  Apol.  I.  c.  26,  56;  Tryph.  c.  120 
(Simoni  Deo  Sancto.  Semoni  Sanco  Deo  Fidio;)  Iren.  I.  20.  Extracts  from  both  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  H 
18.  Epiph.  Haer.  21.  d)  Josephi,  Antiqq.  XX,  7.  2.  e)  Arndb.  II,  12;  Clement,  Homil.  II,  29ss. 
Eecognitt.  I,  72.  IT,  7ss.;  com  p.  Targum  Jeruahalemi,  ad  Num.  31,  8;  Sueton.  Vita  Neron.  c.  12. 
/)  Justini,  Apol.  I.  c.  26;  Epiph.  Haer.  22. 


28  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I/  DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  10D. 

the  gospel  to  the  Greeks  in  Antiooh,  (a)  and  Stephen  did  not  deny  the  charge, 
that  Jesus  had  come  to  destroy  the  temple,  and  to  change  the  ceremonial 
law.  (5)  But  it  was  reserved  for  Paul  successfully  to  justify  and  triumph- 
antly to  carry  out  this  idea.  He  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  was  a 
Koman  citizen  born  at  Tarsus  the  capital  of  Cilicia,  had  been  educated  for  a 
learned  Pharisee  in  the  school  of  Gamaliel  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  by  occupa- 
tion a  tentmaker.  The  traces  of  a  Greek  education,  which  his  writings 
sometimes  exhibit,  may  be  ascribed  either  to  the  school  in  which  he  had  been 
educated,  or  to  his  subsequent  pursuits  and  associations.  With  a  character 
not  only  great  but  exalted,  able  and  energetic  in  worldly  things,  though  full 
of  longings  after  those  which  are  heavenly,  he  placed  himself,  in  defence  of 
the  law  of  his  fathers,  at  the  head  of  those  who  persecuted  the  followers  of 
Christ.  Stephen  fell  before  his  eyes,  and  Gamaliel  warned  the  rulers  that 
they  should  not  contend  against  God.  But  while  journeying  to  Damascus,  to 
persecute  those  Christians  whom  he  might  find  there  (probably  86),  he  and 
his  companions  were  suddenly  struck  to  the  earth  by  fire  from  heaven. 
Christ  now  revealed  himself  to  his  spirit  as  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  and  he 
could  no  longer  resist  the  mighty  power  of  truth,  (c)  His  rich  natural  en- 
dowments were  now  illuminated  by  the  gracious  influences  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  his  former  self  was  cast  off,  and  Christ  alone  lived  within  him.  After 
a  residence  of  three  years  in  Arabia  and  Damascus,  he  fled  from  the  latter 
city  to  Jerusalem  (89),  that  he  might  form  an  acquaintance  with  Peter.  He 
was  soon  after  invited  by  Barnabas  from  Tarsus,  to  assist  in  the  work  of  the 
gospel  at  Antioch.  When  both  had  conveyed  provisions  from  that  congrega- 
tion to  Jerusalem,  for  the  relief  of  the  brethren  there  (44),  they  were  sent 
on  a  missionary  tour  to  Cyprus,  and  some  provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  They 
commenced  their  labors  by  preaching  in  the  synagogues ;  (fl)  but  as  they 
were  generally  treated  with  contempt,  and  often  with  much  abuse  by  the 
Jews,  while  they  were  generally  favored  by  proselytes,  they  soon  began  to 
form  independent  churches,  composed  principally  of  Greeks.  These  they  re- 
garded, according  to  the  custom  at  Antioch,  as  not  bound  to  observe  the  cere- 
monial law,  and  it  was  even  rumored  that  Paul  had  gone  so  far  as  to  prevent 
the  Jews  from  circumcising  their  children.  He  himself,  however,  conformed 
to  the  ritual  of  the  law,  at  least  as  far  as  appeared  expedient  to  prevent  all 
unnecessary  offence  to  his  brethren ;  and  accordingly,  in  Christian  liberty,  he 
was  a  Greek  with  Greeks  and  a  Jew  with  Jews.  But  at  Antioch,  some  from 
Jerusalem  maintained  that  circumcision  was  indispensable  to  salvation.  In 
consequence  of  the  division  created  by  this  party,  Paul  and  Barnabas  under- 
took a  journey  to  Jerusalem  (about  50),  where,  after  hearing  what  God  had 
already  accomplished  by  their  means  in  carrying  the  gospel  to  the  heathen, 
the  three  apostles  of  Jewish  Christianity  extended  to  them  the  hand  of  fel- 
lowship. A  charter  of  privileges  was  then  agreed  upon,  which  was  imme- 

a)  Acts  11,  20-22.  5)  Acts  6, 13s.  c)  Gal.  1,15s.;  1  Cor.  9,  1;  15.  3;  Acts  9, 1-22;  22,  8-16; 
26,9-18;  Ammon,  de  repentina  Sauli  conversion^  ErL  1798  (Opp.  theoL  p.  IBS.);  Greiling,  Hist 
Psychol.  Vers.  u.  d.  plotzl.  Ueberg.  d.  P.  (Henke'a  Mus.  1806.  voL  III.  p.  220.)  Strauss,  Streitschrr. 
II.  1.  p.  61ss. ;  comp.  K  Bengel,  Obss.  de  P.  ad  rem  Chr.  convere.  2  P.  (Opp.  Hamb.  1834) ;— C.  G. 
Kuchler,  de  anno,  quo  P.  ad  sacra  chr.  conversus  est,  Lpa,  182i  d)  Comp.  Rom.  1,  16;  ?,  IM. 


CHAP.  II.    APOST.  CHURCH.    §  83.    PAUL.  29 

diately  sent  forth  in  a  solemn  edict  to  all  Gentile  Christians,  forbidding  any 
yoke  to  be  imposed  upon  them,  except  a  few  observances  like  those  which 
were  required  of  proselytes.  This  proceeding  could  not  be  reconciled  with 
the  original  covenant  (Gal.  2,  Iss.)  without  considerable  ingenuity  of  rea- 
soning, and  was  not  very  consistent  with  the  course  which  Paul  sometimes 
pursued,  but  it  was  a  well-intended  scheme  to  harmonize  those  conflicting 
tendencies  which  were  just  springing  up  in  the  Church,  and  of  which  tradi- 
tion gives  us  an  account  (Acts  15).  (e)  It  was  not  until  Paul,  fully  believing 
himself  called  of  God  to  be  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  had  extensively  pro- 
pagated the  Church  among  the  Greeks,  that  it  became  practically  indepen- 
dent of  the  prejudices  which  prevailed  in  Palestine.  During  his  two  long 
journeys,  and  his  protracted  residences  in  Ephesus  and  Corinth,  he  established 
numerous  churches  in  the  several  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia,  and 
Achaia,  encountering  far  greater  difficulties  (2  Cor.  11,  20ss.)  than  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Hated  equally  by  Jews  and  by  Jewish 
Christians,  with  many  presentiments  of  his  approaching  death,  he  went, 
about  Pentecost  in  the  year  58,  to  Jerusalem.  There,  abandoned  if  not  be- 
trayed by  Christians,  he  was  delivered  from  the  hands  of  the  exasperated 
mob  in  the  temple  by  the  Roman  guards.  For  two  years  he  was  kept  in 
bonds  as  a  Roman  citizen,  by  the  procurator  Felix  in  Cesarea ;  and  when 
Festus  came  into  the  same  office,  as  the  successor  of  Felix,  in  consequence  of 
his  appeal  to  the  emperor  he  was  sent  late  in  the  year  60  to  Rome.  After 
a  stormy  voyage,  he  was  kept  in  slight  confinement  in  that  city,  and  during 
two  years  he  labored  in  behalf  of  the  great  object  of  his  life,  not  only  with 
those  around  him,  but  by  means  of  epistles  and  friends  with  those  at  a  dis- 
tance. It  is  hardly  possible  that  he  could' have  survived  the  persecution  under 
Nero,  but  he  was  probably  beheaded  at  Rome  (64).  That  he  was  liberated, 
and  that  he  then  for  the  first  time  visited  the  utmost  limits  of  "Western 
Europe ,(/)  and  finally  ended  his  life  during  a  second  imprisonment  in  Rome, 
appears  more  like  a  learned  conjecture  than  an  ancient  tradition,  (g)  His 
epistles  abound  in/abbinical  explanations,  in  arguments  stated  in  the  form  of 
bold  and  complex  syllogisms,  in  evidences  of  a  highly  wrought  intelligence 
in  connection  with  a  profound  spirit  glowing  with  benevolence,  and  in  waves 
of  thought  which  appear  to  straggle  with  and  break  upon  one  another.  His 
style  was  concise  and  often  difficult,  but  he  always  had  the  right  word  for 
every  variety  of  condition,  sometimes  powerfully  convincing  or  threatening, 
and  at  other  times  carrying  all  along  with  him  by  his  cordial  expressions  of 
affection.  A  nature  like  his  may  have  ascribed  some  things  to  a  divine  reve- 
lation through  visions,  which  were  the  result  of  intelligent  reflection,  and 
which  may  have  been  influenced  by  his  peculiar  physical  temperament.  (7i) 

6)  SchnecJceriburger,  Apostelgesch.  p.  71ss. ;  Schwegler,  nachapostol.  Zeitalt.  vol.  I.  p.  llGss. ; 
comp.  Neander,  [Hist  of  Plant  and  Train.  &c.  B.  III.  Ch.  4  p.  76ss.  3  ed.  Philad.  1844.  8.]. 
/)  Clem.  Rom.  Ep.  I.  ad  Corinth,  c.  5.  g)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  II,  22 ;— J.  P.  Mynster,  de  ultimis  annis 
muneris  ap.  a  P.  gesti.  Havn.  1815  \  J.T.L.  Dans,  de  loco  Eusebii,  qui  do  altera  P.  captivitate  agit, 
Jen.  1816.  4;—K  F.  R.  Wolf,  de  alt  P.  captiv.  dss.  II.  Lps.  1819s. ;  Baur,  die  Sogen.  Pastoralbr.  d. 
Paul.  Stuttg.  1835.  p.  63ss ;  comp.  Tub.  Zeitschr.  1838.  H.  3.  §  48ss. ;  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1841.  H.  1, 
/i)  The  visions  related  by  Luke  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  allusions  to  similar  things  in  gen- 
ral  in  the  Clementines,  are  confirmed  in  2  Cor.  12, 1-9. 


SO  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  109 

His  doctrines  are  essentially  tlie  same  with  those  of  Jesus,  so  far  as  they  pro- 
ceed from  the  acknowledgment  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah,  and  are  the  views 
of  a  profoundly  religious  mind,  affected  by  similar  rational  prepossessions. 
They  were,  however,  at  the  same  time,  independently  founded  upon  his  own 
peculiar  life  and  conflicts.  In  the  first,  he  had  experienced  the  remarkable 
contrast  between  a  period  of  enmity  tc  Christ,  and  another  in  which  Christ 
had  become  his  only  life.  This  private  experience  he  regarded  as  a  specimen 
of  the  life  of  mankind  fallen  from  God  by  sin,  and  reconciled  to  God  by 
Christ,  and  hence  his  evangelical  instructions  were  specially  directed  to  the 
awakening  of  the  consciousness  of  sinfulness.  His  conflicts  had  been  princi- 
pally directed  to  the  liberation  of  the  Christian  spirit  from  the  Jewish  law. 
He  therefore  maintained,  that  if  our  whole  salvation  must  come  from  Christ, 
the  law  is  not  necessary  to  salvation.  The  connection  between  these  princi- 
ples was  made  out  by  showing,  that  as  man  has  not  fulfilled  the  law,  the 
works  of  the  law  can  only  lead  to  condemnation,  and  salvation  can  be  ob- 
tained only  by  a  complete  surrender  of  the  heart  to  Christ ;  i.  e.  by  faith 
alone,  not  by  a  descent  from  Abraham,  not  by  the  merit  of  our  own  works, 
but  wholly  from  the  free  grace  of  God.  Paul  acknowledged  that  the  old 
covenant  was  divine,  but  ho  contended  that  it  was  completed  by  the  new 
covenant  of  God  with  man  by  Christ,  so  that  now  it  had  become  an  abroga- 
ted institution.  In  his  estimation,  Christ  was  the  substance  of  all  religion, 
and  the  sole  ruler  of  the  world.  The  advent  of  Christ  toVrar  world  was  the 
lofty  central  point  of  all  human  history,  from  which  he  looked  back  upon  the 
preliminary  revelation  which  had*  been  given  to  Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  per- 
verted by  them  both,  and  forward  to  the  final  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of 
God,  when  all  opposition  shall  be  overcome,  and  Christ  himself  shall  with- 
draw, that  God  may  be  all  in  all. 

§84.    Peter. 

Mayerkoff,  Einl  in  d.  Petrln.  Schrf.  Iltmb.  1885;  comp.  K  Hast,  Leben  Jeso.  p.  112s.     [A. 
Lee,  Life  of  the  Ap.  Peter.  Lond.  1862. 12.] 

The  practical  energy  which  Peter  possessed,  and  on  which  our  Lord  him- 
self appears  to  have  founded  considerable  expectations,  made  him  the  princi- 
pal representative  at  least  of  the  external  affairs  of  the  Church,  as  long  as  he 
tarried  at  Jerusalem  (until  about  60).  At  a  later  period,  when  at  Antioch, 
principally  from  regard  to  particular  persons,  he  relapsed  to  the  exclusively 
national  view  of  Christianity,  he  was  decidedly  opposed  by  Paul  (Gal.  2, 
lls.),  who  advocated  a  gospel  free  for  all  mankind.  In  an  apostle  so  prone 
to  extremes,  such  an  act,  which  almost  seems  like  a  second  denial  of  his 
Lord,  is  no  more  incredible  on  the  ground  that  he  had  before  not  only  toler- 
ated, but  even  been  the  first  to  defend  Gentile  Christianity,  than  it  was  in 
Barnabas.  But  his  former  relation  to  Paul  appears  never  to  have  been  fully 
restored,  for  the  first  epistle  which  bears  his  name  contains  no  conclusive 
evidence  of  this,  and  in  the  memory  of  the  next  generation,  Peter  and  Paul 
were  at  the  head  of  opposite  parties  in  the  Church.  According  to  testimony 
derived  from  times  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  mingled,  indeed, 
with  many  errors,  legends  and  party  statements,  but  proving  what  must  have 


CHAP.  II.    APOST.  CHUPvCH.    §  34.  PETER.    §  83.  PAETIE3.  3l 

been  the  opinion  of  the  Eoman  Church,  Peter  suffered  crucifixion  at  Rome 
(about  67).  (a)  Jerome  is  the  first  who  informs  us  (catal.  c.  1),  that  he  at 
one  time  resided  at  Antioch,  and  afterwards  was  for  twenty-five  years  Bishoj 
of  Borne.  '  Although  satisfactory  evidence  from  the  history  of  Paul  proves 
that  he  could  not  have  resided  for  so  long  a  time  at  Rome,  and  even  older 
traditions  show  that  he  could  have  sustained  no  particular  office  in  the  church 
of  that  place,  since  they  mention,  in  different  orders  of  succession,  Linus, 
Anacletus,  and  Clement,  as  the  first  bishops  of  Rome ;  (&)  it  is  nevertheless 
certain,  that  wherever  Peter  was,  his  personal  influence  would  always  give 
him  the  first  position,  unless  Paul  had  been  by  his  side.  His  character  is  well 
reflected  in  the  legend  of  his  flight,  from  which  he  was  recalled  by  some 
pungent  reproof  from  the  lips  of  Christ  himself,  and  in  that  of  his  crucifixion 
with  his  head  downwards,  (c) 

§  35.    Position  of  Parties  in  the  Time  of  Paul. 

In  its  progress  among  the  heathen,  the  gospel  necessarily  appealed  entire- 
ly to  the  general  religious  spirit  which  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  recognized 
even  among  them,  (a)  since,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  myths  which  might 
serve  as  types  of  Christ,  and  some  prophetic  announcement,  made  by  the 
Platonic  philosophy  with  which  the  apostles  were  unacquainted,  it  found  no 
promises  handed  down  from  the  fathers,  and  only  the  most  obscure  expecta- 
tions. Even  after  Christianity  had  torn  itself  entirely  away  from  the  Mosaic 
law,  in  consequence  of  its  own  origin  as  well  as  of  that  of  its  principal 
teachers,  the  Jewish  element  was  still  prominent  in  the  phrases,  doctrines,  di- 
vine worship,  and  polity  of  the  Church,  and  it  was  not  remodelled  until  it 
gradually  became  affected  by  Grecian  modes  of  thought.  Jewish  and  Gen- 
tile Christianity  existed  side  by  side,  either  mutually  recognizing  or  exclud- 
ing one  another.  The  former  was  sustained  by  the  influence  of  those  who 
had  been  called  the  pillars  among  the  apostles,  and  possessed  an  external  sup- 
port in  the  necessities  of  the  poor  saints  at  Jerusalem.  (5)  An  internal  basis 
was  also  supplied,  by  the  concession,  that  it  was  a  duty  which  national  if  not 
religious  piety  required,  for  a  Jew  to  adhere  firmly  to  the  law.  Each  of  these 
forms  of  Christianity,  however,  must  finally  have  felt,  that  its  own  rights  de- 
pended upon  the  rejection  of  the  other.  It  was  therefore  always  urged  to 
adopt  the  exclusive  policy,  which  was  at  first  precipitated  by  certain  zealots 
among  the  Jewish  Christians,  perhaps  through  a  refusal  of  social  intercourse, 
or  possibly  by  the  uneasiness  created  in  the  minds  of  some  Gentile  Chris- 

a)  Dionysius  Corinth,  and  Cajus  Rom.  in  Eu*eb.  H.  ecc.  II,  25;  (The  doubtful  testimony  of  Pa- 
pias,  ib.  II,  15 ;)  Iren.  Ill,  1.  8 ;  Tertul.  c.  Marc.  IV.  5 ;— S.  van  Til,  de  Petro  Eomae  martyre,  non 
pontifice,  L.  B.  1710.  4;  J.  G.  fferbst,  in  d.  Tub.  Quartalschr.  1820.  H.  4.  p.  567ss. ;  on  the  other 
hand,  Fr.  Spanhemli,  Ds.  de  ficta  profectione  Petri  in  urbem  Eomam.  (Opp.  Miscell.  Lugd.  B.  1708. 
Th.  II.  P.  331S6.);  £aur,  in  d.  Tub.  Zeitschr.  1831.  H.  4;  a  F.  v.  Ammon,  Fortb.  d,  Chr.  z.  Welt- 
rel.  Lpz.  1840.  vol.  IV.  p.  819ss.  &)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  2 ;  Rujmi,  Praef.  ad  Eecogn.  Petri ;  even 
the  Catalogue  Liberianus,  about  354.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most  recent  Cath.  assertion :  Dbl- 
tinger,  KGesch.  vol.  I.  Abth.  1.  p.  65sa ;  Windischmann,  Vindiciae  Petrinae,  Eatisb.  1836- 
Stenglein,  in  d.  Tub.  Quartalschr.  1840.  H.  2s.;  comp.  Baur,  z.  Literatur  d.  Petrus-Sage,  in  his 
Paulus,  p.  671ss.  c)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  1 ;  Hieron.  cataL  c.  1.  On  the  other  hand :  Tertul.  de 
pracscr.  c.  86.  [Art  in  Kitto'a  Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit  vol.  V.] 

a)  Horn.  1, 19 ;  Acts  17,  22-29.    6)  Gal.  2, 10 :  1  Cor.  16,  Iss. 


32  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  L    DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  100. 

tians  with  respect  to  the  law.  (c)  If,  therefore,  Paul  himself  spoke  somewhat 
equivocally  of  the  exorbitant  respect  paid  to  the  apostles  of  Jewish  Chris- 
tianity (2  Cor.  12,  11.  Gal.  2,  6),  his  apostleship,  which  was  referred  to  by 
every  opponent  as  destitute  of  all  external  proof  of  a  divine  call,  would  be 
barely  tolerated  by  the  more  liberal  portion  of  the  Jewish  Christians,  and  by 
the  more  intolerant  portion  would  be  positively  rejected.  Jewish  Christian 
ity  was  certainly  in  the  ascendant  in  Palestine,  and  there,  until  the  violent 
measures  used  by  Hadrian,  no  bishops  at  Jerusalem  were  chosen  except  from 
among  the  circumcision,  with  a  decided  preference  for  the  acquaintance  or 
kindred  of  Jesus  according  to  the  flesh.  ((I)  In  like  manner,  in  the  circle  of 
Paul's  influence,  Gentile  Christianity  alone  could  have  been  predominant ; 
and  in  proof  of  this,  an  undeniable  document  exists  in  the  epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans, in  which  the  principal  idea  is  the  overwhelming  superiority  of  the 
number  of  Gentiles  in  the  Church.  It  is  not,  however,  probable,  that  after 
Paul  had  been  removed,  and  the  destruction  of  the  holy  city  seemed  like  a 
divine  judgment  against  Judaism,  any  churches  composed  of  persons  born 
and  educated  as  Greeks  or  Romans  would  be  persuaded  to  observe  the  Jew- 
ish law,  although  attempts  were  not  wanting  even  long  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  second  century  to  form  associations,  and  exclude  members  on 
this  ground.  Accordingly,  when  we  find  that  Hegesippus  called  the  Church, 
which  had  existed  prior  to  the  death  of  the  apostles,  a  pure  virgin,  and  on 
his  way  to  Rome  found  what  he  called  the  irue  doctrine  with  the  bishops,  we 
conclude  that  he  must  have  belonged  to  that  class  of  Jewish  Christians,  which, 
after  the  example  of  the  prophets,  and  of  our  Lord  himself,  was  not  op- 
posed to  a  Gentile  Christianity,  (e)  The  church  at  Corinth,  soon  after  its  or- 
ganization, presents  a  picture  of  the  parties  formed  especially  on  these  con- 
flicting views.  One  party,  which  assumed  the  name  of  Peter,  may  have  re- 
garded at  least  some  parts  of  the  Mosaic  law  as  still  in  force,  while  another, 
called  after  the  name  of  Paul,  looked  upon  the  doctrines  advocated  by  him 
as  exclusively  Christian.  A  third  party  could  find  true  Christianity  nowhere 
so  well  presented,  as  in  the  method  of  instruction  adopted  by  the  learned 
Alexandrian,  Apollos.  A  fourth,  if  it  was  not  a  mere  branch  of  the  Petrine 
party,  maintained  that  Paul  had  never  enjoyed  the  apostolic  privilege  of  a 
direct  intercourse  with  Chris^  and  appropriated  to  itself  exclusively  the  name 
of  Christ,  because  it  rejected  all  apostolic  traditions,  and  relied  entirely  upon 
its  immediate  union  with  Christ.  (/)  Paul  did  indeed  defend  his  apostolical 
authority  against  these  various  parties,  by  whom  the  unity  of  the  Corinthian 
Church  was  not  destroyed,  but  he  did  so  only  on  the  ground  that  he  had  re- 
ceived it  from  Christ  himself.  He  did  not  deny,  that  every  church  had  a 
right  to  use,  for  its  own  edification,  the  various  gifts  of  its  religious  teachers, 
but  he  warned  them  that  every  thing  which  was  not  built  upon  Christ  was 
perishable.  He  insisted  that  the  Christian  was  a  new  man,  after  the  image 

c)  C.  Buob,  de  abrog.  legis  Mos.  ex  Petri,  Jac.  et  Jo.  itemque  Ecc.  ab  iisdem  constltutarum 
sententia.  Monte-  Albano,  1842 ;  C.  E.  Scharling,  de  Paulo  tjusque  adversaries,  Haun.  1336.  d)  Euseb. 
II.  ecc.  IV,  5 ;  Sulp.  Sev.  H.  sacr.  II,  31. 

e)  Emeb.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  32.  IV,  22.  /)  1  Cor.  1,  -llss.  comp.  2  Cor.  10,  7 ;— Baur,  u.  d.  Chris- 
tuspartei  in  d.  Cor.  Gemeinde  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  1831.  P.  4.  comp.  1836.  p.  4),  n.  Paulus,  p.  260ss. ; 
Dan.  Schenkel,  de  Ecc.  Corinthia  primaeva  factionibus  tarbata,  Bas.  183S;  Dr.  J.  H.  OoldKorn,  d 


CHAP.  II.    APOST.  CHUECH.    §  85.  PARTIES.    §  86.  JOHN.  33 

of  God,  and  was  no  longer  a  Greek,  or  a  Jew,  or  a  Barbarian,  but  Christ  was  ah 
in  all.  (g}  A  new  tendency,  having  its  origin  among  Jewish  Christians,  made 
its  appearance  at  Colosse,  which  promised  its  votaries  a  mysterious  kind  of 
knowledge,  and  a  power  over  the  spiritual  world,  on  condition  that  certain 
unnatural  austerities  were  undergone.  (A)  On  the  other  hand,  Paul  main- 
tained, that  the  highest  wisdom  was  to  be  found  in  the  simple  gospel  of 
Christ,  and  that  a  Christian  had  a  rational  freedom  allowed  him  with  respect 
to  earthly  things. 

§  36.    John. 

Lucke,  Yers.  e.  Vollst  Einl.  in  d.  Offenb.  Job.  u.  in  d.  apokal.  Lit.  Bonn.  1832.  u.  Com.  u.  d.  Ev. 
Job.  Bonn.  ed.  3.  1840.  vol.  I.  Einleitung;  Bawmgarten-Crusius,1'h6Q\.  Ausl.  d.  Job.  Scbr.  Jen. 
1843.  vol.  I.  Einleitung;— JT.  Frommann,  d.  Jo.  Lehrbegr.  Lps.  1839;  K.  E.  Kostlin,  Lebrbegr.  d. 
Ev.  u.  d.  Briefe  Jo.  Brl.  1848;— £.  C.  J.  Lutzelberger,  d.  Kirchl.  Tradition  u.  d.  Ap.  Job.  in  ibrer 
Grnndlosigkdt.  Lps.  1840;  JBaur,  u.  d  Composition  u.  d.  Cbarakter  d.  Job.  Ev.  (Zeller's  Jahrb.  1844. 
P.  1.  3s.) ;  E.  Zeller,  d.  aussern  Zeignisse  u.  Dasein  u.  Urspr.  d.  4  Ev.  (Ibicf.  1845.  P.  4) ;— J.  A.  H. 
Ebrard,  de  Ev.  Job.  u.  die  neueste  Hypotbese  u.  s.  Entsteb.  Zur.  1845; — W.  Grimm,  Job.  in  Ersch. 
a.  Gruber's  Encykl.  sect.  II.  vol.  XXII. ;  comp.  Ifase,  Leben  Jesu.  p.  5ss.  112s.  [A.  Ifilgenfeld,  ± 
Ev.  u.  d.  Briefe  Jo.  nacb  ibr.  Lehrbegr.  dargest  Halle.  1849.] 

As  far  back  as  the  recollection  of  the  churches  in  Anterior  Asia  extended, 
John  appears  as  the  central  point  of  interest  to  all  the  congregations  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  moving  in  the  same  scene  of  action  which  had  previously  been 
under  the  care  of  Paul  at  Ephesus.  He  is  represented  as  indignantly  con- 
tending against  erroneous  teachers,  whether  of  the  Jewish  or  Gentile  parties, 
or  as  reclaiming  by  love  those  that  were  lost,  and  binding  all  together  in  uni- 
ty, (a)  He  is  said,  by  the  legends,  to  have  been  miraculously  delivered  from 
martyrdom  at  Rome.  (5)  A  residence  in  Patmos,  which,  according  to  his  own 
narration  (Rev.  1,  9),  must  have  occurred  in  the  time  of  Galba,  was  changed 
by  popular  rumor  in  the  Church,  into  a  banishment  under  Domitian.  All 
traditions,  however,  agree  in  declaring,  that  he  attained  an  age  in  which  the 
heart  alone  remains  vigorous,  (c)  and  that  he  finally  fell  asleep  in  the  midst 
of  his  disciples,  in  the  reign  of  Trajan.  His  life  and  death  were  vividly  re- 
flected in  many  legendary  accounts,  the  earliest  of  which  were  noticed  by 
himself  in  his  gospel  (John  21,  22s.)  (d}  Even  in  the  middle  of  the  centu- 
ry, he  was  the  third  among  the  leaders  of  the  Jewish  Christians.  The  book 
of  Revelations,  whose  authenticity  is  pretty  well  confirmed,  which  is  evi- 
dently conformed  to  Jewish  types  and  imagery,  and  must  have  been  com- 
posed prior  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  manifestly  corresponds  to  such 
a  position.  In  that  book,  the  chosen  first-fruits  around  the  throne  of  the 
Lamb  belonged  exclusively  to  the  twelve  tribes,  but  beyond  these  were  an 
innumerable  company  from  among  the  Gentiles,  with  palms  and  white  robes, 
praising  also  the  Lamb  that  had  been  slain,  (e)  The  natural  progress  of  a 
thoughtful  man,  as  it  is  evident  the  author  of  the  fourth  gospel  was,  and  as 

Cbristuspart.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1840.  P.  2) ;  Ddfine,  die  Christuspart.  Hal.  1841 ;  T.  F.  Kniewel, 
Ecc.  Cor.  vetust.  dissensiones.  Gedan.  1842.  4.  g)  1  Cor.  3 ;  Col.  3, 10s.  K)  Col.  2  ;—Schneckenbur- 
ger,  u.  d.  Irrlebrer  zu  Col.  (anhang  z.  Schr.  u.  d.  Proselytentaufe.  Brl.  1828.  u.  Beitr.  z.  Einl.  N.  14) ; 
Rheinwald,  de  pseud odoctorib.  Coloss.  Veron.  Kben.  1834.  4. 

a)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  V,  24.  Ill,  23.  6)  Tertul.  de  praescr.  c.  36.  c)  JEeron.  in  Ep.  ad  Gal.  6.  d)  Au- 
gustine, de  Trin.  VI,  39;  Pseudo-JTippolyt.  de  consummat.  inundi  (Hipp.  Opp.  ed.  Fabr.  Append. 
p.  14) ;  comp.  Fdbrieii,  Cod.  Apoc.  Tb.  II.  p.  538.  e)  Rev.  7,  4-10.  comp.  Jo.  4,  22. 

3 


34  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOEY.    PER.  I.    DIV.  1.    TILL  A.  D.  100. 

one  so  specially  beloved  of  the  Lord  must  have  been,  during  a  period  exten- 
sive as  that  of  an  ordinary  generation,  and  spent  among  churches  which  had 
enjoyed  Greek  culture  and  the  labors  of  Paul,  will  sufficiently  account  for 
any  apparent  discrepancies,  or  tokens  of  advancement,  which  one  may  notice 
in  passing  from  the  Revelations  to  the  Gospel  and  the  first  epistle  of  John. 
In  these  later  productions,  the  same  spiritual  and  comprehensive  views  of 
Christianity  prevail,  which  are  so  manifest  in  the  epistles  of  Paul,  but  they 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  mental  conflicts  of  the  writer  had  passed  away. 
This  gospel,  moreover,  seems  to  appeal  not  so  much  to  a  spirit  conscious  of 
sin,  and  specially  feeling  its  need  of  salvation,  as  to  something  exalted  in  the 
existing  nature  of  man,  and  its  aspirations  after  perfection.  Christianity, 
therefore,  appears  there  to  consist  not  so  much  in  mere  faith  in  the  mercy  of 
God  through  Christ,  as  more  immediately  in  love,  and  in  the  union  of  tho 
divine  and  human  in  the  heart,  which  was  complete  in  Christ,  and  is  de- 
signed for  our  race.  The  incarnate  Logos  is  a  borrowed  symbol  of  this  uni- 
ty, partially  indicated  "before  in  the  epistles  of  Paul,  (/)  but  presented  in  the 
gospel  in  a  dogmatic  form.  It  there  appears  as  a  celestial  being  not  belong- 
ing to  our  race,  but  taking  the  place  of  beloved  man,  although,  in  conse- 
quence of  personal  recollections  of  Jesus,  it  is  pervaded  by  historical  facts  of 
the  most  perfect  human  character.  The  love  which  John  inculcated,  is  pow- 
erful enough  to  conquer  death,  and  penetrate  through  all  obstacles  up  to  God. 
The  most  flourishing  form  of  Christianity,  in  past  or  future  times,  is  here 
partially  presented.  It  consists  in  a  life,  even  on  earth,  of  tranquil,  unbro- 
ken, and  everlasting  rest  in  God,  in  which  all  apparent  schism  between  tho 
present  and  the  future,  the  human  and  the  divine,  has  been  overcome. 

§  37.  Parties  in  the  Time  of  John. 

The  same  subjects  which  were  destined  to  agitate  the  Church  in  future 
ages,  began  already  to  be  discussed  among  opposing  parties.  The  various 
views  and  sects  which  had  formerly  prevailed  among  the  Jews,  were  certain- 
ly carried  forward  in  the  very  commencement,  so  as  to  produce  similar  vari- 
eties among  Jewish  Christians.  Even  the  different  conceptions  which  were 
then  entertained  of  Jesus,  had  their  origin  in  the  national  expectations  of 
the  Jews  respecting  their  Messiah.  But  as  every  account  we  have  of  them 
belongs  to  a  later  age,  it  may  be  that  the  first  power  of  Christian  love,  com- 
bined with  the  external  influence  of  Gentile  Christians,  was  then  sufficient  to 
hold  together  even  opposing  elements.  The  feelings  of  bitterness  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  prominent  recollections  of  the  Church  in  the  next  century,  the 
apostle  John  entertained  toward  Cerinthus,  were  too  peculiar  to  have  been 
awakened  by  the  existence  of  any  thing  in  the  latter  of  a  merely  Jewish 

/)  The  passage  in  1  Cor.  8, 6. 15, 4T.  cannot  be  explained  away ;  hence  the  more  distinct  and  prominent 
references  to  a  Son  of  God  who  existed  before  the  world,  and  created  it,  which  are  found  in  the  Epp.  to 
the  Colossians,  Ephesians  and  Philippians,  form  no  ground  for  suspecting  the  genuineness  of  those 
writings.  Although  all  views  not  merely  accidental  must  have  their  appropriate  time  of  develop- 
ment, the  Jewish  notions  of  the  Messiah  and  the  Alexandrian  doctrine  of  the  Logos  were  so  pre- 
adjusted  to  one  another,  that  they  might  easily  be  supposed  to  have  been  all  combined  together 
In  a  single  night 


CHAP.  II.    A  POST.  CHURCH.    §  87.  CERINTHUS.    §  88.  TRADITIONS.  35 

character,  (a)  On  the  supposition  that  this  Cerinthus  taught,  as  he  is  said, 
especially  in  Koman  and  Alexandrian  accounts,  to  have  done,  that  a  millen- 
nial kingdom  of  the  most  sensuous  nature  was  to  be  expected,  that  the  ob- 
servance of  the  law  was  indispensable  to  salvation,  and  that  the  origin  of 
Jesus  was  merely  human,  (5)  such  views  were  at  that  time  by  no  means  un- 
common. If,  as  Irenaeus  declares,  he  regarded  the  Creator  of  the  world  as 
an  inferior  being,  so  that  the  Most  High  God  was  not  revealed  until  he  ap- 
peared through  Christ  as  a  superior  being,  in  connection  with  the  man 
Jesus,  from  the  time  of  the  baptism  till  the  crucifixion,  (c)  he  must,  like  John 
liimself,  have  meant  that  the  law  was  only  intended  for  the  development  of 
the  kingdom,  and  that  the  sensuous  glory  of  that  kingdom  was  merely  alle- 
gorical, (d)  In  conformity  with  his  Alexandrian  education,  he  regarded  the 
Creator  of  the  world  as  an  intermediate  divine  being,  in  the  service  of  the 
supreme  celestial  Deity,  (e)  Those  who  looked  upon  matter  as  essentially 
evil,  in  accordance  with  a  doctrine  springing  from  an  overwrought  Platon- 
ism,  or  from  Hindoo  speculations,  and  certainly  prevalent  in  Alexandria,  must 
have  been  offended  at  the  idea  of  a  revelation  of  Deity  through  sensible  ob- 
jects. Accordingly,  the  various  forms  of  JDocetism  agreed  in  declaring,  that 
every  thing  corporeal  in  Christ  was  only  in  appearance,  and  for  the  manifes- 
tation of  the  Spirit,  and  that  his  life  was  merely  a  continual  Theophany.  It 
was  against  the  subtilizing  process  which  this  view  rendered  necessary  with 
respect  to  the  evangelical  history,  that  testimony  was  borne  probably  even  in 
the  epistles  of  John,  and  certainly  in  those  which  bear  the  name  of  Igna- 
tius. (/)  The  Nicolaitans,  whose  name  was  doubtless  symbolical,  and  founded 
upon  traditional  recollections,  were  merely  the  first  representatives  of  a  large 
class  of  thinkers  in  subsequent  times,  who  abused  the  spiritual  superiority  of 
Christianity  to  all  corporeal  objects,  to  give  countenance  to  the  Greek  frivol- 
ity with  respect  to  the  relations  of  the  sexes,  (g) 

§  3S.     Traditions  respecting  the  Apostles, 

The  stories  which  have  been  related  with  regard  to  a  division  of  the 
world  by  lot  among  the  apostles,  of  the  composition  of  a  creed  in  Jerusalem 
at  the  time  of  their  separation  twelve  years  after  the  Ascension,  of  their 
celibacy  or  continence,  and  of  their  martyrdom,  belong  to  the  legends  of  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  According  to  earlier  traditions,  which,  however, 
present  no  individuality  of  character,  Thomas  went  to  Parthia,  Andrew  to 
Scythia,  («)  Bartholomew  to  India,  (5)  and  Philip  died  at  Hierapolis,  in  Phry- 
gia.  In  one  of  the  most  copious,  a  story  is  told,  and  highly  embellished,  of 
a  mission  of  Thaddeus  to  Abgarus,  prince  of  Edessa,  in  consequence  of  an 
earlier  correspondence  between  Jesus  and  that  prince,  (c) 

a)  Iren.  Ill,  3  -^Schmidt,  Orinth  «.  judais.  Christ  In  s.  Bibl.  £  Kritik.  u.  Ex.  vol.  I.  p.  ISlss.; 
Pauliis,  Hist.  Cer.  {Introd.  in  N.  T.  cap.  selectiora.  Jea.  1799) ;  comp.  Jlaur,  Chr.  Gnosis.  Tub.  1835. 
p.  117.  403SS.  Z>)  JEuseb.  H,  ecc.  Ill,  28 ;  Epiph.  faaer.  28.  c)  Iren.  I,  26.  d)  Iren.  V,  S3.  e)  TJie- 
odoret.  Haeret  fabb.  II,  3;  Iren.  1, 26.  /)  1  Jo.  1, 1-3;  4,  2s. ;  2  Jb.  7;  Ignatius  ad  Ephes.  c.  7. 18. 
»d  Smyrn.  c.  1-8  ;—A.  H.  Niemeyer,  de  Docetis.  Hal.  1823.  4.  g)  Rev.  2,  6. 14ss. ;  2  Pet  2, 15 ;  Jud.  11, 
viKa.vv}>v\a.6v,  B5  3^2  ,  comp.  Iren.  I,  26;  Clem.  Strom.  II.  p.  490s.;  III.  p.  522s.;—- Mun- 
ccher,  Yermuth.  u.  "d.  Nik'olaiten  (Gabler's  Journ.  f.  TheoL  Lit.  1803.  vol.  V.  p.  17ss.);  Ewald,.  in 
Apocal.  Jo.  p.  110 ;  Gfrorer,  Gesch.  d.  TJrchr.  I,  2.  p.  402ss. 

<i)  Euneb.  H.  .ecc.  Ill,  1,    6)  Ibid,  V,  10,    c)  1WL  I,  13;  K.  Ease,  Leben  Jesu.  t».  lls. 


S6  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.    ^ER.  I.    DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  I>.  100. 

§  39.    Apostolical  Fathers  of  the  First  Century. 

Patrum  qui  temporibus  apostolorum  floruerant,  Opp.  ed.  Coteleriiw.  Par.  1672.  rep.  Clericus, 
Amst  (1698.)  1724  2  Th.  C ;  Patrum  app.  Opp.  ed.  Rusel,  Lond.  1796.  2  Th. ;  Patrum  app.  Opp.  ed. 
ffefele.  Tub.  (1839. 1843.)  'J847.  [4.  Sutler,  Lives  of  tho  Fathers,  Martyrs,  &c.  Lond.  1883.  2  vols.  8 , 
E.  Blckerstet\  The  Chr.  Fathers  of  the  First  and  Second  Centuries.  Lond.  1845.  12 ;  Abp.  Wake, 
Ap.  Fathers.  Lond.  1817.  8.]—  Heyns,  Juniw  et  van  Gilse,  Commentt  de  Patrum  app.  doctrlua  mo- 
rali.  Lugd.  1833.  4.  \UilgerfeU,  d.  Erforschungen  u.  d.  Schrr.  Ap.  Vater.  BerL  1854.  8.] 

When  the  contemporaries  and  disciples  of  the  apostles  left  -behind  them 
any  writings,  they  were  distinguished  by  the  ancient  Church  as  apostolic 
fathers.  The  genuineness  of  their  writings  cannot  be  perfectly  maintained, 
especially  against  the  suspicion  of  having  been  revised  in  later  times.  They 
resemble  the  writings  of  the  apostles  not  so  much  in  their  distinct  and  intel- 
lectual peculiarities,  as  in  their  general  conception  of  Christianity,  without 
doctrinal  precision  or  references  to  Grecian  learning.  The  epistle  of  Barna- 
las  treats  of  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  Judaism,  in  the  manner  of  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  with  an  allusion  to  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  as  if  it 
were  already  destroyed.  In  spite  of  the  powerful  historical  proofs  we  pos- 
sess of  the  genuineness  of  the  epistle,  the  insipid  spirit  and  the  stupid  arbi- 
trariness of  its  allegorical  explanations,  continually  suggest  doubts  whether  it 
could  be  the  production  of  a  man  once  regarded  as  the  equal  of  Paul,  (a) 
The  epistle  of  Clemens  Romanus  (Phil.  4,  3)  to  the  Corinthians,  was  intend- 
ed to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  the  parties  which  had  been  organized 
among  them.  It  inculcates  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  but,  in  the 
spirit  of  Paul,  it  exhorts  all  to  adorn  themselves  also  with  good  works.  The  se- 
cond epistle  which  bears  the  name  of  the  same  writer,  is. generally  of  a  devo- 
tional character,  but  it  is  a  mere  fragment,  and  of  a  very  doubtful  authenticity. 
The  Shepherd  of  Ifermas  is  a  strenuous  exhortation  to  morality,  enforced  by 
the  prospect  of  the  second  advent  of  Christ.  It  is  in  the  form  of  direct  rev- 
elations from  God,  and  visions  of  angels.  In  the  manner  of  Jewish  Chris- 
tians, it  displays  great  confidence  in  the  holiness  of  good  works,  but  contains 
evidence  that  baptism  had  already  taken  the  place  of  circumcision.  The  in- 
dividual whose  composition  it  professes  to  be,  is  unknown,  but  the  general 
use  made  of  it  in  the  churches  of  the  second  century,  for  devotional  reading, 
indicates  that  he  must  have  been  an  apostolical  personage.  (5) 

§  40.    Political  Overthrow  of  Judaism. 
Josephi  de  bello  Jud.  I.  VII. ;    TacW,  Hist  V,  1-18. 

The  obstinacy  of  the  Jewish  nation  may  have  required  unusual  severity 
on  the  part  of  the  Eomans,  but  the  extreme  violence  of  the  procurator  Ges- 

a)  In  favor  of  its  genuineness:  E.  ffenke,  de  Epistolae  quae  Barn,  tribnitur,  authentic  Jen.  1827 ; 
ffirdam,  de  auth.  Ep.  B.  Ham.  1828;  Haverkorn  van  Rysewyk,  de  B.  Arnhem.  1885.  On  tho 
other  side:  Ullmann,  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1828.  P.  2 ;  Zug.  in  d.  Zeitschr.  £  d.  Erzbisth.  Freyb.  P. 
2s. ;  Htfele,  d.  Sendschr.  d.  Ap.  B.  untersucht,  ubersetzt  u.  erklart  Tub.  1840;— D.  Schenkel  (Stud, 
n.  Krit  1837.  H.  8.)  contends  for  the  interpolation  of  c.  7-12.  15.  16.  by  some  Therapeutic  Jewish 
Christians ;  Heberle,  in  d.  Btud.  d.  Geistl.  Wurtemb.  1846.  P.  1.  Chap.  16  seems  to  refer  to  tho 
Temple  of  Aelia  Capitolina.  Z>)  Rom.  16, 14.  'O  iroi^v.  Pastor.  Lat  translation  and  Greek  Frag- 
ments \— Grate,  Disqq.  in  Pastorem  Hermae.  P.  I.  Bonn.  1820.  4;  Jachmann,  d.  Hirte  des  Hennas 
Konigsb.  1835. 


CHAP.  II.  APOST.  CHUECH.  §  40.  JERUSALEM.  §  41.  KMPEEOES.      37 

sius  Florus  (after  64),  could  find  no  palliation  except  in  the  insurrections  to 
which  he  had  driven  the  people.  They  had  entered  upon  the  war  (66),  not 
so  much  in  the  hope  of  victory,  as  in  despair  of  all  earthly  peace.  Legions 
had  fallen  in  the  mountains  of  Judea,  when  Vespasian  (after  67),  and  after 
his  elevation  to  the  imperial  throne,  the  Caesar  Titus  (70),  arrayed  the  whole 
power  of  the  empire  against  Jerusalem.  The  Christian  churches,  remember- 
ing the  prophecy  which  Jesus  had  left  them,  abandoned  their  native  land, 
and  betook  themselves  to  Pella,  on  the  other  side  of  Jordan.  Though  famine 
and  civil  war  raged  in  Jerusalem,  every  offer  of  mercy  connected  with  the 
condition  of  renewed  servitude  was  scornfully  rejected,  and  the  holy  city 
was  at  last  destroyed  in  a  sublime  death-struggle  against  the  whole  power  of 
the  Eoman  world. 

§  41.     The  Eoman  Civil  Power. 

[T.  Arnold,  Later  Eoman  Commonwealth.  New  York.  1846.  3  vols.  8.] 

It  was  the  policy  of  the  Eoman  government  to  permit  all  nations  under 
its  yoke  to  retain  their  own  gods,  but  some  very  ancient  laws,  forbidding  any 
Koman  citizen  to  worship  divinities  not  recognized  by  the  State,  and  any 
conquered  nation  to  propagate  their  religion  in  other  parts  of  the  Empire, 
were  still  in  existence,  (a)  Hence,  the  more  Christianity  disconnected  itself 
from  Judaism,  the  more  it  lost  the  right  of  toleration  conceded  to  every 
national  religion,  and  by  its  efforts  to  make  spiritual  conquests  it  became  ob- 
noxious to  the  laws.  In  the  time  of  the  Caesars,  however,  so  strong  were 
the  inclinations  of  the  people  toward  foreign  religions,  and  so  numerous  the 
admissions  of  foreigners  to  the  rights  of  citizenship,  that  these  laws  had  be- 
come nearly  obsolete,  and  could  be  restored  to  their  authority  only  by  special 
acts  of  power.  (5)  There  is  no  other  authority  for  believing  that  Tiberius 
ever  adopted  Christ  as  one  of  his  household  gods,  but  the  legends  of  the 
second  century,  (c)  Under  Claudius,  Christians  were  expelled  from  Kome  (53) 
merely  as  Jews,  (d)  Nero  (64)  transferred  to  the  Christians  the  guilt  of  his  own 
incendiary  conduct,  and  caused  all  who  could  be  found  in  the  city  to  be  put 
to  death,  for  although  they  were  generally  regarded  as  innocent  of  the  crime 
imputed  to  them,  they  were  condemned  as  enemies  of  the  human  race,  (e) 
Under  Domitian  (81-96)  the  charge  of  Christianity  was  used  as  a  pretext,  by 
which  persons  might  be  convicted  of  a  kind  of  high  treason,  that  so  their 
property  might  be  confiscated,  and  themselves  banished  or  executed.  Flavius 
Clemens,  a  man  of  consular  dignity,  and  belonging  to  the  imperial  family,  was 
put  to  death,  and  his  wife  Domitilla  was  banished  to  an  island,  according  to 
Koman  accounts  for  contempt  of  the  gods,  and  giving  themselves  up  to  Jew- 
ish practices,  but  according  to  Christian  views  as  martyrs  for  the  truth.  (/) 
Some  persons  arraigned  before  the  emperor,  on  account  of  their  connection, 
by  birth,  with  Jesus,  were  dismissed  without  molestation,  as  harmless  peas- 

a)  Cicero  de  legib.  II,  8.  &)  Fr.  Wdlch,  de  Eomanorum  in  tolerandis  diversis  religionibus  dis- 
ciplina  publica.  (Nov.  Commontt  Soc.  Eeg.  Goett  1733.  voL  III.)  c)  Tertul.  Apologet  c.  5.  21. 
In  favor  of  it;  Braun,  de  Tiberii  Christum  in  deorum  numerum  referendi  consilio,  Bonn.  1S34. 
d)  Sueton.  Claud,  c.  25 ;  Ammon,  Pg.  in  Suet.  Claud,  c.  25.  Erl.  1813.  4.  e)  Taciti  Ann.  XV,  44 
Sueton.  Nero,  c.  16.  /)  Sueton.  Dom.  c.  15;  Dlo  Cassiits  (Epit  Xiphilini),  LXVII,  14; 


38  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOET.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.    100. 

ants,  (g)  Nerva  (96-98)  forbade  that  any  one  should  be  accused  for  being  a 
Christian.  In  the  midst  of  these  persecutions,  Christians  made  no  resistance 
further  than  individually  to  assert  their  innocence,  and  then  silently  resign 
themselves  to  their  fate,  (K)  Near  the  close  of  the  first  century  churches 
were  to  be  found  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  Eastern  empire,  but  in  the 
West  there  are  no  distinct  traces  of  them,  out  of  Italy.  The  first  converts 
were  principally  slaves,  laborers,  and  women,  but  so  numerous  were  they, 
that  even  then  it  is  said,  the  temples  of  Asia  Minor  were  deserted,  and  flesh 
which  had  been  offered  to  idols  conld  find  no  sale. 

§  42.     Constitution  of  the  Local  'Churches. 

a  M.  Pfaff,  de  originib.  juris  ecc.  Tub.  1719.  ed.  4.  Him.  1759.  4  (Gr filing)  TTrverf.  d.  apost- 
Christengem.  Halbrst  1819;  Bretechncider,  die  Yerf  z.  Z.  d.  App.  repraesenlativ-demokr.  o.  aristo- 
kratisch?  (A.  K.  Zeitung.  1888.  N.  lOSss.  D.  KirchL  polit  Zeitfragen.  Lpz.  1847.  p.  53ss.);  It.  Rotfie, 
die  Anfauge  d.  cbr.  K.  B.  ihrer  Yerf.  Witt  1887. 1  voL ;  A.  Petersen,  die  Idee.  d.  chr.  K.  Lpz.  1839- 
46.  8  Th. ;  [J.  E.  Riddle,  Manual  of  Chr.  Antt  Lend.  1840.  8 ;  J.  P.  Wilson,  Prim.  Gov.  of  Chr. 
Churches.  Philad.  1883. 12;  A.  Neander,  Planting  &  Training,  transl.  from  Germ,  by  J.  E.  Eyland. 
Philad.  1844  8.  L.  Coleman,  The  Apostol.  &  Prim.  Cbnreh,  &c.  Philad,  1845. 12;  A.  Barnes,  In- 
quiry into  the  Orig.  &  Gov.  of  Ap.  Church.  Philad.  1848. 12 ;  R.  Wfiately,  The  Kingdom  of  Christ. 
New  York.  1842. 12 ;  J.  L.  Mosheim,  Commentt  on  the  Affairs  of  Christians  before  Const  transl. 
from  Germ,  by  Yidal.  Lond  181&  8  vols.  8 ;  J.  JBingham,  Origines  Eccleslastlcae,  transl.  from  Lat. 
Lond.  1852.  8  vols.  8;  P.  King,  Const  of  Prim.  Church.  Lond.  1719.  8 ;  W.  Sclater,  Orig.  Draught  of 
Prim.  ChurBn.  Lond.  1727.  8;  N.  Sangt,  Orig.  Church  of  Chrtet  New  Yoik.  1887.  2  ed.  a] 

The  separate  existence  of  the  Christian  Church  was  effected  quite  as  mucli 
by  the  daily  religious  assemblies  of  the  disciples  at  Jerusalem,  as  by  their 
partial  exclusion  from  the  synagogues.  The  Twelve  Apostles  at  first  regarded 
themselves  as  a  perfected  or  exclusive  College  for  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  world.  They  had  been  the  special  companions  of  the  Lord, 
and  were  now  the  principal  vouchers  for  the  evangelical  traditions.  They 
therefore  exercised  an  undisputed  authority  over  the  Church,  shared  however 
in  a  short  time  with  others,  who  became  distinguished  for  their  spiritual  gifts 
as  apostles  and  founders  of  churches.  Next  to  them  in  rank  were  the  Evan- 
gelists, a  class  of  travelling  preachers,  sometimes  also  called,  in  the  more  ex- 
tensive sense  of  the  term,  apostles.  The  PropJtetia  was  the  gift  granted  to 
many  persons  at  that  time,  by  which  they  were  enabled  to  speak  in  an  in- 
spired, enraptured  manner  of  discourse.  In  the  case  of  Agabus,  however, 
we  have  a  specimen  of  a  class  of  soothsayers  who  only  faintly  resembled  an- 
other, then  for  ever  gone,  (a}  The  actual  officers  of  the  local  churches  were 
chosen  as  circumstances  called  for  them,  after  the  model  of  the  synagogue. 
Elders  (irpffffivrepoi,  fc'1?**)  were  appointed  to  preside,  and  preserve  order  in 
the  church,  and  Deacons  (Sta/eown),  to  take  charge  of  the  poor,  and  to  assist 
in  every  effort  for  the  common  good.  (5)  The  Elders  were  sometimes  called 
by  the  unassuming  name  of  Overseers  (eV/o-KOTroi),  an  appellation  more  con- 
sonant with  Grecian  customs,  and  first  adopted  in  Grecian  congregations. 

Chron.  II.  ad  Olymp.  218 ;  Uieron.  ep.  86.  (al.  27.)  cf.  Phil.  4,  22.  g)  Euseb.  Hist.  ecc.  Ill,  15.  h)  Or 
tha  other  hand:  Kestner,  die  Agape  o.  d.  geheime  Weltbund  der  Christen  von  Klemens  in  PvOin 
unter  Domitian  gestiftet  Jena.  1819. 

a)  Acts  11,  28.  21, 10s.     Z>)  Acts  6, 1-10. 


CHAP.  II.    APOST.  C1IUKCH.    §  42.  CONSTITUTION.    §  43.  LIFE.  39 

Both  titles  were  as  yet  used  indiscriminately,  although  in  consequence  of  the 
personal  influence  of  some  who  presided  in  the  churches,  especially  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  way  may  have  heen  prepared  even  then,  for  the  distinction  which 
became  so  decided  and  general  in  the  first  ten  years  of  the  next  century,  (c) 
The  officers  of  each  church  were  chosen  by  the  people,  or  with  the  consent 
of  the  people  were  installed  over  them  by  those  who  organized  them  into  a 
church.  Although  the  office  of  a  public  teacher  must  have  seemed  most  im- 
portant, and  the  necessity  of  well  qualified  instructors  must  have  been 
urgent,  (d)  it  does  not  appear  that  any  persons  were  at  first  set  apart,  exclu- 
sively for  that  duty,  (e)  and  every  thing  like  a  hierarchy  was  excluded  by 
the  universal  acknowledgment  that  all  believers  were  members  of  a  general 
priesthood,  (f)  It  was  looked  upon  as  a  matter  of  conscience,  that  all  civil 
suits  should  be  settled  by  arbitrators  selected  from  the  church  itself,  (g)  After 
the  excitement  of  the  first  establishment  of  the  church  had  subsided,  women 
once  more  returned  to  a  silent  submission  to  the  word  of  God,  and  to  the 
performance  of  their  proper  duties  in  the  domestic  circle.  But  in  addition 
to  the  Deaconesses,  who  were  employed  in  charitable  offices  among  the  women, 
there  were  probably,  even  then,  some  female  presbyters  or  widows,  for  the 
supervision  and  instruction  of  the  younger  persons  of  their  own  sex.  (7i) 
Every  one  who  applied  for  admission  to  the  Church  was  immediately  re- 
ceived, but  those  who  were  subsequently  found  guilty  of  gross  offences  were 
excluded  by  the  action  of  the  congregation.  In  the  management  of  its  pub- 
lic affairs  each  congregation  was  an  independent  society,  but  by  spiritual  fel- 
lowship, and  the  influence  of  distinguished  travelling  teachers,  all  the  con- 
gregations were  so  connected  together,  as  collectively  to  form  one  great  king- 
dom of  God,  of  which  even  in  the  time  of  Paul,  Jerusalem  was  regarded  as 
the  centre.  The  supreme  law  was  love,  and  the  sovereign  power  was  exer- 
cised by  the  Holy  Ghost. 

§  43.    Ecclesiastical  Life. 

Arnold,  erste  Liebe  d.  i.  wahre  Abbildung  d.  ersten  Christen.  Frnkf.  1696.  f.  &  oft. ;  SticJcel  et 
Bogenhard,  Biga  commentt  de  moral!  primaevorum  Christianoruin  conditione,  Neost.  ad  O.  1826. 

As  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  grew  up  out  of  the  original  company  of  the 
apostles,  the  common  fund  which  had  existed  in  the  latter,  suggested  the 
bold  thought  of  a  community  of  goods.  Although  such  a  project  was  mucli 
facilitated  by  the  enthusiastic  brotherly  love  then  prevalent,  and  an  expecta- 
tion that  all  existing  relations  were  soon  to  be  overthrown,  it  was  never  com- 
pletely carried  out,  and  this  congregation  was  soon  in  need  of  the  charities 
of  Christians  in  foreign  countries,  (a)  A  hypocritical  vanity  which  occurred 
in  a  form  not  very  uncommon  in  religious  circles,  was  visited  with  a  terrible 

c)  do.  ad  Attic.  VII,  11 ;  Acts  20,  17.  28 ;  Phil.  1,  1 ;  1  Pet.  5,  Is. ;  Clem.  Horn,  ad  Cor. 
c.  42.  44;  Hermae  Past.  I.  2.  4;—JBlondel,  Apologia  pro  sententia  Hier.  de  Episc.  Amst  1616.  4; 
Oabler,  de  Episcopts  primae  ecc.  Jen.  1805.  4.  d)  Acts  6,  2 ;— 7.  Tim.  3,  2.  5, 17;  II.  Tim.  2,  24 

e)  Forliger,  Ds.  de  munerib.  ecc.  tempore  A  pp.  Lps.  1776.  4;  Gabler,  examinatur  Forbi- 
geri  sent,  de  Presb.  Jen.  1812.  4.  2  Pgg.  /)  I.  Pet.  2,  9.  5,  3,  cf.  Eom.  12,  1.  g)  I.  Cor.  6,  1-8. 
cf.  Matt.  18, 15ss.  A)  Acts  2, 17.  21,  P.— Rom.  16, 1.— Tit.  2,  3;  7.  Tim.  5,  9;  Cone.  Laod.  can.  11 
(J/anst,  Th.  II.  p.  566).— ffase,  Streitschrr.  P.  2,  p.  35ss. 

a)  Acts  4,  32ss.  cf.  12, 12. — MosTieim,  de  vera  natura  communionis  bonorum  in  Ecc.  Hier.  (Dsa. 


40  ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  I.    DIY.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  100. 

divine  retribution.  (5)  The  ordinary  mode  of  life  in  each  congregation  pre- 
sented many  points  of  comparison  with  that  which  existed  among  the 
Essenes.  (c)  Christians  regarded  themselves,  in  contrast  with  the  world,  as 
the  consecrated  people  of  God.  Every  intellectual  faculty,  according  to  its 
peculiar  nature,  was  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  when 
exalted  by  the  common  spirit  of  the  Church,  was  looked  upon  as  a  gracious 
gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Hence,  while  there  were  many  gifts,  there  was  but 
ode  Spirit.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  gifts  was  the  power  of  miracu- 
lously healing  the  sick,  at  first  more  especially  exercised  by  Peter,  but  after- 
wards supposed  to  be  a  permanent  possession  of  the  Church.  The  Holy 
Ghost  was  regarded  as  the  common  spirit  of  the  whole  Church,  proceeding 
directly  from  Christ,  awakening  and  appropriating  to  its  use  the  sacred  en- 
thusiasm of  each  individual.  The  external  manifestations  of  this  spirit  were 
sometimes  genuine  exhibitions  of  divine  power,  but  were  sometimes  con- 
founded with  the  fanatical  irruptions  of  a  high  religious  excitement,  and  hi 
all  cases  were  regarded  as  fulfilments  of  a  prophetic  metaphor  of  Messianic 
prophecy,  (d)  The  sincere  piety  which  generally  prevailed,  however,  did  no* 
always  prevent  the  pride  which  flatters  itself  on  account  of  its  external  sei 
vices,  nor  did  the  extraordinary  brotherly  love  which  the  great  body  of 
Christians  exhibited,  entirely  suppress  some  manifestations  of  envy  and  party 
spirit.  When  persecution  was  expected,  it  was  not  uncommon  for  some 
among  the  Jewish  Christians  to  save  themselves  by  apostacy,  and  among  the 
>  Gentile  portion  of  the  Church  sins  were  sometimes  committed  which  were 

regarded  as  unpardonable,  (e)  Even  when  Christian  morality  had  been  in- 
fluenced by  Jewish  views  of  personal  purity,  it  had  much  to  contend  with  in 
the  sensuality  of  the  Greeks.  Fastings  and  abstinences,  which  had  been  re- 
garded from  a  period  of  great  antiquity,  as  conducive  to  a  pious  disposition, 
together  with  some  festivals,  were  very  soon  introduced  into  the  Christian 
Church.  Paul,  it  is  true,  rejected  them  when  any  attempted  to  enforce  them 
as  a  matter  of  legal  obligation,  or  of  personal  merit,  but  he  looked  upon  vir- 
ginity as  a  very  desirable  condition,  and  expressed  an  inferior  regard  for  the 
married  state.  (./)  No  change  was  required  in  the  social  relations  of  life,  but 
they  were  exalted  by  higher  motives  and  principles,  (g)  "'*  All  hope  of  an 
earthly  theocracy  was  apparently  destroyed  by  the  death  of  Jesus,  but  Chris- 
tians generally  believed  that  Christ  was  to  return  to  the  world  a  second  time, 
and  many  indulged  the  hope  that  they  would  live  to  witness  his  advent.  This 
faith  gave  birth  to  the  boldest  expectations,  partaking  generally  of  a  sensuous 
character,  and  while  it  seemed  a  national  necessity,  and  a  religious  consola- 
tion to  the  Jewish,  it  was  a  source  of  anxiety  and  perplexity  to  the  Grecian 
congregations.  (A) 

§44.    Mode  of  Worship. 

The  devotional  exercises  of  the  Christian  assemblies,  like  those  of  the 
Jewish  synagogues,  consisted  principally  of  prayers,  singing  of  hymns,  and 

ad  II.  ecc.  Alton.  1743.  Th.  II.)  &)  Acts  5, 1-11.  c)  Comp.  Gfrorer,  Gesch.  d.  TJrchr.  III.  p.  355ss. 
d)  Acts  2, 15-18;  I.  Cor.  12,  4. 14,  Iss.  e)  Heb.  6,  4s8. 10,  25ss.— 7.  Jo.  5,  16.  /)  7.  Cor.  7,  Is.  32sa. 
g}  Ep.  ad  Philemon,  li)  After  the  Apocalypse,  Matth.  16,  28 ;  7.  Cor.  15,  52 ;  Phil.  4, 6 ;  Heb.  10, 87, 
/.  Jo.  2,  IS;  James  5,  8 ;  7.  Pet.  4,  5.— 77.  Thess.  2. 


CHAP.  II.    APOST.  CHUECH.    §  44.  WORSHIP.    §  45.  DOCTKINES.  41 

sacred  discourses,  founded  upon  portions  of  the  Old  Testament.  Apostolic 
epistles  were  read  in  the  congregation,  to  which  they  had  been  .originally  di- 
rected, but  after  a  single  reading  they  were  generally  laid  aside.  Every  one 
who  had  the  power  and  the  inclination  to  speak  in  public,  was  allowed  to  do 
so  with  freedom.  Baptism  as  an  initiatory  rite  was  performed  simply  in  the 
name  of  Jesus,  (a)  The  love-feast,  in  which  were  combined  the  ordinary 
meal  and  the  religious  service  of  the  primitive  Christians,  was  originally  cele- 
brated in  Jerusalem  every  day.  At  its  conclusion  the  broken  bread  and  the 
consecrated  cup  was  passed  around  to -every  one  at  the  table.  (5)  In  the  Jew- 
ish Christian  congregations  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  festivals  were  observed. 
Paul  denied  that  any  one  was  bound  by  positive  law  to  show  a  preference  of 
one  sacred  day  above  another,  (c)  Only  in  congregations  composed  princi- 
pally of  Greeks,  could  the  members  be  induced  to  observe  Sunday  in  com- 
memoration of  our  Lord's  resurrection,  (d)  and  among  them  no  interest  could 
be  awakened  in  those  Jewish  festivals,  which  were  not  connected  with  some 
event  of  the  Christian  history,  to  give  them  additional  importance.  It  is, 
however,  not  easy  to  explain  why  even  Paul  and  John  should  have  discon- 
tinued in  such  congregations  the  eating  of  the  paschal  lamb,  according  to  the 
usage  of  their  forefathers,  (e) 

§  45.    Doctrines  of  the  Church. 

No  public  sentiment  upon  definite  articles  of  Christian  faith  had  yet  been 
formed,  but  in  addition  to  those  generally  received  maxims  of  piety,  which 
in  some  instances  had  been  handed  down  from  the  lips  of  Jesus,  and  in  others 
had  been  gradually  developed  in  the  course  of  free  discussion,  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  Jewish  faith  passed  over  into  the  Christian  Church,  and  was  received 
as  divine.  The  only  condition  of  admission  to  the  Church,  was  a  promise  to 
live  a  new  life,  and  an  acknowledgment  of  Jesus  as  the  Messiah.  In  this  ac- 
knowledgment free  scope  was  given  to  all  those  views  of  the  nature  of  the 
Messiah,  which  prevailed  among  the  people,  from  a  simple  recognition  of  him 
as  the  Son  of  David,  and  a  man  filled  with  the  Spirit  of  God,  to  a  belief  in 
him  as  an  angel,  and  an  impersonation  of  some  one  of  the  attributes  of 
Jehovah.  In  the  view  of  the  Greeks  the  Messianic  office  had  no  special  sig- 
nificance, and  Christ  was  to  them  simply  the  Lord,  and  the  Son  of  God.  As 
far  as  the  reception  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Ghost  may  be  regarded  as  an 
indication  of  the  development  of  Christianity  at  this  period,  the  views  of  the 
Church  may  be  inferred  from  the  baptismal  formula,  which  was  a  simple  ex- 
pression of  faith  in  the  divine  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  (Matth.  28,  19).  This 
whole  transaction  was  a  thoroughly  practical  matter,  and  admitted  of  a  great 
variety  of  views. 

a)  Acts  2,  38.  8, 16. 10,  48 ;  Horn.  6, 3.  6)  J.  T.  F.  Z>resc7ier,  de  rett.  Christianorum  Agapis.  Giess. 
1824.  c)  Gal.  4,  9ss. ;  Col.  2, 16;  Rom.  14,  5;  comp.  I.  Cor.  5,  6ss. ;  Oomp.  Justin,  c.  Tryph.  c.  10, 
12.  d)  Acts 20,  7;  I.  Cor.  16,  2;  Rev.  1, 10;  Barndb.  c.  15.— C.  C.  L.  FranTce,  de  diei  dominici 
apud  vett  Christ,  celebratione,  Hal.  1S26;  (Commit,  sel.  ed.  Volbeding.  1846.  Th.  I.  P.  I.)  e)  Acts 
20,  5s. ;  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  Y,  24. 


42  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  J.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-812. 


DIVISION  II -FORMATION  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

CHAP.   I— STRUGGLE  OF  THE   CHURCH  FOR  ITS  OWN  EXIST- 
ENCE. 

Lactantius,  de  mortib.  pcrsecutornm,  ed.  Bauldri,  Traj.  ad.  Eh.  1693.  and  often.  [This  work 
is  transl.  by  Sp.  JBurnet.  Lond.  1713.  8.] — C.  Kortholt,  de  persequutionib.  ecc.  primaevae  (Jen.  16GO), 
Kilon.  1689.  4;  TransL  into  Germ. ;  Beschr.  d.  10  grossen  Verfolgg.  Hamb.  1693;  Gibbon,  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Eom.  Emp.  Lond.  1776ss.  6  vols.  4,  and  often.  [With  notes  by  Milman  and 
Guizot.  New  York.  1848.  4  vols.  8.]  Transl.  into  Germ,  by  Wenk,  and  others.  Lps.  178Sss.  19  vols. ; 
the  16th  chap,  respecting  the  prop,  of  Chr.  by  natural  causes,  transL  by  A.  F.  v.  Walterstern,  Hamb. 
178S ;  G.  A.  Osiander,  Ausbreit  d.  Christenth.  (Staudlin's  u.  Tzschirner's  Arch.  vol.  4.  sect  2) ;  //. 
G.  Tsscfiirner,  der  Fall  des  Heidenth.  Lps.  1S29.  1  voL ;  A.  Beugnot,  Hist  de  la  destruction  du  pa- 
ganisme  en  Occident  Par.  1385.  2  vols.  [A.  Mtechl,  d.  Entstth.  der  Altkath.  K.  Bonn.  1850.] 

§  46.     The  Jews. 

Zunz,  die  Gottesdienstl.  Vortr.  d.  Jud.  hist  entwickelt  Brl.  1832.  comp.  §  40. 

Uninstructed  by  the  past,  and  unhumbled  by  defeats,  the  Jews  contended 
against  their  fate  (after  115),  and  from  "Western  Africa  to  Asia  Minor,  insurrec- 
tions rolled  over  the  land,  always  to  be  quelled  in  Jewish  blood.  That  he 
might  not  be  compelled  to  put  the  whole  nation  to  death,  Hadrian  resolved 
to  destroy  its  nationality.  The  people  were  forbidden  to  observe  their  Sab- 
baths, and  circumcision  was  punished  as  a  crime  probably  as  emasculation,  (a) 
and  on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem  a  city  consecrated  to  Jupiter  was  built,  and  in 
honor  of  that  divinity  and  of  the  emperor  was  called  Aelia  Capitolina. 
"When  reduced  to  extremity,  the  nation  was  called  to  arms  (132)  by  Bar 
Cocliba,  {.  e.  the  Son  of  a  Star,  (5)  who  professed  to  be  the  promised  Messiah, 
and  was  acknowledged  to  be  such  by  the  distinguished  Rabbi  Akiba.  He 
succeeded  in  conquering  Jerusalem,  and  in  consequence  of  his  heroic  but 
sanguinary  exploits,  Palestine  became  once  more  free.  But  after  all  the  hor- 
rors and  vicissitudes  of  a  three  years'  war,  Julius  Sexerw  got  possession,  by 
storm,  of  Beihar,  the  last  fortress  of  this  Messiah's  kingdom.  The  impostor 
himself  fell  in  the  battle.  The  whole  of  Palestine  had  become  a  desert. 
Every  Jew  was  forbidden,  under  penalty  of  death,  to  set  foot  within  the  holy 
city.  Those  Christians  who  remained  in  Palestine  suffered  much  during  this 
struggle,  not  only  from  the  Romans,  by  whom  they  were  frequently  treated 
as  Jews,  but  still  more  from  the  followers  of  the  false  Messiah,  because  they 
refused  to  follow  him  in  his  efforts  to  save  their  common  country,  (c)  These 
national  misfortunes  were  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  divine  judgments  for  their 
indifference  to  the  law  of  their  fathers,  and  had  no  influence  in  diminishing 
their  assurance  of  future  success.  Schools  of  learning  were  established,  to 
serve  as  spiritual  courts,  and  centres  of  influence  for  the  nation  in  its  general' 
dispersion.  Genuine  Rdbbinism  was  formed  on  the  ruins  of  the  older  sects 

a)  Spartiani,  Hadr.  c.  14.  comp.  Digest.  XLVIII.  tit.  8.  fr.  11 ;  Nov.  Just  142.  c.  1.  I)  Num. 
24,17.  After  his  failure  he  was  called :  fcOMiS  "13,  filius  mendacii.  c)  I.  Dio  Cass.  LXV1II, 
32;  LXIX,  12ss.;  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  2.  6;  'justini,  Ap.  L  c.  81.— IL  Dei/ling,  Aeliae  Cap.  Ori- 
gines  et  Hist  Lps.  1743 ;  Hunter,  der  Jud.  Krieg  unter  Trajan  u.  Hadr.  Altona  u.  Lps.  1S21 


CHAP.  I.    STEUGGLE  OF  CHEISTIANITY.    §  46.  JUDAISM.    §  47.  EOMANS.     43 

at  Tiberias,  in  the  school  of  Hillel,  in  which  the  Mosaic  law,  in  its  utmost 
extent,  though  partially  accommodated  to  the  times,  was  taught  by  a  class 
of  teachers  permanently  set  apart  to  this  work.  The  traditions  of  the  scribes 
here  reduced  to  writing  (Mishna,  about  220),  with  explanations  (Gemara,  in 
the  4th  cent.),  constituted,  in  subsequent  times,  the  principal  book  for  in- 
struction and  religious  law  (Talmud).  A  still  greater  influence  was  after- 
wards acquired  by  the  schools  on  the  Euphrates,  in  which  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  was  composed  of  the  same  general  materials  (430  till  521),  and-  be- 
came more  generally  esteemed,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  more  distinct 
form  of  modern  Judaism.  The  Jews,  who  were  the  sources  of  all  the  calum- 
nies heaped  upon  Christ  and  the  Church,  knew  very  well  how  to  excite  the 
same  hatred  against  the  Christians  of  which  they  were  themselves  the  vic- 
tims, (d)  The  feelings  of  Christians  with  respect  to  the  Jews  still  remained 
of  a  contradictory  character.  In  a  dialogue  of  Justin,  in  which  the  author 
replies  to  the  objections  of  a  candid  Jew  against  the  vocation  of  Jesus,  and 
the  transitory  nature  of  the  divine  law,  the  position  is  assumed,  that  the  Mo- 
saic precepts  and  institutions  were  only  prefigurations  and  symbols  either  of 
what  Christ  did,  or  of  what  happened  to  him  and  his  followers,  (e)  It  was 
even  then  asserted,  that  Christianity  had  been  rejected  by  the  people  among 
whom  it  originated,  and  that  the  few  who  had  embraced  it  were  by  no  means 
the  most  faithful  and  consistent  Christians.  (/)  The  proofs  adduced  by 
Cyprian  are  a  collection  of  pertinent  and  impertinent  passages  of  Scripture, 
to  show  that  the  Jews  were  to  be  cast  off,  and  that  all  the  prophecies  either 
had  been  or  would  be  fulfilled  by  Christ,  (g) 

§  47.  The  Roman  People  and  Empire. 

Eortholt,  Paganus  obtrectator,  Kilon.  1698.  4;  J.  J.  ffulderici,  Gentilis  obtrectator,  Tigiir.  1744; 
Papst,  de  culpa  Christianor.  in  vexatt.  motis  a  Eom.  Erl.  1789.  8  Pgg.  4 ;  Hunter,  die  Christin  im 
heidnischen  Hause  vor  Constantin,  Kopenh.  1828. 

From  the  time  of  Trajan,  the  Roman  people  had  been  accustomed  in  a 
tumultuous  manner  to  demand  that  Christians  should  be  put  to  death.  This 
proceeded  originally  from  persons  who  either  derived  their  support  from  some 
connection  with  idolatry,  or  found  their  principal  honor  or  pleasure  in  the 
cultivation  of  pagan  literature.  But  internally  decayed,  as  heathenism  then 
was,  it  could  never  have  awakened  such  a  powerful  opposition,  and,  in  the 
course  of  the  struggle,  have  won  for  itself  once  more  a  high  degree  of  attach- 
ment, merely  by  appeals  in  behalf  of  the  old  idolatry.  The  whole  common 
feeling  of  the  ancient  world,  and  the  chief  glory  of  the  present  life,  was  as- 
sailed by  Christianity,  and  the  people  saw  nothing  proposed  in  return  but  a 
severe  and  cheerless  system  of  virtue,  in  which  the  world  was  rendered  a 
desert,  that  an  uncertain  heaven  might  be  won.  The  hatred  thus  awakened 
endeavored  to  justify  itself  by  suspicions.  The  spiritual  worship  of  an  in- 
visible God  was  denounced  as  atheism ;  participation  in  the  sacred  body  of 

d)  Justin,  c.  Tryph.  c.  16s. ;  Tertul.  ad  nation.  I,  14.  e)  Aid\oyos  irpbs  Tpvcpava,  'lovtiaiov. 
Ed.  «/»&,  Lond.  1719;  Opp.  rec.  J.  C.  T.  Otto,  Jen.  1842s.  Th.  II. ;— Munscher,  an  Dial.  c.  Tryph. 
Justino  recte  adscribatur  ?  (Commentt.  theol.  ed.  Eosenmueller,  Lps.  1S26.  Th.  I.  P.  2,  p.  184ss.) 
/)  Justini,  Apol.  I.  c.  53.  g)  Testimoniorum  adv.  Judaeos,  1.  III. 


44  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

Christ  was  represented  as  a  Thyestean  feast ;  the  privacy  of  the  Christian  as- 
semblies was  looked  upon  as  a  cloak  for  conspiracy,  and  for  secret  crimes ; 
and  the  fraternal  fellowship  which  generally  prevailed  among  Christians,  was 
suspected  as  the  result  and  the  occasion  of  unnatural  lasciviousness.  The  re- 
proaches heaped  upon  each  other  by  the  Church  and  the  various  Christian 
sects,  (a)  and  the  confessions  wrung  by  torture  from  heathen  slaves,  with  re- 
spect to  their  Christian  masters,  (5)  appeared  to  confirm  the  suspicions  of 
those  who  were  anxious  to  find  evidences  of  guilt.  The  public  misfortunes 
in  which  that  age  abounded,  were  all  regarded  as  divine  judgments  for  the 
dishonor  done  to  the  offended  gods.  But  to  persons  of  distinction,  and  to 
those  who  had  been  educated  in  the  spirit  of  the  times,  Christianity  appeared 
to  be  a  dark  superstition  of  an  infatuated  rabble.  The  magistrates  were,  in- 
deed, frequently  induced  to  persecute  Christians,  by  the  clamors  of  the  mul- 
titude, and  by  their  own  passions ;  but  the  true  reason  for  it  was  to  be  found 
in  motives  of  state  policy.  Christians  looked  upon  it  as  dangerous  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  which  the  soldiers  were  obliged  to  receive,  or  to  per- 
form the  duties  of  any  public  or  civil  office,  (c)  although  many  overcame 
their  religious  scruples  from  a  regard  to  personal  advantages  or  feelings  of 
duty.  Although  they  generally  submitted  to  every  outrage  inflicted  upon 
them  by  the  magistrates,  whom  they  regarded  as  appointed  by  God,  their 
vast  number  and  mutual  fellowship  rendered  them  formidable  to  the  civil 
authorities.  Indeed,  this  consciousness  of  their  own  power,  and  their  con- 
viction that  the  empire  was  destined  to  a  speedy  overthrow  were  so  openly 
expressed,  (d)  that  their  assurances  of  fidelity  and  loyalty  appeared  quite  sus- 
picious. At  all  events,  the  State  was  torn  by  dissensions,  and  as  long  as 
any  hope  remained  of  overcoming  Christians  by  terror,  sanguinary  measures 
were  looked  upon  as  likely  to  result  in  good.  The  fate  of  Christians  was,  it 
is  true,  determined  by  the  imperial  edicts  in  every  part  of  the  empire,  but  it 
was  rendered  mild  or  severe  according  to  the  popular  sentiment  in  each  pro- 
vince and  the  personal  feelings  of  the  local  magistrate. 

§  48.     Conduct  of  the  Individual  Emperors  during  the  Second  and  Third  Cen- 
turies. 

Franc,  Balduini,  Commtr.  ad  cdlcta  vetL  prince.  Rom.  de  Christianis,  Hal.  1727.  4;  C.  D,  A 
Martini,  Persecutiones  Christianorum  sub  Impp.  Rom.  Rostoch.  1802s.  8  Comm.  4;  Schumann 
v.  Mansegg,  die  Yerfolgungen  d.  ereten  chrlstL  Kirche.  Vien.  1S21 ;  G.  S.  Eopke,  do  statu  et  condlt. 
Christianorum  sub  Impp.  Rom.  alterius  post  Cbr.  Saec.  Ber.  1828. 

1.  A  noble  race  of  emperors,  in  whom  the  Greek  and  Roman  spirit  was 
once  more  revived,  were,  in  the  old  Roman  style,  either  indifferent  or  severe 
in  their  treatment  of  Christianity.  A  rescript  of  Trajan  (98-117),  in  reply 
to  some  inquiries  of  Plinius  (about  110)  respecting  the  conduct  to  be  pursued 
towards  Christians,  directed  that  they  should  not  be  sought  after  by  the  civil 
authorities,  but  that  all  legally  arraigned  by  accusers  before  the  courts,  were 

a)  Tertul.  de  jejun.  c.  17 ;  Clem.  Strom.  IIL  p.  511 ;  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  7.  5)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VI, 
1.  c)  Tertul  de  cor.  c.  11 ;  Apologet  c.  88;  de  Pallio,  c.  5;  Jiuinart,  Acta  Martyr,  ed.  2.  p.  299a. 
rf)  Tertul.  Apologet  c.  87.  The  Apocalypse  of  John,  and  many  things  In  the  Sibylline  books,  lia« 
already  announced  these. 


CtfAP.  L    STRUGGLES  OF  CHKISTIANITY.    §  48.  ROMAN  EMPERORS.          45 

either  to  be  pardoned  if  they  denied  the  charge  or  repented,  or  given  over 
to  death  if  they  continued  obstinate.  He  however  allowed,  that  no  uniform 
rule  could  be  prescribed  in  this  matter.  So  many  of  them  in  Bithynia  and 
Pontus  were  induced  to  invoke  the  gods,  to  anathematize  Christ,  and  to  honor 
the  statue  of  the  emperor  with  offerings  of  wine  and  incense,  that  Pliny  in- 
dulged the  hope  that,  by  a  skilful  combination  of  mildness  and  severity,  he 
would  soon  be  able  to  put  an  end  to  this  superstition,  (a)  The  aged  Symeon, 
the  son  of  Cleopas,  and  the  successor  of  James  at  Jerusalem,  being  accused 
before  Atticus,  the  governor  of  the  city,  of  being  a  Christian,  and  of  the 
family  of  David,  was  crucified  (107),  (V)  and  Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch, 
after  a  personal  audience  with,  the  emperor,  was  torn  to  pieces  by  lions  in 
the  Coliseum,  for  the  amusement  of  the  Roman  people  (116).  (c)  About 
this  time,  the  people  began  at  their  festivals,  or  in  time  of  public  calamity, 
to  demand  the  blood  of  Christians.  Hadrian  (117-138)  and  Antoninus  Pius 
(138-161)  therefore  checked  these  tumultuous  proceedings,  by  directing  that 
the  strict  forms  of  law  belonging  to  the  usual  trials  should  be  observed,  (d) 
The  stoical  repugnance  which  Marcus  Aurelius  (161-180)  felt  toward  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  Christians,  induced  him  to  allow  the  popular  hatred  in  south- 
ern Gaul  and  Asia  Minor  to  have  its  full  career  of  blood,  (e)  Polycarp, 
Bishop  of  Smyrna,  the  last  living  relic  of  Apostolic  days,  died  (169)  at  the 
stake,  because  he  refused  to  curse  the  Lord  whom  he  had  faithfully  served 
for  86  years.  (/)  The  miracle  of  the  Legio  fulminatrix  (174)  was  either  not 
important  enough,  or  not  sufficiently  authenticated,  to  turn  the  philosophic 
emperor  from  his  course,  (g)  2.  Until  some  time  in  the  middle  of  the  third 
century,  the  emperors  were  either  indifferent  or  favorable  to  Christianity  ; 
but  as  the  ancient  laws  still  remained  unrepealed,  its  adherents  were  depend- 
ent upon  the  caprice  of  the  municipal  governors.  The  wanton  cruelty  of 
Commodus  (180—192)  was  softened  to  mildness  with  respect  to  Christians, 
by  the  influence  of  his  paramour  Marcia,  and  yet  Apollonius  was  put  to 
death,  principally,  however,  on  account  of  his  eloquent  apology  for  Christian- 
ity before  the  Senate.  His  accuser  was  executed  at  an  earlier  period,  per- 
haps as  his  slave.  (7i)  Septimius  Severus  (192—211)  merely  prohibited  the 
further  propagation  of  Christianity,  (i)  ''  The  enmity  which  Caracalla 
(211-217)  bore  toward  the  whole  human  race,  amounted  only  to  indifference 
with  respect  to  the  Church.  (£)  The  effeminate  pleasure  which  Heliogalalus 
(218-222)  took  in  oriental  systems  of  religion,  operated  favorably  in  behalf 
of  Christianity.  (1)  TVith  a  nobler  appreciation  of  its  spiritual  nature,  Alex- 


a)Pltnii,  Epp.  X.  p.  90s.  (al.  97s,);  Tertul.  Apologet.  c.  2;  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  13;— Haver- 
saat,  Vertheidlgung  der  Plin,  Briefe  u.  d.  Christen,  Gott  1788.  6)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  32,  comp.  11. 
after  Hegesippus.  c)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  26 ;  Acta  martyrii  Ignat  in  Huinart,  p.  Sss.  d)  Justini, 
Apol.  L  c.  68;  Rujin,  H.  ecc.  IV,  9 ;  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  26;  comp.  Spartiani,  Hadr.  c.  22.  On  the 
spuriousness  of  the  Edictum  ad  Commune  Asiae  in  Euseb.  IV,  13,  and  Just.  1.  c.  consult  Haffner, 
de  Edicto  Antonini  pro  Christ  Argent  1781.  4.  e}  Marcus  Aur.  irpbs  fuvrdv  XI,  3;  Euseb.  H. 
ecc.  V,  1-3.  /)  Ecclesiae  Smyrnensis  de  martyrio  Polycarpi  Ep.  Encycl.  in  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  15. 
A  fuller  recension  in  Jiuinart,  p.  31ss.  g)  Tertul.  Apologet  c.  5 ;  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  V,  5.  For  the 
views  entertained  by  heathen,  see  Dio  Cass.  Epit  Xiphilini  LXXI,  8;  Suidas,  verb.  'louAtavbs, 
Jul.  Capitolin.  Marc.  Aur.  c.  24.  A)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  V,  21 ;  Hieron.  catal.  c.  42.  €)  Spartiani,  Se- 
ver, c.  IT.  comp.  Tertul.  ad  Scapul.  c.  4.  K)  Tertul.  ad  Scapul.  c.  4.  1)  Lamprid.  Heliog.  c.  8, 


46  ANCIENT  CHtJECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-812. 

aider  Severus  (222-235)  placed  the  statue  of  Christ  among  his  household 
gods,  and  practically  recognized  the  Christian  congregation  at  Rome  as  a 
civil  corporation.  His  mother,  Julia  Mammaea,  while  at  Antioch,  took  de- 
light in  the  learning  of  Origen.  (m)  In  the  view  of  Maximinus  the  Thradan 
(235-238),  the  murderer  of  Alexander,  such  favor  was  a  sufficient  reason  for 
persecuting  him  who  had  received  it.  Among  those  who  followed  him  in 
rapid  succession  in  the  imperial  throne,  Philip  the  Arabian  (244-249)  was  so 
favorable  to  Christianity,  that  the  report  became  almost  universal,  that  he 
was  himself  a  Christian.  (TO)  3.  The  Church  finally  became  so  powerful, 
that  it  became  necessary  either  to  acknowledge  its  legality,  or  to  persecute  it 
with  all  the  power  of  the  empire.  Deems  (249—251)  raised  the  first  general 
persecution,  by  requiring  the  magistrates  to  institute  inquisitorial  proceed- 
ings. Those  who  sustained  office  in  the  Church  directly  met  death,  or  if 
they  fled,  they  purchased  life  with  the  loss  of  property  and  home,  (o)  To 
this  distressing  period,  popular  tradition  has  assigned  the  commencement  of 
the  slumber  of  the  seven  children  of  Ephesus,  who  did  not  awake  until  tho 
time  of  Theodosius  II.  (447),  and  were  then  astonished  to  find  the  persecuted 
sign  of  the  cross  ruling  over  the  imperial  city  and  the  world,  (p)  Oallus 
(251-253)  was  prevented  only  by  the  political  commotions  of  his  reign  from 
completing  the  sanguinary  work  of  his  predecessor.  Valerianus  (253—260), 
after  a  brief  period  of  favor  toward  tho  Church,  sought  systematically  to  de- 
stroy it  by  exterminating  its  officers.  (?)  But  Gallienus  (260-268)  gave  peace 
to  the  whole  Church,  by  an  edict  in  which  he  recognized  it  as  a  civil  corpo- 
ration, (r)  Aurelianus  (270-275),  who  at  one  time  had  consented  to  act  as  an 
umpire  between  contending  bishops,  determined  afterwards,  from  heathenish 
scruples,  to  persecute  the  Christians.  His  death  was  effected  by  a  military 
conspiracy  before  the  execution  of  his  purpose,  (*)  and  during  a  long  period  of 
rest,  the  government  appeared  to  have  abandoned  for  ever  the  unequal  con- 
test of  mere  force  in  opposition  to  spiritual  principles. 

§  49.    Internal  History  of  Paganism 

After  the  middle  of  the  first  century,  in  consequence  of  intercourse  with 
the  east,  and  of  the  pressure  of  internal  elements,  the  intellectual  world  made 
considerable  progress.  On  the  one  hand,  with  a  high-wrought  religious  fer- 
vor, it  overpassed  the  proper  limits  of  heathenism,  and  connected  itself  some- 
times with  a  particular  phase  of  Platonism,  and  sometimes  with  the  pure 
and  self-denying  mode  of  life  which  tradition  assigned  to  the  Pythagorean 
system.  On  the  other  hand,  when  it  was  only  partially  aroused,  it  carried 
the  spiritual  element  into  the  world  of  sense,  that  it  might  obtain  a  control 
over  the  latter  by  magical  arts,  and  penetrate  the  mysteries  of  the  world  of 
spirits.  We  therefore  find,  in  the  very  midst  of  great  moral  corruption, 
and  the  dissolution  of  all  social  and  natural  ties,  initiations  into  wonderful 

TO)  Lamprid.  Alex.  Sever,  c.  29.  49.  comp.  28.  43. 45;  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VI,  21. 28.  n)  Euseb.  H.  ec<x 

VI,  84;  Hieron.  Chron.  ad  ann.  246.    o)  Euaeb.  H.  ecc.  VI,  40-42;  Cyprian,  de  lapsis,  and  his  epis- 
tles written  at  this  time;  Lactant.  de  mortib.  c.  4.    p)  Gregor.  Turon,  de  gloria  Mart  Par.  1640 
p.  215s.;    Reineccius  de  7  dormientib.  Lps.  1702.   Banctor.  7  dormientium  Hist  Eom.  1742.  4 
g)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VII,  10s. ;   Cypriani  Ep.  82.      r)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VII,  13.     e)  Eueeb.  II.  eca 

VII,  30 ;  Lactant.  de  mortib.  c.  6. 


CHAP.  I.    STRUGGLES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.    §  50.  NEW  PLATONISM.  47 

mysteries,  a  capricious  confidence  in  miracles,  extreme  self-denials,  and  san- 
guinary expiations,  (a}  In  the  attempted  union  of  Polytheism  and  Mono- 
theism, the  gods  were  regarded  only  as  different  names  of  the  one  God,  or  as 
the  organs  through  which  he  revealed  himself  to  his  creatures.  Even  the 
Stoa,  hy  the  influence  of  Epictetus  (about  100),  received  a  character  which 
no  longer  sought  virtue  in  perpetual  struggles,  hut  in  patient  endurance. 
The  literature  of  that  period,  generally  a  forced  after-growth  of  a  mighty 
nature  then  extinct,  gradually  developed  the  characteristics  of  credulity  and 
superstition.  Even  as  early  as  the  time  of  Plutarch  (50-120),  with  all  his 
enthusiasm  for  the  exalted  models  of  antiquity,  his  writings  abound  in  much 
which  is  fantastic.  Aelian  (about  222)  is  full  of  pious  legends  about  the 
manifestations  of  the  Deity  in  nature  and  in  common  life.  The  spirit  of  the 
age  is  well  reflected  in  the  animated  but  extravagant  writings  of  the  African 
rhetorician  Apuleius  (about  170),  in  which  are  sensual  thoughts  side  by  side 
with  pious  fanaticism,  and  satires  upon  superstition  mingled  with  supersti- 
tious dreamings.  (6)  This  tendency,  when  it  first  came  in  contact  with 
Christianity,  appropriated  to  itself  many  Christian  elements,  merely  that  it 
might  become  a  better  match  for  its  opponent.  The  real  Apollonius  of  Ty- 
ana  (3V96)  travelled  about  in  the  character  of  a  reformer  of  heathenism, 
striving  to  give  to  it  the  character  of  unlimited  faith  which  we  have  de- 
scribed, and  deceived  many  by  the  strange  revelations  which  he  probably  ac- 
complished by  some  magnetic  clairvoyance,  so  that  he  became  honored  as  a 
prophet,  and  sometimes  even  as  God.  But  in  a  rhetorical  work,  in  which 
Philostratus  (about  230)  professed  to  give  his  life,  and  attempted  to  present 
him  before  the  world  as  the  Christ  of  heathenism,  he  became  the  ideal  of  a  holy 
sage  wonderfully  honored  by  the  gods,  (c)  On  the  other  hand,  there  were 
some  who  attempted  to  represent  the  mighty  world-spirit  of  the  ancient 
Greek  philosophy,  but  they  uniformly  found,  that  while  aiming  to  personate 
such  a  character  in  one  respect,  they  were  inconsistent  with  it  in  another. 

§  50.     New  Platonism. 

I.  Plotini,  Opp.  omnia ;  Porphyrii  Liber  de  vita  Plotini,  ed.  Creuser,  Oxon.  1836.  3  vols.  4 ; 
Hoptyvpiov  fyiXoffotyov  irpbs  MapfceAAaf,  invenit  notisque  ill.  Aug.  Majus,  Mediol.  1816.— II. 
Among  the  Histt  of  Phil,  especially,  Tennemann,  vol.  YI.  [His  Manual  is  transl.  Oxf.  1832.  8.] 
Ritter,  vol.  IT.  [transl.  by  Morrison,  Oxf.  1838.  4  vols.  8 ;  Henry's  Hist,  of  Phil.  2  vols.  N.  Y.  1841.] 
Creuser,  Preparatio  ad  Plotini  lib.  de  pulchritud.  Heidelb.  1814;  comp.  Stud  u.  KriL  1834  P.  2.  p. 
aSTss. ;  Imm.  FicMe,  de  Phil,  novae  Platonicae  origine,  Berl.  1818 ;  F.  Bouterwek,  Philosophorum 
Alexandr.  ac  Neo-Platonicoruin  recensio,  (Commentt  Soc.  Scient.  Goett  1823.  Th.  Y.) ;  C.  Stein- 
Jiart,  de  dialectica  Plotini  ratione,  Numb,  et  Hal.  1829;  Ejusd.  Meletemata  Plotiniana,  Hal.  1840.  4; 
K.  Yogi,  Neo-Pl.  u.  Christenth.  Berl.  1836. 1  Th.  [Lewes,  Biogr.  Hist  of  Phil.  Lond.  4  vols.  ISmo. 
art  Plot] 

The  tendency  of  Paganism  on  the  side  of  faith,  and  the  attempt  to  com- 
bine in  one  system  all  the  sources  of  truth,  reached  its  utmost  limit  in  what 

a)  P.  E.  Mutter,  de  hierarchia  et  studio  vitae  asceticae  in  sacris  et  mysteriis  Graecc.  Eomano- 
rumque  latentib.  Havn.  1803,  transl.  into  Germ,  in  the  Neuen  Bibl.  d.  schonen  Wiss.  vol.  LXX. 
fc)  ScMosser,  Gesch.  d.  alten  Welt  u.  ihrer  Cultur.  vol.  III.  Abth.  3  (1831.)  p.  ISSss.  196ss.  c)  Flavii 
Philostrati  quae  supersunt,  ed.  Kayser,  Tur.  1844s.  2  Th.  [The  two  first  books  relating  to  the  life 
of  Apoll.  Tyan.  transl.  into  Eng.  by  C.  Blount,  fol.  Lond.  1680.]  £aurt  Apoll.  v.  Tyana  u.  Chris 
tus,  Tub.  1832. 


48    '  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-812. 

was  called  Few  Platonism.  This  system  had  its  origin  in  the  discourses  of 
Ammonius  Saccas,  of  Alexandria,  near  the  commencement  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, but  is  presented  in  its  most  attractive  form  in  the  Enneades  of  Plotinus 
(205-270),  and  was  best  represented  by  Jamblichus  in  the  fourth,  and  by  Pro- 
clus  in  the  fifth  century.  The  masters  of  this  school  were  regarded  as  seers 
and  saints,  who  had  broken  the  bonds  of  a  life  of  sense,  and  even  on  earth 
were  honored  with  the  privilege  of  an  immediate  intuition  of  the  Deity. 
What  Philo  had  undertaken,  they  now  completed,  though  in  a  wider  sense, 
in  behalf  of  paganism.  While  New-Platonism  took  part  in  the  higher  discus- 
sions and  conclusions  of  philosophy,  it  nevertheless  stood  opposed  to  all  phi- 
losophy, since  it  did  not  profess  to  rest  upon  careful  inquiries  into  the  eternal 
laws  of  the  spirit,  but  claimed  to  be  a  revelation  from  God.  Thus  exalting 
itself  above  all  such  investigations,  it  became  the  poetry  as  well  as  the  reli- 
gion of  philosophy.  It  attached  itself  more  especially  to  the  system  of  Plato, 
and  professed  to  be  an  explanation  and  a  development  of  his  views,  but  it 
aimed  to  bring  together  the  fundamental  principles  of  all  philosophical 
schools,  and  the  ideas  which  constitute  the  basis  9f  all  popular  religions. 
Even  Christianity,  therefore,  was  acknowledged  by  those  who  advocated  this 
system,  but  only  as  it  originally  came  from  the  inspired  soul  of  its  founder. 
It  did  not  at  first  originate  in  a  spirit  hostile  to  Christianity,  and  it  is  even 
doubtful  to  what  extent  Ammonius  and  Porphyry  were  at  one  time  connect- 
ed with  the  Church.  It  is,  however,  certain,  that  it  was  profoundly  affected 
by  the  peculiarities  of  Christianity,  even  while  it  was  struggling  with  that 
system,  during  the  third  century,  for  the  empire  of  the  world.*  The  divinity 
which  it  presents  is  exalted  above  all  human  apprehension,  and  was  called 
simply  the  Self-sufficient  One  (r6  ei>).  From  his  overflowing  fulness  proceed- 
ed the  Divine  Intelligence,  and  from  this  the  World-Soul,  by  which  the  mate- 
rial universe  is  pervaded  with  divine  life.  Evil  is  only  that  which  is  imper- 
fect, and  is  the  most  distant  reflection  of  Deity  upon  matter.  The  human 
soul  which  had  been  produced  by  the  Divine  Intelligence,  fell,  in  consequence 
of  its  longing  after  earthly  things,  from  its  original  divine  life  to  its  present 
temporal  existence.  It  therefore  belongs  to  the  sensual  as  well  as  to  tho 
intellectual  world.  But  the  souls  of  the  good  and  wise,  even  in  this  world, 
are  in  their  happiest  moments  reunited  with  the  Deity,  and  death  is  to  such 
a  complete  restoration  to  their  home.  From  a  pious  veneration  for  an  an- 
cestry far  back  in  antiquity,  the  Grecian  gods  especially  were  regarded  as 
the  personal  manifestations  of  the  divine  life  in  nature.  Some  of  them  were 
celestial  beings,  and  some  ruled  here  on  earth.  These  earthly  powers  were 
the  national  gods  (/zept*oi,  e'3j/apKat),  subordinate  to  the  Deity,  and  exalted 
above  all  passion.  The  myths  were  therefore,  of  course,  to  be  explained  al- 
legorically.  The  arts  of  Divination  and  Magic  were  justified  on  the  ground 
of  the  necessary  connection  of  all  phenomena  by  virtue  of  the  unity  of  the 
world-principle.  While,  therefore,  New-Platonism  was  a  new  power,  it  was 

*  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VI,  19,  and  Praep.  evang.  XI,  19 ;  Socrat.  H.  ccc.  Ill,  23.— Mosheim,  de  studic 
Ethnicor.  Christianos  imitandi.  (Dss.  ad  Hist  ecc.  Alton.  1733) ;  Ullmann,  Einfluss  d.  Christenth. 
auf  Porphyr.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1832.  H.  2.)— Keil,  de  causis  alien!  Platonicor.  rec.  a  rel.  chr.  animi.  Lps. 
1T35.  4.  (Opp.  ed.  Goldhorn.  Lps.  1821,  vol.  1.) 


CHAP.  I.  STEUGGLES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  §  61.  LITERAEY  CONTROVERSIES.    49 

nevertheless  a  reformation  of  the  old  faith.  Though  it  extended  itself  over 
the  whole  Koman  empire,  it  embraced  within  itself  contradictory  elements, 
and  coald  maintain  its  existence  only  long  enough  to  witness  and  embellish 
the  downfall  of  heathenism. 

§  51.    Literary  Controversies  of  Christianity. 

Dettaua  C.  G.  JBaumffarten-Orusius,  de  scriptoribus  saec.  II.  qui  novam  rel.  impugnarunt,  vel 
Impugnasse  creduntur.  Misn.  1S45.  4. 

It  was  not  until  the  age  of  the  Antonines  that  Christianity  appeared  im- 
portant enough  to  be  the  object  of  literary  discussion,  or  sought  to  defend 
itself  by  literary  weapons.  The  last  discourse  in  which  Fronto  made  an 
attack  upon  Christians,  appears  to  have  been  merely  a  legal  defence  of  the 
proceedings  against  them  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  negative  spirit  exhibited  in  the  writings  of  Lucian  exerted  a  favorable 
influence  upon  Christianity,  since  his  mockeries,  like  a  death-warning,  com- 
pletely undermined  all  confidence  in  the  ancient  gods  ;  but  he  has  occasionally 
derided  the  Christians  also  as  fanatical  simpletons,  even  while  he  involuntarily 
supplies  evidence  in  favor  of  their  brotherly  love,  and  fortitude  in  death,  (a) 
A  genuine  discourse  of  Celsus,  written  during  the  persecution  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  has  been  preserved  in  the  extracts  of  Origen.  (Z>)  The  author  was 
an  intelligent  man,  but  full  of  pride  and  contempt  for  Christianity.  While 
endeavoring  to  throw  suspicion  upon  its  origin  and  opposing  the  Church  of 
his  own  times,  he  frequently  confounds  it  with  the  vagaries  of  its  different 
sects,  and  collects  nearly  every  thing  which  Judaism  with  its  unfulfilled  ideas 
of  the  Messiah  and  its  calumnious  traditions,  together  with  all  that  pagan 
refinement  with  its  philosophy,  especially  the  Platonic,  could  produce  against 
it.  We  have  also  a  Dialogue  written  by  Minucius  Felix  (§  52),  in  which 
Caecilius  brings  forward  the  arguments  generally  urged  by  the  heathen  of 
that  period  against  Christianity.  In  behalf  of  the  Olympic  deities,  it  was  al- 
leged that  history  showed  that  the  gods  had  protected  and  avenged  their 
worshippers  ;  that  miracles  had  been  wrought,  and  predictions  by  divination 
had  been  announced  by  their  votaries,  and  that  a  Supreme  Deity  had  always 
been  worshipped  in  connection  with  many  gods.  Against  Christianity  was 
urged  ;  its  foreign  and  barbarous  origin,  to  which  all  that  was  national  must 
be  sacrificed,  and  its  recent  origin,  to  which  all  that  was  established  must 
give  way  ;  all  that  was  true  or  good  in  Christianity  belonged  still  more  an- 
ciently to  Philosophy,  so  that  the  only  novelty  which  it  possessed  was  a  most 
repulsive  outward  form  ;  its  sacred  Scriptures  were  of  doubtful  origin,  and 
frequently  had  been  altered  ;  Jesus  was  said  to  have  been  the  offspring  of 
adultery,  instructed  by  magicians  in  Egypt,  and  surrounded  only  by  wretched 
fishermen  and  abandoned  publicans,  to  have  died  in  the-  expression  of  unman- 


a)  'AAe^ai/Spos^euS^uaj/Tzs,  c.25.  33;  Ilepl  TTjsIIepeypiVouTeAeuTTjy,  c.  11-16;  ' 
IffTopia,  I,  22.  30.  II,  4.  11.  —  A.  Eichstadii.  Pg.  Lticianus  num  scriptis  suis  adjuvare  religionem 
Christ  voluerit?  Jen.  1820.  4;  K.  G.  Jacob,  Cbaracteristik  Lucians.  Hamb.  1832;  Kuhn,  Luc.  a 
crimine  librorum  sacr.  irrisorum  liberatur.  P.  I.  Grimae,  1844.  4.  V)  'A\rj^s  \6yos.  —  fenger,  do 
Celso,  Epicnreo.  Havn.  1828;  C.  H.  Jachrnann,  de  Celso  disseruit  etfragmenta  libri  c.  Christianos 
colloglt.  Regiom.  1836.  4;  F.  A.  Philippi,  de  Celsi  philosophandi  genere.  Berol.  1836;  Eindemann, 
4 


50  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

ly  sorrow  Sj  and  finally  to  have  given  no  proof  of  his  resurrection  except  what 
was  derived  from  his  own  followers.  Against  Christians  it  was  urged :  that 
they  had  deified  a  publicly  executed  malefactor ;  that  they  demanded  a  blind 
faith  ;  that  they  invited  to  their  society  those  who  were  sinners  and  criminals, 
while  in  the  heathen  mysteries,  none  were  initiated  but  those  who  were  pure 
in  heart ;  that  the  various  Christian  sects  were  intolerant  towards  each  oth- 
er ;  that  they  were  remarkably  unfortunate ;  and  finally,  that  if  they  were  not 
secret  criminals,  they  shunned  publicity,  and  were  enemies  to  the  eternal 
city  of  Eome.  The  opposition  which  the  New-Platonic  school  made  to  Chris- 
tianity, may  be  considered  as  represented  by  Porphyry  (233-305).  (c)  From 
all  that  can  be  learned  by  means  of  a  few  rather  inconsiderable  remains,  he 
appears  to  have  applied  his  censures  principally  to  the  difficult  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  the  deceptive  character  of  the  allegorical  method  of 
interpreting  them,  to  the  composition  of  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  after  the 
events  to  which  they  relate  had  taken  place,  to  the  contradiction  implied  in 
the  abolition  of  the  divine  law  by  one  who  came  from  God,  to  the  disagree- 
ment between  Peter  and  Paul,  to  the  death  of  Ananias,  and  to  the  misfortune 
of  Jesus,  in  being  so  misunderstood  by  a  company  of  pitiable  fanatics.  Jliero- 
cles  (about  300)  contrasted  the  life  of  Apollonius  with  that  of  Jesus,  though 
in  the  latter  he  seems  to  have  mingled  incidents  in  the  history  of  other  Mes- 
siahs of  whom  he  had  heard.  Ho  was  an  orator  concerned  in  stirring  up  the 
persecution  under  Diocletian,  and  had  permitted  Christians  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  Christian  virgins  to  be  violated,  (d)  All  the  controversial  writ- 
ings of  that  period,  so  far  as  they  were  opposed  to  Christianity,  were  subse 
quently  destroyed  by  the  pious  barbarism  of  the  Christian  emperors,  (e) 

§  52.     The  Christian  Apologist*. 

I.  Apologg.  Christ  Opp.  (ed.  Prudentiu*  Maranus.)  Par.  1742.  f. 

II.  Fabricius,  delectus  argnmentorum  et  syllabus scriptorum,  qul  verltatem  rol.  chr.  asseruernnt 
Hamb.  1726.  4;  Tt8chirnert  Ge*cb.  d.  Apologetik.  Lps.  1805;  only  1  voL;  Clausen,  Apologetae  EC- 
clesiae  chr.  ante  Theododani,  Platonts  ejosque  philosopbiae  arbitri.  Ilafn.  1817;  G.  IT.  van  Sen  den 
Gesch.  d  Apologetik.  Uebers.  (from  the  Dutch  Praet  dated  1831)  v.  W.  Quack  u.  It.  Binder.  Stuttg. 
134C.  1  Th. 

When  the  emperor  Hadrian  was  at  Athens  (about  130)  two  defences  of 
Christianity  were  presented  to  him,  one  by  the  philosopher  Aristides,  and 
another  by  the  Bishop  Quadratus.  The  latter  boasted  that  there  were  some 
among  his  acquaintance  who  had  been  healed,  and  indeed  some  who  had 
been  raised  from  the  dead  by  Jesus,  (a)  The  most  flourishing  period  of 
apologetic  writings  was  during  the  sway  of  the  Antonines,  when  the  Church 
was  quite  as  much  under  the  influence  of  hope,  as  of  fear  with  respect  to  its 
external  condition,  and  when  every  opinion  was  allowed  to  be  publicly  ex- 
pressed. The  Apologies  of  Justin  Martyr,  (5)  written  at  Flavia  Neapolis 

iL  Cels.  u.  s.  Schr.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1842.  P.  2.)  c)  Kara  Xpiffnavuv  \6yoi.— Fragments  may 
be  found  in  Holstenii  Ds.  de  vita  et  scriptis  Porph.  Eom.  1630;  (Fabricii  Bibl.  Gr.  Th.  IV.  p. 
207ss.)  [Select  Works  of  Porph.  transL  by  Taylor.  Lond.  1823.  8.]  d)  A6yot  <ptAaA.T?&ets  Trpbj 
XpiffTiavovs.  Fragments  in  the  polemical  writings  of  Euseb.  contra  Hierocl.  liber.— Lactant.  de 
mortib.  c.  16.  e)  Codex  Justin.  1. 1.  tit  1.  const  8. 

o)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  3.  comp.  ffieron.  cataL  c.  19s.     6)  Apologia  I.  et  II.  ed.  Thalemann,  Lps. 
1755;  Opp.  rec.  Otto.  Th.   I.— Arendt,  Krit  Unters.  u.  d.  Schrr.  Just   (Tub.  Quartalachr.  1834. 


CHAP.  I.    STRUGGLES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.    §  52.  APOLOGISTS.  5 1 

nnder  a  sense  of  unjust  oppression,  are  valuable  rather  for  the  spirit,  than  for 
the  talent  or  caution  displayed  in  them.  Even  after  he  had  become  an  evan- 
gelist, he  still  retained  his  philosopher's  cloak,  and  having  wandered  through 
all  the  existing  schools  of  philosophy,  he  had  found  peace  at  last  in  the  gos- 
pel of  Christ,  Although  he  disparages  Greek  learning  by  maintaining  that 
it  had  been  borrowed  from  Hebrew  sources,  he  acknowledged  that  what  was 
a  perfect  light  in  Christianity  may  have  been  essentially  the  same  with  the 
dim  revelations  of  the  divine  Spirit  in  the  Grecian  systems.  In  this  way  he 
found  a  point  of  accommodation  by  which  he  could  unite  both  systems  to- 
gether. Occupying  essentially  the  same  ground  with  that  which  had  been 
taken  by  the  apostle  Paul,  he  seems  either  totally  unconscious  of  the  fact,  or 
to  have  regarded  it  with  the  prejudices  of  a  Jewish  Christian,  (c)  The  only 
answer  which  the  philosophical  emperor,  and  perhaps  also  .the  cynical  phi- 
losopher Crescens,  who  was  attacked  in  the  second  Apology,  condescended 
to  give,  was  the  execution  of  the  Christian  philosopher  at  Rome  (161-8).  (d) 
His  disciple  Tatianus  from  Assyria,  wrote  intelligently,  but  with  passionate 
errors  respecting  Greek  customs  and  philosophy,  (e)  The  author  of  the  epis- 
tle to  Diognetus  shows  that  he  had  enjoyed  a  Greek  education,  and  that  he 
was  animated  by  a  Christianity  which  was  entirely  a  new  religion.  (/)  Atlw- 
nagoras,  by  mild  and  judicious  appeals  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  attempted  to 
prove  that  Christians  were  innocent  of  the  crimes  imputed  to  them  and  were 
worthy  of  the  imperial  favor,  (g)  Melito,  Bishop  of  Sardis,  especially  skilled 
in  the  literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  a  eunuch  for  the  kingdom  of  heav- 
en's sake,  and  esteemed  by  his  people  as  a  prophet  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
sought  justice  from  the  same  prince  in  behalf  of  a  philosophy  which  had  in- 
deed originated  among  barbarians,  but  had  risen  under  Augustus  as  a  propi- 
tious star  for  the  Roman  empire,  and  had  advanced  simultaneously  with 
it.  (h}  The  three  books  of  TheopUlus  of  Antioch  (170-180),  addressed  to 
Autolycus,  contain  a  carefully  written  but  narrowly  conceived  defence  of  the 
Christian  party ;  (*)  and  the  mockeries  heaped  upon  the  philosophers  of  that 
period  by  Hermias,  present  a  superficial  but  witty  caricature  of  the  paradoxi- 
cal questions  which  engrossed  their  attention.  (&)  The  Octavius,  a  colloquy 
written  by  the  African  rhetorickn  and  Roman  advocate,  Minucius  Felix,  in 
the  style  of  Cicero,  is  a  clear  and  concise  statement  of  the  real  questions  gen- 


§  256ss.) ;  C.  Semisch,  J.  d.  Mart  Brsl.  1840s.  2  vols. ;  Otto,  de  Just  Mart  scriptis  et  doctrina.  Jen. 
1841 ;  F.  a  Soil,  u.  d  Verhaltniss  der  beiden  Apol.  (illgen's  Zeitschr.  1848.  P.  3).  [Art.  In  Kitto's 
Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit  vol.  V.]  c)  Comp.  however,  Otto,  in  Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1841.  P.  2.  1842.  P.  2. 
1843.  P.  1.  d)  C.  Semisch,  u.  d.  Todesj.  Just  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1835.  P.  4);  A.  Stieren,  u.  d.  Todesj. 
Just  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1842.  P.  1.)  e)  A6yos  Trpbs"E\\'rivas.  ed.  Worth,  Oxon.  170p.— H.  A. 
Daniel,  Tatian  der  Apologet  Hal.  1837.  /)  'ETTKTTO^  irpbs  Aioyvyrov.  ed,  BoUt  in  Opp.  Patrurn 
sel.  Ber.  1826.  P.  I. ;  Otto,  in  Opp.  Just  Th.  II—  £  D.  a  Grossheim,  Oomm.  do  Epist.  ad  Diogn. 
Lps.  1828.  4 ;  Otto,  de  Epist  ad  Diogn.  Justini  nomen  prae  se  ferente.  Jen.  1844.  g)  Upea-^ela 
TTfpl  Xpiffrtavcov.  ed.  Lindner.  Longosal.  1774. — Clarisse,  de  Athenagorae  vita,  scriptis,  doctr. 
Lugd.  1819.  4.  [Athenagoras,  transl.  into  Eng.  •with  notes  by  Humphreys.  Lond.  1714.  8.]  K)  Ac- 
cording to  the  Fragments  in  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  26,  comp.  V,  24;  Hieron.  catal.  c.  24;  Piper,  Me- 
.ito.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1838.  P.  1.)  f)  Uepl  TTJS  ruv  Xpi<rriavS>v  TriVrewr.  ed.  J.  C.  Wolf.  Hamlk. 
.724;  Uebers.  mit  Anna,  v,  Thdenemann,  Lpz.  1834.  £)  Aicurvpijibs  rwv  e£w  <$>iKoff6q>wv.  ed, 


52  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-81Z. 

erally  discussed  in  his  day.  (I)  Tertullian,  especially  in  his  Apologeticus,  not 
only  demonstrated  the  perfect  right  of  the  Church  to  civil  protection,  but  in- 
veighed with  bitter  eloquence  against  the  vile  arnoms  of  the  ancient  gods  in 
the  shape  of  fishes,  birds,  and  beasts.  Origen,  whose  philosophical  views 
were  fundamentally  similar  to  those  of  his  opponent,  with  an  untiring  indus- 
try met  all  the  objections  which  Celsus  had  urged,  and  while  doing  so,  pre- 
sented a  doctrinal  defence  of  Christianity,  with  very  little  care  or  success  in 
the  discussion  of  the  political  question.  These  works  of  Origen  and  Tertul- 
lian  indicate  that  their  authors  fully  believed  that  Christianity  had  already 
reached  a  point  which  rendered  its  future  progress  inevitable.  Arnolius  of 
Sicca  endeavored,  in  a  controversial  work  (about  803),  to  obtain  the  confi- 
dence of  the  Christians,  whom  he  had  before  persecuted ;  and  though  it  con- 
tained many  needless  speculations,  it  defended  also  the  more  profound  doc- 
trines of  the  Church,  and  exposed  the  errors  of  heathenism  with  much 
rhetorical  skill,  (rri)  The  object  of  the  apologists  was :  1)  To  answer  the  ob- 
jections made  against  Christians.  They  met  the  charge  of  atheism  by  point- 
ing to  the  well-known  piety  of  Christians  and  showing  the  true  nature  of  a 
spiritual  worship.  To  the  imputation  of  unnatural  crimes  they  opposed  the 
strictness  of  their  morality,  and  in  refutation  of  the  charge  of  treason,  they 
appealed  to  the  submission  shown  by  Christians  in  time  of  persecution,  and 
to  the  prayers  which  they  offered  up  in  behalf  of  the  emperor.  The  suffer- 
ings of  Christians  were  ascribed  to  demoniac  agency ;  the  death  of  the  mar- 
tyrs was  shown  to  bo  no  real  evil ;  the  representation  of  a  Deity  enduring 
sufferings  but  glorified  even  in  death,  they  proved  was  not  unknown  even  in 
Grecian  mythology ;  public  calamities  were  attributed  to  the  divine  displeasure 
on  account  of  the  persecution  of  Christians ;  and  although  they  did  not  con- 
cede that  the  recent  introduction  of  a  religion  was  a  proper  argument  against 
its  truth,  they  traced  the  radical  principles  of  Christianity  back  to  a  time  be- 
fore Moses  and  Abraham — a  period  prior  to  the  existence  of  any  of  the  Gre- 
cian systems  of  philosophy.  2)  To  contend  against  the  Hellenistic  systems. 
By  appeals  to  facts  and  to  reason,  they  showed  the  utter  insufficiency  and  the 
immorality  of  polytheism ;  they  objected  to  the  spiritual  explanations  given 
of  the  myths  as  uncandid ;  and  while  they  acknowledged  all  that  was  true 
and  consistent  with  the  gospel  in  philosophy,  they  proved  that  this  was  quite 
unsatisfactory  as  the  basis  of  a  national  religion.  3)  To  prove  the  truth  and 
divine  authority  of  Christianity.  Among  the  arguments  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, were,  the  moral  power  and  divine  wisdom  exhibited  even  by  poor  and 
uneducated  people,  the  religious  peace  conferred  by  Christianity,  its  perfect 
reasonableness  and  its  rapid  and  irresistible  progress,  the  triumph  with  which 
the  martyrs  met  their  fate,  and  the  historical  proofs  of  divine  assistance. 


Dommerich.  Hal.  1764.  Z)  Ed.  Lindner.  LongosaL  (1760)  1778;  Uebers.  m.  Anm.  v.  Rusewurm. 
Hamb.  1824.  4 ;  Neu  hrsg.  erklart  u.  ubers.  v.  Lubkert.  Lps.  1836 ;  Ad  fidem  cod.  Regii  et  Brux.  rec, 
Eduard.  de  Muralto,  praefatus  est  OreUi.  Tur.  1836.— U.  Meier,  Comra.  de  Min.  FeL  Tor.  1824.--- 
Doubtful  whether  it  was  written  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines,  or  alter  Tertnllian.  Probably  in  tha 
former,  m)  Disputationes  adv.  gentes.  L  VII.  ed.  J.  C.  Orelli,  Lps.  1816 ;  Additamentum.  Lps. 
1817;  ex  nova  cod.  Paris  collat.  rec.  G.  F.  Hildebrand,  Hal.  1844;  TJebers.  u.  erlSut  v.  JE  A.  v 
Bernard.  Landsh.  1842.— P.  K  Mayer,  de  ratione  et  argumento  apologetic!  Arnobiani.  Ham  1815. 


CHAP.  L    STKUGGLES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.    §  53.  BARBAROUS  NATIONS.       53 

Among  the  last,  a  superior  place  was  given  to  fulfilled  prophecies,  but  next 
to  them  stood  the  miracles  which  had  been  wrought  by  Jesus  and  his  fol- 
lowers in  the  different  periods  of  the  Church. 

§  53.    Religion  of  Barbarous  Nations. 

Eoman  power  and  Greek  culture  had  either  broken  up,  renovated,  or 
adopted  into  the  Roman  Pantheon  the  religions  of  all  conquered  nations.  In 
the  East,  ever  since  the  time  of  the  Grecian  conquests,  nothing  remained  in 
Asia,  with  the  exception  of  the  established  local  worship  of  some  favorite 
gods,  but  a  sensuous  glow  of  devotion,  or  occasionally  in  Egypt  a  gloomy, 
pensive  and  mysterious  form.  In  Western  Europe,  the  religion  of  the  Celtic 
nations  was  evidently  declining.  In  Gaul,  the  Druids,  as  priests,  judges, 
sages,  and  physicians,  had  monopolized  all  intellectual  pursuits,  and  estab- 
lished a  powerful  hierarchy.  In  contrast  with  them  existed  a  nobility,  whose 
solo  occupation  was  war.  To  these  two  classes  the  common  people  gradual- 
ly became  completely  enslaved.  But  when  the  common  people  sunk  into 
this  state  of  insignificance,  the  priesthood  lost  their  principal  support  in  op- 
position to  the  nobility,  and  it  was  on  account  of  the  discord  which  prevailed 
between  these  states,  that  the  Romans  were  invited  into  their  country. 
Caasar  came,  and  saw,  and  conquered.  The  national  religion  was  then  re- 
stricted within  certain  limits  by  the  Koman  law.  Augustus  required  that  no 
Roman  citizen  should  take  any  part  in  its  rites,  and  Claudius  finally  prohib- 
ited all  human  sacrifices.  It  was  not,  however,  so  much  by  the  direct  power 
of  their  conquerors  that  the  Druids  were  overthrown,  as  by  the  new  social 
relations  then  introduced.  As  early  as  near  the  close  of  the  first  century, 
the  Order  of  the  Druids  was  an  independent  and  learned  association,  and  the 
old  popular  faith  was  mingled  with  the  Roman  mythology,  (a)  In  Britain,  the 
power  of  the  Druids,  which  was  continually  exerted  to  arouse  the  people  to 
renewed  efforts  for  freedom,  could  only  be  destroyed  by  violence  (62).  Un- 
der the  conciliatory  administration  of  Agricola,  Roman  habits  and  arts  of 
life  acquired  ascendency  even  to  the  foot  of  the  Highlands.  (&)  Hence,  no 
province  of  the  empire  opposed  Christianity  with  any  remarkable  or  long- 
continued  energy,  and  the  West  presented  but  little  more  resistance  to  its 
progress  than  had  been  awakened  in  its  own  eastern  home. 

§  54.    Spread  of  Christianity. 

Near  the  middle  pf  the  second  century,  the  gospel  had,  in  the  East, 
passed  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Roman  empire.  In  Edessa  especially  it 
gained  possession  of  the  throne,  and  a  few  churches  were  collected  in  Par- 
thia,  Persia,  and  India.  Proceeding  from  Rome,  it  obtained  an  established 
position  in  Carthage  and  in  the  western  provinces  of  Africa.  In  Western 

a)  Caesar,'  de  bello  gall.  I,  81.  VI,  12-16.— J.  O.  Frick,  de  Drtiidis,  ed.  A.  Prick,  Ulm.  1T44.  4 
Duclos,  Mem,  sur  les  Druides.  (Mem.  de  1'acad.  des  inscript  Th.  XIX.) ;  Mbne,  Gesch.  d.  Heidentb. 
im  nordl.  Eur.  Lps.  u.  Dannst  1822s.  vol.  II.  p.  858-426.  I)  E.  Davies,  Celtic  Researches  on  the 
Origin  and  Traditions  of  the  Ancient  Britons.  Lond.  1S04.  [Idem.  Rites  of  the  British  Druids.  Lond. ; 
G.  ffiffgins,  The  Celtic  Druids.  Lond.  182T.  4.]  Toland,  Hist  of  the  Druids,  with  additions  by 
Huddleston.  Montrose,  1814;  Hone,  vol.  II.  p.  426-548.  [LitteWs  Eel.  Mag.  vol.  II.  1828.  pp.  81-4a 
119-122.  490-503 ;  Incidents  of  the  Apostolic  Age  in  Britain.  Lond.  1844  12.") 


54  ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-812. 

Europe  it  pressed  onward  to  Spain  and  even  gained  some  possessions  in  Bri 
tain.  Flourishing  churches  from  Asia  Minor  were  planted  in  Lyons,  Vienne, 
and  Paris,  from  which  Christianity  was  extended  to  barbarous  nations  whose 
language  had  never  been  reduced  to  writing,  (a)  Near  the  close  of  the  third 
century,  churches  were  established  in  Armenia,  and  a  few  bishoprics  were 
formed  on  the  Rhine  and  in  Britain.  The  manner  in  which  religion  was  pro- 
pagated was,  commencing  generally  with  the  large  cities,  it  was  carried  for- 
ward not  so  much  by  organized  missions  as  by  ordinary  social  intercourse. 
It  had  become  powerful  as  a  popular  element,  prevailing  most  among  the 
lower  classes,  bnt  by  means  of  slaves  and  women  it  had  penetrated,  as  early 
as  near  the  end  of  the  second  century,  every  order  of  society.  About  that 
time  the  Apologists  speak  of  the  number  of  Christians  with  skilful  and  en- 
thusiastic declamation ;  (I)  and  though  even  in  the  commencement  of  the 
fourth  century  they  were  far  from  being  a  majority  of  the  population,  their 
intimate  fellowship  and  zeal  gave  them  a  predominant  influence  in  society. 
The  barbarous  Jewish  origin  and  the  strict  and  self-denying  morality  of  their 
religion,  the  suspicion  of  political  disaffection  under  which  they  rested,  and 
their  simple,  lowly  character  at  first,  were  powerful  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  its  propagation.  But  to  be  weighed  against  these,  as  secondary  causes  of 
its  victory,  must  be  noticed  the  advantage  which  it  enjoyed  on  account  of 
the  unity  of  the  Roman  empire  and  the  general  prevalence  of  Greek  cul- 
ture, its  miraculous  powers,  and  the  benefits  which  it  offered  to  the  poor,  the 
sick,  travellers,  and  those  who  were  in  any  way  destitute.  Even  the  perse- 
cutions through  which  it  passed  were  beneficial,  since  they  were  severe 
enough  to  arouse  in  its  followers  an  heroic  courage,  and  in  those  who  observed 
them  an  admiring  wonder,  and  yet  were  not  protracted  or  general  enough  to 
destroy  the  Church.  Next  to  the  vital  decline  of  heathenism,  however,  the 
essential  reason  of  its  success  was  the  real  truth  and  power  of  Christianity 
presenting  itself  in  the  happiest  of  all  forms — a  religion  adapted  to  the  masses 
of  the  people. 

§  55.     The  Last  Persecution. 
Lactant.  de  mortlb.  c.  7-18.  Euteb.  H.  ecc.  VIII.  IX. 

In  the  enjoyment  of  forty  years  of  peace  Christianity  had  time  to  per- 
fect its  victories.  It  was  then  that  Diocletian  (284-305)  by  his  protracted 
course  of  real  success,  was  induced  to  hope  he  might  restore  the  empire  to 
its  former  glory.  He  regarded  the  restoration  of  the  established  religion  to 
its  former  ascendency  as  a  primary  condition  on  which  such  a  result  de- 
pended. His  son-in-law  the  Caesar  Galerius,  in  consequence  of  his  low  dis- 
position and  heathenish  superstition,  became  the  instrument  of  a  party  in  the 
court,  which  demanded  the  subversion  of  Christianity  as  indispensable  to  the 
stability  of  their  power.  The  heathen  government,  conscious  that  it  was 
sinking  in  its  proper  character  before  the  spiritua*  power  of  the  Church,  com- 
menced another  struggle,  on  the  issue  of  which  was  staked  its  life  or  death. 
Galerius  first  removed  all  Christians  from  his  army  (298).  Diocletian  stil] 

a)  Iren.  Ill,  4.    &)  Tertul.  Apologetlcus,  c.  87.  c.  Jod.  c.  7. 


CHAP.  I.    STRUGGLES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.    §  5G.  MAETYES.  55 

shrunk  from  the  contest,  for  he  well  knew  it  would  be  terrible.  Finally 
when  counsel  had  been  sought  from  gods  and  men,  the  destruction  of  the 
Church  of  Nicomedia  (Feb.  23,  303)  proclaimed  that  the  persecution  of  the 
Christians  had  commenced.  The  imperial  edict  which  immediately  followed 
that  event,  commanded  that  all  Christian  temples  should  be  destroyed,  and 
the  books  belonging  to  them  burned ;  that  all  civil  officers  professing  Chris- 
tianity should  forfeit  their  dignities ;  that  Christian  citizens  should  be  deprived 
of  their  civil  privileges,  and  that  even  slaves  who  avowed  faith  in  Christ 
should  lose  all  prospect  of  freedom,  (a)  The  indignation  such  a  proceeding 
provoked  against  the  emperor,  and  the  real  or  imaginary  perils  -winch  now 
threatened  him,  required  that  the  whole  power  of  the  empire  should  be  ar- 
rayed against  the  Christians.  After  two  other  edicts  had  been  put  forth,  each 
more  rigorous  than  that  which  preceded  it,  a  fourth  (304)  required  that  all 
Christians  should  be  compelled  to  offer  sacrifice  by  every  practicable  means.  (£>) 
The  persecution  raged  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  empire.  The  spirit  of  the 
Church  was  divided  by  the  most  heroic  courage  and  base  cowardice.  Monu- 
ments were  erected  in  honor  of  the  emperor,  implying  that  he  had  utterly 
abolished  the  name  of  Christian.  But  in  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  Christians  were  much  mitigated  by  the  conduct  of  the  Caesar 
Comtantius  Chlorus.  His  son,  Constantine  (after  306),  inherited  his  father's 
spirit  in  a  still  higher  degree.  In  the  East,  Galerius,  tired  of  the  useless  effu- 
sion of  blood,  on  his  deathbed  (311)  suspended  the  progress  of  the  persecu- 
tion, (c)  but  it  was  immediately  renewed  in  Asia  by  Maximinus.  When  Con- 
Btantine,  however,  had  overthrown  Maxentius,  he,  in  conjunction  with  Lici- 
nius,  the  Augustus  of  Eastern  Europe,  was  induced  by  his  regard  for  Chris- 
tians to  proclaim  (312)  a  universal  toleration  for  all  religions,  (d) 

§  50.     The  Martyrs. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  ten  persecutions,  as  that  number  is  conve- 
nient for  popular  recollection,  and  accordant  with  certain  allegorical  rela- 
tions, (a)  but  some  of  them  scarcely  deserve  the  name.  Those  who  were 
disposed  to  fly  from  the  danger  usually  found  the  way  of  escape  unobstructed ; 
when  any  actually  suffered  they  were  generally  those  whose  lives  were  re- 
garded as  of  no  value,  those  whose  death  appeared  needful,  on  account  of 
their  superior  guilt,  as  a  warning  to  others,  and  those  who  occupied  promi- 
nent stations  in  the  Church,  or  slaves.  Accordingly,  even  in  the  time  of 
Origen,  the  number  of  those  who  had  died  as  martyrs  was  very  small,  and 
easily  reckoned.  (5)  We  read  of  a  blind  fury,  in  the  times  of  Decius  and  Dio- 
cletian, which  no  longer  regarded  individuals,  but  vented  itself  in  the  sacrifice 
of  whole  masses  of  people  at  once ;  but  in  general,  the  first  notices  we  have 
respecting  it  are  in  the  exaggerated  accounts  which  have  come  down  to  us  in 

a)  Lact.  c.  13.  Euseb.  VIII,  2.    5)  Euseb.  de  martyribus  Palaest.  c.  3. 

c)  Lact.  c.  34.  Euseb.  VIII,  IT. 

d)  Its  contents  may  be  inferred  from  the  edict  of  313 :  Lact.  c.  43.  Euseb.  X,  5. 
a)  Apoc.  IT,  12ss.  Exod.  Tss. 

V)  Orig.  c.  Cels.  III.  (Th.  I.  p.  452.)  Yet  comp.  Iren.  IV,  83,  9.—Dodwell,  de  paucitate  martyrum. 
In  his  Dss.  Cyprianicis.    On  the  other  hand,  Kuinarti  Praef.  ad  Acta  martyrum. 


56  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.    100-312. 

legends.  Thus  we  find  that  eleven  thousand  virgins  are  said  to  have  perished 
with  St.  Ursula.  The  most  credible  evidence  on  which  this  story  was  built, 
consists  in  a  false  construction  of  an  ancient  manuscript,  and  a  revelation  from 
heaven  to  a  company  of  monks  first  in  the  year  1163,  which  pointed  out 
their  bones.  The  story  of  the  massacre  of  the  Theban  legion  (268)  appears 
in  a  fluctuating  state  even  in  the  sixth  century,  (c)  The  executions  generally 
took  place  in  strict  conformity  with  the  demands  of  the  penal  law,  but  when 
the  feelings  of  the  populace  were  especially  embittered,  or  when  it  seemed 
desirable  to  terrify  survivors,  the  most  dreadful  illegal  torments  were  de- 
vised, (d)  Many  saved  themselves  by  denying  Christ,  and  offering  sacrifice 
to  the  gods  (thurificati,  sacrificati),  some  by  bribing  the  magistrates  to  grant 
them  certificates  that  they  had  sacrificed  (libellatici),  and  others  by  surren- 
dering the  sacred  books  (traditores).  But  so  great  was  the  joy  of  the  Con- 
fessors and  the  Martyrs,  that  they  were  sometimes  reproved  by  judicious 
pastors  for  pressing  too  eagerly  forward  to  death.  The  virtues  of  Greek  and 
Roman  antiquity  were  revived,  as  the  people  surrendered  themselves  that 
they  might  obtain  a  home  beyond  the  skies,  (e)  The  power  of  faith  was 
triumphant  even  over  the  feelings  of  our  common  nature,  and  over  the  shud- 
dering horror  which  persons  of  a  delicate  habit  and  of  refinement  are  apt  to 
feel  on  such  occasions.  Even  children  took  pleasure  in  death,  and  noble 
maidens  endured  what  was  far  worse.  (/)  Although  many  encountered 
death  cheerfully,  because  they  preferred  it  to  the  disgrace  which  must  have 
been  the  lot  of  the  apostate  and  the  traitor,  and  because  they  longed  for  the 
honor  and  glory  which  the  martyrs  attained  even  on  earth  in  the  admiration 
of  their  friends  and  expected  immediately  after  in  Paradise,  there  was  be- 
yond all  this  a  genuine  delight  in  following  Jesus,  which  gave  to  the  Church 
a  consciousness  that  it  was  invincible. 


CHAP.  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

J.  U.  ffikmtr,  EntwickL  d.  KStaatsd.  ersten  8  Jahrh.  Hal  (1718)  1738.  W.  K.  L.  Zlegler,  Vrs.  e. 
pragm.  Gesch.  d.  kirchl.  Gesellschaftaformen  in  A  creten  6  Jahrh.  Lps.  1793.  Mohler,  die  Einh.  in  d. 
K.  o.  d.  Prlncip.  d.  Kath.  im  Geiste  d.  KVerf.  d.  8  ersten  Jahrh.  Tub.  1825.  ffase,  de  jure  ecc- 
Commtr.  hist  Lps.  1828.  P.  L  J.  IL  M.  Ernezti,  KStaat  d.  8  ersten  Jahrh.  Numb.  1S30.  W.  Soh- 
mer,  die  socialen  Verb.  d.  K.  alter  ZeiL  (Alterthnmsw.  vol.  L)  Bresl.  1836.  K.  Rotlie,  die  Anfange 
<L  K.  u.  ihrer  Verf.  Witt  1837.  vol.  L  [Riddle's  Manual  of  Christian  Antiquities,  Lond.  Bingham'a 
Origines  Ecclesiasticae,  Lond.  1845.  L.  Coleman,  Primitive  Christianity  Exemplified,  Philad.  1862. 
2  vols.  8.] 

§  57.     Original  Documents  on  Ecclesiastical  Law. 

The  usages  and  laws  which  prevailed  in  particular  provinces  were  not  es- 
sentially different  from  each  other,  since  the  general  relations  of  society  were 

.  c)  Vita  Eomani.  (Acta  Sanctor.  Feb.  Th.  III.  p.  740.)  Triihemii  Ann.  Hirs.  Th.  L  p.  450.  G.  Ha- 
{tens  Eeimchronik  d.  Stadt  Colin.  Edited  by  Groote,  Coll.  1834  Comp.  Eheinwald's  Eep.  1835.  vol. 
IX.  p.  201ss.— Du  Sourdieu,  sur  le  martyre  de  la  16gion  theb6enne.  Amst  1705.  12.  Jos.  d'Isle,  d6- 
fense  de  la  verit6  de  la  legion  th6beenne.  Par.  1741.  12.— Eespecting  Massa  Candida ;  in  Prudent 
Hymn.  13s.  sec.  Tillemont,  Th.  IV.  p.  17588. 

d)  Sagittarius  de  mart  excruciatib.  Frcf.  et  Lps.  (1C73)  1C96.  4.    e)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  Y,  1. 

/)  Lad.  Instt  V,  13. 


CHAP.  II.    CONSTITUTION.       57.  LEGISLATION.    §  58.  CLEEGT.  57 

every  where  the  same,  and  a  continual  intercourse  was  carried  on  between 
the  several  parts  of  the  empire.  They  may  he  learned  partly  from  the  wri> 
tings  of  the  contemporaneous  fathers,  in  which  individual  facts  are  referred 
to,  and  partly  from  later  enactments,  which,  without  hesitation,  refer  to  primi- 
tive usage.  The  Apostolical  Constitutions  which  hear  the  name  of  Clemens 
Eomanus,  in  the  first  six  books  contain  the  oldest  usages  and  laws  prevalent 
among  the  Jewish  Christians  of  the  Oriental  Church  of  the  third  century. 
In  the  fourth  century,  when  the  seventh  and  eighth  books  were  added,  this 
work  received  some  interpolations  with  respect  to  ecclesiastical  usages,  though 
not  in  the  sense  charged  by  the  Arians.  As  a  collection  they  have  never  at- 
tained any  legal  authority,  (a)  The  Apostolical  Canons  are  a  compilation 
gradually  formed  of  the  constitutions  and  enactments  of  Synods  during  the 
fourth  century,  and  therefore  are  supposed  to  embrace  the  traditions  respect- 
ing law,  which  had  come  down  from  the  Apostles.  The  Roman  Church  hav- 
ing once  rejected  this  collection  as  a  whole,  decided  (after  500)  to  receive  the 
first  fifty  canons.  (J)  John  Scholasticus  (middle  of  the  6th  century)  found  all 
the  eighty -five  canons  already  in  the  books  of  laws  used  in  the  Greek  Church,  (c) 
No  proof  therefore  in  favor  of  a  regular  system  of  legal  relations  in  the 
churches  of  the  second  and  third  centuries  can  be  drawn  merely  from  thi? 
collection,  because  it  bears  the  apostolic  name. 

§  58.     The  Clergy  and  the  Laity. 

The  offices  of  the  Church  at  this  period  presented  very  little  to  excite  the 
cupidity  of  ordinary  men,  and  even  the  honor  attending  them  was  counter- 
balanced by  the  dangers.  And  yet  it  seemed  desirable  to  increase  the  venera- 
tion which  necessarily  attends  the  virtues  and  a  faithful  performance  of  offi- 
cial duty  in  the  Church,  by  mysterious  forms  of  ordination,  by  connecting 
them  through  various  associations  with  the  Old  Testament  priesthood,  and 
by  external  tokens  of  peculiar  sanctity.  The  result  was,  that  even  in  the 
second  century  the  priests  (xX^oy,  ordo)  were  represented  as  the  official  me- 
diators between  Christ  and  the  congregation  (\ads-,  plebs).  To  speak  in  the 
church,  and  to  administer  holy  rites,  were  conceded  to  be  the  special  prero- 
gatives of  the  clergy,  although  learned  laymen  were  sometimes  heard  in  the 
public  assembly,  with  the  consent  of  the  bishop,  (a)  In  all  things  relating 
to  the  business  of  the  congregation,  the  principal  care  and  authority  devolved 
upon  the  clergy,  But  this  power  was  generally  exercised  mildly  and  with  a 
true  regard  for  the  public  good,  since  those  who  possessed  it  could  use  no  ex- 
ternal means  of  coercion,  and  the  clergy,  being  generally  without  fixed  sala- 

a)  Aiaraya.1  TUV  ay.  'ATTOO-TO'AWI',  printed  in  Cotelerius' Edit  of  the  Patres  App.  Th.  I.  p.  199. 
[Ueltzen  has  publ.  a  new  edit  of  the  Ap.  Constt  Lps.  1S54. 12.]— 0.  Krabbe,  u.  Ursprung  u.  Inhalt 
der  apost.  Constitt  Hamb.  1S29.    J.  &  v.  Drey,  neue  TJnters.  u.  d.  Constitt  u.  Kanones  der  App. 
Tub.  1832. 

b)  Gelasii,  Decretum  a.  494.  (Gratian :  c.  8.  D.  XV.  §  64.)  Dionysii  Praefatio.  (MansL  Th.  I.  p.  3.) 
c)  Kav6ve?  et<K\T]<TiaffTiKol  ruv  ay.  'ATrocrToAwv,  printed  in  most  of  theeccles.  collections  of  laws 
and  in  Cotelerius,  I.  p.  437.— J^  E.  Itegenbrecht,  de  canonib.  App.  Vrat  1828.    Krabbe  de  cod. 
can3num,  qui  App.  nomine  circumferuntur.  Gott  1829.  4. 

o)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VI,  19.  Constt.  app.  VIII,  32.  comp.  Cone.  Carth.  IV.  a.  419.  can.  98.  (J/a«si 
Th.  III.  p.  959.)    [Cone.  Carth.  an.  398.  can.  22.  in  Landon's  Manual  of  Councils.] 


58  ANCIENT  CHUECn  HISTOEY.    PEE.  L    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-812. 

ries,  were  dependent  upon  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the  people.  (5) 
Their  authority  was  often  much  straitened  by  the  influence  of  the  confessors, 
and  the  idea  was  not  yet  removed  of  a  priesthood  embracing  all  true  Chris- 
tians, (c)  The  congregation  still  possessed  the  undisputed,  though  often  the 
violated  right,  to  decide  upon  the  exclusion  and  the  restoration  of  its  own 
members,  to  confirm  the  choice  of  its  presbyters,  to  be  heard  upon  every  im- 
portant matter,  and  to  elect  its  own  bishop.  This  last  mentioned  public  pri- 
vilege, near  the  close  of  the  third  century,  was  much  curtailed  by  the  inter- 
ference of  the  clergy  who  presided  over  the  congregation,  and  of  the  neigh- 
boring bishops,  (d)  As  many  presbyters  were  elected  as  appeared  necessary 
at  the  time,  until  in  each  congregation  such  a  number  was  gradually  settled 
upon  as  its  circumstances  seemed  to  require.  In  the  African  churches  the 
Elders  (seniores)  do  not  seem  to  have  been  devoted  to  the  business  of  in- 
struction, nor  to  have  belonged  to  the  clerical  order.  Their  office  did  not 
then  imply  a  clearly  recognized  distinction  between  lay  and  clerical  presby- 
ters, and  they  were  probably  relics  of  the  original  equality  of  the  clergy  and 
all  God's  people  in  the  primitive  Church,  when  all  the  presbyters  were  not 
fitted  for  the  work  of  instruction  and  private  members  of  the  Church  were 
not  excluded  from  it.  (e)  Deacons  were  not  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
proper  priesthood  (sacerdotium),  but  as  ecclesiastical  servants  (ministres).  As 
the  number  seven  originally  connected  with  the  deacon's  office  was  not  will- 
ingly exceeded,  the  larger  churches  in  the  third  century  were  supplied  with 
sub-deacons.  To  the  appropriate  duties  of  the  deacon's  office  were  added  li- 
turgical exercises,  and  sometimes  also  preaching.  As  they  were  elected  by 
the  bishop  alone,  they  were  sometimes  through  his  influence  exalted  above 
the  presbyters.  The  inferior  services  pertaining  to  the  Church  were  per- 
formed by  laymen,  from  whom  were  gradually  formed  four  gradations  of  a 
semi-clergy,  called  Ostiarii,  Lectores,  Exorcistae,  and  Acoluthi.  The  clergy 
became  more  and  more  separated  from  all  secular  employments,  but  as  they 
were  generally  obliged  to  pass  through  the  inferior  offices,  they  obtained  a 
practical  education,  and  many  of  them  in  the  catechetical  schools  of  the 
Church  or  in  the  philosophical  schools  of  the  heathen,  acquired  considerable 
learning.  The  rule  that  no  one  should  be  advanced  to  the  higher  stations  in 
the  Church  until  he  had  performed  for  a  certain  period  the  functions  of  each 
inferior  office,  was  frequently  dispensed  with  by  the  favor  of  the  bishop  or 
of  the  people,  and  laymen  and  even  catechumens  were  sometimes  imme- 
diately elevated  to  the  episcopal  office. 

&)  Ziegler,  die  Einkunfte  des  Clerus  in  d.  ersten  8  Jahrh.  (Henke's  N.  Mag.  vol.  IV.  p.  llss.) 

c)  Iren.  IV,  20.  Tertul.  de  bapt  c.  17.  Exhort  ad  cast  c.  7.  Orig.  in  Jo.  torn.  1,  8.  (Th.  IV.  p.  8.) 
de  orat  c.  23. 

d)  Cypr.  Ep.  81.  §  5.  Ep.  59.  §  1.- Euseb.  II.  ecc.  VI,  43.— Cypr.  Ep.  6.  §  5.—Ct/pr.  Ep.  55.  §  6 
Ep.  68.  §  6. 

«)  Calvini  Inst.  IV,  8,  8.  Corrected  by  Vitringa,  de  syn.  vet  II,  2. 


CHAP.  II.    CONSTITUTION.    §  59.  BISHOPS.  59 

§  59.    Bishops. 

Walonis  Messalini  (Salmasii)  Ds.  do  Episcopis  et  Presbb.  c.  Petavum.  L.  B.  164L  D.  JBlondel, 
Apol.  pro  sententia  Hier.  de  Episc.  et  Prr.  Amst  1646.  4  On  the  other  side :  //  Hammond,  Dss.  4. 
quibus  Episcopatus  jura  ex  Sc.  S.  et  antiquitate  adstruuntur.  Lond.  1651.  4 — Lucke,  Eec.  app.  p. 
lOGss.— Kist,  u.  d.  Urspr.  d.  bisch.  Gewalt.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1832.  vol.  II.  sect.  2.)—ltotke  die  Anf.  d. 
chr.  Kirche.  p.  ITlse.  On  the  other  side :  Eaitr  u.  d.  Urspr.  des  Episcopats.  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  1838.  P. 
S.)  Comp.  §  42.  note  c.  [Jctmieson,  Cyprianus  Isotimus.  Lond.  1705.] 

In  the  Epistles  which  bear  the  name  of  Ignatius,  the  episcopate  is  repre- 
sented as  the  divinely  appointed  pillar  which  sustains  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
fabric,  and  yet  much  needing  the  writer's  most  earnest  commendations.  So 
general  and  so  thorough  a  change  as  that  which  in  any  view  of  the  case  it 
must  have  passed  through  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  could  then 
have  been  effected  by  no  personal  influence,  nor  by  general  consent,  but  only 
by  the  concurrent  power  of  circumstances.  Wherever  there  was  more 
than  one  presbyter,  some  individual  on  account  of  his  personal  influence 
would  be  called  to  preside,  or  all  would  do  so  in  rotation.  When  different 
portions  of  the  larger  congregations  met,  as  they  sometimes  did,  in  different 
places  of  worship  at  the  same  time,  each  congregation  would  naturally  be 
anxious  to  preserve  as  much  as  possible  its  existing  unity,  in  spite  of  its  acci- 
dental separation.  This  was  accomplished  by  retaining  a  common  connec- 
tion with  the  presbyter  who  had  previously  presided  over  them.  But  by 
this  means  his  jurisdiction  became  much  enlarged  and  strengthened.  The 
name  Overseer  was  especially  applied  to  the  peculiar  office  which  such  a 
presbyter  filled,  (a)  As  soon  as  this  name  became  thus  appropriated  to  de- 
signate a  superior  dignity  in  the  larger  cities,  those  presbyters  who  stood 
alone  in  the  smaller  towns  would  naturally  prefer  the  original  Greek  appella- 
tion which  was  common  to  them  all.  Hence  Irenaeus  continued  to  use 
both  names  interchangeably,  and  this  memento  of  the  original  equality  of 
presbyters  and  bishops  remained  firmly  in  the  Church  for  a  long  time  after 
new  relations  entirely  inconsistent  with  it  had  become  established.  (5)  At 
the  same  time  also  those  Elders  of  the  former  age  who  had  been  distinguished 
for  their  personal  character  were  always  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  Bish- 
ops. The  complete  realization  of  the  Episcopate  may  be  seen  in  the  Epistles 
of  Cyprian.  •  The  Bishop,  as  the  successor  of  the  apostles,  there  appears  as 
the  representative  of  his  Church,  and  at  the  same  time  to  the  Church  itself 
he  is  the  vicar  of  Christ;  he  is  espoused  to  the  local  congregation,  and  also 
to  the  general  Church ;  he  is  responsible  to  God  alone,  and  yet  is  an  indi- 
vidual organ  of  the  whole  episcopate,  (c)  He  possessed  supreme  power  in 
the  Church,  and  yet  in  important  matters  was  to  do  nothing  without  the 
counsel  of  his  presbyters,  (d)  All  ordinations  proceeded  from  him.  At  first 

a)  In  Justin  (Apol.  L  c.  65.)  still  called  irapeffTus. 

6)  Hieron.  ad  Tit.  I,  7.  Ep.  101.  (al.  85.)  ad  Evangelum.  Ambrosiaster.  (Hilarius  Diac.)  ad  Eph. 
IV,  11.  ad  I.  Tim.  Ill,  10.  Chrysost.  Horn,  in  Phil.  1, 1.  (Th.  XL  p.  195.)  Both  passages  of  Jerome 
in  Gratian :  c.  5.  D.  XCV.  and  24  D.  XCIII.  [also  in  Gieseler  Ecc.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  106.  note  2.]  But 
Urban  II.  in  Cone.  Benevent.  can.  1.  (Mansi.  Th.  XX.  p.  738.)  can  be  appealed  to  on  this  subject 
only  when  the  context  is  disregarded. 

o)  Oypr.  Oratio  ad  Cone.  Carth.  (p.  443.)  Ep.  72.  §  3.  ad  Stephan.  Ep.  67.  §  3.  De  unitate  Ecc.  c.  4. 

d)  Cypr.  de  aleator  c.  1.  Ep.  69.  §  7.  Ep.  6.  §  5.  Ep.  2S.  §  2.  cornp.  Cone.  Cartiiag.  IV.  a.  419.  can. 
34,  85.  (Mami,  Th.  III.  p.  954.) 


GO  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  L    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

lie  was  himself  ordained  by  the  imposition,  of  the  hands  of  the  presbyters, 
but  afterwards  by  the  neighboring  bishops.  Every  translation  of  a  bishop 
appeared  of  doubtful  propriety,  although  it  was  often  necessarily  conceded  to 
the  demands  of  ambition  and  of  higher  powers,  as  well  as  to  the  common 
welfare.  Many  of  the  bishops  of  the  country  congregations  (xvpfrria-KOTroi) 
continued  from  the  very  commencement  of  their  existence  dependent  upon 
those  bishoprics  in  the  city  from  which  they  sprung,  and  others  originally 
independent  gradually  submitted  to  the  influence  of  the  neighboring  city 
bishop.  In  Africa  alone  no  distinction  between  the  names  ever  appears.  The 
bishops  of  the  larger  cities  in  like  manner  became  exalted  in  power  and  au- 
thority above  the  others.  But  all  bishops  possessed  the  right  of  perfect 
equality  among  themselves  since  their  prerogatives  depended  not  upon  the 
transitory  possessions  of  this  world,  but  upon  the  common  investiture  which 
they  had  all  received  from  Christ. 

§  60.    Synod*. 

Ziegler,  pragm.  Daret  dcs  Ursprunga  d.  Synoden  u.  d.  Ausblldung  d.  Synodalverf.  (Henke's  N 
Mag.  vol.  I.  p.  12563. 

Ever  since  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century  a  number  of  assemblies, 
composed  of  bishops  residing  near  each  other,  had  been  held  to  obtain  the 
highest  possible  authority  for  a  decision  of  the  controversies  which  had 
sprung  up.  (a)  But  in  the  commencement  of  the  third  century  the  provin- 
cial synods,  at  first  in  Greece,  (5)  and  soon  afterwards  in  the  whole  Eastern 
world,  became  the  formal  basis  of  an  ecclesiastical  constitution,  as  the  su- 
preme courts  of  legislation,  administration  and  jurisdiction.  Their  meetings 
were  held  either  annually  or  semi-annually,  and  every  bishop  in  the  province 
had  a  seat  and  a  voice  in  them,  and  as  exceptions  to  the  rule,  even  presbyters 
and  confessors.  The  bishops  were  heard  not  as  representatives  of  their 
churches  but  in  their  own  name,  in  consequence  of  a  right  received  from  the 
Holy  Ghost,  (c)  The  meetings  however  were  public,  and  the  people  who 
were  present  made  their  influence  felt.  The  possession  of  infallibility  was 
never  thought  of,  and  their  decisions  had  no  authority  beyond  their  respec- 
tive provinces,  (d)  The  ecclesiastical  provinces  which  in  this  way  appear  as 
communities,  to  which  all  individual  bishops  were  amenable,  generally  cor- 
responded with  the  provinces  of  the  empire. 

§  61.    Metropolitans. 

The  natural  presidents  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  were  the  bishops 
of  the  principal  cities  (/zr/rpoTroXf  is).  The  grounds  on  which  their  pre-emi- 
nence was  founded  were  generally  the  apostolical  origin  of  their  churches, 
the  wealth  of  their  congregations,  and  their  frequent  opportunities  of  assist- 
ing those  who  resided  in  the  provinces.  The  Metropolitans  therefore,  as  the 
first  among  their  equals,  soon  obtained  the  right  of  convening  and  conduct- 

a)  Eusel.  H.  ecc.  V.  16.  23.    Z>)  Tertul.  de  jejun.  c.  13.  - 

c)  Cypr.  Ep.  54  §  5.  Comp.  Cone.  Arelat.  a.  314.  (Mansi,  Th,  II.  p.  469.) 

d)  Cupr.  Ep.  14.  §  2.  Ep.  54  §  5.  Ep.  72.  §  3. 


CHAP.  II.    CONSTITUTION.    §  61.  METEOPOLITANS.       G2.  GREAT  BISHOPS.    6 1 

ing  the  proceedings  of  the  Synods,  and  of  confirming  and  ordaining  the  pro- 
vincial bishops.  But  it  was  only  in  the  East  that  this  Metropolitan  system 
was  completely  carried  out.  The  Bishop  of  Carthage  sometimes  claimed  the 
right  of  a  Metropolitan  over  the  churches  in  Mauritania  and  Numidia,  where 
there  was  no  great  city  naturally  possessing  the  right  of  precedence,  but  the 
presidency  in  their  synods  was  always  given  to  the  oldest  bishop  (Senex). 

§  62.     The  Three  Great  Bishops. 

The  same  causes  which  produced  the  elevation  of  the  metropolitans,  op- 
erated in  a  still  higher  degree  to  give  the  largest  metropolitan  diocese  to  the 
bishops  of  the  three  principal  cities  of  the  empire,  Rome,  Alexandria,  and 
Antioch.  Eome  obtained  Middle  and  Lower  Italy  with  uncertain  limits, 
and  by  means  of  a  colony  of  bishops  sent  into  Southern  Gaul  (about  250)  ah. 
indefinite  influence  was  secured  in  the  affairs  of  that  region,  (a)  Alexandria 
obtained  possession  of  Egypt,  and  Antioch  of  Syria.  The  successor  of  St. 
Peter  received  an  honorable  rank  above  all  other  bishops,  on  account  of  the 
majesty  of  the  eternal  city,  and  the  vast  and  skilfully  used  wealth  at  his  dis- 
posal even  when  Laurentius  could  present  to  the  avaricious  magistrate  the 
poor  of  the  city  as  the  treasure  of  the  Roman  Church.  (5)  Eoman  bishops 
of  that  period  have  since  been  canonized,  who  were  great  only  in  their 
deaths.  No  extraordinary  individuals  were  concerned  in  laying  the  founda- 
tions of  her  subsequent  empire.  The  first  presage  of  its  future  position  was 
afforded  in  two  attempts  which  it  made  to  impose  its  usages  upon  other 
churches.  These  were  sternly  repelled  by  the  Asiatic  and  African  bishops,  (c) 
The  thought  of  a  Bishop  of  bishops  was  first  advanced  in  favor  of  James, 
about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  by  a  Jewish  party  in  Eome,  and  was 
regarded  in  Africa  as  equivalent  to  an  ecclesiastical  tyranny,  (d)  The  first 
voluntary  recognition  of  Eoman  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  report  that  the  apostolical  traditions  had  been  preserved  with 
especial  purity  in  the  West,  (c)  Cyprian  saw  in  the  pre-eminence  of  Peter  a 
symbol  of  the  unity  of  the  Church.  (/)  Even  when  Marcellinus  offered  in- 
cense to  the  gods  (302),  the  very  infirmity  of  a  Eoman  bishop  has  been  made 

d)  Cypr.  Ep.  6T.  comp.  Gregor.  Turon.  II.  Francor.  I,  28. 

Z>)  The  proofs  are  collected  by  Tillemont.  Th.  IV.  p.  41..     c)  §  69.  84 

d)  Ep.  dementis  ad  Jac.  in  Clem.  Homil.  (P.  app.  ed.  Coteler.  Th.  I.  p.  605).    Cypr.  in  Cone.  Car- 
thag.  (Roufh,  Eeliq.  sac.  III.  p.  91)  conf.  Tertul.  de  pudic.  c.  1. 

e)  Iren.  Ill,  3,  2 :  "  Ad  hanc  Ecclesiam  propter  potiorem  (potentiorem)  principalitatem  necesse 
est  omnem  convenire  Ecclesiam,  hoc  est  eos  qui  sunt  undique  fideles,  in  qua  semper  ab  his,  qui  sunt 
undique,  conservata  est  ea  quae  est  ab  Apostolis  traditio.     (TIpbs  rai'nrjv  cKKX-rjaiav  8ia  T^V 
tKavcarepav  apx^  avdjKT]  irciffav  crv[j.f3aivfiv  T)]V  (KK\ri(ria.i>,  TO?~T'  ecrrt  TOVS  •navra.xoSsv 
mo-Touy,  e»/  77  ael  forb  ruv  iravra^^ev  ffvvTeT-fiprjrai.  -f)  U7r2»  T&V  *ATro(TT6\av  irapd8o(ris.) 
Comp.  Tertul.  de  praescr.  c.  86.  2Qs.—Griesbach,  de  potentiore  Eccl.  Eom.  principalitate.  Jen.  1778. 
(Opp.  ed.  Gabler,  Th.  II.  p.  136ss.).   Paulusva.  the  Sophronizon.  1819.  P.  3.    On  the  other  side :  Jfa- 
terkamp,  u.  d.  Primat  Munst.  1820.  p.  30ss.    Roskovany,  de  primatu  E.  Pontif.  Aug.  V.  1S34.  p. 
1Ss&.—fIMeracJi.  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1842.  P.  2.  comp.  Neander,  [Church  Hist  vol.  I.  pp.  208-205.] 

/)  De  unit  Ecc.  c.  3.  Here,  even  in  the  genuine  text,  and  often  in  the  epistles  (52.  55),  he  ac- 
knowledges Eome  as  the  ecclesia  principalis,  without,  however,  conceding  to  it  a  supremacy  in- 
consistent with  the  parity  of  all  bishops  (Ep.  71).  Antirom.  interpretation  of  Matt.  16, 18.  in  Orig 
Jn  Mt.  torn.  12.  §  l^)s.  14. 


62  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  I.    DIV.  IL    A.  D.  100-312. 

to  wear  such  an  aspect  in  popular  reports,  as  to  promote  the  glory  of  the  Ro 
man  see.  (g) 

§  63.     The  Catholic  Church  and  its  Various  Branches. 

The  internal  and  essential  unity  of  the  Church  as  the  kingdom  of  God  on 
earth,  suggested  the  idea  of  an  external  unity  also.  The  effort  to  attain  this 
was  much  favored  by  the  political  unity  of  the  whole  civilized  world.  The 
religious  consciousness  which  prevailed  in  the  Christian  Church  with  more  or 
less  distinctness,  when  assailed  by  theological  or  moral  elements  inconsistent 
with  itself,  was  accustomed  to  appeal  to  the  apostolical  traditions  which  re- 
jnained  in  the  churches  founded  by  the  apostles.  From  this  sprung  up  the 
Great  or  Catholic  Church,  (a)  in  distinction  from  the  heretics  who  defended 
these  foreign  elements,  and  who  were  disunited  among  themselves.  By  the 
former  term  was  meant  the  great  body  in  which  all  the  congregations  found- 
ed  by  the  apostles,  and  such  as  were  connected  with  them,  had  hitherto  felt 
conscious  of  a  unity  through  faith  and  love,  and  which  was  the  only  source 
of  true  Christianity,  of  grace,  and  of  salvation.  The  first  hint  of  this  repre- 
sentation was  given  by  Ignatius,  but  it  was  further  developed  by  Irenaeus, 
and  was  completed  by  Cyprian.  (5)  This  unity  was  realized  in  many  transac- 
tions in  which  the  bishops  and  churches  held  intercourse  with  each  other. 
But  without  detracting  from  it,  a  Church  of  the  East  and  a  Church  of 
the  West  began  to  be  distinguished  from  each  other  with  respect  to  lan- 
guage, customs,  and  theological  tendencies.  Peculiar  usages,  in  fact,  some- 
times became  permanent  even  in  different  parts  of  the  same  metropolitan 
diocese,  especially  in  those  ecclesiastical  provinces  whose  boundaries  corre- 
spond with  old  national  limits.  Accordingly,  in  addition  to  the  dioceses 
of  the  three  great  bishops,  the  first  outlines  of  national  churches  were  formed 
in  correspondence  with  local  attachments  and  interests.  Thus  the  African 
Church,  connected  with  Rome  by  feelings  of  free  mutual  sympathy,  and  ex- 
hibiting its  peculiar  spirit  in  the  writings  of  Tertullian,  sprung  up,  and  com- 
pleted an  appropriate  code  of  laws  after  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  in 
the  provincial  synods  of  Carthage,  (c)  Thus,  also,  the  Armenian  Church  was 
originated,  on  which  Gregory  the  Enlightener,  who  by  his  family  connec- 
tions had  been  deeply  involved  in  the  political  disorders  of  his  country,  and 
when  Christianity  triumphed  had  been  brought  out  of  a  long  night  of  im- 
prisonment to  be  made  a  metropolitan  (302),  so  deeply  imprinted  his  own 
spirit,  that  for  a  long  time  the  superior  bishop  or  Catholicus  was  selected 
from  his  family.  (<Z) 

g)  ITarduin,  Acta  Concill.  vol.  L  p.  21Tss.    Baron,  ad  a.  302.  N.  88ss. 

a)  The  former  term  may  be  found  in  Celsus  (Orig.  c.  Cels.  V.  59)  and  Conetitt.  app.  II.  25,  and 
the  latter  occurs  in  Ignat.  ad  Smyrn.  c.  8.  and  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Church  of  Smyrna  respecting  the 
death  of  Polycarp,  in  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  15. 

V)  Cypr.  de  unitate  Ecc.  especially  c.  4,  5,  21.  Ep.  47.  §  2. 

c)  Schelstraten,  Ecc.  afric.  sub  primatu  Carthag.  Par.  1679.  4   M.  Leydecker,  Hist  Ecc.  afric. 
Utraj.  1694.  4,   MorceUi  Africa  christ.  Brix.  1816.  3  Th.   M&nter,  Priraordia  Ecc.  afric.  Hafn.  1829.  4. 

d)  Agathangeli  (revised),  Acta  8.  Gregor.  (Acta  Sancton  Sept  Th.  VIII.  p.  821ss.)    Mosis 
Choronensis  (about  440),  Hist  Armen.  1.  III.  ed.  Whiston.  Lond.  1736.  4.  Mai.  Samuetfan,  Be- 
kehr.  Armen.  durch  den  h.  Greg.  111.  Wien.  1844— Saint  Martin,  Memoires  sur  I'Armenie.  Par 
1818.  2  Th.  Chamich,  History  of  Armenia,  transl.  by  Audall.  Calcutta.  1827.  2  Th. 


CHAP.  in.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  64.  CHRISTIAN  MORALS.  63 


CHAP.  III.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

§  64.     Christian  Morals. 

Those  gifts  which  the  Spirit  of  God  had  bestowed  as  first-fruits  in  the 
early  periods  of  the  Church,  had  now  been  expended,  although  Irenaeus  tes- 
tifies that  the  power  of  prophesying,  of  speaking  with  tongues,  of  healing 
diseases,  and  even  of  raising  the  dead,  remained  in  his  time.  Neither  of 
these,  however,  were  common,  except  that  method  of  healing  the  sick  which 
consisted  in  the  expulsion  of  demons,  (a)  Abstinence  from  blood  and  from 
things  strangled  may  have  been  occasioned  by  the  decree  of  the  apostles,  as 
it  obtained  prevalence  with  the  writings  of  Luke.  (5)  v  The  private  life  of 
Christians  was  regulated  by'principles  directly  opposed  not  only  to  the  sen- 
suous, but  to  the  intellectual  pleasures  of  heathenism,  (c)  In  their  estimation, 
the  earth  was  a  vale  of  tears,  and  the  predominant  feeling  of  the  noblest 
minds  was  an  ardent  longing  for  their  home  in  another  world.  Joy  in  death 
and  love  toward  his  brethren  continued  still  to  be  the  distinguishing  badge 
of  a  follower  of  Christ,  (d)  This  spirit  became  peculiarly  powerful  in  times 
of  persecution,  but  in  the  longer  periods  of  tranquillity,  envy  and  strife,  cov- 
etousness  and  love  of  pleasure  gained  the  ascendency.  The  more  earnest  of 
the  public  teachers,  therefore,  regarded  the  persecutions  in  the  reigns  of  De- 
cius  and  Diocletian  as  divine  judgments  to  arouse  a  slumbering  Church,  (e) 
A  pious  abandonment  even  of  the  innocent  enjoyments  of  the  world 
(ao-Krjo-is)  became  a  prevalent  characteristic  of  the  times,  but  among  some 
individuals  in  the  Church  it  was  regarded  as  the  ultimate  object  of  all  gene- 
ral effort.  Although  marriage  had  been  exalted  by  Christianity  to  its  true 
spiritual  meaning,  (/)  vows  of  perpetual  chAstity  were  looked  upon  as  mer- 
itorious, (g)  and  many  virgins  (o-wciaraKToi,  sorores)  undertook  the  often  un- 
fortunate, and  therefore  gradually  discountenanced  task,  of  exhibiting  the 
power  of  a  holy  will  as  brides  of  the  Lord  in  most  intimate  companionship 
with  the  clergy.  (Ji)  These  vows  were  not  absolutely  irrevocable,  but  the  re- 
cantation of  them  was  threatened  with  the  severest  penances.  An  entrance  ^  Y ,  r 
into  the  marriage  state  after  consecration  as  a  Deacon,  was  regarded  as  of 
doubtful  propriety,  and  was  limited  by  special  restrictions,  (i)  In  the  ex- 
treme West,  one  Synod  had  already  forbidden  the  clergy  to  enter  the  mar- 
riage state,  and  even  the  lower  clergy  were  prohibited  all  connubial  inter- 
course during  seasons  of  public  duty.  (&)  On  the  other  hand,  all  attempts  to 

a)  Iren.  II,  57.  V,  6.  (Euseb.  H.  ecc.  V,  7.)    Tertul.  ad  Scapul.  c.  2.  Apolog.  c.  23.  Orig.  c.  Cels. 
I,  7.  VII,  4  (Th.  I.  p.  325. 1696.) 

&)  Tertul.  Apolog.  c.  9.    Only  the  Greek  Church  however  has  actually  adhered  to  it 

c)  E.  G.  Tertul.  de  spectaculis,  c.  23.  de  cultu  femm.  II.  2.—2Tefelet  u.  d.  Rigorism  d.  alter  Chris- 
ten (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1841.  P.  3.) 

d)  Minuc.  FeL  c.  8.  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VII,  22. 

e)  Cypr.  de  laps.  (Opp.  Amstel.  700.  p.  88.)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VIII,  1. 

/)  Tertul.  ad  uxor.  II,  8.  comp.  Orig.  in  Num.  horn.  6  (Th.  II.  p.  288.) 
g)  For  heathen  testimony,  Galen  in  Abulfeda,  Hist.  Anteislam.  ed.  Fleischer,  p.  109. 
h)  The  first  trace  occurs  as  early  as  in  Ifermae  Pastor  III.  Sim.  9,  \\.-Cypr.  Ep.  62,    Cone, 
Ancyr.  c.  19.    Nic.  c.  3. 

i)  Cbnstitt.  app.  VI.  17.    Cone.  Ancyr.  c.  10.    Neocae*.  c.  1. 
fc)  Cone.  Illiberit.  (305-309.)  c.  33.  comp.  c.  66. 


64  ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

impose  a  rigid  system  of  asceticism  as  a  matter  of  universal  obligation,  were 
discountenanced  by  the  Church.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  Church  frequent- 
ly came  into  collision  with  the  various  classes  of  Encratites,  some  of  whom 
rejected  the  use  of  wine  even  in  the  Lord's  Supper  (iSpoTrapaa-rarat,  aquarii.) 

§  65.     St.  Anthony. 

Athanasius,  Vita  8.  Antonii.  (Tb.  II.  p.  450ss.)  Sozom.  H.  ecc.  1. 13.  Hieron.  cataL  c.  8S.  Oth- 
er things :  Tittemont,  Th.  VII.  p.  lOlsa.  [IT.  Itufner,  The  Fathers  of  the  Desert.  New  York. 
1850.  2  vols.  12.] 

The  more  rigid  ascetics  in  Egypt  lived  as  hermits,  although,  during  the 
third  century,  most  of  them  continued  near  their  own  homes.  Elias  and 
John  were  their  predecessors,  and  the  Therapeutae  their  countrymen.  A 
complete  withdrawal  from  the  world  seemed  the  necessary  consequence  of 
the  rupture  between  Christianity  and  the  world.  This  philosophical  mode  of 
life  received  its  permanent  form  through  the  influence  of  Anthony.  When 
a  mere  youth,  he  had  become  independent  and  wealthy  by  the  early  death  of 
his  parents.  On  one  occasion  he  stepped  into  the  temple,  and  heard  read 
from  the  gospels  the  word  of  the  Lord  to  the  rich  young  man.  This,  like  the 
voice  of  God  to  him  personally,  decided  his  future  course  of  life.  He  dis- 
tributed his  goods  among  the  poor  (about  270),  and  betook  himself  first  to  a 
tomb,  and  then  to  a  dilapidated  castle  in  the  mountain,  there  to  wage  a  fear- 
ful conflict  with  himself  under  the  idea  of  an  encounter  with  Satan.  The 
visible  form  in  which  his  adversary  assailed  him,  was  sometimes  that  of  a 
beautiful  woman,  and  at  other  times  that  of  wild  beasts  and  monsters.  His 
friends,  who  brought  him  bread  once  in  six  months,  heard  his  wild  shrieks,  or 
found  him  powerless  an,d  prostrate  on  the  ground.  The  report  of  a  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  (811)  allured  him  from  his  solitude.  The  Alexandri- 
ans gazed  upon  this  man  of  the  desert  with  amazement.  In  the  very  courts  of 
justice,  he  encouraged  the  confessors  and  waited  upon  the  prisoners,  but  found 
not  a  martyr's  death.  From  that  time  his  fame  spread  abroad,  the  desert 
became  peopled  with  his  disciples,  whom  he  directed  to  engage  in  prayer, 
and  manual  labor  for  their  own  support  and  for  the  relief  of  the  poor.  He 
himself  would  watch  through  many  nights  in  succession ;  bread  and  salt  was 
his  only  food,  and  of  this  he  partook  only  once  in  three  days,  ashamed  that 
an  immortal  spirit  should  need  even  that.  He  was  without  human  learning, 
but  endowed  with  eminent  natural  abilities,  and  in  the  service  of  the  King 
of  kings  was  exalted  above  the  fear,  as  he  was  afterwards  above  the  favor  of 
earthly  monarchs.  His  word  healed  the  sick  and  cast  out  devils.  When  his 
prayers  were  answered,  as  they  not  unfrequently  were,  he  boasted  not  of  his 
power,  nor  did  he  murmur  when  they  were  unheard,  but  in  both  cases  he 
gave  praise  to  God.  No  angry  person  went  from  his  presence  unreconciled 
with  his  adversary,  and  no  mourner  uncomforted.  He  seemed  to  have  been 
provided  by  God  to  be  a  physician  in  bodily  and  spiritual  things  for  the 
whole  land  of  Egypt.  In  the  blissful  enjoyment  of  this  earthly  poverty,  it 
was  revealed  to  him  that  there  was  one  man  more  perfect  than  himself. 
Since  the  Decian  persecution-,  Paul  of  Thebes  had  resided  in  a  cave  of  the 
desert,  with  a  single  palm-tree  to  give  him  provision,  shelter,  and  clothing. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  65.  ANTHONY.    §  66.  DISCIPLINE.  65 

Ninety  years  had  passed  away  since  tidings  of  him  had  reached  a  human  ear. 
Anthony  visited  him  in  season  to  witness  his  death  (340).*  In  the  evening 
of  his  life,  and  annoyed  by  the  honors  and  interruptions  of  men,  Anthony 
withdrew  still  further  into  the  desert,  where  he  cultivated  the  fruit  needful 
for  his  food,  and  presenting  himself  only  occasionally  among  men,  to  contend 
for  the  true  faith,  or  to  protect  the  oppressed.  He  finally  attained  the  age 
of  a  hundred  and  five  years,  when  he  expired  (356).  His  glory  sprung 
from  no  hooks,  worldly  wisdom,  or  work  of  art,  but  only  from  his  piety ;  and 
he  departed  childless  indeed,  but  the  father  of  an  innumerable  spiritual  family. 

§  66.     Ecclesiastical  Discipline. 

I.  Tertul.  de  poenitentia.  Cypr.  do  lapsis.  Epp.  canonicae  Dionysii  Aleeoandrini  (about  262), 
Gregorii  Tkawmaturgi,  Petri  Alescandrini  (306),  Canones  Cone.  Illiberitani. 

II.-  Tob.  Pfanner,  de  catechumenis  antiquae  Ecc.  Francof.  1688. — Jo.  Morini,  Comrnentr.  hist,  de 
disciplina  in  administr.  sacram  poenitentiae  XIII.  primis  Saec.  Par.  1651.  Antv.  16S1.  Yen.  1702.  f. 
Flugge,  Beitr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  Theol.  u.  Eel.  1798.  vol.  II. 

Candidates  for  admission  to  the  Church  (Ka.T7)%ovp.evoi)  were  first  careful- 
ly instructed,  and  rigidly  examined  in  all  the  studies  of  the  several  stages  of 
their  education.  They  were  then  admitted  by  baptisiE  and  confirmation  to 
all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a  Christian  citizen.  Such  a  process  was  re- 
garded as  important,  because  real  goodness  of  heart  and  a  good  character  were 
then  of  far  greater  value  than  numbers.  A  high  degree  of  public  morality 
was  upheld  by  a  rigid  discipline.  Only  public  scandals,  or  offences  voluntari- 
ly confessed,  were  subjected  to  its  penalties.  All  who  appeared  unworthy  of 
Christian  fellowship  on  account  of  adultery,  murder,  or  apostasy  from  Chris- 
tianity, were  immediately  excommunicated.  These  could  be  restored  to  their 
former  position  in  the  Church  only  after  a  series  of  penances  adjusted  to  the 
nature  of  the  offence  by  the  various  codes  of  discipline,  and  sometimes  pro- 
tracted to  the  end  of  life.  The  power  of  a  disturbed  conscience,  and  the 
terrors  of  an  exclusion  from  the  Church,  in  which  alone  salvation  was 
thought  to  be  attainable,  induced  many  to  undergo  the  most  fearful  penances. 
At  that  time,  few  could  perceive  a  distinction  between  an  abandonment  by 
God  and  an  exclusion  from  his  Church.  The  power  to  relax  the  severity  of 
the  penitential  laws  in  particular  instances,  was  indispensable  in  times  of  per- 
secution, on  account  of  the  multitude  of  those  who  fell  away  and  subsequent- 
ly returned  with  sorrow.  It  was  usually  exercised  by  the  churches  and  the 
bishops  with  scrupulous  restrictions,  but  by  the  confessors  and  martyrs  with 
so  much  indiscretion,  that  the  discipline  of  the  Church  was  in  danger  of  be- 
coming ineffectual.  In  general  the  principle  was  conceded,  that  every  actu- 
al penitent,  at  least  in  the  hour  of  death,  should  be  admitted  to  reconciliation 
for  ail  his  offences.  As  a  mere  outward  form  in  connection  with  excommu- 
nication, particular  bishops  or  synods  withdrew  ecclesiastical  fellowship 
from  whole  churches  or  parties,  on  account  of  what  was  regarded  as  un- 
christian sentiments. 

*  nieron.  Vita  Pauli  Eremitae.  Instances  more  like  that  of  the  shoemaker  at  Alexandria,  in 
Vitae  Patr.  P.  II.  §  121.  comp.  Apologia  Cwf.  Aug.  p.  285. 


66  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-812. 

§  67.     The  Montanists. 

I.  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  V,  3.  14-19.  EpipJian.  haer.  48s.  Kindred  matters,  and  a  treatmeut  of  tht 
subject  which  goes  much  beyond  ordinary  views  of  it  in  all  the  writings  of  Tertuttian.  II.  G. 
Wernsdorf,  de  Montanistis.  Gedani.  1751.  4.  F.  Munter,  Effata  et  orac.  Montar.istar.  Ilavn.  1829. 
C.  M.  Eirchner,  do  Montanist  Ds.  I.  Jen.  18-32.  F.  C.  A.  jSc?iictgler,  d.  Montanismus,  u.  d. 
Kirche  des  2  Jahrh.  Tub.  1841.  See  also  his  Nachapost.  Zeitalt,  vol.  II.  p.  259ss. 

In  an  excitement  which  originated  in  Phrygia,  and  extended  over  all  the 
churches  of  Asia  Minor,  not  only  the  rigor  of  ecclesiastical  morals  and  disci- 
pline, but  the  extraordinary  zeal  which  prevailed  in  the  apostolic  Church, 
was  revived  and  even  exceeded.  It  was  there  maintained,  that  the  life  of  a 
true  Christian  was  a  continual  self-denial,  that  he  should  find  pleasure  in 
nothing  but  God  and  a  martyr's  death,  and  that  all  earthly  delights,  even 
those  which  science  affords,  are  sinful.  Murder,  lewdness,  and  apostasy  sub- 
jected those  who  were  guilty  of  them  to  a  hopeless  exclusion  from  the 
Church.  No  church  was  regarded  as  genuine  which  would  not  cany  out 
this  rigid  system  of  morals,  or  which  allowed  of  second  marriages,  and  re- 
admitted those  who  had  once  been  excluded  as  offenders.  Such  churches 
they  denominated  carnal  (the  ^/v^nco/),  superior  to  which  stood  the  Church 
of  the  Spirit  (the  Trvfu/zart/cot),  since  the  Spirit  was  to  be  looked  for  in  the 
Church,  and  not  exclusively  in  the  assembly  of  the  bishops.  An  ecstasy 
which  proceeded  from  within  themselves,  or  a  divine  frenzy,  they  looked 
upon  as  the  most  exalted  condition  in  which  a  Christian  could  be  found.  A 
prophet  in  this  state  was  far  superior  to  a  bishop.  The  peculiar  form  of 
apostolic  Christianity  exhibited  in  the  Apocalypse,  while  struggling  with 
Gnosticism,  and  pressing  forward  after  a  still  higher  development  of  religion, 
might  possibly  have  become  gradually  perverted  into  this  Montanism,  but  its 
assertion  respecting  higher  revelations  of  truth  to  be  expected  in  the  Church, 
indicates  a  consciousness  of  innovation.  Montanm  of  Mysia  is  designated  by 
some  contemporary  writers  at  a  distance  from  him,  as  the  author  of  this 
movement.  He  had  probably  been  a  priest  of  Cybele,  and  was  at  this  time 
attended  by  two  prophetic  women.  With  the  imaginative,  enthusiastic  spirit 
which  characterized  his  fellow-countrymen,  he  announced  himself  as  the  in- 
dividual in  whom  the  promised  Paraclete  had  completely  revealed  himself, 
that  the  Church  might  be  carried  forward  to  its  perfection  just  before  the 
introduction  of  the  millennial  kingdom.  The  heavenly  Jerusalem,  the  me- 
tropolis of  that  kingdom,  was  to  descend  to  earth  at  Pepuza.  The  Montanists 
(ot  Kara  $pv-yay,  Pepuziani)  were  expelled  from  the  Church  by  the  Asiatic 
bishops  (about  170),  not,  however,  without  great  hesitation,  since  their  new 
prophecies  were  not  absolutely  inconsistent  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
of  that  period,  and  it  was  therefore  difficult  to  determine  whether  they  were 
of  divine  or  demoniac  origin.  In  Asia,  they  continued  to  exist  under  an  ec- 
clesiastical constitution  of  their  own,  until  some  time  in  the  sixth  century. 
In  the  West,  their  moral  principles  obtained  an  influence  which  seemed 
almost  a  complete  victory.  What  Montanus  had  announced  in  a  fanatical 
spirit,  Tertullian,  with  his  polished  and  liberal  views,  presented  to  the  appre- 
hensions of  men  with  a  kind  of  twilight  distinctness.  All  that  either  of 
theso  man  did  was  boldly  to  complete  what  nearly  the  whole  Church  of  that 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  68.  NOVATIANS.    §  69.  HOLY  SEASONS.  G7 

age  was  striving  for,  and  merely  to  demand  of  every  one  what  was  admired 
in  individual  saints,  but  which,  if  it  had  generally  prevailed,  would  either 
have  destroyed  the  Church  or  the  nature  of  man. 

f  68.     The  Novatians. 

Cypr.  Eppv  41-52.  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VI,  43-45.  VIII,  8.  Cone.  Nic.  can.  6.  Cod.  Theod.  XVI 
tit  5.  lex.  2.  Soorat.  H.  «cc.  I,  10.  IV,  28.  V,  21. 

In  opposition  to  Cornelius,  the  newly  elected  bishop,  Nbvatian,  his  pres- 
byter, violently  opposed  the  readmission  of  those  who  had  once  fallen.  This 
man  was  a  philosopher  who  had  embraced  Christianity  in  the  midst  of  sickness 
and  severe  spiritual  conflicts,  and  after  his  conversion  had  become  an  ascetic, 
and  a  prudent  advocate  of  the  faith  generally  embraced  in  the  Church.*  By 
his  own  party,  strengthened  by  some  persons  from  the  African  Church,  he 
was  elected  a  rival  bishop  (251).  The  Novatians  excluded  from  the  Church 
all  those  who  had  been  guilty  of  deadly  sins,  and  taught,  that  while 
euch  should  be  exhorted  to  repentance  and  hope  of  the  divine  mercy, 
no  prospect  should  be  held  out  to  them  that  they  would  ever  be  readmitted 
to  a  Church  which  should  consist  only  of  saints  and  purified  persons  (KaZapoi). 
They  withdrew  all  fellowship  from  the  Catholic  Church,  and  re-baptized  all 
who  came  from  it  to  them.  Their  party  was  sometimes  treated  with  re- 
spect, generally  with  forbearance,  and  by  the  emperor  himself,  at  Nicaea, 
with  good-humored  raillery,  but  it  was  overwhelmed  by  the  authority  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  Its  adherents  continued  without  a  visible  organization  for 
some  centuries,  though  in  Phrygia  they  were  sometimes  confounded  with  the 
Montanists,  In  other  countries  also  a  similar  uncertainty  with  respect  to 
the  true  idea  of  the  Church,  and  strict  discipline,  produced  similar  divisions, 
but  all  these  necessarily  ceased  when  heathenism  was  overthrown,  and  mild- 
er views  gained  the  ascendency, 

§  69.    Holy  Seasons,  and  the  Controversy  about  Easter. 

Hospinianus,  Festa  chrtst  (Tigur.  1593.)  Geiiev.  1674  Aitgusti,  die  Feste  der  alten  Christen. 
Lps.  1817-20.  3  vols.  Ullmann,  Zusammenst  des  chr.  Festcyclus  mit  vorchristL  Festen.  Appendix 
to  Creuser*8  Symbolik.  vol.  IV.  separately  printed  from  the  third  ed.  Darmst.  1843.  Staudenmaier, 
d.  Geist  d.  Christenth.  in  d.  heil.  Zeiten,  Handl.  u.  d.  hell.  Kunst.  Mainz.  (1S35.)  1838.  2  yols. 

The  three  hours  of  the  day  observed  by  the  Jews  as  seasons  for  prayer, 
were  recommended  to  those  whose  secular  employments  were  likely  to  with- 
draw their  thoughts  from  God,  as  an  excellent  means  of  reminding  them  of 
their  duty.  The  dawn  of  the  day,  and  in  times  of  persecution  the  night, 
was  preferred  for  public  assemblies.  That  they  might  give  special  solemnity 
to  their  higher  festivals,  the  preceding  night  was  made  a  part  of  them 
(vigilia).  In  determining  what  days  should  be  observed  as  holy,  they  paid 
attention  to  the  critical  seasons  of  joy  or  grief  which  occurred  in  the  course 
of  our  Saviour's  life.  Wednesday,  and  especially  Friday  (dies  stationum, 
feria  quarta  et  sexta),  were  consecrated  as  partial  fast-days  (till  3  p.  M.)  in 
commemoration  of  his  sufferings.  The  Roman  Church  regarded  Saturday  as 

*  De  Trinitate,  Opp.  ed.  Jackson.  Lond.  1728.  (Galland*  Th.  IV.)    Comp.  Ilteron.  catal.  c.  TO. 


68  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

a  fast-day,  in  direct  opposition  to  those  who  regarded  it  as  a  Sabbath.  /Sun- 
day remained  a  joyful  festival,  in  which  all  fasting  and  worldly  business  was 
avoided  as  much  as  possible,  but  the  original  commandment  of  the  Deca- 
logue respecting  the  Sabbath  was  not  then  applied  to  that  day.  (a)  A  sea- 
son of  fasting  of  greater  or  less  length  in  different  places  (afterwards  called 
Quadrigesima),  was  observed  just  before  the  passover.  In  Asia  Minor,  the 
paschal  supper  was  eaten  as  a  type  of  Christ's  sacrifice  on  the  night  of  the 
fourteenth  day  of  the  month  Nisan.  But  in  other  parts  of  the  Church,  the 
Jewish  festival  was  altogether  set  aside.  The  Eesurrection  of  our  Lord  was 
celebrated  on  the  Sunday  after  the  full  moon  in  the  spring,  and  the  day  of 
his  death  on  the  Friday  preceding.  When  Polycarp  visited  Rome  (about 
160),  this  difference  in  reckoning  was  discussed,  though  without  injury  to 
Christian  unity.  But  the  Roman  bishop  Victor  threatened  to  withdraw  ec- 
clesiastical fellowship  from  the  Asiatic  bishops,  on  account  of  their  course  in 
this  matter  (196).  Public  opinion  was  in  favor  of  the  usage  in  the  Roman 
Church  with  respect  to  this  festival,  but  the  violent  measures  pursued  by  the 
Roman  bishop  were  decidedly  condemned  by  all  distinguished  teachers.  (&) 
The  fifty  days  which  immediately  followed  Easter  (Pentecost),  formed  a  sea- 
son of  festivity  for  the  commemoration  of  the  glorification  of  Christ,  and  the 
last  day  of  that  period  was  kept  as  the  proper  Pentecost,  in  honor  of  the  effu- 
sion of  the  Holy  Spirit.  According  to  the  oldest  authorities,  heretics  were 
baptized  on  the  Feast  of  the  Epiphany,  which  was  celebrated  in  conformity 
with  the  views  of  the  heretics,  in  commemoration  of  the  Manifestation 
(fTTicfxivfia)  of  the  Messiah.  In  this  festival  the  Church  had  reference  to  the 
revelation  of  Christ  in  the  flesh,  and  hence  in  the  oriental  churches,  after  the 
close  of  the  third  century,  the  sixth  of  January  appears  to  have  been  ob- 
served in  the  double  sense  of  a  baptismal  and  a  birth-day  festival,  (c)  Some 
churches  annually  celebrated  the  days  on  which  the  martyrdom  of  some  of 
their  number  took  place,  as  if  they  were  birth-days  (natalia),  when  assem- 
blies were  held  around  their  graves ;  and  about  the  close  of  the  third  centu- 
ry some  amusements  were  allowed  on  such  occasions,  instead  of  the  heathen 
festivities  formerly  enjoyed,  (d)  As  these  martyrs  were  looked  upon  as  the  best 
representatives  of  Jesus  Christ  on  earth,  the  relation  of  the  Church  to  them 
was  that  of  an  affectionate  fellowship.  Even  then  we  find  some  indications 
of  a  confidence  in  their  power  to  aid  men  either  in  the  present  life  or  at  the 
final  judgment.  In  accordance  with  the  ancient  doctrine  of  the  saving  effi- 
cacy of  an  expiatory  death,  a  degree  of  influence  was  ascribed  to  their  death 
as  well  as  to  that  of  Jesus.  («) 

a)  F.  Liebetrut,  d.  Tag  <1.  Hcrrn.  Bcrl.  1887.    F.  W.  Jiucker,  v.  Tage  d.  Herrn.  Erl.  1839. 

I)  Eweb.  H.  ecc.  V,  23-25.  Vita  Constant  III,  18.  Socrat.  H.  ecc.  V,  21.  Chronicon  paseh.  ed. 
Dufresne.  Par.  1683.  Add.  N.  14.— Neander,  u.  Veraulass.  u.  Bescbaffenh.  d.  iilL  Passahstreitigkeiten. 
(KHist.  Archiv.  1823.  St  2.)  liettberg,  d.  Paschastreit  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1832,  B.  IL  St  2.)  Gieseler 
in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1833.  P.  4. 

c)  Clement.  Strom.  I.  p.  40Ts.  comp.  Cassiani  Collat  X,  2.—JaUonsky,  de  orig.  festi  nativ. 
Christ!,  Da.  I.  §  7.  (Opp.  Th.  III.  p.  328ss,)  Gieseler  in  d.  HalL  Lit  Z.  1823.  p.  836. 

rf)  Greg.  Thaivmaturgi  Opp.  ed.  Toss.  Mog.  1604.  p.  812.  comp.  August.  Ep.  29.  §  9.  ad 
Alypium. 

e)  Ep.  Eccl.  Smyrn.  (Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  15.)  Cypr.  de  laps.  c.  17.  (aL  J&.)  Orig.  exhort  ad 
mart  c.  50. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  70.  FESTIVALS.    §  71.  LORD'S  SUPPER.  6S 


§  YO.    Sacred  Places  and  their  Decoration. 

Oiampini,  vett  monumenta,  Rome.  1743.  3  vols.  f.  Jacutil  chr.  antiquitatam  specimina,  Rome. 
1752.  4  Hunter,  Sinnbilder  u.  Kunstvorst  d.  alien  Christen.  Alton.  1825.  2  parts.  4  Gruneiwn,  v. 
d.  Ursachen  n.  Granzen  d.  Kunsthasses  in  d.  ersten  8  Jahrh.  (Knnstblatt  1831.  N.  28ss.)  [Mrs.  Jame- 
ton,  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art  Lend.  1848.  2  vols.  8.  Lord  Lindsay,  Sketches  of  the  Hist  of  Chris- 
tian Art  Lond.  1847.  3  vols.  8.] 

The  halls  in  which  the  Christians  were  accustomed  to  assemble,  were  fur- 
nished for  public  speaking  with  an  elevated  platform,  and  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper  with  a  table  which,  near  the  end  of  the  second 
century,  was  called  an  altar.  Churches  began  to  be  constructed  after  the 
close  of  the  third  century,  and  during  the  reign  of  Diocletian  some  were 
built  of  considerable  size.  When  the  people  very  generally  adopted  the  sen- 
timent, that  God  was  present  in  some  peculiar  sense  in  the  house  of  worship, 
their  more  intelligent  public  teachers  reminded  them  that  the  world  was  his 
temple,  (a)  Christians  were  fond  of  holding  their  religious  assemblies  over 
the  graves  of  the  dead,  and  sometimes  they  even  descended  into  the  vaults 
of  the  catacombs  to  find  a  place  for  prayer.  Such  places,  however,  at  least 
in  Eome,  were  never  fitted  to  accommodate  their  larger  assemblies.  (Z>)  The 
imitative  arts  had  flourished  principally  in  the  service  of  the  ancient  gods, 
and  hence  the  same  hatred  which  had  prevailed  against  them  among  the 
Jews,  was  continued  in  the  Christian  Church.  None  but  heathen  who  re- 
vered Jesus,  as  either  a  sage  or  a  Son  of  God,  or  heretics,  who  mingled  to- 
gether pagan  and  Christian  principles,  ever  possessed  images  of  him.  In 
place  of  these,  however,  and  with  the  direct  object  of  excluding  heathen 
images,  were  introduced  various  Christian  emblems,  such  as  the  cross,  the 
good  shepherd,  the  ram  and  the  lambs,  the  fisherman  and  the  fishes  (IX0Y2), 
the  ship,  the  dove,  the  palm,  the  lyre,  the  phoenix,  and  the  cock  and  anchor. 
At  first,  these  were  used  only  in  private  dwellings,  but  gradually  they  were 
introduced  as  ornaments  of  tombs,  and  as  works  of  art  in  fresco  or  mosaic, 
to  decorate  their  churches.  But  even  as  late  as  the  fourth  century,  they 
were  censured  as  innovations,  (c) 

§  71.    Sacred  Services. 

The  worship  of  the  Temple  described  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  the 
model  to  which  was  conformed  as  much  as  possible  the  public  services  of  the 
Christian  assemblies.  In  compliance  with  the  spirit  of  the  times,  though  it 
was  originally  a  matter  of  necessity,  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered  near 
the  close  of  the  second  century  as  a  Christian  mystery,  with  the  view  of  in- 
vesting it  with  an  increased  sanctity  by  its  seclusion  and  secresy.  By  this 
means,  a  mysterious  character  was  imparted  to  a  number  of  the  usages  and 

a)  Tertul.  de  orat  c.  24 

Z>)  Comp.  Hieron.  in  Ezech.  c.  40.  After  the  works  of  Boeio,  ArringJii,  Boldetti,  and  Bottari, 
^ee  Rostell,  Eoms  Katakomben.  (Beschreibung  der  Stadt  Kom,  von  Plainer,  Bunsen,  and  oth. 
Stuttg.  183068.  vol.  I.  pp.  354-416.)  C.  F.  Bellermann,  u.  d.  altesten  chr.  Begrabnissstatten  u.  bes. 
d.  Katakomben  zu  Neapel  m.  ihren  Wandegemahlden.  Hamb.  1839.  4  [C.  Maitland,  The  Church 
in  the  Catacombs,  or  a  Description  of  the  Prim.  Church  of  Rome,  new  ed.  Lond.  1850.  8.] 

c)  Cone.  Illiberit.  can.  36.    Epiphan.  Ep.  ad  Jo.  Hieros.  (vol.  II.  p.  817.) 


70  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  IOO-S12. 

forms  of  the  Church,  (a)  The  Lord\  Supper  was  celebrated  at  the  close  of 
every  solemn  assembly,  but  the  much-abused  and  more  infrequent  Love-Feast 
•was  generally  held  apart  from  the  public  services,  and  in  the  evening.  The 
bread  and  the  wine  were  in  some  instances  regarded  as  the  symbols  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  in  others  as  pervaded  by  the  Logos.  This 
sacred  ordinance  was  supposed  to  be  a  thank-offering,  and  to  have  some  spe- 
cial influence  upon  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  The  consecrated  bread  was 
sent  to  those  who  were  absent,  or  taken  home  for  subsequent  use,  and  sometimes 
bottles  of  the  wine,  labelled  with  some  pious  toasts,  were  even  placed  on  the 
coffins  of  the  dead.  (5)  Origen  found  Infant  Baptism  an  old  ancestral  usago 
'  in  the  region  where  he  resided,  but  others  advised  that,  as  a  matter  of  poli- 
cy, the  baptism  of  even  adults  should  be  deferred  as  long  as  possible  (pro- 
crastinatio).  (c)  The  solemn  act  by  which  the  worship  of  the  gods  was  ab- 
jured, taken  in  connection  with  the  Jewish  notion  of  the  expulsion  of  demons, 
gave  occasion  to  the  practice  of  uniting  Exorcism  with  the  ordinance  of  bap- 
tism. The  principle  that  baptism  was  to  be  administered  but  once  to  the 
same  person,  was  universally  acknowledged.  But  the  African,  and  even 
some  of  the  Asiatic  churches,  baptized  those  who  came  to  them  from  any  of 
the  heretical  sects,  because  they  denied  the  Christian  character  of  baptism 
when  administered  among  those  sects.  The  Roman  Church,  however,  re- 
cognized the  validity  of  all  baptisms  in  which  the  subject  formed  a  full  pur- 
pose to  enter  into  fellowship  with  Christ,  (d)  Those  catechumens  who  suf- 
fered martyrdom  before  baptism,  were  looked  upon  as  baptized  in  Hood. 
The  reception  or  addition  of  a  name  in  baptism,  had  reference  to  apostolic 
example,  and  a  cycle  of  Christian  names,  of  Jewish  or  heathen  origin,  was  in 
this  way  formed.  Sponsors  (dmfioxoi,  sponsores)  were  introduced  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  baptism,  that  they  might  be  sureties  for  the  good  intentions 
of  adult  candidates,  and  for  the  future  education  of  infants,  and  as  witnesses  in 
all  cases.  The  seasons  in  which  baptism  was  ordinarily  administered,  were 
Easter,  Pentecost,  and  Epiphany.  During  the  performance  of  the  rite,  the 
candidates  were  clothed  in  white  garments  (vestis  alba).  The  imposition  of 
hands  for  the  communication  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (\f »/>o2f«<ria),  was  originally 
connected  with  and  immediately  followed  by  the  rite  of  baptism.  But  when, 
in  the  West,  the  imparting  of  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  was  looked  upon  as  the  pre- 
rogative of  the  bishops,  the  ceremony  of  confirmation  was  performed  as  a  dis- 
tinct rite.  The  intention  of  those  who  were  about  to  enter  the  marriage  rela- 
tion, was  previously  made  known  to  the  assembled  congregation.  The  betrothed 
parties,  after  partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  received  the  benediction  of  the 
priest.  There  was  much  contention  between  the  respective  advocates  of  the 


a)  These  were  not  called  disciplina  arcani  until  after  the  Eeformation,  and  in  the  Catholic  Church 
they  were  then  referred  as  apostolic  to  religious  doctrines.  Controversial  writings  of  Schelatrate 
and  Tmteel.  1678ss.  C.  Frommann,  de  disc.  arc.  Jen.  1833.  Ji.  liothe,  de  disc.  arc.  Heidelb.  1341. 
comp.  Grossmann,  de  Judaeor.  disc.  arc.  Lps.  1833s.  2  P.  4 

&)  Eusebius  Romanus  (Mabillon),  de  cultu  sanctorum  ignotor.  Par.  1688.  (ed.  2. 1705.)  4.  Beschr 
d,  Stadt  Eom.  vol.  I.  p.  400ss.  JBellermann,  p.  60s. 

c)  Orig.  in  Eom.  V,  9.  (vol.  IV.  p.  565.)    On  the  other  hand :  Tertul.  de  bapt  c.  18. 

<f)  Tertul.  de  bapt.  c.  15.  Cypr.  Epp.  69-75.  Cone.  Carth.  III.  (Oypr.  Opp.  p.  15Sss.)-(M8r 
chetti)  Esereitazioni  Ciprianiche  circa  il  battesiino  degli  eretici.  Eoma.  1787. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  71.  CULTUS.    CHAP.  IV.    §  72.  CANON.          71 

Jewish  and  the  Roman  law,  regarding  what  ought  to  be  considered  legal  im- 
pediments to  marriage.  The  different  moral  principles  of  the  parties,  and  tho 
precepts  of  the  Old  Testament,  were  looked  upon  as  valid  objections  to  all 
intermarriages  with  the  heathen.  (<?)  Divorces  were  seldom  recognized  by  the 
Church  for  any  other  cause  than  adultery.  All  who  had  died  in  the  Lord 
were  committed  to  the  grave  with  ecclesiastical  solemnities.  The  mode  of 
burial  was  generally  conformed  to  the  usages  of  the  ancient  Jews,  or  to  oth- 
er customs  not  inconsistent  with  the  habits  c*  the  ancient  Komans.  On  an- 
niversaries  of  the  decease  of  beloved  friends,  alms  were  distributed  in  their 
name  among  the  poor,  or  gifts  were  presented  in  their  behalf  at  the  altar,  by 
which  means  their  names  continued  to  be  remembered  and  mentioned  in  the 
prayers  of  the  Church. 


CHAP.  IV.— DOCTRINES  OF  THE  CHUECH,  AND  OPINIONS   OP- 
POSED TO  THEM. 

§  72.  Sources  from  which  the  Church  derived  its  System  of  Fai'h. 
The  books  of  the  Old  Testament  were  at  first  the  only  books  which  the 
Church  regarded  as  sacred.  Although  Paul's  views  respecting  them  avoided 
all  extremes,  public  opinion  generally  agreed  with  him,  and  the  clergy 
did  not  hesitate  to  appeal  to  them  as  authority  for  what  they  wished  to 
prove.  Melito  visited  Palestine  for  the  express  purpose  of  ascertaining  what 
books  belonged  to  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  finally  settled  upon 
those  recognized  by  the  Jews  of  that  region.  To  these,  Origen  subsequent- 
ly added  the  book  of  the  Maccabees,  (a)  and  as  the  Alexandrian  version 
(LXX.)  was  in  general  use  in  the  Greek  congregations,  all  the  books  em- 
braced in  it  (since  the  time  of  Jerome,  so  far  as  not  contained  in  the  original 
Hebrew,  called  the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament)  were  esteemed  as  of 
nearly  equal  authority.  But  the  necessity  of  the  case,  and  a  consciousness 
that  Christianity  had  much  peculiar  to  itself,  produced  during  the  second  cen- 
tury, from  the  writings  of  its  founders,  a  body  of  Sacred  Scriptures  exclu- 
sively its  own.  Justin  made  use  of  an  indefinite  multitude  of  apostolic  me- 
moirs, among  which  we  find  mentioned  a  gospel  of  the  Hebrews.  (5)  The 
unity  of  the  Church,  however,  rendered  it  indispensable  that  there  should  be 
an  agreement  in  all  its  parts  respecting  the  canon  of  its  Holy  Scriptures. 
Marcion  was  probably  not  merely  the  first  witness,  but  in  accordance  with 
his  peculiar  views  of  the  nature  of  Christianity,  the  first  author  of  such  a 
canon.  He  testifies  to  one  gospel  and  the  ten  epistles  of  Paul,  but  those  who, 
in  a  short  time,  were  opposed  to  him,  mention  four  gospels,  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  thirteen  epistles  of  Paul,  one  epistle  of  Peter,  and  one  of  John, 
Respecting  the  remaining  portions  of  the  New  Testament,  the  views  of  the 

f)  Tertul.  de  monog.  c.  7. 11.     Cypr.  de  lapsis.  c.  6. 

a)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  26.     Orig.  in  Ps.  1.  (vol.  II.  p.  529.) 

&)  Winer,  Just  Evv.  can.  usum  fuisse  ostenditur.  Lps.  1S19.  4.  On  the  other  hand :  Credn&r, 
Beitr.  z.  Einl.  in  d.  Bibl.  Schrr.  vol.  I.  p.  211ss.  Comp.  Mndemann  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1842.  P  2. 
Franck  in  d.  Stud.  d.  Gcistlichk.  Wurtemb.  1S46.  P.  1. 


72  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-812. 

Church  were  not  then  quite  settled,  (c)  In  deciding  whether  any  book  wa& 
canonical,  they  were  determined  on  the  one  hand  by  the  apostolic  character 
of  the  author,  and  on  the  other  by  the  Christian  popular  character  of  the 
book  itself.  In  conformity  with  the  views  of  the  Jews  respecting  the  Old 
Testament,  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament  were  regarded  as  inspired  by 
the  Holy  Ghost,  but  this  inspiration  was  looked  upon  only  as  the  highest 
state  of  religious  fervor.  The  Holy  Scriptures,  in  the  ordinary  language  of 
the  people,  were  made  the  basis  of  all  public  devotional  exercises,  and  all 
were  frequently  urged  to  peruse  them  in  private ;  but  copies  of  them  were 
very  expensive,  and  only  a  few  among  the  people  were  capable  of  reading 
them,  (d)  In  opposition  to  worldly  wisdom,  and  the  esoteric  doctrines  of  the 
heretics,  the  Church  appealed  to  the  literal  meaning  of  the  sacred  writ- 
ings, (e)  But  the  only  way  in  which  it  seemed  possible  satisfactorily  to  con- 
fute heretics,  was  by  appealing  to  Tradition,  (/)  by  which  was  meant  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church  orally  communicated  by  the  apostles  to  the  first 
bishops,  and  propagated  by  them  in  an  unadulterated  form  among  their  suc- 
cessors. It  was,  in  fact,  an  abstract  of  every  thing  which  the  Christian  con- 
sciousness of  each  age  had  uttered  through  public  opinion,  against  views 
inconsistent  with  it.  As  a  summary  of  these  traditionary  doctrines,  the  Apos- 
tles'' Creed  (g)  was  gradually  formed  out  of  the  confessions  of  faith  used  in 
baptism.  As  these  were  intended  to  be  opposed  to  the  heretical  opinions  of 
the  day,  this  creed  possessed  a  tolerably  uniform  character,  though  some  of 
its  particular  expressions  were  still  undetermined.  The  Rule  of  Faith  to 
which  some  ecclesiastical  fathers  alluded,  was  only  a  free  amplification  of  this 
creed,  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  period  in  which  it  was  composed,  (h)  In 
this  way  a  scale  was  in  practice  formed,  according  to  which  tradition  was 
placed  in  a  station  superior  to  that  of  the  Scriptures  as  a  rule  of  interpreta- 
tion and  a  necessary  complement  to  the  system  of  faith ;  and  the  Creed  was 
looked  upon  as  superior  to  tradition,  on  the  ground  of  its  being  an  author- 
ized abstract  of  it ;  but  in  principle  all  three  were  regarded  as  equally  safe 
and  necessarily  harmonious  sources  of  Christian  truth. 

§  73.    Apostolic  Fathers  of  the  Second  Century.     Cont.from  §  39. 

A  few  Asiatic  bishops  who  had  beheld  the  face  of  the  apostle  John,  were 
numbered  among  the  apostolic  Fathers.  Their  writings  belong  to  a  period 
anterior  to  the  cultivation  of  Greek  literature  and  the  principal  contest  with 
heathenism,  and  they  had  access  only  to  particular  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  Seven  Epistles  of  Ignatius,  written  while  their  author  was  on 
his  journey  to  his  place  of  martyrdom,  have  been  altered,  certainly  in  their 

c)  J.  Kirchhofer,  Quellensamml.  z.  Gesch.  z.  neutest  C»n.  bis  Hieron.  Zur.  1844. 

d)  F.  Walch,  v.  Gebrauch  d.  II.  Schr.  in  d.  ersten  4  Jahrh.  Lps.  1799.    (On  the  other  hand : 
Leasing,  Sammtl.  Schrr.  Berl.  1840.  vol.  XI.  p.  561ss.)   L.  v.  Ess,  Auszuge  u.  d.  nothw.  u.  nutzl.  Bibel- 
les.  a.  d.  KV.  Lps.  (1803.)  1816.    Bee  also  his  ChrysosL  o.  Stimmen  der  KV.  £  Bibelles.  Darrast  1824 

e)  Iren.  I,  8. 1.  Ill,  2.     TertuL  de  resurrect  cam.  c.  8. 

/)  Iren.  Ill,  3s.     Tertitl.  de  prescript,  c.  18-27.  de  corona  c.  8. 

g)  Rufini  Expositio  in  Syrnb.  App.— Sir  Peter  King,  Hist  Symb.  of  the  Ap.  Creed.  Lond.  1702.  & 
/O  Iren.  1, 10.     Tertul.  d.  virgg.  vel.  c.  1.    De  praescr.  c.  13.    Adv.  Prax.  c.  2.    Orig.  de  princ. 
Prooem.  §  4ss.— A.  Ilahn,  Bibl.  d.  Symb.  u.  GRegeln  d.  Ap.  Kath.  Kirche.  Bresl.  1842. 


CHAP.  IT.    DOCTKINES.    §  73.  IGNATIUS,  POL  1  CARP,  PAPIAS.  73 

more  extended,  and  probably  in  their  most  abridged  form.  But  even  the 
latter  more  authentic  portions,  though  regarded  as  a  fabrication  of  the  mid- 
dle of  the  second  century,  give  us  an  authentic  representation  of  the  high- 
wrought  feelings  of  a  martyr,  and  of  a  general  desire  to  secure  the  Christian 
unity  of  the  congregations  to  which  they  were  addressed,  by  bringing  them 
together  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop.  Its  general  characteristics 
are,  a  spirit  formed  under  the  combined  influence  of  Paul  and  John,  a  prac- 
tical opposition  to  the  system  of  the  Docetae,  and  a  conception,  of  Christian- 
ity as  something  wholly  internal,  and  independent  of  historical  evidence,  (a) 
The  recently  discovered  Syriac  version  of  his  epistles,  and  especially  of  his 
epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  presents  us  with  a  much  more  concise,  but  a  no  less 
hierarchical  text.  (&)  The  epistle  of  Polycarp  to  the  church  of  Philippi, 
written  soon  after  the  martyrdom  of  Ignatius,  with  reference  to  that  event 
and  to  various  circumstances  connected  with  that  church,  is  a  mpdest  and 
spiritual  work,  which  refers  to  Paul,  and  in  some  passages  reminds  us  of  the 
first  epistle  of  John,  (c}  Papias  (d.  about  163),  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  in  his 
account  of  the  facts  in  the  life  of  our  Saviour,  has  recorded  those  things 
which  he  had  learned  from  the  lips  of  such  as  had  had  intercourse  with  the 
apostles.  Having  been  in  early  youth  a  pupil  of  John,  he  took  a  peculiar  plea- 
sure in  the  living  word ;  and  it  was  only  when  he  was  judged  by  an  age 
whose  spirit  had  become  essentially  different,  that  he  was  accused  of  pos- 
sessing a  very  contracted  mind,  (d) 

§  74.    Ecclesiastical  Literature  and  Heresy. 

J.  G.  Eosenmueller,  de  chr.  Theol.  orig.  Lps.  1786.  Marheinecke,  Ursprung  u.  Entwickl.  <1. 
Orthod.  u.  Heterod.  in  d.  ersten  3  Jahrh.  (Daub.  u.  Creuzer,  Studien.  1808.  vol.  III.)  B.  J.  Ililgera, 
Krit  Darst  d.  Haresen  u.  d.  Orthod.  Hauptricht.  v.  Slandp.  d.  Kath.  aus.  Bonn.  188T.  1st  vol. 

The  sole  object  of  the  gospel  was  to  awaken  and  to  satisfy  the  religious 
spirit  of  man,  by  an  exhibition  of  a  true  religious  spirit.  But  when  it  came 
among  a  people  highly  educated  in  science,  and  was  pressed  by  opponents, 
this  spirit  was  obliged  to  seek  for  a  more  definite  consciousness  of  its  princi- 
ples. Its  opponents  consisted  principally  of  those  who  attempted  to  form 

a)  Polyc.  Ep.  c.  13.  Iren.  V,  28.  Orig.  in  Luc.  Horn.  6.  (vol.  III.  p.  933.)  Eiueb.  II.  ecc.  Ill 
36.  M.  J.  Wocher,  die  Br.  d.  h.  Ign.  fibers,  n.  erklart  Tub.  1829.— J.  Dallaeus,  de  scriptis,  quae  sul 
Dion,  et  Ignatii  nomm.  circumferuntur.  Gen.  1666.  ±.—Baur,  in  d.  Tub.  Zeitschr.  1S38.  P.  3.  p.  14Ss& 
J.  E.  Ch.  Schmidt,  d.  doppelte  Bee.  d.  Br.  d.  Ign.  (Henke's  Mag.  vol.  III.  p.  91ss.  abbreviated  in  his 
KGesch.  Th.  L  p.  200s.)  G.  C.  Nets,  Yers.  u.  d.  Br.  d.  Ign.  an  Polyk.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1835.  P.  4.)— 
K.  Meier,  d.  dopp.  Eec.  d.  Br.  d.  Ign.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1836.  P.  2.)— J.  Pearson,  Vindiciae  Epp.  S.  Ign 
ace.  J.  Vossii,  Epp.  Cantabr.  1672.  4.  (Coteler.  PP.  app.  Th.  II.  P.  II.  p.  236ss.)  Rothe,  Anfiinge  d. 
Kirche.  voL  I.  p.  715ss.  Hutiier  in  Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1841.  P.  4.— Ch.  Diisterdieck,  quae  de  Ignatia- 
naruin  epp.  authentia,  duorumque  textuum  ratione  hucusque  prolatae  sunt  sententiao  enarrantur. 
Gott  1843.  4. 

Z>)  The  ancient  Syriac  version  of  the  epistles  of  S.  Ign.  to  S.  Polyc.  the  Ephesians  and  Eomans, 
collected  from  the  writings  of  Severus  of  Antioch,  Timoth.  of  Alexandria,  and  others,  by  William 
Cureton.  Lond.  1845. 

c)  Iren.  Ill,  3.  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  36.  V,  20.  Wocher,  Br.  d.  apost  Yater  Clem.  u.  Polyc.  ubers. 
m.  Com.  Tub.  1830.  Reasons  in  Opposition  to  its  Genuineness:  Schwegler,  Nachapost  Zeita.  vol 
IL  p.  154ss. 

c?)  Aoyiwv  KvpiaKuv  4j--f)yr)(ru.  Lost  except  an  inconsiderable  fragment  Iren.  Y,  33.  Eitseb. 
H.  ecc.  111,89.  comp.  36.  Chron.  ad  Olymp.  220.  Grabe,  Spicil.  Patr.  P.  II.  p.  34ss.  Munter,  Fragmm 
Patr.  graec.  Hafn.  1788.  Fasc.  I.  p.  15ss.  Comp.  7/^,9,  Bibl.  d.  heil.  Gesch.  vol.  I.  p.  297ss. 


74  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOBY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  10(V  812 

such  a  historical  embodiment  of  its  nature  as  would  afford  no  room  for  the 
religion  of  the  spirit,  and  of  those  who  aimed  at  such  a  speculative  refine- 
ment as  threatened  to  destroy  every  historical  element  in  Christianity.  The 
former  proceeded  from  the  schools  of  Judaism,  and  the  latter  from  those  of 
heathenism.  The  principles  which  finally  obtained  the  ascendency,  and  for 
that  reason  only  became  those  of  the  Catholic  Church,  moved  on  with  con- 
scious security  between  both  these  extremes,  although  theological  science  was 
at  different  periods  attracted  more  to  the  one  side  than  to  the  other.  Chris- 
tianity was  at  first  regarded  as  embracing  so  wide  a  range,  that  Justin  did 
not  hesitate  (Ap.  I.  c.  46.)  to  consider  Socrates,  and  all  those  who  had  lived 
up  to  the  light  of  reason,  as  Christians.  But  the  more  the  Church,  during 
its  severe  conflicts,  became  conscious  of  its  true  nature,  the  more  decidedly 
was  every  thing  opposed  to  it  separated  from  it  as  a  Heresy,  i.  e.  as  what 
ought  to  have  been  and  claimed  to  be  Christian,  and  yet  really  was  not.  In 
this  way  it  may  have  happened,  that  instead  of  an  unchristian  party,  only  a 
vanquished  minority  was  sometimes  excluded.  The  literature  of  this  period 
was  sophistical,  and  neither  creative  in  its  essential  character,  nor  attractive 
in  its  stylo.  The  energy  of  faith  which  theological  science  then  exhibited, 
was  sufficient  to  supply  the  place  of  both  these  qualities,  but  could  not  call 
them  into  existence. 

§  75.    EUonixm.     Cont.  from  §  35. 

Gtoaeler,  Naz.  u.  Eblon.  (Staudlln's  u.  Tzschlrner's  Arch.  vol.  IV.  Part  2.)  ffase,  0.  <L  EmpFms- 
er  d.  Br.  an  d.  Hebrucr.  (Winer's  u.  Engclh.  Joura.  vol.  II.  P.  8.)  L.  Lanye,  Beitrr.  z.  alt.  KGesch. 
Lps.  1826.  vol.  I.—Baur  and  Schwegler  (before  §  29.)  On  the  other  hand:  A.  Sofiliemann,  die 
Clementinen  nebst  den  verwandten  Schrlften  u.  der  Eblonltismus.  Hamb.  1844.  &JzP 

As  the  whole  power  and  development  of  the  Church  was  established 
among  nations  subject  to  Greek  refinement  and  civilization,  the  Jewish  por- 
tion of  the  Christian  community,  in  its  seclusion,  began  to  be  regarded  as  a 
mere  sect,  and  the  old  name  of  Nazarenes,  by  which  Christians  in  Palestine 
had  been  distinguished,  as  well  as  that  of  Ebionitcs,  (a)  which  was  probably 
quite  as  ancient,  and  had  been  applied  to  the  congregations  at  Jerusalem  and 
Pella,  became  simply  designations  of  particular  sects.  Justin  (5)  made  a  dis- 
tinction between  those  Jewish  Christians  who  were  satisfied  with  their  own 
observance  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  those  who  demanded  that  converts  from 
heathenism  should  observe  the  same  law  as  a  necessary  condition  of  salva- 
tion. The  former  he  recognized  as  brethren,  though  even  at  that  early  pe- 
riod such  a  recognition  had  ceased  to  be  universal  among  his  fellow-Chris- 
tians ;  but  the  latter  he  looked  upon  as  incapable  of  salvation.  Origen  (c) 
found  a  type  of  the  Ebionites  in  the  blind  man  who  prayed  to  the  son  of  Da- 
vid, Eusebius  (d)  looked  upon  them  as  persons  who  were  deluded,  but  not 
wholly  estranged  from  Christ,  and  Epiphanius  was  the  first  to  pour  upon  them 
the  vials  of  that  wrath  which  all  heresies  provoked  from  him.  Even  at  this 
early  period,  however,  there  were  not  many  Jewish  Christians  beyond  tho 
borders  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  It  is  not  impossible  that  a  congregation  at 

a)  Epiphan.  haer.  30, 17.    On  tho  other  hand :  Tertul.  de  praescr.  c.  83. 

&)  C.  Tryph.  c.  47.      c)  In  Matth.  torn.  16.  (Th.  III.  p.  733ss.)      d)  II.  ecc.  Ill,  27. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  75.  EBIONISM.    §  76.  G  NOSTICISM.  75 

Rome  was  the  only  one  composed  exclusively  of  them.  But  many  even  of 
these  had  renounced  circumcision  and  all  that  was  essential  to  their  position, 
and  retained  nothing  but  an  empty  protest  against  the  apostolic  authority  of 
Paul.  Attempts  at  an  accommodation  with  this  party  on  the  side  of  the 
great  Church,  would  not  therefore  seem  probable,  nor  have  we  any  accounts 
of  such  attempts  from  contemporary  writers.  Even  the  Christianity  of  Paul 
had  an  acknowledged  basis  in  the  Jewish  system,  and  not  only  were  some 
fragments  of  the  Mosaic  law  unintentionally  preserved  in  the  habits  and 
customs  especially  of  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor,  but  others  were  restored  in 
order  to  promote  certain  hierarchical  ends.  The  second  epistle  of  Peter,  and 
the  union  of  the  names  of  Peter  and  Paul  in  the  watchword  used  at  Rome,  may 
have  been  occasioned  by  those  Jewish  Christians  who  needed  such  a  recon- 
ciliation with  the  general  Church.  («?)  Irenaeus  was  the  first  who  reckoned 
the  Ebionites  indiscriminately  among  heretics.  Their  doctrine  respecting 
Jesus  was  the  same  with  that  taught  by  Cerinthus ;  they  adhered  to  the  Mo- 
saic law,  used  only  one  gospel,  which  was  that  according  to  Matthew,  and 
rejected  the  authority  of  Paul  as  an  apostate.  (/)  Origen  and  Eusebiua  dis- 
tinguish between  two  different  classes  of  Ebionites,  which  were  agreed  in 
their  opposition  to  the  progressive  creed  of  the  Church,  but  differed  from 
each  other  in  their  Jewish  representations  of  the  Messiah.  The  one  regard- 
ed Christ  as  the  son  of  Mary  and  Joseph ;  the  other  looked  upon  him  ca  born 
of  the  virgin  through  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  acknowledged  him  to  be  a  super- 
human, but  not  a  divine  being,  (g)  Jerome  was  the  first  who  appropriated 
the  name  of  Nazarenes  exclusively  to  that  party  which  held  to  the  higher 
view  of  the  nature  of  Christ,  and  were  most  tolerant  toward  the  Gentile 
Christians,  and  he  declares  that  they  were  united  together  in  the  most  de- 
lightful fraternal  affection.  (A)  When  he  wrote,  they  still  maintained  their 
synagogues,  in  which  were  found  Elders  and  Overseers ;  but  in  the  seventh 
century  they  had  completely  dwindled  away,  unable  to  maintain  their  posi- 
tion between  the  parties  then  contending  for  supremacy,  and  to  both  of 
which  they  professed  adherence. 

§  76.    I.  Gnosticism. 

I.  Iren.  adv.  haereses.     TertuL  de  praescriptionibus  haereticorum.    Epiph.  adv.  haereses,  and 
Tkeodoret,  haereticorum  fabb.  articles  relating  to  the  subject    All  the  ecclesiastical  vriters  of  this 
period,  especially  Clement  and  Origen  iu  particular  passages. — Plotinus,  trpbs  rovz  -yiuffTiKovs. 
(Ennead.  II.  lib.  9.)  ed.  G.  II.  Eeigl.  Eatisb.  1832.    Comp.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1834.  P.  2. 

II.  Massuet,  Dss.  previae  to  his  edit  of  Irenaeus.    Moshemii  de  reb.  Christ  ante  Const  p.  33333. 
[translated  into  English  by  £.  £  Vidal.  Lond.  1813.  2  vols.  8.  and  by  Dr.  Murdoch.  New  York. 
1850.]    (Hunter,)  Vers.  u.  d.  kirchl.  Alterthumer  d.  Gnostiker.  Ansb.  1790.    E.  A.  tewald,  de  doctr. 
gnostica.  Heidelb.  1818.    Neander,  genet  Entw.  d.  gnost  Systeme.  Brl.  1818.    Sen  also  his  Hist  of 

e)  Sctiwegler,  nachapost  Zeita.  vol.  I.  p.  490ss. 

/)  I,  36.  (The  difficulty  of  the  passage  is  to  be  removed  not  by  correction,  but  by  punctuation) : 
Consentiunt  quidem  mundum  a  Deo  factum,  ea  autem,  quae  sunt  erga  Dominuiu,  non  similiter:  ut 
Cerinthus  et  Carpocrates  opinantur. 

flO  Orig.  c.  Cels.  V,  61.  65.    Euseb.  II.  ecc.  Ill,  27. 

1C)  In  Jesai.  VIII,  9. 13.  XXIX,  20.  XXXI.  6ss.  comp.  Ep.  ad  Aug.  112.  (al.  89.)  Epiph.  haer. 
29,  7ss.  On  the  other  hand:  August,  c.  Faust  XIX,  18.  with  reference  to  the  Nazarenes  says: 
In  ea  perversitate  manserunt,  ut  et  gentcs  cogerent  judaizare. 


76  ANCIENT  CHUKCII  HISTORY.    PEE.  1    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  JOO-SU. 

the  Chr.  Eel.  [Torrey's  Transl.  vol.  I.  pp.  86G-478.]  Lucke,  u.  d.  Gnost  Systeme  u.  was  neuerllcl, 
dafur  gethan  1st  (Theol.  Zeitschr.  BrL  1819.  vol.  I.  sect  2.)  Oieseler,  Church  Hist  [Davidson's 
Transl.  Edinb.  1846.  voL  I.  §  44.]  and  in  Halle  Lit  Zelt  1823.  N.  104ss.  J.  Matter,  Hist  crit  du 
gnosticisme.  Par.  (1828.)  1843.  2  Th.  J.  J.  Schmidt,  u.  d.  Yerwandtsch.  d.  gnost  theos.  Lehrcn  m. 
d.  Eeligionssystemen  d.  Orients,  vorz.  dcs  Buddhaism.  Lps.  1828.  (Comp.  Gieseler  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit 
1880.  vol.  I.  p.  873ss.)  Mohler,  Vers.  u.  d.  Urspr.  d.  Gnostic.  Tub.  1831.  4.  Baur,  d.  christl.  Gnosis 
in  geschichtL  Entw.  Tub.  1835.  and  Stud.  u.  Krit  1837.  P.  8.  Baumgarten-Crusius,  Comp.  d. 
DGesch.  voL  I.  p.  Slss.  Bitter,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Phil.  Hamb.  1841.  voL  I.  p.  109ss.  [E.  Burton,  Inq. 
into  the  Heresies  of  the  Apost  Age.  Bampt  Loctt  Oxf.  1S29.  An  Epitome  of  the  Hist  of  PhlL 
transl.  from  the  French  by  C.  S.  Henry.  New  York.  1841.  2  vols.  12.  Per.  III.  §  1.  Tennemann's 
Manual  of  the  H.  of  PhlL  transL  by  A.  Johnson.  Oxf.  1832.  8.  J.  P.  Potter,  in  Kitto's  CycL  of  Bibl. 
Lit  art  Gnosticism.  J.  D.  Maurice,  Hist  of  Philosophy,  during  the  first  six  centuries.  Lond.  1854.] 

No  sooner  had  Oriental  become  mingled  with  Hellenistic,  and  especially 
with  Platonic  speculations,  than  the  old  problem  of  speculative  philosophy 
respecting  the  derivation  of  the  finite  from  the  infinite,  became,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  profound  consciousness  which  the  age  then  possessed  of  its  in- 
ternal distractions  and  longings,  the  object  of  an  extensively  ramified  system. 
The  name  Gnosis  was  applied  to  an  extraordinary  insight  into  divine  things, 
beyond  the  system  of  faith  which  the  people  commonly  received  on  author- 
ity. The  commencement  of  Gnosticism  may  be  discovered  even  in  the  time 
of  the  apostles,  (a)  but  its  influence  never  became  sufficiently  developed  to 
•  appear  dangerous,  until  since  the  reign  of  Trajan.  (5)  Its  usual  fundamental 
principles  were :  a  God  with  no  connection  whatever  with  our  world,  and  a 
matter  entirely  underived  from  and  independent  of  the  Deity ;  a  revelation  of 
the  unknown  deity  by  means  of  an  intermediate  divine  being,  whose  contact 
with  matter  gave  existence  to  our  world,  and  all  its  series  of  events ;  a  re- 
demption of  whatever  is  divine  but  confined  in  the  material  world,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  personal  interference  of  a  divine  being  in  the  affairs  of  the 
world.  Wherever  the  peculiar  principles  of  Gnosticism  gained  the  ascend- 
ency, the  intermediate  divine  being  became  individualized  in  a  descending 
series  of  celestial  natures  (afovts),  (c)  from  the  lowest  class  of  which  proceeded 
the  Creator  of  the  world  (Sq/uov/ryo's),  and  from  the  highest  the  Redeemer. 
Gnosticism,  like  New-Platonism,  was  obliged  to  enter  deeply  into  the  popu- 
lar religion  of  that  period,  and  to  become  a  philosophy  of  the  three  great 
forms  of  religions  then  in  conflict.  It  even  went  still  further,  and  aimed  to 
become  a  particular  form  of  religion  itself.  Its  oriental  element  was  derived 
from  Persia,  and  was  a  dreamy  blending  of  sense  and  allegory.  Simon  and 
Cerinthus  had  already  shown  how  it  could  be  brought  into  alliance  with  Ju- 
daism, but  where  no  feelings  of  piety  prevented,  its  advocates  very  naturally 
recognized  their  Demiurge  in  the  representations  of  Jehovah  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. On  becoming  involved  in  the  powerful  movements  of  Christianity, 
its  principles  were  in  some  measure  accommodated  to  those  of  the  gospel, 
and  never,  indeed,  found  full  development  until  it  became  connected  with 

a)  §  82.  87.  yet  comp.  C.  C.  Tittmann,  de  vestigiis  Gnosticor.  in  N.  T.  frastra  quaesitis.  Lps.  1778. 
jtransl.  and  publ.  in  Contribb.  to  For.  Theol  Lit  New  York.  1827.  8.]  J.  Horn,  Bibl.  Gnosis.  Hann. 
i805.— Paulus,  die  drey  Lehrbriefe  v.  Jo.  Heidelb.  1829.  Baur,  die  sogen.  Pastoralbrr.  d.  Ap.  Pau- 
lus.  Stuttg.  1835.  On  the  other  hand :  M.  Baumgarten,  die  Aectheit  d.  Pastoralbrr.  vertheidigt 
Berl.  1887. 

V)  ffegesipp.  in  Euseb.  II.  ecc.  Ill,  32.  IV,  22.     Clem.  Strom.  VII,  17.  (p.  898.) 

c)  In  accordance  with  the  system  of  Aristotle,  de  coelo  I,  9. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  76.  GNOSTICISM.    §  77.  SATURNINUS.  77 

that  faith.  In  the  God  of  the  Christian  system,  its  votaries  recognized  their 
own  perfect  God,  in  Christ  their  redeeming  Aeon,  in  the  Christianity  which 
he  really  preached  their  secret  traditions,  and  in  the  faith  proclaimed  hy  the 
Church,  the  natural  mode  of  representation  in  which  these  became  adapted 
to  the  popular  mind.  Its  ethical  system,  in  which  the  greatest  contempt  for 
the  world  was  expressed,  harmonized  with  the  most  rigid  requirements  of  the 
Church,  and  only  a  few  of  its  parties  were  so  demoralized  as  to  justify  licen- 
tiousness, on  the  ground  of  an  exaltation  above  the  terrestrial  law  of  the 
Demiurge.  The  founders  of  the  different  Gnostic  parties  have  been  made 
known  to  us  in  history,  but  we  are  nowhere  informed  of  him.  who  originated 
the  great  system  common  to  them  all.  The  predominance  of  the  Oriental, 
the  Hellenistic,  the  Christian,  or  the  Jewish  element,  presents  us  with  a  con- 
venient principle  in  accordance  with  which  these  Gnostic  systems  may  natu- 
rally be  classified. 

§  77.    II.  Syrian  Gnostics. 

V)  Saturninus,  who  lived  at  Antioch  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  taught  that 
there  was  opposed  to  the  good  Deity  (yrarqp  ayi/wo-ros)  a  wild,  tempestuous 
kingdom  of  evil,  under  the  dominion  of  Satan.  From  the  former  emanated 
the  spiritual  world  of  Aeons.  At  its  lower  confines  were  placed  the  seven 
planetary  spirits  (a'yyeXoi  Koo-poKpaTopcs).  Tar  away  from  their  divine  source, 
but  battling  with  the  kingdom  of  darkness,  these  formed  the  world  of  sense, 
and  made  man  according  to  their  obscure  recollections  of  the  image  of  God. 
But  the  work  which  they  had  thus  formed,  helplessly  collapsed,  and  could 
not  stand  erect  until  the  unknown  Father,  pitying  them,  sent  into  it  a  spark 
of  divine  life.  In  opposition  to  this  new  race,  Satan  formed  another  after  his 
own  image.  To  redeem  the  more  exalted  race  from  the  power  of  Satan  and 
of  the  planetary  spirits,  one  of  the  highest  Aeons  (i/oGs),  as  Christ,  assumed 
the  semblance  of  a  body.  That  men  may  be  redeemed,  they  must,  on  their 
part,  abstain  from  every  thing  which  brings  them  under  the  power  of  matter. 
The  followers  of  Saturninus,  for  this  reason,  abstained  from  marriage,  and 
many  of  them  even  from  flesh,  (a)  After  a  brief  period,  nothing  is  known 
respecting  them.  2)  The  Disciples  of  John,  in  the  second  century,  looked 
upon  John  the  Baptist  as  the  true  Messiah,  though  others  regarded  him  as  an 
angel  in  human  form.  Among  the  Simonians,  he  was  supposed  to  have  been 
the  teacher  of  Simon.  Though  nothing  was  known  of  the  Nazoraeans  (Men- 
daeans,  Zabians)  until  they  were  discovered  by  missionaries  in  Persia  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  their  peculiar  Johannic  system  of  Gnosticism  could  only 
have  originated  when  a  particular  party  professed  adherence  to  John,  and 
when  Gnosticism  was  in  its  forming  state.  They  believed  in  a  kingdom  of 
darkness  as  well  as  of  light,  in  a  formation  of  the  world  and  a  struggle 
with  the  powers  of  darkness  by  an  ambiguous  intermediate  being  (Fetahil) ; 
that  Judaism  was  the  work  of  gloomy  planetary  spirits ;  that  the  redeeming 
Aeon  appeared  to  John,  and  that  Jesus  was  a  false  prophet,  anointed  by  the 
planetary  spirits.  Baptism  they  regarded  as  an  act  of  consecration  to  be  an- 
nually repeated,  and  daily  ablutions  were  practised  as  a  religious  duty.  (&) 

a)  Iren.  1,  24    Epiph.  haer.  23. 

6)  I.  Acts  18,  25. 19,  2-7.    Clement.  Kecogn.  I,  54  60.  and  Homil  II,  23ss.    Hieron.  in  Aggeutn 


78  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  L    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-S12. 

§  78.     III.  Hellenistic  Gnostics. 

1)  Basilidcs,  who  lived  at  Alexandria  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  believed 
that  from  the  ineffable  God  (3eos-  appijTos)  proceeded  certain  images  of  him- 
self according  to  the  numeral  relations  of  astronomy.  The  first  of  these 
were  seven  celestial  powers  (Swd/zety),  who,  with  the  being  from  whom  they 
sprung,  constituted  the  first  spiritual  kingdom  (ovpavos).  From  this,  in  a 
gradually  descending  series,  proceeded  three  hundred  and  sixty-four  other 
spiritual  kingdoms.  The  mystical  watchword  Abraxas,  represents  the  God 
revealed  in  these  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  spiritual  kingdoms,  in  distinc- 
tion from  him  who  is  the  Ineffable,  (a)  The  seven  angels  belonging  to  the 
lowest  of  these  spiritual  kingdoms,  the  first  among  whom  is  the  God  of  the 
Jews  (apxeoi'),  created  this  world  out  of  matter,  and  bestowed  upon  the  hu- 
man race  inhabiting  it  all  earthly  endowments,  together  with  all  the  spirit- 
ual powers  which  they  themselves  possessed.  To  effect  the  deliverance  of 
this  spiritual  power  from  its  bondage  to  matter,  the  first-begotten  celestial 
power  (voiis)  united  himself  with  Jesus  at  his  baptism.  Though  this  Jesus 
was  a  perfect  man,  he  needed  an  expiation  for  his  own  sake,  and  it  was  he 
.alone  who  suffered  and  died.  The  Archon  was  from  the  first  only  an  uncon- 
scious agent  of  divine  providence,  and  he  no  sooner  discovers,  from  the  words 
of  Jesus,  the  actual  design  of  God,  than  he  submitted  himself  to  it  with  de- 
vout reverence.  An  entrance  into  the  kingdom  of  the  Kedeemer,  is  effected 
by  a  spiritual  surrender  of  the  soul  to  him  (TROTIS-),  and  is  by  no  means  in- 
compatible with  a  denial  of  him  who  was  crucified.  The  Basilideans,  who 
existed  late  in  the  fourth  century,  appear  only  to  have  embraced  this  doc- 
trine of  spiritual  freedom  in  a  still  more  decided  form,  and  to  have  claimed 
an  elevation  above  all  positive  religious  rites.  (Z»)  2)  Valentine,  who  went 
from  Alexandria  to  Rome  about  140,  and  died  in  Cyprus  about  160,  has 
given  us  a  most  ingenious  representation  of  Platonic  ideas,  in  his  fanciful 
scheme  of  the  universe.  In  the  depths  of  the  Great  First  Cause  (/3v3o'y, 
TTpoTrarcop),  existed  Self-consciousness  (ewoia)  and  Silence  (tnyq).  This  con- 
cealed God  reveals  himself  in  three  series  of  Aeons,  in  the  names  of  the  In- 
effable, in  certain  images  of  God,  and  in  the  original  types  of  all  spiritual 
life,  which  emanate  from  him  in  pairs  (o-i/^vyoi),  and,  in  contrast  witn  empty 
chaos  (Ktvvp.a),  collectively  represent  the  fulness  of  the  revealed  divine  life 
(TrXqpco/ia).  Every  thing  in  the  Pleroma  has  its  individual  properties  assigned 
to  it  by  Measure  and  Limitation  (opos).  But  Sophia,  the  Aeon  most  remote 
from  the  great  Original,  languished  on  account  of  its  passionate  longings  to 


c.  1.  Part  6.—Ignatii  a  Jesu  narratio  originls,  rituum  et  errorum  Christianorum  S.  Joannis.  Rom. 
1652.  Codex  Nazaraeus.  liber  Adami  appellatus,  syriace  transcriptus,  lat  redditns  a  Mat.  Norberg. 
Lund.  1815s.  3  vols.  4— II.  TycTisen,  in  the  Deutscb.  Mas.  1784  vol.  II.  p.  414.  Genenius,  Art  Za- 
bier,  in  tbe  proofsheets  of  tbe  Encyclop.  1817.  L.  E.  Burckhardt,  les  Nazoreens  ou  Handai-Jahia. 
Strasb.  1840. 

a)  Bellermann,  die  Gemmen  der  Alten  mit  d.  Abraxas-Bilde.  Berl.  1817ss.  P.  3.  Gieseler,  in  d. 
Stud.  u.  Krit  1830.  P.  2.  p.  403ss. 

&)  The  original  is  scattered  throughout  Clement's  Stromm.  and  in  the  SiSaoicaAui  avaroXiicf] 
ascribed  to  him.  The  figurative  and  farciful  side  and  its  degenerate  state  in  Jren.  I,  24,  3s3.  II,  16, 
2.  Epiph.  hacr.  24. 


CIIAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  78.  VALENTINIANS.  79 

be  reunited  with  its  Source.  This  Wisdom,  the  Achamoth,  (c)  agitated  by  the 
intensity  of  its  desires  and  Wandering  away  from  the  Pleroma,  communica- 
ted life  to  matter  and  gave  birth  to  the  Demiurge.  The  latter  formed  the 
world  out  of  chaos  in  such  a  way  that  the  divine  idea,  though  correctly,  is 
inadequately  and  feebly  represented  in  its  actual  scenes  and  events.  'To  re-  , 
store  harmony  to  the  Pleroma,  a  new  emanation  of  a  pair  of  Aeons  (Xpio-ro? 
and  nvevpa  aytov)  takes  place,  and  from  all  the  Aeons  proceeded  the  Aeon 
Jesus  (2coTi7p),  by  whom  the  universe  was  to  be  properly  formed  and  re- 
deemed. It  was  by  this  Jesus  that  the  Demiurge  was  unconsciously  inspired, 
so  as  gradually  to  form  the  world  according  to  the  type  of  the  divine  Plero- 
rna.  Hence  the  Demiurge  was  often  astonished  at  his  own  work,  and  his 
creatures  shrunk  from  and  adored  those  very  things  which  the  higher  spirit 
created  in  them.  For  although  heathenism  was  the  kingdom  of  matter  and 
Judaism  of  the  Demiurge,  individuals  were  raised  up  by  the  Soter  in  both, 
who,  under  the  excitement  of  divine  powers,  and  but  half  understood  by 
themselves  or  their  age,  pointed  forward  to  the  future.  Conscious  of  the  un- 
satisfactory nature  of  his  present  system,  the  Demiurge,  under  the  impression 
that  he  was  himself  the  supreme  Deity,  and  under  the  influence  of  an  obscure 
presentiment,  promised  his  beloved  people  that  he  would  send  them  a  Messiah. 
This  Messiah  he  furnished,  according  to  his  ability,  with  psychical  powers. 
At  the  baptism  of  this  Messiah,  the  Soter  became  united  with  him.  Miracles 
and  prophecies  were  needful  to  induce  psychical  men  to  confide  in  the  psychi- 
cal Messiah,  but  the  simple  power  of  truth  was  sufficient  to  collect  all  men 
of  a  pneumatic  nature  around  the  true  Saviour.  The  end  of  the  world  is  to 
be  a  still  higher  restoration  (dTroKarao-racm),  for  then  the  Soter  will  introduce 
the  Achamoth  as  his  bride,  together  with  all  pneumatic  Christians,  into  the 
Pleroma,  the  Demiurge,  in  peace  and  joy  as  the  friend  of  the  bridegroom, 
will  rule  in  the  midst  of  all  psychical  Christians  on  the  confines-  of  the  Ple- 
roma, and  all  matter  will  return  to  its  original  nothingness.  The  Yalentinian 
was  the  most  influential  of  all  the  Gnostic  parties,  and  with  various  modifica- 
tions, continued  in  existence,  especially  in  Eome,  until  some  time  in  the 
fourth  century.  (<fj~  It  is  said  that  the  school  of  Ptolemaeus,  (e)  a  flourishing 
branch  of  the  same  party,  represented  the  Aeons,  which  Valentine  had  in 
fact  only  described  as  the  forms  by  which  the  Deity  was  developed,  more 
definitely  as  real  persons.  (/)  In  his  epistle  to  Flora,  (g)  (of  whose  unity  and 
Gnostic  genuineness  we  need  not  yet  despair),  (li)  he  attempts  to  vindicate 
the  creation,  and  the  Testament  of  the  Demiurge,  who  is  regarded  as  a  be- 
ing of  mere  justice,  from  either  of  the  extremes  by  which  they  had  been  as- 
cribed to  the  supreme  God  or  to  the  Devil.  With  an  evident  attempt  to  " 
bring  his  views  into  nearer  correspondence  with  the  Catholic  system,  he  ac- 
cordingly finds  in  this  fact  a  reason  for  a  partial  abolition  and  a  partial  pre- 


c)  'Axctjuid',    piissnn  t    j)  Ka.ru  ffocpta, 

d)  They  are  the  principal  subject  of  Irenaeus.    Some  particulars  may  be  found  in  Clement     Ter- 
tul.  adv.  Vajentinianos.    Epiph.  haer.  81.    Hunter,  Odae  gnosticae,  thebaice  et  lat  Hafn.  1812. 

e)  Tren.  praef.  ad  lib.  I.  §  2.     /)  Tertul.  adv.  Val.  c.  4.      g)  Communicated  by  Epiph.  haor.  38. 
h)  A.  Stieren,  de  Ptolemaei  ad  Floram  ep.  P.  I.  Jen.  1843.    On  the  other  hand,  in  apology  :   //. 

HOMO,  in  the  Append,  to  the  2d  vol.  of  the  2d  edit,  of  Neander's  Hist  of  the  Chr.  Eel. 


80  ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  P.  100-312. 

serration  of  the  Mosaic  law  in  consequence  of  its  fulfilment  by  Christ. 
3)  The  Ophites,  whose  origin  may  perhaps  be  discovered  in  a  Jewish  sect 
living  in  Egypt  before  the  time  of  Christ,  professed  to  believe  that  the  Son 
of  man  was  an  emanation  from  the  Original  Source  of  all  existence,  and  that 
from  both  of  these  proceeded  the  Mother  of  life  (m/ei/na  ayiov).  This  being 
having  espoused  the  former  original  type  of  mankind,  gave  birth  to  Sophia 
and  Christ,  i.  e.  the  principle  of  Creation  and  of  ^Redemption.  "When  Sophia, 
the  imperfect,  adventitious  offspring  of  this  connection,  aspired  to  be  like 
God,  she  was  hurled  into  the  great  abyss,  and  there  gave  birth  to  Jaldabaoth, 
i.  e.  the  Son  of  Chaos,  (i)  the  Creator  of  the  world  and  the  God  of  the  Jews. 
"With  the  assistance  of  his  planetary  spirits,  the  latter  now  made,  after  his 
own  image,  man,  whom  he  indued  with  life  and  invested  with  authority  to 
rule  over  divine  things  in  his  spirit.  But  by  this  very  act  he  had  divested 
himself  of  his  most  important  power,  and  soon  saw  with  dismay  that  his 
creature  had  become  superior  to  himself.  To  prevent  man  at  least  from  at- 
taining the  consciousness  of  divinity,  he  commanded  the  latter  not  to  eat  of 
the  tree  of  knowledge,  and  then,  filled  with  wrath,  threw  himself  into  the 
abyss,  where  he  produced  another  image,  the  Serpent-Spirit  (o(/>io/iop$o?). 
But  Sophia,  now  delivered  from  her  fallen  state  in  consequence  of  the  birth 
of  the  Creator,  sought  once  more  to  attract  to  herself  and  to  purify  the  spirit- 
ual power  in  the  world.  She  availed  herself  of  the  enmity  of  the  Serpent- 
Spirit  against  its  parent,  to  induce  man  to  transgress  the  commandment 
which  had  been  given  him.  According  to  this,  what  is  related  in  the  Jewish 
books  as  a  Fall,  was  in  fact  a  transition  to  a  higher  mental  state.  In  great 
wrath  the  Creator  now  threw  men  down  to  the  lowest  material  world,  and 
harassed  them  with  all  the  temptations  and  pains  incident  to  matter.  Indi- 
vidual persons  endowed  with  high  intellectual  powers,  are  raised  up  by  So- 
phia, but  she  struggles  in  vain  to  break  the  bonds  which  confine  men,  until 
the  Aeon  Christ  unites  himself  with  the  psychical  Messiah,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Creator's  enmity,  was  crucified.  Finally,  Sophia,  with  all  her 
spiritual  followers  among  men,  will  be  received  back  into  the  Pleroma,  and 
the  God  of  the  Jews,  gradually  deprived  of  all  his  spiritual  powers,  will  be 
swallowed  up  in  the  empty  abyss  of  matter.  The  Serpent,  who  had  been 
the  means  of  man's  first  exaltation  and  therefore  had  been  cursed  by  the 
Creator,  was,  in  accordance  with  his  two  natures,  both  honored  and  feared. 
One  Ophitic  party  went  so  far  in  their  hostility  to  the  Jews,  that  they  paid 
honor  to  the  most  abandoned  characters  mentioned  in  sacred  history  as  their 
highest  examples,  and  were  therefore  called  Cainites.  Others,  on  account 
of  their  disapprobation  of  such  extravagance,  were  called  Sethites.  The  pe- 
nal code  of  Justinian  shows  that  the  Ophites  were  not  extinct  even  in  the 
sixth  century.  (Ik) 

4)  Carpocrates  and  his  son  Epiphanes,  Platonists  of  Alexandria  and  con- 
temporaries with  Valentine,  described  the  Primal  Being  as  the  great  Unity 
(Movcij)  toward  which  all  finite  things  are  striving  to  return.  But  the 

0  r.5ina  M^ 

£)  Tren.  I,  30.    Orig.  c.  Cels.  VI,  24ss.    Epiph.  haer.  W.—Mosheim,  Gesch.  d.  Schlangenbruder. 
(Vers.  e.  unpartb.  Ketzergesch.  Hclmst  1746. 1748.  4.)    G.  II.  F.  Fuldner,  dc  Ophitis.  Rint.  1834.  4. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTKINES.    §  78.  VALENTINIANS.    §  79.  MARCIOX.  81 

earthly  spirits  (ayyeXoi  KOO-JUOTTOIOI)  wlio  have  fallen  away  from  this  unity 
are  continually  obstructing  this  effort  by  religious  enactments,  the  most  per- 
fect specimen  of  which  is  the  Jewish  law.  A  few  wise  men  like  Plato  and 
Pythagoras,  by  means  of  some  reminiscences  of  a  lost  state  of  blessedness, 
have  sunk  back  into  the  divine  unity.  The  same  was  true  of  Jesus,  who 
overthrew  the  Jewish  law.  His  image  was  therefore  honored  by  the  side  of 
the  statues  of  other  great  sages,  in  the  temple  of  the  deified  youth  Epiphanes, 
in  the  island  of  Cephalonia.  The  justification  advocated  by  Carpocrates  is 
not  to  be  attained  by  works,  but  by  love  and  faith,  i.  e.  by  a  complete  sur- 
render to  the  attraction  of  the  great  Unity,  in  the  presence  of  which  all 
self-interest,  and  even  all  separate  existence  must  disappear.  In  this  state 
the  mind  is  exalted  above  all  need  of  precepts  or  moral  rules.  (?)  . 

§  79.     IV.  Gnostics,  in  an  especial  sense,  Christian. 

1)  Iren.  I,  27.    Tertul.  adv.  Marcion.  1.  V.   &id\oyos  irepl  TTJS  els  &ebi>  op&rjs  TTICTTCWS, 
(4th  cent.)  ed.  Wetsten.  Bas.  1674.  4.  &  Orig.  Opp.  Th.  I.  p.  S03ss.  Epiph.  haer.  42.  Esnig.  (5th  cent.) 
Darst.  d.  marc.  Syst  A.  d.  Armen.  v.  Neumann.  (Zeitschr.  f.  hist.  Theol.  1834.  vol.  IV.  Sect  1.)— 
A.  Ilahn,  Antitheses  Marcionis,  liber  deperditus,  quoad  fieri  potuit  restitutus.  Begiom.  1823. — Ilahn, 
de  gnosi  Marcionis  antinomi.  Eegiom.  1820s.  2  P.  4.  Rhode,  Prolegg.  ad.  quaest.  de  Ev.  Apostoloque 
Marc,  denuo  instituendam.  Vrat.  1834.  P.  I. 

2)  Iren.  I,  28.  Clem.  Strom.  III.  p.  547s.  553.  Epiph.  haer.  46. 

3)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  IV,  30.  Praep.  Ev*  VI,  10.  Epiph.  haer.  56.— Augustin.  haer.  35.— jF1.  Strum, 
Hist.  Bard,  et  Bardesanistar.  Vit.  1710.  4.  Ilahn,  Bard,  gnosticus  Syrorum  primus  hymnologus.  Lps. 
1819.  C.  Kuehn&r,  Bard,  numina  astralia.  Hildbnrgh.  1833. 

1)  Marcion  made  his  appearance  at  Rome  as  early  as  before  139,  (a)  filled 
with  exalted  views  of  the  glory  of  Christianity,  and  fresh  from  a  contest 
with  the  remnants  of  Judaism  in  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor.  He  had  been 
excommunicated  (Z>)  by  his  own  father,  the  bishop  of  Sinope,  perhaps  in  con- 
sequence of  the  conflict  of  his  youthful  passion  with  an  inexorable  ecclesias- 
tical discipline.  He  availed  himself  of  a  connection  with  Cerdo,  a  Syrian 
Gnostic,  to  form  a  theoretical  system,  in  which  a  strong  contrast  was  pre- 
sented between  the  law  and  the  gospel,  and  between  the  period  before,  and 
that  after  Christ.  He  made  a  distinction  between  three  great  powers 
viz.,  the  holy  original  Being  (3eos  dyaSo's),  the  righteous  Creator 
StVaior),  and  the  material  world  (uX?;)  with  its  wicked  ruler  (TTOJ^POS,  Sta/3oXos/ 
The  celestial  relations  of  these  principles  to  each  other  were  not  carried  out 
in  his  theory.  "With  the  limited  power  in  his  possession,  the  Demiurge 
created  a  world  like  himself,  and  from  its  inhabitants  the  Jewish  nation  were 
selected  as  the  objects  of  his  peculiar  favor.  To  them  he  gave  a  law,  by 
which  justification  was  to  be  obtained  by  works  alone,  and  in  connection  with 
them  maintained  an  impotent  struggle  with  the  empire  of  evil.  Prompted 
by  infinite  love  to  man  the  good  God  then  had  compassion,  and  by  the  spirit- 
ual manifestation  of  Christ  revealed  his  own  nature,  which  had  before  been 
entirely  concealed.^  All  this  occurred  on  a  sudden,  and  with  no  preparation. 

1)  Clem.  Stror&  *'M.  p.  511&S.  Iren.  I,  25.  Euseb.  II.  ecc.  IV,  l.—Gesenius,  de  inscriptione  Phoe- 
nicio-Graeca  in  CyrewAica  nnper  reperta  ad  Carpocratianoruin  haeresin  pertinente.  Hal.  1825.  4.  As 
to  their  spuriousness  comp.  Kopp.  Ep.  crit  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1833.  P.  2.)  Gesenius  in  d.  Hall.  L.  Z.  1835. 
p.  462.— Fuldner,  de  Carpocratianis.  (Illgens  3  Denk-schr.  d.  hist,  theol.  Gesellsch.  Lps.  1824.  p.  ISOss.) 

«)  Just.  Apol.  I.  c.  26.    I)  Epiph.  haer.  42.  2s. 

6 


82  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-812. 

Those  who  believe  in  Christ,  and  from  a  voluntary  love  to  God  live  a  holy  life, 
shall  receive  perfect  blessedness  in  his  celestial  kingdom,  while  all  others  be- 
long to  the  kingdom  of  the  Demiurge,  and  by  his  righteous  sentence,  accord- 
ing to  their  works,  shall  find  a  limited  degree  of  blessedness  or  perdition. 
That  the  ages  before  might  be  placed  on  an  equal  footing  with  those  after 
Christ,  our  Lord  was  supposed,  during  his  sojounrin  the  world  of  the  dead, 
to  have  offered  salvation  to  the  heathen  and  to  all  who  had  been  lost  under 
the  Old  Testament,  on  condition  that  they  would  believe  on  him ;  while  all 
the  truly  pious  of  the  ancient  dispensation,  like  the  people  of  that  nation  on 
earth,  were  so  habituated  to  the  administration  of  the  Demiurge,  that  they 
were  kept  back  from  faith  in  him.  (c)  Marcion  thought  he  found  evidence 
of  the  character  of  the  Creator  from  the  condition  of  the  world,  from  the 
sensuous  nature  of  the  whole  representation  given  of  Jehovah  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  from  the  obvious  distinction  between  the  real  Christ  and  the 
Messiah  held  forth  in  prophecy.  He  professed  to  form  his  scheme  of  Chris- 
tianity upon  a  literal  interpretation  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  he  would 
acknowledge  nothing  as  Scripture  except  a  collection  of  the  epistles  of  Paul 
(6  dn-oo-ToXof)  and  a  gospel  of  our  Lord  similar  to  that  of  Luke.  Ecclesiasti- 
cal tradition  since  the  time  of  Irenaeus,  accuses  Marcion  of  having  expunged 
from  his  text  of  even  these  sacred  writings  whatever  was  supposed  to  be 
inconsistent  with  his  theological  views,  (d)  but  on  the  other  hand  it  concedes 
that  he  suffered  enough  to  remain  to  render  those  Scriptures  irreconcilable 
with  his  system,  without  the  most  violent  process  of  interpretation.  The 
question  therefore  has  necessarily  been  raised,  whether  he  did  not  use  an  older 
gospel  than  any  which  we  now  have,  and  one  of  which  Luke's  is  only  a  re- 
vision ?  (e)  It  must  however  be  confessed  that  the  authorities  in  favor  of  the 
superior  originality  of  Marcion's  gospel  are  as  yet,  when  taken  in  detail,  of 
very  doubtful  validity,  and  that  those  ecclesiastical  fathers  who  assert  that 
he,  in  like  manner,  corrupted  the  epistles  of  Paul,  (/)  in  forming  such  an  opinion 
must  certainly  have  had  the  authentic  documents  before  them.  Besides,  if 
Marcion  in  his  extravagant  view  of  the  dissension  at  Antioch  (Gal.  2,  llss.) 
could  look  upon  the  other  apostles  as  Jewish  perverters  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ,  he  may  have  felt  justified  by  omissions,  or  by  explanations,  in  Chris- 
tianizing, according  to  his  view  of  the  phrase,  every  gospel  Belonging  to  the 
Scriptures,  inasmuch  as  no  documents  in  the  possession  of  the  Apostolic 
Church,  without  some  alteration,  would  correspond  with  his  ultra-Pauline 
notions.  His  ethical  doctrines  constituted  a  vigorous  system  of  asceticism 
which  he  enforced  by  his  own  example,  and  if  any  one  felt  unable  to  comply 
with  its  requisitions,  the  alternative  was  to  remain  a  catechumen,  (g)  He 


c)  Iren.  I,  27.  3. 

d)  A.  Hatm,  d.  Ev.  Marc,  in  8.  urspr.  Gestalt  Konigsb.  1823.  (Thilo.  Cod.  apocr.  Th.  I.  p.  401ss.) 
Ejusd.  de  canone  Marc.  Ib.  1824— Ch.  E.  Becker,  Examen  crit  de  Tovang.  de  Marc.  Strasb.  183T. 
P.  I.  4. 

e)  .Pit8C?d,  d.  Ev.  Marc.  u.  d.  kan.  Ev.  des  Luc.  Tub.  1546.  Baur  in  Zellers  theol.  Jahrb.  1846.  P.  4. 
/)  On  the  other  band :  Loffler,  Marcionem  Pauli  Epp.  et  Lucae  Ev.  adulterasse  dubitatur.  Traj.  et 

Viadr.  1788.  (Commtt.  theol.  ed.  VeltJiusen  &c.  Th.  I.  p.  ISOss.)  Schelling,  de  Marc.  Paulinarum  Epp. 
emendatore.  Tub.  1795.  4.    Against  Tertullian's  assertion  that  Marcion  omitted  the  chief  doctrines  i« 
Col.  1, 15-17.  we  certainly  have  no  other  alternative  than  to  suppose  that  that  father  invented  them. 
g)  Hier.  ad  Gal.  6.  6.  Epiph.  42,  4.  Comp.  Tertul.  de  praescr.  41. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTKINES.    §  79.  TATIAN,  BAKDESANES.    §  SO.  CLEMENTINES.    83 

rejected  all  mysteries,  and  allowed  women  to  administer  baptism.  His  lite 
was  spent  in  efforts  to  establish  a  congregation  of  those  whom  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  call  his  companions  in  hatred  and  in  persecution.  The  Marcionites 
continued  as  an  ecclesiastically  organized  party  until  some  time  in  the  sixth 
century.  Many  divisions  however  existed  among  them,  since  the  speculative 
tenets  which  he  left  in  an  incomplete  form  were  perfected  in  various  ways 
by  additions  from  the  different  Gnostic  systems,  and  many  among  the  Gnos- 
tics endeavored  to  get  nearer  to  the  Church  by  joining  their  communion. 

2)  Tatian  also  seems  to  have  found  no  way  to  justify  his  gloomy  views 
of  the  world,  but  by  a  dualistic  theory.    His  Demiurge  Jehovah  had  obscure 
impressions  by  which  he  became  conscious  of  a  dependence  upon  the  origi- 
nal source  of  light.    He  gave  offence  to  his  brethren  of  the  Church  by  main- 
taining that  Adam  must  have  been  finally  lost.    He  prescribed  a  system  of 
abstinence  as  the  best  means  of  disengaging  ourseiYes  from  the  world,  after 
the  example  of  our  Saviour.    A  party  of  Encratites,  calling  itself  by  the 
name  of  Tatian,  or  by  that  of  his  pupil,  Severus,  existed  as  late  as  in  the 
fourth  century. 

3)  Bardesanes  (Bar  daizon),  who  resided  at  Edessa  (about  170),  would 
seem  from  his  place  of  residence,  as  well  as  from  some  of  his  Gnostic  formu- 
lae, which  strongly  remind  us  of  Valentine,  to  have  properly  belonged  to  the 
number  of  the  Syrian  Gnostics.    But  the  story  of  his  change  of  faith  at  an 
earlier  or  later  period  is  not  as  well  authenticated  as  the  general  opinion  that 
he  was  not  prevented  by  his  Gnosticism  from  denouncing  in  a  very  practical 
manner  certain  extravagances  of  the  Gnostic  schools,  from  asserting  man's 
internal  freedom  in  opposition  to  all  necessary  control  of  fate,  (K)  ,and  from 
being  a  strenuous  defender  of  Christianity,  and  a  distinguished  instructor  of 
the  Syrian  Churches, 

§  80.    Y.  Judaizing  Gnostics,     Comp.  §  35,  To. 

Credner,  u.  Essaer  u,  Ebioniten.  (Winers  Zeitschr.  f.  Aviss.  Theol.  1827.  P.  2s.)  Idem,  die  Evv,  d. 
Judenchr.  (Beitrr.  z.  Einl.  in  d.  bi'bl.  Schrr.  Hal.  1832.  Vol.  I.  p.  268ss.)  Schneckenlurger,  u.  e.  iiber- 
sehnen  Punkt  in  d.  L.  d.  Ebion.  v.  d.  Person  Jesu.  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  1830,  P.  I.  p.  114ss.)  Baur,  d, 
Ebionitar.  orig.  et  doctr.  ad  Essenis  repotenda.  Tub.  1831.  4.  Idem,  in  d.  Tub.  Zeitschr.  1S31.  P.  4, 
1836.  P.  3. 1838.  P.  3.  &  chr.  (Jnosis.  p.  300ss.  Sehliemann  (§  75.)  Oomp.  Baur  in  Zeller's  tfaeol  Jahrb. 
1844.  P,  3.  Schwegler^  nachap.  Zeita.  vol.  I.  p.  363ss.  [A.  Uilgenfeld^  krit.  Unters.  u.  d,  Evv,  Jost  d 
Clem.  Horn.  u.  Marcions.  Halle.  1859.  8.] 

In  the  Clementine  Homilies  an  attempt  is  made  to  reconcile  the  Ebionite 
form  of  Christianity  with  that  maintained  by  Paul,  by  showing  that  Judaism 
and  Christianity  were  essentially  alike.  These  Homilies  were  written  in  a 
lively  and  impressive  style,  and  profess  to  present  us  with  the  doctrinal 
and  polemical  discourses  of  the  apostle  Peter,  addressed  principally  to  Simon 
Magus,  but  interwoven  with  the  romantic  history  of  Clement,  the  ostensible 
author,  (a)  The  doctrine  inculcated  in  them  respecting  God,  is  rigidly  mono- 
theistic, but  all  created  existences  are  developed  in  contrasted  forms,  which 

7i)  Ilepl  ei/j.ap/j.evris.    Fragments  in  Ordli,  de  fato.  Tur.  1824.  p.  202ss. 

a)  Ta  KAy/jLfVTia,  three  prologues  and  nineteen  (originally  twenty)  Homilies-.  In  Coteler.  P.  ap^ 
Tb.  I.  p,  59788.  Comp,  Z>.  v,  Colki,  Clementina  in  Erscb,  u.  Grubers  Encycl.  VoL  XVIIL  p.  86ss. 


84  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

however  are  not  absolute,  and  in  their  earthly  state  are  related  as  male  and 
female  (o-v^ytat.)  The  Original  Being  has  made  a  division  of  the  world,  and 
assigned  it  to  two  principles  which  proceeded  from  himself.  To  one  of  these 
called  Satan,  he  has  committed  the  present  dispensation  of  things,  and  to 
Christ  (also  called  <ro(j>id,  rrvev^a  aytov,  viis  3eo£)  th*e  future  beyond  it,  al- 
though Satan  even  now,  as  an  avenging  power,  advances  the  cause  of  good- 
ness, and  the  world  has  never  been  destitute  of  some  men  of  the  future  age. 
Moreover  Christ  became  incarnate  in  Adam,  and  revealed  the  primitive  re- 
ligion which  had  been  corrupted  by  Satan  through  the  woman.  To  restore 
it,  Christ,  whose  influence  pervades  all  human  affairs,  appears  again  in  the 
persons  of  the  patriarchs  and  Moses,  changing  merely  his  form  with  the 
name.  The  revelations  thus  given,  however,  were  much  obsctfred  by  the  Old 
Testament  prophets,  who  having  been  born  of  women  (Matth.  11,  11.),  pro- 
claimed partial  error.  Once  more  Chrfst  appeared  in  the  person  of  Jesus,  to 
re-establish  the  primitive  religion  and  make  it  universal.  Of  course  the 
genuine  religion  of  Moses  which  had  been  perpetuated  as  an  esoteric  doc- 
trine, and  genuine  Christianity,  could  not  be  opposed  to  each  other.  To  es- 
cape from  the  power  of  Satan's  kingdom,  men  must  live  an  ascetic  life,  and 
receive  from  the  earth  nothing  but  the  bare  necessaries  of  existence.  The 
use  of  flesh  and  wine  was  prohibited,  but  marriage  was  recommended.  The 
Homilies  were  composed  or  revised  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
at  Rome,  with  the  view  of  reconciling  Jewish  Christianity,  then  declining  in 
that  city,  with  the  general  Church,  by  means  of  an  Essenic-Gnostic  theory, 
and  of  vindicating  that  form  of  Christianity,  not  only  from  the  Gnostic  ha- 
tred of  the  Jews,  but  from  the  prophetic  system  of  Montanism.  While  Peter 
is  exalted  as  the  true  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  the  careful  silence  which  they 
maintain  with  respect  to  Paul,  renders  it  probable  that  in  the  person  of  Si- 
mon Magus,  not  only  Marcion  but  Paul  himself  may  bo  aimed  at  in  some  re- 
proaches which  would  admit  of  such  a  reference.  (J)  They  presuppose  the 
existence  of  a  sacerdotal  system,  of  a  chair  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  and  of  a 
patriarchate  of  James  at  Jerusalem.  The  adaptation  of  the  Homilies  to  the 
promotion  of  ecclesiastical  interests  probably  occasioned  a  revision  of  them, 
to  make  them  conform  to  the  views  of  the  Catholics,  and  to  meet  the  altera- 
tions which  the  heretics  were  supposed  to  have  previously  made  in  one  of 
the  sacred  books,  (c)  It  is  impossible  now  to  determine  whether  the  Homi- 
lies were  the  literary  composition  of  a  single  individual,  or  contain  an  expres- 
sion of  a  distinct  form  of  Ebionism  then  in  Rome.  But  the  Ebionites  whom 
Epiphanius  describes  (d)  as  existing  in  his  times,  with  their  synagogues  in  the 

&)  Horn.  XVII,  19.  II,  17.  Even  in  the  Epistle  of  Peter  prefixed  as  a  Prologue:  rives  TWV  OLTTO 
2&vuv  r~o  oY  ejuoC  v6fj.ijj.ov  atrf^oKifJiaa'av  K"f]pvy/j.u,  TOV  e^^poO  av&piairov  avofj.6v  TWO,  KOU 
<j>\vap(4>$Tj  TrpofffiKa.fj.fvoi  8i$affKa\iav.  But  in  opposition  to  this  reference  first  proposed  by 
Baur,  comp.  Niedner,  KGesch.  p.  242. 

c)  Preserved  in  the  Trans,  of  Euflnus:  S.  Clementis  Eecognitiones  (avayvdveis  of  the  first 
quarter  of  the  third  cent)  ed.  Colder.  Th.  I.  p.  485ss.  K  G.  Gersdorf,  Lps.  1838.  The  original  Title 
perhaps  also  of  the  Homilies  was  Tre/x'oSot  (irpd£eis')  Tlerpov  or  KA/rjjuej'Toy.  The  latest  revision 
and  compilation  of  the  pseudo-Clementine  writings:  ?repl  rwv  Trpd^euv  4iri$T)/uLiS>v  re  rov 
ed.  Coteler.  Th.  I.  p.  749ss.  d)  Hacr.  80.  comp.  19, 1. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTEINES.    §  80.  CLEMENTINES.    EBIONITES.  85 

ancient  abodes  of  the  Essenes,  and  in  Cyprus,  maintained  the  same  principles 
respecting  the  division  of  the  world,  the  various  transmigrations  of  the  prin- 
ciple which  they  call  Christ,  with  the  semi-Gnostic  peculiarity,  according  to 
which  this  principle  had  no  connection  with  the  son  of  Mary  and  Joseph 
until  his  baptism,  the  corruption  of  the  Old  Testament  by  a  series  of  spurious 
prophets,  and  the  necessity  of  a  similar  asceticism.  Although  they  still  re- 
quired circumcision  and  the  observance  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  while  the 
Homilies  demanded  only  baptism,  their  national  separation  does  not  neces-  ^ 
_  sarily  imply  that  they  did  not  tolerate  Gentile  Christians,  and  even  the  Homi- 
lies allow  a  special  pre-eminence  to  circumcised  believers,  (e)  The  only  thing 
indicating  the  ancient  grudge  felt  by  Jewish  Christians,  appears  in  their  idle 
legend  respecting  Paul.  (/)  The  gospel  commonly  received  by  the  Ebionites 
was  used  both  among  them  and  in  the  Homilies,  and  many  things  indicate  that 
the  work  of  Clement,  with  regard  to  the  travels  of  Peter,  which  they  pos- 
sessed, was  of  a  kindred  origin  with  that  of  the  Homilies.  Epiphanius 
thought  that  this  phase  of  Ebionism,  which  he  looked  upon  as  best  exhibited 
in  the  persons  of  Ebion  and  Elxai,  originated  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  from  a 
combination  of  the  Ebionites  with  the  Elkesaites  and  Sampsaeans.  He  says 
the  Elkesaites  sprung  originally  from  a  branch  of  the  Essenes  COcro-Tji/oi),  and 
according  to  their  own  explanation,  their  name  was  given  them  because  they 
believed  that  the  divine  power  was  concealed  in  the  bodies  of  its  human  sub- 
jects, (g)  The  name  of  Sampsaeans  was  given  because  those  who  were  so 
called  turned  their  faces  in  prayer,  not  toward  Jerusalem,  but  toward  the 
rising  sun.  (Ji)  The  Elkesaites  are  mentioned  by  Origen  as  a  Jewish  sect, 
even  in  his  time,  (i)  The  ascetic  system  of  the  Ebionites,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  fact  that  they  believed  that  the  mission  of  Christ  was  merely  to 
abolish  the  sacrifices,  has  very  much  the  appearance  of  Essenism.  But  if  at 
an  early  period  they  extravagantly  extolled  celibacy,  (&)  their  subsequent  en- 
couragement of  early  marriages  shows  that  those  views  of  life  which  ordina- 
rily prevailed  among  the  Jews  had  finally  gained  the  ascendency  over  rigid 
Essenism.  The  independent  position  however  which  the  latter  maintained 
with  respect  to  the  Old  Testament,  gave  it  a  much  better  prospect  of  con- 
tinuance as  a  Jewish  system,  than  that  which  ordinarily  was  received  among 
the  Jews. 

§  81.  YI.  Influence  of  Gnosticism  upon  the  Church. 
It  was  principally  through  the  influence  of  the  Gnostics,  that  the  arts  and 
sciences  were  introduced  into  the  Church,  that  the  Church  itself  became  con- 
scious of  its  true  character,  that  the  Jewish  element  in  Christianity  was  re- 
pressed, and  that  its  vast  importance  in  the  affairs  of  the  world,  and  of  God's 
kingdom,  became  appreciated.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  estimate  their 

«)  In  the  Oontestatio  prefixed.  (Coteler.  Th.  I.  p.  603.)  /)  Epiph.  haer.  30, 15. 

tf)  Haer.  19,  2:  Sib  rb  l)]\.  (b^rj  or  ^Jt)  Ka\ovcr&ai  Zvva.fji.iv,  Hal  (^&2>)  KfKa.XviJ.fjt.4vov. — 
Redepenning,  u.  d.  Urspr.  d.  Elkesaiten.  (Append.  1.  to  his  Origen.  Vol.  II.  [Ritschl,  in  Niedner'i 
ieitschrift  for  Sept.  1853.] 

7i)  Haer.  53,  2:  "2,0,^0.101  €p(j.rivevovTai  'HAta/coi  (from  ttJ521ijY 
<)  In  Euseb.  H.  ece.  VI,  38.    k)  Epiph.  haer.  30,  2. 


86  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

number  or  their  influence.  We  do  not  often  find  evidence  that  in  any  par- 
ticular locality  their  number  was  superior  to  that  of  the  orthodox,  and  yet 
some  of  them  were  to  be  found  in  almost  every  place,  and  in  animation  and 
spirit  their  writers  excelled  those  of  the  Church.  The  minds  of  the  Greek? 
were  attracted  by  their  striking  opposition  to  Judaism,  the  intellect  of  all 
men  was  gratified  by  their  promise  of  a  dominion  over  matter  and  their  inde- 
pendent development  in  the  direction  of  a  perfect  knowledge,  the  fancy  was 
stimulated  by  the  boldness  of  \heir  heaven-storming  systems  and  by  the  op- 
portunity of  contributing  something  without  much  trouble  to  the  formation 
of  them,  and  even  the  Church  could  not  but  admire  the  contempt  which 
they  inculcated  for  the  world.  But  the  teachers  of  the  Catholic  Church  were 
impressed  with  the  conviction  that  it  was  essential  to  the  very  nature  of 
Christianity  that  it  should  be  a  religion  for  the  people,  that  all  true  religion 
was  something  more  than  a  speculation,  and  that  piety  itself  required  that 
the  revelation  which  God  had  made  in  Judaism  and  in  Christianity,  and  indeed 
in  all  human  history,  should  be  one  in  its  principles.  They  therefore  placed 
themselves  in  direct  hostility  to  the  exorbitant  pretensions  and  the  allure- 
ments of  the  Gnostics.  The  arbitrary  forms  which  the  fancies  of  the  Gnos- 
tics had  constructed,  could  not  long  resist  this  united  opposition,  especially 
when  the  additional  power  of  the  New  Platonists  was  brought  against  them. 
Even  in  the  third  century  Gnosticism  had  lost  all  creative  energy,  in  the 
fourth  it  was  completely  powerless,  and  in  the  sixth  only  a  few  vestiges  of  it 
remained. 

§  82.    Manichaeism. 

I.  1)  All  accounts  given  in  the  Greek  Church  refer  back  to:  Arehelai  (Bishop  of  Cascar,  about 
2TS.)  Acta  disputationis  cum  Manete.  (Zacagni,  ColL  monument  vet.  Eccl.  gr.  et  lat.  Bom.  1693.  4. 
nn'l  JUansi  Th.  I.  p.  1129ss.)    The  Oriental  accounts,  later  indeed,  but  derived  from  original  ancient 
documents,  are  in :  fferbelot,  BibL  oriental  Par.  169T.  C  art.  Manl  &  Sttv.  de  Sacy,  Memolres  sur  di- 
verges antiquites  de  la  Perse.  Par.  1798.  4  p.  4288.  Fragments  of  Mani's  writings,  especially  Epistola 
fundament!,  in :  Fdbricii  Bibl.  gr.  Th.  V.  p.  284*.   2)  TUus  Bostrentis  (about  860),  KCIT&  Mavixaiuv. 
(Canisii  Lection,  ed.  Basnag.  Tb.  I.)  Epiph.  haer.  66.  Augustimu :  Contra  Ep.  Manichaei.  C.  Fortu- 
natuin,  C.  Adimantum,  C.  Faustum  1.  88.  De  actis  c.  Felice  Man.  I.  2.  De  natura  bonl  (Tb.  VIII.)  Do 
gen.  c.  Man.  De  morib.  Ecc.  cath.  et  morib.  Man.  (Th.  I.) 

II.  Beau&olre,  Hist  de  Manichee  et  da  Manichcisme.  Amst  1734ss.  2  vols.  4.  A.  A.  Ge.orgil  Al- 
phabetum  Thibetannm.  Bom.  1762.  4.  RticMin-Meldegg.  Theol.  d.  Manes.  Frkl  1825.  A.  V.  de  Weg- 
nern,  Manichaeor.  indulgentiae  c.  brevi  Manichaeismi  adumbrat  Lps.  1827.  Gieseler,  u.  Rcicblin- 
Meldegg,  Wegnern  &  Neander.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1S28.  P.  8.)  Saur,  d.  man.  ESyst  Tub.  1831.  (Comp. 
Bchneckenbnrger  in  d.  Stud.  n.  Krlt  1888.  P.  8.  and  Zingerle  in  d.  Tub.  Quartalschr.  1841.  p.  574s?.) 
F.  C.  Trechtel,  u.  Kanon,  Kritik  u.  Exeg.  d.  Manicb.  Bern.  1832. 

The  religious  conflicts  which  took  place  on  the  confines  of  the  Eastern 
world  finally  gave  birth  to  Manichaeism.  The  history  of  its  origin  is  founded 
upon  traditions  and  uncertain  documents.  On  the  re-establishment  of  the 
Persian  empire  (after  227)  under  the  Sassanides,  the  Magusaean  sect,  which 
had  defende.d  the  doctrine  of  absolute  Dualism,  and  various  foreign  systems 
were  driven  from  the  kingdom.  Mani,  a  Magian  of  this  sect,  having  dis- 
covered many  points  of  agreement  between  the  doctrines  of  Mithraism,  of  Bud- 
daism,  of  Gnostic  Christianity,  and  the  principles  of  his  own  paternal  faith, 
believed  himself  called  to  combine  these  popular  religions,  especially  Parsism 
and  Christianity,  into  one  universal  religion.  He  presented  himself  before 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTKINES.    §  82.  MANICIIAEISM.  87 

the  Christians  as  the  Paraclete  and  an  apostle  of  Christ.  Eejected  by  them 
and  persecuted  by  the  Magians,  he  is  said  to  have  been  flayed  alive  nnder 
Baharam  (272-5). — Manichaeism,  as  it  existed  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centu- 
ries, accounted  for  all  events  which  have  taken  place  in  the  world  on  dualistic 
principles.  God  in  his  kingdom  of  light,  and  the  Demon  with  his  kingdom* 
of  darkness,  were  directly  opposed  to  each  other — good  and  evil  being  in 
their  nature  identical  with  light  arid  darkness.  After  long  internal  conflicts 
among  themselves,  the  different  powers  of  the  demoniac  kingdom  became 
united  in  their  opposition  to  the  kingdom  of  light.  The  primitive  man,  who 
was  the  first-born  of  God,  and  who,  in  connection  with  the  four  pure  elements 
contended  for  the  kingdom  of  light,  was  overthrown,  and  was  afterwards  de- 
livered, but  a  portion  of  his  light  was  wrested  from  him  and  borne  down  to 
the  abodes  of  darkness.  God  then  brought  into  existence  through  the  agency 
of  the  Mother  of  life  (fav  Tri/cv/xa),  the  present  universe,  that  it  might  be  a 
new  receptacle  of  this  lost  light.  The  vital  power  of  this  universe  is  the 
light  retained  in  the  bonds  of  darkness.  Two  new  heavenly  powers,  Christ 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,  then  proceeded  from  God,  that  they  might  redeem  it 
from  its  imprisonment.  The  first  is  the  Sun  and  Moon,  and  the  other  is  the 
Air,  which  attract  toward  themselves  all  the  powers  of  light  in  the  earth. 
To  retain  these  in  his  possession,  the  Demon  formed  man  after  the  image  of 
the  primitive  man,  combining  in  him  as  in  a  microcosm  the  clearest  light 
with  his  own  darkness.  From  him  descended  the  race  of  man,  into  whose 
souls  the  light  penetrated.  But  although  they  were  endowed  with  an  inhe- 
rent liberty  to  continue  as  they  were,  in  spite  of  the  necessity  of  evil  in  na- 
ture, they  soon  fell  under  the  temptations  of  matter  and  the  illusions  of  the 
Demon  (Judaism  and  Heathenism).  Christ  himself  then  appeared  on  earth, 
and  merely  endured  the  semblance  of  suffering,  and  is  regarded  in  this  system 
as  the  type  of  all  imprisoned  light  (Jesus  passibilis).  By  his  doctrine  and  his 
attractive  power  he  commenced  the  process  of  liberating  the  light  from  its 
bondage,  but  even  the  apostles  misinterpreted  his  instructions  by  giving  them 
a  Jewish  sense.  The  Scriptures  possessed  by  the  Church  have  been  partially 
corrupted  by  the  Demon,  and  partially  composed  by  unknown  writers. 
Mani  came  to  reveal  the  secret  relations  of  the  universe,  and  to  secure  the 
means  of  human  freedom.  Complete  truth  can  therefore  be  found  nowhere 
except  in  his  writings.  In  the  end  there  will  be  a  complete  separation  be- 
tween the  light  and  the  darkness,  when  the  powers  of  darkness  will  have  be- 
come conscious  of  their  inability  &o  contend  with  the  light,  and  will  resume 
their  strife  with  each  other.  The  Manichaeans  assumed  the  name  of  a  Church, 
which  possessed  a  hierarchical  form  of  government,  and  consisted  of  two 
great  classes.  The  first  was  composed  of  the  perfect  (electi,  perfect!),  who 
alone  possessed  a  knowledge  of  the  mysteries ;  and  the  second  was  made  up 
of  the  Catechumens  (auditores),  who  were  instructed  principally  in  mythical 
allegories  relating  to  the  philosophy  of  religion  and  of  nature,  and  were  al- 
lowed to  hope  for  pardon  for  their  participation  in  the  business  and  pleasures 
of  life,  in  consequence  of  the  intercessions  of  the  perfect,  for  none  but  the 
perfect  undertook  the  duties  of  self-mortification  (signaculum  sinus,  oris  et 
manus),  and  were  sustained  by  the  others  principally  on  olives.  Their  peep- 


88  ANCIENT  CHUEOH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

liar  views  of  nature  demanded  that  baptism  should  he  performed  in  oil,  and 
in  some  congregations  they  gave  occasion  to  an  abominable  mingling  of  the 
elements  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  forms  of  worship  practised  by  the 
Auditors  were  simple.  Sunday  was  observed  as  a  day  of  fasting,  and  the 
anniversary  of  Mani's  death  was  celebrated  as  the  great  festival  under  the 
name  of  the  Feast  of  the  pulpit  (J3^a).  The  Manichaeans  were  still  in- 
creasing in  number  in  the  fourth  century,  and  were  then  scattered  in  every 
part  of  the  Oriental  world,  and  in  Africa,  Sicily,  and  Italy.  Many  persons 
of  noble  minds  were  attracted  by  the  promise  which  their  system  held  out, 
that  it  could  solve  all  mysteries,  and  exalt  man  above  the  various  parties 
which  then  distracted  the  world.  Even  then,  however,  they  were  persecuted 
with  fire  and  sword  by  the  heathen  emperors,  on  the  ground  of  their  being  a 
Persian  sect.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  on  account  of  their  debasement  in  a 
corrupt  indifference,  by  a  pretended  exaltation  above  all  outward  things,  they 
sunk  in  the  sixth  century  beneath  the  equal  hatred  of  the  Magians  and  the 
bishops.  Still  we  find  some  vestiges  of  a  secret  and  solitary  Manichaeism 
even  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

§  83.    IIutorico-Ecdesiastical  Theology. 

.  The  ecclesiastical  literature  of  the  second  century  was  partly  of  a  devo- 
tional character,  and  partly  consisted  of  controversial  writings  against  pagans 
and  Gnostics.  Especially  in  the  conflicts  with  the  latter,  a  Christian  theolo- 
gy was  formed,  in  which  an  attempt  was  made  to  hold  fast  the  historical  ba- 
sis of  Christianity  as  the  common  property  of  all,  and  to  apprehend  its  prac- 
tical relations  in  a  scientific  manner.  Hence  all  philosophy  was  studiously 
declined,  and  true  Christianity  was  thought  to  consist  wholly  in  its  historical 
traditions  and  documents,  and  those  obvious  truths  which  could  be  easily 
comprehended  by  the  people.  The  representatives  of  this  tendency  were 
Irenaous  and  Tertullian,  who  also  indulged  in  the  expectation  of  a  millennial 
kingdom  nigh  at  hand,  (a}  Irenaeus  was  a  disciple,  and  perhaps  also  a  com- 
panion of  Polycarp,  during  the  journey  of  that  martyr  to  Rome,  and  was  a 
bishop  of  Lyons  (177-202).  He  was  a  perspicuous,  judicious,  and  philosoph- 
ically educated  instructor,  with  youthful  recollections  reaching  back  to  apos- 
tolic times,  and  now  came  forward  as  the  opponent  of  the  Gnostic  specula 
tions.  As  his  writings  were  regarded  almost  in  the  light  of  foreign  produc- 
tions in  the  country  where  he  resided,  they  soon  became  little  known,  and 
were  at  an  early  period  lost.  (5)<"The  only  literature  which  the  Latin  Church 
possessed,  consisted  entirely  of  translations,  until  the  appearance  of  Quintus 
Septimius  Florens  Tertullianus.  He  was  at  first  a  heathen  rhetorician,  and 
an  advocate  in  Rome  (about  190),  but  afterwards  a  presbyter  in  Carthage, 
his  native  city  (d.  220).  His  character  was  severe,  gloomy  and  fiery,  but  by 
great  exertions  he  achieved  for  Christianity,  in  the  Punic-Latin  dialect,  a 
literature  in  which  an  animated  rhetoric,  a  sound  and  vivid  conception  of  the 

a)  Ir en.  V,  33.     Tertul.  adv.  Marc.  Ill,  23. 

?/)  With  the  exception  of  a  few  epistles  and  fragments,  nothing  remains  but  his  5  books  against 
the  Gnostice,  t. \tyxos  teal  avarpoir))  TT}S  fycvSovvfj-ov  yi/uxreus,  in  an  old  Latin  translation,  the 
1st  Book  and  a  few  fragments  in  the  original.  Opp.  ed.  Grabe.  Oxon.  1702.  Massuet,  Par.  1710.  Vcn 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTEINES.    §  83.  TEETULLIANUS.    §  84.  CYPBIANUS.  89 

ideal,  profound  feelings,  and  legal  intelligence  contended  for  the  supremacy. 
He  placed  a  high  estimate  upon  that  consciousness  of  God  which  he  contend- 
ed might  he  found  in  the  depths  of  every  soul,  hut  he  was  fond  of  contrasting 
with  proud  irony  the  foolishness  of  the  gospel  with  the  worldly  wisdom  of 
his  contemporaries,  and  the  incredibility  of  the  divine  miracles  with  the  or- 
dinary understanding  of  the  world,  (c)  His  writings  are  partly  controver- 
sial, and  in  these  he  exhibits  the  utmost  confidence  in  the  catholic  views,  in 
opposition  to  those  of  Pagans,  Jews,  and  Heretics,  and  partly  devotional. 
They  are,  however,  so  written,  that  the  devotional  element  constantly  ap- 
pears in  the  former,  and  the  polemic  in  the  latter,  in  behalf  of  a  strict  moral- 
ity and  discipline,  (d)  The  Montanistic  views  are  perceptible  in  them  all, 
but  they  become  prominent  and  hostile  to  the  Romish  Church  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  in  which  the  latter  withdrew  its  countenance  from  Montanism, 
for  the  Roman  Church,  rather  than  Tertullian,  experienced  a  change  of  sen- 
timent on  that  subject,  (e)  And  yet  the  western  portion  of  the  Church  con- 
tinued so  tolerant  toward  Montanism,  that  some  female  martyrs  adhering  to 
that  system  in  the  African  Church  have  always  continued  to  be  acknowledged 
as  saints,  (,/)  and  Tertullian  finally  became  so  prominent,  that  he  is  regarded 
as  the  actual  type  of  the  Latin  theology.  That  theology  was  then  disinclined 
to  any  philosophical  theories  respecting  divine  things,  and  was  entirely  occu- 
pied with  questions  relating  to  the  condition  of  the  Church,  and  matters  in- 
dispensable to  salvation. 

§  84.  Thascius  Caecilianus  Cyprianus. 

I.  Opp.  Cypriani  ed.  Eigaltius.  Par.  1648.  f.  Fell.  Oxf.  16S2.  f.  ed.  3.  additae  sunt  Dss.  Cypr. 
Dodwelli.  (Oxf.  1684)  Amst  1700.  f.  Baluz.  Par.  1T26.  f.  Goldhorn.  Lps.  1838s.  2  P.  Vita  Cypr.  per 
Pontium,  ejus  Diaconum  (Cypr.  Opp.)  Among  the  actis  martyrii  the  two  older  beginning,  Cum 
Cypr.  and  Irnper.  Valeriano.— II.  Pearson,  Annales  Cyprianici  before  Fell's  edit  H.  F.  Schmieder, 
ii.  Cypr.  Schr.  v.  d.  Einh.  d.  Kirche.  Lps.  1822.  F.  W.  Rettberg,  Cypr.  nach  s.  Leben  u.  Wirken. 
Giitt  1831. 

The  Church  of  his  times  is  well  represented  in  the  life  of  Cyprian.  Hav 
ing  enjoyed  as  a  rhetorician,  and  perhaps  also  as  an  advocate  in  Carthage,  all 
the  pleasures  of  heathenism,  he  became  impressed  with  a  consciousness  of  the 
vanity  of  his  life,  and  sought  deliverance  in  the  Church  (246).  Although,  in 
the  excitement  of  a  new  birth  by  baptism,  he  had  sold  his  possessions,  and 
distributed  them  among  the  poor,  a  sufficient  amount  of  real  estate  and  reve- 

1734.  2  P.  f.  L.  III.  c.  1-4.  in  graecum  serm.  restituta  per  //.  G.  J.  TMerseh.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1842. 
P.  2.)  Iren.  fragmm.  anecdota  ed.  C.  M.  Pfaff,  Hag.  Com.  1715.  (Synt.  dss.  Stuttg.  1720.)  Comp. 
Euseb.  II.  ecc.  V,  4s.  20.  26.— H.  Dodwell,  Dss.  in  Ir.  Ox.  1689.  Massuet,  Dss.  praeviae  in  Ir/libros. 
A.  Stieren,  de  Ir.  adv.  haereses  operis  fontibus,  indole,  doctr.  et  dignitate.  Gott  1836.  4.  Idem,  Iren. 
in  Ersch.  u.  Gruber's  Encycl.  p.  II.  vol.  XXIII.  J.  M.  Prat,  Hist,  de  S.  Irenee.  Lyon  et  Par.  1843. 

c)  Apologet  c.  17.  De  poenitent.  c.  1.  De  virgg.  vel.  c.  1.  De  resurr.  c.  3.  C.  Marc.  1, 10s.— Do 
carne  Ch.  c.  5.  De  praescript  c.  7.  Adv.  Ilermog.  c.  8. 

d)  Opp.  ed.  Rigaltius.  Par.  (1635. 1641.)  16G4.  f.    Sender  et  ScMcta.  Hal.  1770ss.  6  Th.    Leopold. 
Lps.  lS39ss.  4  P.— A.  Neander,  Antignosticus,  Geist  des  Tert  u.  Einl.  in  dess.  Schrr.  Berl.  1S25. 
(Hall.  L.  Z.  1825.  N.  271ss.)    [Antignosticus,  &c.  transl.  by  J.  E.  Eyland.  Lond.  1851.  vol.  II,  8.] 

e)  Tertul.  adv.  Praxean.  c.  1.  De  virgg.  vel.  c.  Is.  De  pudic.  c.  1.  Comp.  Ilieron.  catal.  c.  53. — J. 
G.  Hoffmann,  Tertul.  omnia  in  montanismo  scripta  videri.  Vit.  1738.  4.   J.  A.  Nosselt,  de  vera  aetate 
scriptor.  Tert,  Hal.  (1757.)  1768.   (Opp.  Fasc.  III.  Hal.  1817  ) 

/>  Valesiits,  Acta  SS.  Perpetuae  et  Felicit.  Par.  1664. 


90  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  L    DIV.  IL    A.  D.    100-312. 

nues  remained  in  his  possession  to  enable  him  to  perform  splendid  acts  of  be- 
neficence in  the  accomplishment  of  his  plans.  He  enjoyed  the  instructions, 
but  his  heart  never  became  imbued  with  the  profound  sentiments  of  Tertul- 
lian,  and  his  zeal  was  wholly  expended  in  the  administration  of  the  affairs 
of  the  Church.  All  his  writings  were  drawn  forth  by  passing  events,  and 
by  their  simple  and  ardent  eloquence  they  exerted  a  considerable  influence 
on  those  events.  The  leading  thought  in  all  his  writings  is,  that  the  Church, 
being  one  in  Christ,  should  be  governed  as  a  single  kingdom  by  the  bishops 
appointed  by  Christ.  He  refused  the  bishopric  of  Carthage  to  which  he  had 
been  elected,  until,  in  spite  of  an  opposing  party  of  presbyters,  ho  recognized 
in  the  tumultuous  expressions  of  the  popular  will  the  mandate  of  God  (248). 
His  plans  for  the  enforcement  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  were  suddenly  inter- 
rupted by  the  persecution  under  Decius.  He  fled  (250),  but  from  his  place 
of  refuge  he  continued  arbitrarily  to  govern  his  church  by  means  of  rescripts 
and  vicars,  and  apologized  for  the  little  attention  he  paid  to  the  counsel  of 
his  co-presbyters  and  the  will  of  the  people,  by  referring  to  the  necessities 
of  the  times.  A  great  multitude  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  time  of  persecu- 
tion afterwards  begged  that  they  might  be  readmitted  to  the  Church. 
Cyprian  at  first  refused  to  do  this  with  extreme  Montanistic  severity.  But 
the  power  of  pardon  in  such  cases  was  generally  conceded  to  the  confessors, 
who  in  the  present  instance  exercised  it  without  regard  to  his  views.  A 
power  thus  abused  he  refused  to  acknowledge.  The  hostile  presbyters,  led 
on  by  Felicissimus,  whom  they  had  ordained  a  deacon,  now  stirred  up  the 
offended  confessors  and  those  who  had  formerly  relapsed,  until  an  insurrec- 
tion against  his  authority  was  effected.  They  represented  that  it  ill  became 
one  who  had  himself  fled  like  a  hireling,  to  exalt  himself  above  those  who,  in 
times  of  persecution,  had  exhibited  some  signs  of  human  infirmity,  and  least 
of  all  those  who  had  then  heroically  maintained  their  constancy.  They  de- 
posed Cyprian,  and  chose  Fortunatus,  one  of  their  own  number,  in  his  place. 
Cyprian  apologized  for  his  flight,  by  pleading  that  he  was  led  to  it  by  a  divine 
revelation,  and  declared  that  every  one  who  resisted  .his  authority  was  a 
rebel  against  Christ.  After  Easter,  in  the  year  251,  he  returned  to  his 
charge,  and  at  a  synod  of  the  African  bishops  represented  his  own  cause  as 
the  common  cause  of  the  episcopacy.  With  this  view,  the  synod  put  down 
the  opposition  of  the  presbyters.  With  respect  to  those  who  had  relapsed, 
he  obtained  a  moderate  decision,  which  enjoined  that  they  should  not  be 
given  over  to  despair,  nor  admitted  to  pardon,  except  in  immediate  danger 
of  death,  or  after  a  long  and  thorough  repentance.  Accordingly,  when  a 
pestilence  was  prevalent,  and  during  the  incursions  of  the  barbarians,  ho 
freely  administered  to  them  consolation  and  assistance.''  The  intimate  con- 
nection which  he  had  ordinarily  maintained  with  the  Roman  Church,  and 
which  had  been  strengthened  by  a  common  interest  in  opposition  to  the  Nb- 
vatians,  was  interrupted  (after  253)  by  the  controversy  respecting  the  bap- 
tism of  heretics.  In  opposition  to  the  Eoman  bishop,  Cyprian  contended, 
that  truth  was  to  be  ascertained,  not  by  an  appeal  to  usage,  but  to  reason ; 
that  each  bishop  was  equal  in  authority  to  every  other ;  that  the  laws  of  nc 
province  were  a  uniform  model  for  those  of  another,  and  that  a  diversity  of 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTEINES.    §  84.  CYPEIANUS.    §  85.  CLEMENS  ALEX.  91 

usages  was  not  inconsistent  with  the  general  unity  of  the  Church.  Stephen 
refused  to  receive  the  African  messengers  whom  he  sent  to  Rome.  Cyprian 
appealed  to  the  Asiatic  bishops,  in  whose  name  Mrmilian,  bishop  of  Caesa- 
rea,  wrote  an  epistle  full  of  bitter  derision  of  the  arrogant  pretensions  of 
the  Eoman  bishop.  In  a  synod  convened  at  Carthage,  the  African  bishops 
unanimously  protested  against  Rome  (§  71).  "While  these  things  were  tran- 
spiring, Valerian  published  his  edict  against  the  Christians.  Cyprian  had 
now  become  too  conspicuous  to  find  safety  in  another  flight.  Having  ac- 
knowledged himself  a  Christian  and  a  bishop,  he  was  banished  by  the  pro- 
consul to  Curbi,  but  he  was  afterwards  permitted  to  return  to  his  garden  at 
Carthage.  After  a  year's  respite,  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  against 
him  as  an  enemy  to  the  Roman  gods,  ana  the  chief  of  a  criminal  association. 
He  was  accordingly  beheaded  on  the  fourteenth  of  Sept.  258.  No  obstruc- 
tion, however,  was  offered  to  his  admiring  friends,  as  they  performed  the 
last  offices  of  affection  to  him  in  his  death,  and  as  they  did  honor  to  his  life- 
less remains. 

§85.    I.  The  School  of  Alexandria. 

II.  E.  F.  Guerike,  de  schola  quae  Alexandrine  floruit,  catechetica.  Hal.  1824s.  2  P.  C.  F.  G. 
Ilasselbach,  de  schola,  quae  Alex,  floruit.,  cat  Stettin.  1826.  P.  I.  comp.  Matter,  de  1'ecole  d' Alexan- 
dria Par.  (1820.)  1840.  2  Th.  Riiter,  Qesch.  de  christl.  Phil.  vol.  I.  p.  421as.  [Epitome  of  the  Hist. 
of  Phil,  transl.  from  the  French  by  C.  8.  Henry,  vol.  I.  pp.  207-220.  Neander,  Hist,  of  the  Chr. 
Eel.  transl.  by  J.  Torrey.  vol.  I.  pp.  526-557.] 

About  the  middle  of  the  second  century  arose  in  Alexandria  an  ecclesias- 
tical school,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  bishop,  after  the  model  of  the 
schools  of  philosophy.  Sooner  or  later,  it  was  unavoidable  that  the  science 
and  literature  of  Greece  should  become  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  cause 
of  Christ.  (a)  This  had  already  been  unintentionally  commenced  by  the 
Apologists,  but  it  was  now  consummated  from  a  direct  purpose  and  prefer- 
ence in  the  Alexandrian  school.  Among  those  who  presided  over  this  school, 
was  Pantaenus  (about  180),  previously  a  Stoic,  and  since  immortalized  by 
nis  pupils.  (5)  Titus  Flavius  Clemens,  probably  from  Athens,  did  not  embrace 
Christianity  until  mature  years,  and  after  exhausting  all  the  advantages  of 
Greek  and  Christian  culture,  he  professed  to  have  found  in  Pantaenus  a  cor- 
rect interpreter  of  the  Scriptures.  He  first  became  the  assistant  and  then 
the  successor  of  his  chosen  teacher  in  the  management  of  the  school  (about 
191-202),  until  just  before  the  persecution  under  Severus,  when  he  betook 
himself  to  the  house  of  one  of  his  pupils.  The  last  trace  we  have  of  him 
was  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  year  211.  In  a  work  which  he  divided  into  three 
parts,  according  to  the  successive  steps  of  Conversion,  Discipline,  and  Free 
Insight,  he  has  collected  in  a  motley  form,  principally  from  the  trea- 
sures of  Grecian  wisdom,  whatever  is  favorable  to  Christianity,  contended 
against  every  thing  hostile  to  the  gospel  in  Gnosticism,  determined  with 

a)  (Sowverain)  Le  Platonisme  devoi!6.  Colog.  (Amsterd.)  1700.  Hoskem.  de  turbata  per  rec.  Pla- 
ton.  Ecc.  Helmst  1725.  On  the  other  hand :  £altus,  defense  des  S.  Peres,  accuses  de  Platonisme. 
Par.  1711.  4.  Keil  de  doctoribus  vet  Ecc.  culpa  corrnptae  per  Plat  sententias  Theologiae  liberandia, 
Lps.  1793ss.  22  Cmint  4.  (Opp.  ed.  Goldhorn.  Lps.  1821.  Th.  II.) 

1)  Euseb.  II.  ecc.  V,  10. 


92  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  L    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

much  liberality  and  moderation  many  controversial  questions  in  ecclesiastical 
ethics,  and  in  an  animated  and  suggestive  form  has  ventured  only  to  hint  at 
his  peculiar  views,  (c)  Origen,  born  at  Alexandria  (185),  was  the  son  of 
Leonides,  whose  martyrdom  (202)  he  was  prevented  from  sharing  by  tho 
gentle  violence  of  his  mother,  who  controlled  his  passions,  and  educated  him 
with  pious  caro.  "With  a  soaring  spirit,  a  firm  character,  and  an  iron  dili- 
gence ('ASa/^diTtor,  XaXKeVrtpoy),  he  soon  made  himself  master  of  the  Alex- 
andrian learning,  and  a  scribe  well  instructed  unto  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
The  youth  of  eighteen  years  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  President  of  the 
School,  and  continued  to  live  in  poverty,  refusing  all  compensation  from  his 
pupils,  and  practising  the  utmost  abstemiousness.  Before  ho  renounced  his 
early  views  of  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  in  a  moment  of 
bold  enthusiasm,  he  yielded  a  literal  obedience  to  one  of  their  supposed  re- 
quirements. (d)  His  superior  development  appears  to  have  received  as  much 
assistance  from  the  lectures  of  Ammonius  Saccas  (c)  as  from  the  writings  of 
Clement.  The  instruction  of  the  children  of  his  school  he  committed  to  an 
assistant,  while  he  conducted  the  more  advanced  pupils  through  the  whole 
range  of  Grecian  studies,  to  the  intellectual  comprehension  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  to  the  philosophy  of  Christianity.  His  irregular  ordination  as  a  presby- 
ter at  Caesarea  (228),  afforded  a  pretext  for  the  manifestation  of  the  aver- 
sion which  his  bishop,  Demetrius,  entertained  toward  him,  and  he  was  ac- 
cordingly thrust  out  of  the  Church  (231).  This  episcopal  violence,  however, 
was  respected  only  by  those  who  took  no  interest  in  scientific  investiga- 
tions. Origen  continued  to  live  sometimes  in  learned  leisure  at  Caesarea, 
and  sometimes  in  foreign  countries  on  business  connected  with  the  Church. 
He  died  at  Tyre  (254),  having  previously  confessed  his  faith  with  unshaken 
constancy  during  the  Decian  persecution.  By  his  employment  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Philology  in  the  criticism  and  interpretation  of  tho  Scriptures,  he 
became  the  acknowledged  master  of  a  scientific  method  of  scriptural  investi- 
gation, by  the  grammatical  as  well  as  the  allegorical  style  of  explanation. 
His  work  on  the  Principles,  is  the  first  attempt  to  comprise  the  principles  of 
Christianity  in  a  single  scientific  work.  Only  a  part  of  his  writings  have 


c)  Aifyos  irpoTpfTTTiKbf  iTpov  "EAXTji/oy,  TlaiSayuySs,  ^Tpu/jLUTfls.     Homily:  Tis  6  a<a£6- 

irKovaios  ;  cd.  C.  Scgaar,  Traj.  1816.  More  candid  and  bolder  are  the  Glosses  upon  tho 
Scriptures,  inrorviruffeis,  which  are  lost  with  the  exception  of  a  crippled  explanation  of  the  Cath. 
Epistles,  under  the  title  of  Adumbrations.  Perhaps,  also,  the  £K  T<OV  irpo<f>i)TiKuv  ^K\oyai 
belonged  to  this  work.  Hymnus  in  C.  Salvatorem,  ed.  F.  Piper,  Gott  1835.  Opp.  ed.  Sylburg, 
Heidelb.  1592.  f.  and  often.  Potter,  Ox.  1715.  £  Yen.  1757.  2  Th.  f.  Pocket  edition  in  the  8d  part  of 
the  Bibl.  sacra,  ed.  R.  Klotz,  Lps.  1831-84.  4  Th.—ffofetede  de  Groot,  de  Clem.  s.  do  vi,  quam  Phil. 
gr.  inpr.  platonica  habuit  ad  Clem,  informandum.  Gron.  1826.  Colin,  Clem,  in  Ersch.  u.  Gruber's 
Encycl.  voL  XVIII.  p.  4ss.  Daehne,  do  yvdcrei,  Clem,  et  de  vestigiis  neoplatonicae  phil.  in  ea  ob- 
viis.  Lps.  1831.  F.  li.  Eylert,  Clem.  als.  Phil.  u.  Dichter.  Lps.  1832.  Baur,  Cbr.  Gnosis.  p.  502ss. 
Kling,  Bedeutung  des  Clem.  f.  d.  Entst  d.  chr.  Theol.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1841.  P.  4.)  [Art  Clem,  in  W. 
Smith's  Diet  of  Biog.  and  Mythol.  New  York.  1852.  2  vols.] 

d)  Matt.  19,  12.  comp.  5,  29s.  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VI,  8.  comp.  23.  Orig.  in  Matth.  torn.  15.  (Th.  III.  p. 
651ss.)  comp.  Schnitzer,  Orig.  u.  d.  Grnndlehren  d.  Glaubenswiss.  Stuttg.  1835.  p.  XXXIIIsa.    Oc 
the  other  hand:  Engelhardt,  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1838.  P.  1.  p.  157ss. 

e)  II.  A.  Heigl,  der  Bericht  d.  Porphyr.  u.  Orig.  Kegensb.  1835.    Redepenning,  App.  2.  to  vol.  I 
L.  Kriiger,  u.  das  Verh.  d.  Orig.  zu  Amm.  Sacc.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1843.  P.  1.) 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  86.  ALEXANDEIAN  THEOLOGY.    §  ST  OEIGEN.     93 

come  down  to  modern  times,  some  of  them  in  a  Latin  translation  by  Rufinus, 
and  others  in  extracts  by  the  orthodox  writers  of  his  age.  (/)  Clement 
reached  Christianity  through  philosophy,  Origen  reached  philosophy  through 
Christianity.  The  former  proceeded  in  the  style  of  an  eclectic  philosopher, 
in  whose  conception  of  a  complete  gnostic  the  Stoical  ideal  predominated, 
with  its  calm  tranquillity  derived  not  from  the  human  but  from  the  divine 
spirit ;  the  latter  showed  a  more  decided  predilection  for  Plato.  Both  grasped 
after  a  knowledge  which  should  comprehend  the  universe,  but  their  efforts 
were  characterized  more  by  a  literary  fondness  for  philosophy,  than  by  philo- 
sophical depth,  as  they  developed  the  religious  ideas  involved  in  the  facts  of 
Christianity,  smoothed  away  the  difficulties  which  must  attend  a  one-sided 
and  purely  historical  conception  of  it,  and  elevated  it  above  the  extremes  of 
Judaism  and  of  Gnosticism,  even  though  its  truths  were  received  in  a  limited 
form.  Taken  together,  their  doctrines  constituted  one  comprehensive  whole, 
whose  form  was  a  philosophy  of  Christianity,  whose  substance  was  the  free- 
dom of  the  mind  in  its  everlasting  activity,  and  whose  source  was  the  Deity 
himself. 

§  86.  II.     Characteristics  of  the  Alexandrian  Theology. 

1.  Philosophy  was  to  the  Greek  what  the  law  was  to  the  Jew,  an  in- 
structor showing  the  need  of  Christ,  and  proposing  a  proper  pattern  of 
righteousness.  God  has  revealed  his  true  nature  in  appropriate  methods, 
through  the  Logos  to  all  nations,  (a)  The  highest  revelation  he  has  ever 
made  of  himself  is  in  Christianity,  by  means  of  which  many  a  retired  vil- 
lage has  become  an  Athens.  The  position  of  the  faith  of  the  common  people 
is  that  in  which  a  merely  historical  Christianity  is  received  on  the  authority 
of  others  (ni&Tii),  but  the  higher  position  of  the  perfect  Christian  is  that  in 
which  truth  is  contemplated  with  a  free  insight,  and  a  full  consent  of  the 
mind  (yi/cocm).  The  doctrines  of  the  Gnosis  were  described  as  those  secret 
traditions  which  originally  proceeded  from  Christ,  but  they  were  in  fact  the 
free  scientific  speculations  respecting  well  established  ecclesiastical  tradi- 
tions. (5}:'  The  Scriptures  were  looked  upon  as  the  result  of  divine  inspira- 
tion, though  in  different  degrees,  and  it  was  thought  that  every  part  of  them 
should  receive  a  signification  worthy  of  God.  Where  such  a  meaning  was 
not  supplied  by  the  n?.ere  words,  the  hidden  sense  was  developed  from  the 

/)  1)  For  the  restoration  of  the  Septuagint  Eevision  of  the  text  of  the  O.  T.  and  its  translations: 
TO.  e£o7rAa.  Hexaplor.  quae  snpersunt  ed.  B.  de  MontfauQon.  Par.  1713.  3  Th.  f.  C.  F.  £ahrdt, 
Lps.  17C9s.  2  Th.  2)  Scholiae  o-Tj/xeiwcrery,  commentaries  rJ/toi,  and  practical  expositions,  6/j.i\tat 
on  most  of  the  sacred  books,  only  a  few  less  important  parts  of  which  are  preserved  in  Eufinus  and  Je- 
tome.  8)  Uepl  apxvv,  1-  IV.  Hah"  of  the  3d,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  4th  vol.  are  extant  in  the  Greek, 
the  remainder  Is  in  Eufln's  Lat.  version,  ed.  E.  R.  Eedepenning.  Lps.  1836.  4)  Kara  KeA<rov. — 
Opp.  ed.  C.  et  C.  V.  Delarue.  Par.  1733ss.  4  Th.  f.  Lommatzsch,  Ber.  1831-44.  17  Th.—IIuethis, 
Origeniana,  prefixed  to  his  edit,  of  the  Commentaries,  (Par.  1679.)  and  in  the  4th  vol.  of  the  edit,  of 
Delarue.  G.  Thomasius,  Orig.  Numb.  1837.  K  E.  Eedepenning,  Orig.  Leben  u.  Lehre.  Bonn, 
1841-6.  2  pts.  [Article  from  the  British  Quart.  Eev.  in  Eclectic  Mag.  of  January,  1846.  pp.  81-101.] 

a)  Clem,  Strom.  I.  p.  231.  VI.  p.  761.    On  the  other  side :  V.  p.  620.  VI.  p.  757. 

&)  Neander,  do  fldei  gnoseosque  idea  sec.  Clem.  Heidlb.  1811. 


94  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  I.    DIY.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

letter  by  means  of  allegorical  interpretations,  (c)  2.  God  is  limited  only  by 
his  own  will,  and  is  inscrutable  to  his  creatures,  yet  he  has  revealed  himself 
not  only  by  means  of  the  Logos,  which  he  voluntarily  and  from  all  eternity 
sent  forth,  and  which  is  at  the  same  time  God  and  the  all  pervading  reason, 
but  also  by  means  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  personal  source  of  all  sanctification. 
Both  of  these  are  developments  of  the  divine  essence,  and  although  eisentially 
subordinate  to  the  absolute  Deity,  they  constitute  a  unity  with  him.  By  the 
agency  of  the  Logos,  who  must  therefore  have  existed  before  it,  God 
created  the  world  of  spirits,  all  of  whom  were  originally  equal  in  dignity  and 
power,  but  as  God  is  eternally  active,  the  series  of  worlds  by  which  he  is 
developed  can  have  neither  beginning  nor  end.  3.  The  spirit  alone  is  worthy 
of  confidence,  matter  is  the  form  in  which  evil  is  manifested,  and  yet  it  is  the 
vessel  in  which  the  spirit  must  be  purified.  Each  world-sphere  is  adapted  to 
that  peculiar  state  of  the  spirits  inhabiting  it,  which  has  been  produced  by 
the  exercise  of  their  moral  freedom.  Even  the  present  condition  of  man 
must  have  been  produced  by  something  voluntarily  done,  involving  him  in 
guilt.  The  Fall  of  man  spoken  of  by  Moses,  is  an  allegorical  representation 
of  a  fall  anterior  to  man's  present  earthly  existence,  in  which  he  is  doing 
penance  for  what  he  then  did,  and  passing  through  a  process  of  purification. 
Moral  freedom  '  continues  an  inalienable  attribute  of  fallen  man,  unimpaired 
even  in  death.  4.  The  Logos,  that  he  might  fully  reveal  himself  in  Christ 
assumed  an  ethereal  body,  by  means  of  a  human  soul  OK^).  The  plan  of 
Christianity  being  the  same  with  that  of  the  moral  universe  in  general,  of 
course  embraces  all  intellectual  beings  in  all  worlds.  To  those  who  are  in  an 
inferior  stage  of  moral  improvement,  Christianity  is  a  redemption,  but  to 
those  who  are  perfect  it  is  a  free  fellowship,  (d)  6.  There  is  to  be  no  resur- 
rection of  the  flesh,  but  a  development  of  higher  organs,  (e)  not  an  earthly 
but  a  celestial  kingdom  of  Christ,  not  an  everlasting  punishment  in  hell,  but 
on  the  other  hand  every  thing  which  has  fallen  from  God  shall  at  some  period 
be  restored  to  its  original  source  (anoKaTacrrcuns  TO>I 


§  87.    III.  Influence  of  Origen. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Church  were  defended  by  Origen  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  It  was  through  his  influence  that  the  expectation  which  then  prevailed 
with  respect  to  a  near  approach  of  Christ's  second  advent,  and  a  millennial 
Kingdom,  began  to  be  regarded  as  heretical,  or  at  least  fanatical.  For  centu- 
ries his  influence  upon  the  whole  Church  was  powerful,  by  means  of  his  writ- 
ings and  a  circle  of  followers  which  gathered  around  him,  and  formed  a 
seminary  of  eminent  teachers  and  bishops  for  the  Church.  He  was  himself, 
however,  well  aware  that  his  doctrines  were  not  suitable  for  the  common 
mind,  and  his  views  of  Christian  science  allowed  him  intentionally  so  to  write 
that  his  language  was  unintelligible,  and  even  conveyed  error,  to  all  but  the 


c)  J.  A.  Ernesti,  de  Orig.  interpretationis  gramm.  auctore.  (Opp.  crit  Lugd.  1764  p.  288ss.)  (7.  R. 
Jlageribach,  Obss.  ctrca  Orig.  methodum  interpret  8.  Sc.  Bas.  1823.  Comp.  (Ilirzel)  in  Winers  krit 
Journ.  1825.  vol.  III.  part  4. 

<T)  Orig.  in  Jo.  torn.  I.  (Th.  IV.  p.  22.)    e)  Orig.  Opp.  Tb.  I.  p  3o9. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  ST.  DIONTSIUS.   §  88.  AFEICANDS,  HIPPOLYTUS.   95 

initiated,  (a)  His  ideal  tendency  to  go  beyond  historical  traditions  and  those 
peculiarities  which  so  strongly  contrasted  with  what  was  common  in  the 
Church,  were  sure,  sooner  or  later,  to  call  forth  opposition.  The  first  objec- 
tions urged  against  him  were  of  the  vaguest  character,  and  generally  of  a  per- 
sonal nature,  or  founded  on  gross  exaggerations.  Methodius,  Bishop  of  Tyro 
(d.  311),  finally  attacked  his  doctrines  respecting  the  development  of  worlds, 
the  resurrection  and  the  freedom  of  the  will.  (5)  His  disciples  made  every 
effort  to  vindicate  the  honor  and  orthodoxy  of  their  illustrious  master.  The 
orthodoxy  of  some  of  his  views  was  shown  by  comparing  them  with  the  in- 
definite creeds  of  that  day,  and  others  were  excused  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  advanced  only  as  hypotheses.  Even  when  in  prison  the  learned  Pam- 
pJiilus  of  Caesarea  wrote  an  apology,  which  was  afterwards  sealed,  as  it  were, 
with  his  own  blood  (309),  and  was  completed  by  Euscbius.  (c)  Among  Lis 
immediate  pupils,  Dionysius,  his  successor  in  the  office  of  instructor  after  233» 
and  Bishop  of  Alexandria  after  248,  has  represented  especially  the  depart- 
ment of  ecclesiastical  learning,  with  great  zeal  for  the  Church,  but  with  much 
liberality  with  respect  to  genuine  science,  (d)  and  Gregorius,  after  244,  Bishop 
of  Neo-Caesarea,  and  surnamed  Thaumaturgus  by  the  orthodox  of  subsequent 
times,  represented  Origen's  practical  ascetic  tendency,  (e) 

§  88.    Appendix  to  the  Literary  History. 

A  pious  veneration  for  Christian  antiquity  has  usually  preserved  with 
much  care  the  names  of  some  writers  who  are  not  fairly  entitled  to  a  place 
in  history  by  their  character  or  influence.  Athenagoras,  according  to  some 
uncertain  accounts,  the  predecessor  of  Pantaenus  in  Alexandria,  wrote  with 
considerable  philosophical  talent  a  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrec- 
tion (about  180).  (a)  Julius  Africanus,  a  presbyter  at  Nicopolis  (Emmaus)  and 
a  friend  of  Origen,  though  more  advanced  in  age  (d.  about  232),  was  a  learned 
annalist,  and  by  some  extant  letters  appears  to  have  been  a  judicious  critic  of 
the  Scriptures.  (5)  Hippolytus,  a  bishop,  and  a  contemporary  of  Origen,  was 
said  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  to  have  left  valuable  writings  in  explanation  of 
the  Scriptures,  and  in  refutation  of  heretics,  (c)  The  titles  and  fragments  of 

a)  Orig.  c.  Gels.  Ill,  79.  Stromm.  VI.  in  ffieron.  Apol.  I.  adv.  Euf.  c.  18. 

V)  Tlepl  avaffrdcrecas,  irepl  rwv  yevt^ruv,  irepl  avre^ova'tov.  Fragm.  in  Epiph.  haer.  64. 
Phot.  cod.  234,  236.  comp.  Socrnt.  H.  ecc.  VI,  13. 

c)  Apologiae  pro  Orig.  lib.  VI.  Greek  Frag,  in  Phot.  cod.  118.    The  first  book  is  in  Eufin's  trans- 
lation. 

d)  Fragments :  Eom.  1797.  f.  Galland.  Bibl.  PP.  Th.  III.  p.  481ss. 

e)  Ets  'Clpiyhriv  irpoff$uvi]TiKbs  KO.\  ira.vr}yvpiKbs  \6yos.     'ETTKTTO^  KVLKoriKT],    His  life 
by  Gregorius  Nyss.  from  narratives  supplied  by  his  grandmother.    Opp.  c.  vita  ed.  G.  Vossius*  Mog. 
1604.  4    Fragments  of  his  writings  in  Ang.-Maii  N.  Coll.  Th.  VII.  'P.  I.  p.  170sa.  Comp.  Eusob.  II. 
ecc.  VI,  80.  VII,  14. 

a)  Uepl  avatTTOLfffcas  TUV  veKpuv,  ed.  Recheriberg,  Lps.  16S5. 

l>)  "Xpovoypatycav  TreWe  (nrovo'da'fj.aTa.  'Eirurr.  Trepi  TTJS  Kara  ~2,ov(ra.vvu.v  iffroptas 
written  to  Origen,  with  the  reply  of  the  latter, — 'ETTKTT.  ?rpbs  'A/JKTreiSTjr,  a  harmony  of  the  ge» 
nealogies  of  Jesus.  Routh,  Eeliq.  sacr.  vol  II. 

c)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VI,  20,  22,  46.  ffieron,  catal  c.  61.  Phot.  cod.  121.  Ebedjesu  in  Assemani  Eibl 
or.  vol  III.  P.  I. 


96  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  I.    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-812. 

his  works  are  thought  by  many  to  indicate  an  oriental  character,  and  a  de- 
gree of  education  somewhere  between  that  of  Origen  and  that  of  Irenaeus.  (el) 
But  his  statue,  found  in  the  Ager  Veranus,  near  Rome  (1551),  with  the  Eas- 
ter cycle  engraved  upon  his  cathedra  and  a  catalogue  of  his  writings,  imply 
that  he  must  have  resided  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome,  and  that  the  Portus  Ro- 
manus  mentioned  as  his  bishopric,  must  have  been  the  port  near  Ostia.  (e) 
Yet,  as  Prudentius  had  sung  the  martyrdom  of  a  highly  esteemed  BTovatian 
presbyter,  who,  in  view  of  death,  returned  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  after 
his  execution  near  the  mouths  of  the  Tiber,  had  been  conveyed  to  the  Roman 
catacombs,  (/)  and  in  the  time  of  that  poet  had  been  honored  with  a  mag- 
nificent martyrium,  and  a  great  annual  festival  at  Rome,  the  discoverers  of 
this  statue  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  martyr  was  the  same  person  as  the 
ecclesiastical  writer,  ($}  Later  martyrologies,  however,  indicate  that  the  mar- 
tyr came  to  Rome  from  Antioch,  where  a  lively  interest  existed  in  favor  of 
Novatianism.  (h)  Lactantim  Finnianus,  an  Italian  preceptor  to  the  prince 
Crispus,  in  whose  misfortunes  he  was  probably  involved  (d.  about  330),  com- 
menced, during  his  residence  as  a  rhetorician  at  Nicomedia,  in  the  midst  of 
the  last  persecution,  his  treatise  on  the  nature  and  achievements  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  contrast  with  those  of  Heathenism.  In  this 'work  he  has  shed  all 
the  rhetorical  splendor  of  his  age  upon  the  gospel,  and  has  acquired  the  ap- 
pellation of  a  Christian  Cicerjo.  •  His  belief  in  a  principle  of  evil  appointed 
by  God,  and  of  equal  rank  with  Christ,  and  in  a  millennial  kingdom,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  lingering  shadow  of  the  preceding  century,  (i) 

§  89.    Apocryphal  Literature. 

Among  the  Jews,  the  heathen,  and  the  Christians  of  this  period,  it  was 
thought  that  the  truth  might,  without  impropriety,  be  defended  by  means  of 
what  was  untrue.  The  lives  of  their  heroes  and  saints  especially  might  be 
embellished  as  much  as  they  pleased,  and  the  credit  of  such  compositions 
might  be  aided  by  attaching  to  them  some  celebrated  name.  In  this  way  was 
produced,  within  the  Church  as  well  as  beyond  its  pale  an  apocryphal  litera- 
ture, composed  partially  of  harmless  fictions  and  popular  legends,  and  partially 


d)  TTippol.  Opp.  ed.  Fabricius.  Hamb.  171668.  2  vols.  t. 

e)  E.  J.  Kimmel,  do  Hip.  vita  et  scriptis.  P.  I.  Jen.  1S39.  L.  F.  W.  Seinecke,  Leben  u.  Schrr.  d. 
Hipp.  (Illgen's  Zc-itschr.  1842.  P.  8.)    On  the  other  side:   C.  G.  Haenell,  de  Hipp.  Gott  1833.  4.  as 
Bishop  of  Bostra. 

/)  Peristeph.  hym.  11. 

0)  According  to  Winkelmann,  Werke,  ed.  by  Meyer  &  Schulze,  vol.  XVII.  p.  884.  the  statue  be- 
longed to  the  time  of  Alex.  Severus — certainly  too  early— according  to  Plainer,  in  d.  Bescreib.  d. 
Stadt  Eom.  by  Platner,  Bunsen,  &  oth.  vol.  2.  p.  829.  the  latest  period  was  that  of  th»-6th  cent  [See 
Bunseri's  Hipp.  &  his  Age.  Lond.  1853.  C.  Wordsworth,  H.  &  the  Church  of  Eome,  4.  Lend.  1853.  and 
articles  in  the  Jan'y  Nos.  of  the  Edlnb.  &  English  Eevlews  for  1853.] 

7i)  The  combined  evidence  thus  obtained  may  be  seen  in  Gieseler,  [Eccles.  Hist  transl.  by  Da- 
vidson, Edinb.  vol.  I.  p.  249.  note  9.] 

f)  Institutionum  div.  1.  VII.  De  mortibns  persecutorum.  De  ira  Dei.  De  opificio  Dei,  vel  de  forma- 
tione  hominis.  Opp.  ed.  JBunemann.  Lps.  1739.  Lebrun  et  Lenglet  Dufresnoy,  Par.  1748.  2  Th.  4. 
O.  F.  Fritzsche,  Lps.  1842.— 4.  2  P.— F.  G.  Ph.  Amman,  Lact  opiniones  de  rel.  in  systema  redactae, 
dss.  IL  Erl.  1820.  IT.  J.  Spyker,  de  prctio  Institutionibns  Lact  tribuendo.  Lugd.  1826.  L.  IlawknecM, 
Etudes  sur  Lact.  Strassb.  1837. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  89.  APOCEYPIIAL  WEITINGS.  9? 

of  intentional  forgeries,  (a)  Writings  of  the  former  kind  have  been  so  tho- 
roughly revised  by  the  Gnostics  and  Manichaeans,  that  their  origin  and  pri- 
mary design  can  no  longer  be  determined  with  any  certainty,  and  even  their 
dogmatic  character  is  for  the  most  part  indeterminate  and  contradictory.  In 
this  respect  they  are  a  fair  exemplification  of  the  age  which  gave  them  birth. 
Even  in  those  rare  instances  in  which  the  deception  was  discovered  and  cen- 
sured by  the  Church,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Acts  of  Paul  and  Theckla,  written 
under  the  impulse  of  a  warm  affection  for  Paul,  and  an  almost  poetical  sen- 
timent in  behalf  of  the  duty  of  self-sacrifice,  the  work  remained  for  a  long 
time  in  circulation  among  the  Churches.  (5)  1)  Among  those  called  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  may  be  noticed  a  cycle 'of  histories  pretending  to  give  an  account 
of  the  miracles  wrought  by  the  apostles,  collected  and  revised  so  as  to  favor 
the  interests  of  Manichaeism,  by  some  one  under  the  name  of  Leucius  Cha- 
rinus.  (c)  2)  Jewish  imitations  of  earlier  prophetic  visions  were  sometimes 
used  by  Christians  with  their  own  interpretation,  and  sometimes  counterfeited 
by  Jewish  Christians,  to  show  the  completion  of  the  Messianic  prophecies  by 
facts  taken  from  the  life  of  Jesus,  (d)  3)  Some  lost  prophecies,  ascribed  to 
Hystaspes,  an  ancient  Persian  seer,  gave  to  the  Asiatic  Christians  a  prophet 
of  the  Messiah,  from  their  own  native  region,  (e)  4)  The  Sylilline  Oracles 
were  written  by  many  different  authors  in  the  course  of  several  centuries.  (/) 
The  oldest  of  them  were  composed  by  heathen  and  Jewish  writers  to  sub- 
serve their  own  peculiar  views,  and  in  many  instances  probably  as  a  poetical 
amusement.  But  the  principal  part  of  them  consisting  of  reproaches  against 
heathenism,  and  predictions  of  its  approaching  overthrow,  were  written  by 
Christians,  probably  not  so  much  to  oppose  and  alarm  their  enemies,  as  to  en- 
courage their  friends.  By  those  apologists,  however,  who  were  conversant 
with  pagan  literature,  they  were  made  use  of  as  divinely  inspired  writings. 

a)  Iren.  I,  26. — HosJieim,  de  causis  suppositt  libror.  inter  Christ.  (Dss.  ad  II.  ecc.  pert  Th. 

I.  p.  21788.) 

Z>)  Tertul.  de  bapt  c.  17.  Acta  S.  Pauli  et  Thecklae,  ed.  Grabe,  Spicileg.  Th.  I.  p.  Slss.  [Apocr. 
New  Test.  Lond.  1821.] 

c)  Toil/  '.ATroorJAcoj'  Trepio'Soz.    Phot.  cod.  114.  Acta  S.  Thomae,  ed.  J.  C.  77iilo,  Lps.  1823. 
Apokr.  Evv.  s.  Leben  Jesu.  p.  18s. 

d)  Fabricius,  Codex  pseudepigr.  Y.  T.  ed.  2.  Hainb.  1712s.  2  Th.— Tho  book  of  Enoch  the  Pro- 
phet, trans,  from  an  Ethiopic  MS.  by  R.  Laurence,  Oxf.  (1821.)  1883.  A.  G.  Hoffman,  das  Buch  He- 
noch  in  Uebers.  mit  Commentar.  Jena.  1833-8.  2  Abth.  [Lond.  Christ.  Observer,  (in  Littell's  Eel.  Mag. 
1829.)  Book  of  Enoch.  H.  Stuart,m  Bibl.  Eepos,  for  Jan.  1840.  pp.  86-186.]— Ezrae  1.  IV.  (Fabric.  Th. 
1. 173ss.)    Versio  Aethioplca,  lat  angliceque  reddita  a  R.  Laurence,  Oxf.  1820. — At  Siadfj/cai  TU/V 
ScSSe/ca  TlaTpiapxvv,   ed.  Grabe,  Spicil.  Th.  I.  p.  145ss.  Comp.  C.  I.  Nitzsch,  de  testam.  XII.  Patr. 
Vit.  1810.  4. — Ascensio  (avajScm/c^)  Isaiao  vatis,  opusc.  apud.  Aethiopas  compertum,  c.  vers.  Int. 
anglicanaque  ed.  R.  Laurence,  Oxon.  1819.     Gieseler,  vetus  translatio  lat.  visionis  Jesaiae  ed.  praef. 
et  notis  ill.  Gott  1832.  4.  comp.  Nitzsch  in  d.  Stud.  u.  KriL  1830.  P.  2.  Lucke,  Einl.  z.  Apok.  p.  125ss. 
Gfrorer,  Gesch.  d.  Urchr.  vol.  1. 1.  p.  65ss. 

e)  Fr.  Walch,  de  Hystaspe.  (Comm.  Soc.  Eeg.  Gott  Th.  I.  p.  3ss.) 

/)  Sibyllinorum  Oraculorum  1.  VIII.  ed.  Servatius  Gallaeus,  Amst  1689.  4.  On  this,  see  also  1. 
XI. -XIV.  iuAngeli  Maji  Scriptorum  vett  nova  collectio.  Eom.  1828. 4.  Th.  III.  p.  S.—BleeJc,  u.  Entst. 
u.  Zusammens.  d.  Sib.  Orak.  (Theol.  Zeitschr.  Brl.  1819.  P.  1.  2.)  [David  Blondell,  Treatise  of  the 
Sibylls.  Lond.  166L  f.] 


98  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  I.    DIY.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

§  90.    Subordinationists  and  Monarchians. 

I.  All  accounts  of  the  Monarchians  are  derived  from  the  party  hostile  to  and  finally  victuriom 
over  them,  as  e.  g.  Tertullian,  \vho  hated  them  as  opponents  of  Montanism ;  Epiphanius  and  T/ieo- 
doret,  who  regarded  them  with  the  prejudices  of  the  Athanasian  party;  and  Eusebius,  the  most  im- 
partial, but  not  unaffected  by  the  spirit  and  views  of  the  age. 

II.  Martini,  Pragm.  Gesch.  d.  dogma  v.  d.  Gotth.  Ch.  in  d.  ersten  4  Jahrh.  Eost  1800.  vol.  I. 
ScUeiermacJier,  u.  d.  Gegens.  zw.  d.  Sabell.  u.  Athan.  Vorst  v.  d.  Trinitat  (Theol.  Zeitschr.  Brl.  1822. 
P.  3.  p.  295ss.)    Jleinichen,  de  Alogis,  Theodotianis,  Artemonitis.  Lps.  1S29.    L.  Lange,  Gesch.  u. 
Lehrbegr.  d.  Unitarier  vor  d.  Nic.  Synode.  (Beitr.  z.  KGescb.  vol.  II.)  Lpz.  1881.    Idem,  Abh.  in 
Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1832.  vol.  II.  PL  2.  p.  ITes.)  1833.  vol.  III.  Pt  I.  p.  65ss.  Pt  2.  p.  ITSss.    Comp. 
Gieseler  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1883.  P.  4.  p.  1215s.    Baur,  d.  chr.  Lehre  v.  d.  Dreieinigkeit  u.  Mensch- 
werd.  in  gesch.  Entw.  Tub.  1841.  Th.  L  p.  132ss.     G.  A.  Meier,  d.  Lehre  v.  d.  Trin.  in  hist  Entw. 
Hamb.  u.  G.  1844.  vol.  1.  p.  74ss. 

The  whole  effort  made  by  the  Church  of  this  period  to  rise  above  the 
religion  of  mere  feeling  to  the  possession  of  clear  ideas,  was  now  concen- 
trated in  the  inquiry,  "Who  was  Christ  ?  The  answer  of  the  Jews,  declaring 
that  he  was  the  Son  of  God,  reminded  the  Greets  of  the  sons  of  deities  in 
their  mythology,  (a)  As,  however,  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  unity  was 
considered  indispensable,  and  as  Christians  could  not  feel  that  the  essential 
glory  of  Christ  was  adequately  expressed,  when  it  was  said  in  Jewish  phrase, 
that  he  was  anointed  and  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  attention  of  all  was 
turned  to  the  philosophic  theory  of  the  Logos,  regarded  as  that  by  which 
God  contemplated  his  own  nature,  and  revealed  himself  in  the  universe  as 
far  as  it  is  an  image  of  the  divine  life.  Two  parties  sprung  up  after  the 
middle  of  the  second  century,  neither  of  which  hesitated  to  call  Christ,  in  a 
Hellenistic  sense,  not  only  a  Son  of  God,  but  God  himself.  One  of  these  be- 
lieved that  the  Logos  had  an  existence  before  our  world,  and  was  an  exact 
image  of  the  Deity,  but  a  subordinate  person.  The  popular  expression  with 
respect  to  the  generation  of  this  Logos,  must  have  been  understood  as  im- 
plying either  with  the  Gnostics,  that  it  was  an  emanation  from  the  divine 
essence,  or  with  the  Alexandrians,  that  it  was  an  eternal  procession  from  it 
by  an  exercise  of  the  divine  will.  According  to  this  view,  the  Holy  Spirit 
was  regarded  as  an  actual  person,  but  one  so  subordinate  and  so  little  regard- 
ed, that  many  who  looked  upon  the  Spn  as  a  person,  held  that  the  Spirit 
was  merely  a  power  of  God,  or  a  mode  of  his  operation.  This  relation  of 
the  divine  economy  has  been  denominated,  since  the  time  of  Tertullian,  the 
Trinity.  The  other  party,  either  from  its  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
unity  (iiovapxia),  held  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  but  born  of  the  virgin  by 
the  power  of  the  divine  Spirit,  and  exalted  to  be  the  Lord  of  the  whole 
Church,  or  from  a  regard  to  Christ's  dignity,  believed  that  he  was  a  revela- 
tion and  manifestation  of  God  on  earth.  (J)  Those  who  held  t3  this  last 
view,  were,  by  their  opponents,  called  Patripassiani.  Justin  informs  us, 
that  even  in  his  day  it  was  not  regarded  as  inconsistent  with  Christianity  to 
hold  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  and  Tertullian  reluctantly  testifies,  that  in 
his  vicinity  this  was  the  common  sentiment,  (c)  The  first  kind  of  Monarch- 
al) Justin.  Apol.  I.  c.  21.  C.  Tryph.  c.  69.  Comp.  Plinii  Ep.  X,  96. 

I)  Athenag.  LegaL  c,  10.    In  Justin,  c.  Tryph.  a  12&    The  distinction  between  the  two  kind* 
of  Monarchianism :  Orig.  in  Jo.  torn.  2,  2. 

c)  Justin,  c.  Tryph.  c.  48.     Tertul.  adv.  Prax.  c.  8. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  90.  SUBORDINATION ISTS  &  MONARCHIANS.         99 

janism  has  always,  since  that  time,  been  rejected  as  often  as  it  has  made  its 
appearance,  inasmuch  as  no  one  would  then  presume  to  think  of  Christ  in 
less  exalted  terms  than  those  in  which  the  Gnostic  heretics  represented  him. 
But  even  where  no  such  a  rejection  took  place,  it  naturally  followed  that  no 
one  had  any  great  timidity  in  denying  a  mere  man.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Monarchians  of  the  second  class  were  regarded  in  many  parts  of  the  Church 
as  orthodox,  and  were  not  generally  very  seriously  opposed,  until  an  assault 
was  made  upon  them  by  persons  at  a  distance,  which  was  repelled  by 
an  appeal  to  apostolical  traditions,  and  to  the  Holy  Scriptures.  But  the 
Subordinationists,  whose  views  were  more  conformable  to  those  of  the  com- 
mon people,  gradually  gained  upon  public  sentiment,  and  by  various  means 
at  the  command  of  the  hierarchy,  utterly  destroyed  even  the  second  kind  of 
Monarchianism,  which  had  been  rendered  suspicious  by  the  ease  with  which 
it  was  confounded  with  the  first.  By  ingenious  references  to  reason  and 
revelation,  the  views  of  the  triumphant  party  respecting  the  Logos  were 
made  to  correspond  with  the  philosophy  of  that  period, 

1)  Epiphanius  speaks  of  a  party  in  Asia  Minor  (about  170)  whom  he  wit- 
tily calls  Alogi,  because  they  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos  and  the  gos- 
pel by  John,  together  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Millennium  and  the  book  of 
Revelations.  They  were  probably  the  same  persons  as  those  mentioned  by 
Irenaeus  as  having  rejected  the  gospel  by  John,  and  the  idea  of  the  pro- 
phetic gifts  of  the  Spirit.  It  is  evident  that  they  were  opposed  to  the  Mon- 
tanists,  but  we  are  left  in  doubt  whether  they  took  offence  at  the  word  Lo- 
gos merely  as  a  learned  expression,  or  whether  they  were  really  Monarchians., 
as  they  were  regarded  by  Epiphanius.  (d)  2)  Praxeas,  distinguished  as  a 
confessor  in  the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  sent  from  Asia  Minor  to 
Rome  to  induce  the  churches  in  the  latter  city  to  refuse  all  fellowship 
with  the  Montanists,  taught  without  molestation  the  second  kind  of  Mo- 
narchianism,  respecting  the  incarnation  of  one  divine  Spirit  in  Christ.  In 
Carthage,  however,  he  was  accused  of  heresy  by  Tertullian.  (e)  But  The- 
odotus,  the  Tanner,  who  came  about  the  same  time  from  Byzantium  to  Rome, 
and  began  to  propagate  the  first  kind  of  Monarchianism,  was  driven  from 
the  Church  by  Victor,  Bishop  of  Rome.  His  party  was  distinguished  for 
secular  learning,  made  use  of  the  Scriptures  as  of  a  merely  human  produc- 
tion, and  was  at  one  time  powerful  enough  to  elevate  one  of  their  own  num- 
ber to  the  See  of  Rome  itself.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  their  bishop 
was  attacked  by  persons  sent  by  God,  or  by  episcopal  influence,  and  com- 
pelled to  abdicate.  From  this  party  proceeded  another  Theodotus,  a  money- 
broker,  who  became  the  head  of  the  Melchizedecians,  who  are  said  to.  have 
honored  Melchizedek  as  a  heavenly  Redeemer,  superior  to  the  earthly.  Ar- 
temon  was  also  excluded  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  for  maintaining  that  the 
established  doctrine  of  the  Church  had  always  been,  that  the  Redeemer  was 
no  more  than  a  man,  and  that  this  had  never  been  perverted  or  changed  until 


d)  Epiph.  haer.  51.  54.  8.    Iren.  Ill,  11.  comp.  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VII,  25,— 3f.  Merlcel,  hist,  krlt 
Auf  klar.  d.  Streitigk.  d.  Aloger.  u.  d,  Apok.  Frkf.  u,  Lps,  1782. 
6)  Tertvl  adv.  Pnixean. 


100  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PERL    DIV.  II.    A.  D.  100-312. 

the  time  of  Zephyrinus,  who  then  occupied  the  episcopal  chair  (201-218).  (/) 
3)  Noetus,  of  Smyrna,  and  probably  a  presbyter  in  Ephesus,  was  excluded 
(about  230)  from  his  church  as  a  Patripassian.  That  he  should  have  repelled 
this  accusation  in  such  decided  terms,  is  only  to  be  explained  on  the  ground 
thnt  he  held  to  the  second  kind  of  Monarchianism.  (g)  To  this  also,  Beryl- 
lus,  of  Bostra,  professed  adherence.  He  denied  that  our  Saviour  had  any 
personal  existence  prior  to  the  incarnation,  or  that  there  was  in  Christ  a  di- 
vine nature  distinct  from  that  of  the  Father.  He,  however,  conceded  that 
the  Godhead  of  the  Father  dwelt  in  the  person  of  Jesus.  Under  the  instruc- 
tion of  Origen,  he  finally  renounced  these  views,  and  embraced  another  sys- 
tem of  faith.  (A)  Sdbelliw,  a  presbyter  of  Ptolemais  (250-260),  expressed 
the  same  doctrine  in  terms  still  nearer  those  commonly  used  in  the  Church. 
According  to  him,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Spirit,  were  only  the  differ- 
ent forms  in  which  the  supreme  Unity,  which  unfolds  itself  in  human  affair* 
as  a  Triad,  reveals  himself  to  men.  In  the  Pentapolis,  his  doctrine  was  re- 
garded as  orthodox,  until  Dionysius,  of  Alexandria,  brought  against  him  the 
prelatical  authority,  and  the  stores  of  learning.  But  when  the  latter,  in  the 
course  of  the  controversy,  carried  the  doctrine  of  Origen  so  far  as  to  assert 
that  the  Logos  was  created  by  the  Father,  was  unequal  to  him  in  nature,  and 
began  to  exist  in  time,  Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  maintained  against  him 
a  doctrine  which  the  Alexandrian  bishop  would  not  have  denied,  that  the 
Son  had  an  eternal  existence  in  the  Father,  (i)  4)  Paul  of  Samosata,  after 
260  Bishop  of  Antioch,  appears  to  have  effected  a  union  of  the  two  kinds  of 
Monarchianism,  although  the  first  was  decidedly  predominant  in  his  system. 
Ho  maintained  that  Jesus,  as  a  man,  was  begotten  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
that  the  divine  Logos  which  then  began  personally  to  exist,  had  a  peculiar 
connection  with  him.  The  Syrian  bishops  were  violently  opposed  to  their 
Metropolitan,  conspired  against  him  at  three  different  Synods,  and  at  An- 
tioch, in  the  year  269,  proclaimed  his  deposition.  Their  enmity  seems  to 
have  been  much  excited  by  his  political  position  and  worldly  honors,  (£)  and 
it  was  not  until  the  year  272,  when  the  imperial  power  co-operated  with 
them,  that  their  act  of  deposition  was  carried  into  effect.  The  fall  of  this 
powerful  bishop  decided  the  fate  of  the  Monarchians,  who  are  henceforth 
mentioned  only  as  isolated  individuals,  and  as  heretics  already  condemned 
(Sabelliani,  Samosateniani.)  In  the  public  acts  of  this  Synod,  the  Sabellian 
form  of  expression,  according  to  which  the  Son  is  of  a  nature  similar  to  that 
of  the  Father  (6/zoovo-toy  ro>  Trarpi),  was  also  condemned.  (Z) 

/)  Tertal.  de  praescr.  append,  c.  58.  Eutcb.  H.  ecc.  V,  28.  Epiph.  baer.  51  56.  Theodoret. 
Haeret.  fabb.  II,  4ss. 

g)  IHppolyt.  els  TT\V  a'lp«riv  NO^TOU  rivot.  (Ed.  Fabric.  Tb.  II.  p.  5ss.)  Epiph.  baer.  57. 
Theodoret.  Ill,  8. 

h)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VI,  83.  comp.  20.  Jlieron.  catal.  c.  60.  comp.  Orig.  Opp.  Th.  IV.  p.  695.— 
Ullmann,  de  Beryllo  Bostreno.  Hamb.  1835.  4.  comp.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1836.  P.  4  p.  1073ss. 

€)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VII,  6.  Athanas.  Ep.  de  sententia  Dionysii.  (Th.  I.  p.  548ss.)  Gallandii  Bib. 
PP.  Th.  III.  p.  495.  vol.  XIV.  App.  p.  118.  Basil.  Ep.  210.  Epiph.  haer.  62.  Theodoret.  II.  9. 
[Schleiermacher,  transl.  by  M.  Stuart,  in  BibL  Eepos.  vol.  V.  p.  265-353.  VI.  p.  1-80.] 

K)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  VII,  27-30.  Epiph.  haer.  65.  A.  Maji  N.  Coll.  Th.  VIL  P.  1.  p.  68.  299ss.— 
EJirlich,  de  erroribus  Pauli  Sam.  Lps.  1745.  4.  J.  B.  Schwab,  de  P.  Sam.  vita  atque  doctr 
Herblp.  1839. 

I)  Athanas.  de  synod.  Arim.  et  Seleuc.  c.  43.  (Th.  I.  p.  917.)    ITilar.  de  synod,  c.  86, 


SECOND   PEEIOD. 

FEOM  CONBTANTINE  TO  CHAELES  THE  GREAT. 

§  91.     General  View. 

Heathenism  was  now  destroyed  and  Christianity  became  the  religion  of 
the  State.  The  effort  to  attain  a  more  perfect  intellectual  apprehension  of 
the  doctrines  of  the  Christian  system,  produced  a  great  agitation  both  of  the 
Church  and  of  the  empire.  The  Church  and  the  State  exerted  a  reciprocal 
and  mutually  pervading  influence  upon  each  other,  and  by  blending  together 
the  political  and  dogmatic  interest,  an  unfavorable  result  was  produced  in 
both.  The  rights  of  the  congregations  were  still  enforced  in  almost  all  in- 
stances by  popular  insurrections  and  intrigues  at  court.  The  unity  of  the 
Church  was  carried  out  by  sacrificing  the  independence  of  its  several  parts, 
and  the  whole  became  subject  to  the  two  great  bishops  residing  at  old  and 
new  Eome.  The  power  of  the  monks  nearly  equalled  that  of  the  clergy. 
Grecian  and  Christian  usages  and  morals  were  blended  together,  and  mu- 
tually corrupted  one  another.  From  the  midst  of  these  doctrinal  conflicts, 
and  from  the  fanaticism  of  the  Desert,  a  class  of  characters  was  produced,  in 
which  the  Holy  Ghost  allowed  the  spirit  of  the  times  to  attain,  on  a  grand 
scale,  the  end  for  which  it  indefinitely  longed.  At  the  close  of  this  struggle, 
the  State  was  distracted  by  another  relating  to  images.  Christianity  gave  a 
final  glory,  an  internal  life  and  a  consolation  in  misfortune  to  the  Eoman 
empire,  but  could  not  prevent  its  overthrow.  A  new  and  simple  faith  ob- 
tained a  victory  over  Christianity  by  means  of  the  sword,  and  closed  against 
it  its  own  native  East.  Greece  alone  continued  Eoman,  and  gradually  sunk 
with  its  Church  into  along  apparent  death.  The  German  nations  broke 
into  the  Western  Empire,  but  soon  bowed  themselves  before  the  cross,  and 
gave  to  the  Church  a  new  life.  The  period  naturally  falls  into  two  divisions 
of  nearly  equal  length :  the  Church, of  the  Eoman  empire,  to  which  the  ad- 
jacent oriental  countries  belong,  and  the  Church  among  the  Germanic  na- 
tions, to  which  the  Eoman  bishopric,  from  the  time  of  Stephen  II.,  was 
transferred. 


DIVISION  L— THE  IMPERIAL  CHURCH. 

§  92.     Original  Authorities. 

1)  Eased.  (§  14.)  Ek  rlv  fiiov  KuwTavTivov.!.  IV.  Yita  Constant,  et  Panegyricus,  ed.  Hein- 
iclien.  Lps.  1830.  Historiae  ecc.  Eusebii.  1.  IX  Eufino  interprete  ac  II.  ipsius  Ruflni,  ed.  Cacci- 
ari.  Eom.  1741s.  2  Th.  4.  Historia  ecc.  Scriptores  graeci,  c.  notts  Valesii  ed.  ff.  Reading,  Cantabr. 
1720.  3  Th.  £  McepTiorus  Callistius,  (KK\7jff.  Iffropia,  ed.  Fronton  U  I>uc,  Par.  1630.  2  Th.  £ 


102  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  II.    DIV.  L    A.  D.  812-800. 

2)  Sulpicii  Severi,  Hist  sacra,  ed.  Hofmeisler,  Tig.  1703.  (Opp.  ed.  Hieron.  a  Prato,  Veion.  17419 
2  Th.  £  Ilao'^aAio*'  s.  Clironicon  paschale,  ed.  Car.  du  Fresne  Dom.  du  Cange.  Par.  16S3.  f.  Lud. 
Dindorf,  Bonn.  1832.  2  Th.  Theophanes  Confessor,  Xpovoypatyia,  c.  notis  Goari  et  Combeflsii-, 
Par.  J655.  Ven.  1729.  f.  8)  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  Eerum  gest.  1.  XXXI.  ed.  Ernesti.  Lps.  1773. 
1835.  Zosimus,  Iffropia  vta,  ed.  Reitemeier.  Lps.  1784.  Im.  Bekker,  Bonn.  1837.  [The  Greek 
Eccles.  Histories  by  Enseb.  Theod.  Socrat  Sozom.  and  Evagrins,  have  be«n  newly  translated  and  pub- 
lished, with  lives  of  the  authors,  in  6  vols.  8vo.  Lond.  1842-6.] 

Most  of  the  public  original  documents  are  contained  in  the  acts  of  coun- 
cils and  the  imperial  codes.  Eusebim  was  influenced  in  the  history  of  his 
own  times  at  least  by  gratitude,  (a)  His  Ecclesiastical  History  was  freely 
translated,  and  continned  to  the  time  of  the  translator  by  Rufinus  (395).  (6) 
Among  the  Greeks  it  was  continued  by  the  advocate,  Socrates  Scholastics 
(306-439),  and  Hermias  Soz&menus  (328-423).  The  former  was  a  candid  and 
plain  writer ;  the  latter  was  full  of  monastic  notions,  and  wrote  in  a  florid 
style.  Both  were  completed  by  Thcodoretus,  bishop  of  Cyrus,  with  a  great 
abundance  of  theological  learning  (325-427).  (c)  All  of  these  were  com- 
posed in  the  spirit  of  the  ascendant  party  in  the  Church.  The,  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Philostorgius  (300-425),  is  a  panegyric  upon  the  vanquished  par- 
ty, and  is  preserved  only  in  the  extracts  made  by  Photius.  Evagrius,  a  dis- 
tinguished advocate  of  Antioch,  continued  the  history  of  the  Catholic  Church 
(431-594)  with  special  attention  to  political  circumstances,  and  an  extreme 
passion  for  orthodoxy.  Extracts  from  Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  Theodoret, 
are  preserved  in  a  manuscript  work  of  Theodorus  Lector,  and  fragments  of 
his  continuation  of  Socrates  (until  518)  have  been  preserved  by  Nicephorus. 
The  history  of  Nicephorus  Callistius  (which  at  first  consisted  of  twenty-throe 
books,  and  reached  to  the  year  911,  but  now  consists  of  only  eighteen  books, 
extending  to  the  year  610),  was  compiled  in  the  fourteenth  century  from 
older  historical  writings  and  original  documents  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia. 
It  was  written  in  an  elegant  style,  and  its  sentiments  are  honestly  expressed, 
but  it  is  characterized  by  servility  and  superstition.  Sulpicim  Severus,  at 
first  a  lawyer,  and  afterwards  a  presbyter  in  Gaul,  wrote  a  concise  summary 
of  universal  history  (until  400)  with  a  strong  ecclesiastical  spirit,  but  it  is 
important  only  for  what  relates  to  his  own  times,  and  to  events  occurring  in 
his  own  vicinity.  The  Easter- Chronicle  (written  until  354,  under  Constan- 
tius,  but  with  later  additions  until  628,  under  Heraclius)  is  principally  a  cal- 
culation of  the  passovers  from  the  beginning  of  the  world,  but  it  is  enlivened 
by  a  chronicle  in  which  many  singular  documents  and  accounts  are  communi- 
cated in  a  simple  style,  and  in  an  ecclesiastical  spirit.  TJieophanes  Confessor 
wrote  a  continuation  of  an  older  chronicle  down  to  his  own  time  (285-813), 
and  with  much  learning  made  use  of  original  documents  which  would  other- 
wise have  been  lost.  His  work  is  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of  a  monk  and  of 
a  martyr  to  his  zeal  for  image  worship.  Among  the  last  of  the  heathen  his- 
torians, Ammianus  Harcellinus,  in  those  portions  of  his  history  of  the  em- 
pire which  are  extant  (libb.  14-31.  353-378),  has  recorded  the  ecclesiastical 
events  of  that  period  with  the  impartiality  and  sound  common  sense  of  a  sol 

a)  Socrat.  H.  ecc.  1, 1. 

&)  E.  J.  Kimmel,  de  Enf.,  Eus.  interprete  I.  II.  Ger.  1838. 

c)  F.  A.  Holehausen,  de  fontibus,  quibus  Socr.  Soz.  ct  Theod.  usi  sunL  Goett.  1825.  4. 


CHAP.  I.    VICTORY  OF  CHRISTIANITY.    §93.  CONST ANTINE  &  HIS  SONS.  103 

dier,  and  Zosimus,  a  court  officer  under  Tkeodosius  II.,  has  described  (in  de- 
tail 284-410)  with  minute  art  the  dark  shades  in  the  character  of  the  Chris- 
tian emperors. 


CHAP.  I.— VICTORY  AND  DEFEAT  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

J.  G.  Hoffmann,  ruina  superstitSonis  paganae.  Vit.  1738.  4.  &  T.  Eudiger,  de  statu.paganoruin 
sub.  Imp.  christ.  post.  Const.  Vrat.  1825.  Beugnot.  (before  §  46.) 

§  93.     Constantino  and  his  Sons. 

I.  "Whatever  relates  to  them  in  Euseb.  and  Zosimus. — II.  Martini,  d.  Einfui  J.  d.  chr.  Eel.  a!a 
Btaatsrel.  durch  Constant  Munch.  1813.  4.  Manso,  Leben  Const.  Bresl.  1817.  Kist,  de  commuta- 
tione,  quam  Const  auctore  societas  chr.  subiit  Traj.  ad  Rh.  1818.  4  (Hug)  Denkschr.  s.  Ehrenrett 
Const.  (Zeitschr.  f.  d.  Geistlichk.  d.  Erzb.  Freyburg.  1829.  P.  3.)  Arendt,  u.  Const,  u.  s.  Verh.  z. 
Christenth.  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1834.  P.  3.)  \_Eiiseb.  PampMlus,  Life  of  Const  in  4  books.  New 
transl.  Lond.  1845.  8.] 

As  fast  as  he  could  wisely  do  so,  and  by  all  the  means  which  an  absolute 
monarch  can  bring  to  bear  upon  his  favorite  plans,  Constantino  gradually  be- 
stowed upon  the  Church  security,  wealth,  privileges,  and  every  thing  which 
could  make  it  attractive.  By  the  arts  of  state  policy,  the  contest  be- 
tween the  rulers  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  division  of  the  empire  had 
been  identified  with  that  between  the  ancient  gods  and  the  crucified  Re- 
deemer. No  sooner  had  this  been  decided  by  the  complete  destruction  of 
Licinius  (323),  than  Constantine  openly  expressed  a  desire  to  see  the  whole 
Roman  world  once  more  united  in  one  common  religion.  He,  however,  free- 
ly acknowledged  the  right  of  all  those  who  desired,  to  persevere  in  their  ad- 
herence to  the  obsolete  superstition.  Only  a  few  temples  in  the  East  were 
despoiled,  that  their  ornaments  might  be  used  to  adorn  the  new  Christian 
Rome ;  some  others  were  destroyed  on  account  of  the  immoralities  practised 
in  them,  (a)  and  a  law  against  sacrifices  (b)  was  probably  directed  merely 
against  such  immoralities,  or  was  never  executed.  The  emperor  still  re- 
mained Pontifex  Maximus,  and  some  of  his  enactments  indicate  that  he  hon- 
ored, or  at  least  feared  the  magical  arts  of  the  old  paganism,  (c)  Political 
interests  seemed  imperatively  to  require  that  Christianity  should  be  estab- 
lished as  the  religion  of  the  State,  that  those  religious  questions  which  were 
then  producing  innumerable  divisions  might  be  decided.  That  Constantine, 
however,  acted  in  these  measures  from  a  sincere  attachment  to  Christianity, 
is  evident  from  what  he  did  before  the  chivalrous  emperor  had  degenerated 
into  the  tyrant,  and  from  his  interest  in  those  ecclesiastical  matters  with 
which  the  mere  policy  of  the  ruler  could  have  had  no  connection.  The 
same  sign  which  had  originally  given  him  the  victory  (Labarum,  312),  (d) 
had  also  conducted  him  to  universal  dominion,  and  he  therefore  regarded 
himself  as  the  favorite  of  Heaven,  called  to  secure  an  equal  dominion  for  the 

o)  Euseb.  Vita  Const  II,  55-60. 

ty  According  to  a  reference  which  Constans  made  to  it  (e)  and  Euseb.  Vita  Const  II,  45. 

c)  Constit  de  harnspicinae  usu.  a.  321.  L.  1.    Cod.  Theod.  de  pagan.  (XVI,  10.)    Zosim.  II,  29. 

d)  Euseb.  Vita  Const.  I,  27-31.    Lactant.  de  mortib.  c.  44.    Sosom.  I,  3.    Rufin.  I,  9.    Comp 
Nazarii,  Panegyr.  Const,  c.  14.—2Teinichen,  Excurs.  I.  ad  Vitam  Const 


104  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  312-800. 

cross  of  Christ.  And  yet  he  was  not  restrained  from  desecrating  that  verjj 
cross  by  hands  deeply  imbrued  in  blood,  in  the  blood  of  his  own  son  (326), 
That  he  remained  among  the  catechumens,  and  never  received  baptism  until 
the  year  in  which  he  died  (337),  is  accounted  for  by  a  reference  to  a  super- 
stitious opinion  then  prevalent  among  many  Christians.  Not  only  has  the 
Church  from  gratitude  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  the  Great,  but  even 
heathenism  has  given  him  a  place  among  its  divinities.  "While  acquiring  and 
maintaining  his  authority,  he  won  many  battles,  formed  a  system  of  govern- 
ment which  acted  with  all  the  regularity  of  an  artificial  machine,  built  a 
metropolis  for  the  world  in  a  position  the  most  admirable  of  any  on  earth, 
and  lived  to  experience  and  to  deserve  many  misfortunes.  In  one  respect  ho 
was  certainly  great  or  fortunate,  for  when  seated  in  the  highest  position  then 
attainable,  he  seems  to  have  understood  what  the  necessities  of  his  age  re- 
quired. His  sons  followed  out  and  even  extended  the  political  system  and 
favorite  plans  he  had  bequeathed  to  them.  The  temples  were  closed,  and 
those  who  should  venture  to  sacrifice  were  threatened  with  death,  (e)  In 
Eome  alone  an  asylum  for  the  ancestral  gods  was  allowed  to  remain,  as  a 
special  favor  solemnly  conceded  to  the  majesty  of  the  Koman  people.  (/) 

§  9-4.    Julianus  Apostata. 

I.  Juliani  Opp.  (Misopogon,  Caesares,  Orationcs,  Epp.)  ct  Cyrltti  Altai,  c.  Julian.  1.  X.  ed.  Span- 
hem.  Lps.  1696.  2  Th.  f.    Jul.  Epp.  Acccdunt  fragm.  breviora,  ed.  ffeyler,  Mog.  1828.    The  series  ol 
Christian  lampoons  begins  with  Gregorii  Naz.  in  Julian,  apost  invectivae  duae.    The  pagan  pane- 
gyrics with  Libanius,  especially  with  his  Oratio  parcntnlis.    A  true  and  fair  account  in  Aminian. 
Marc.  XXI.-XXV,  8. 

II.  U.  P.  C.  Ilenke,  de  Theol.  Jul.  Helmst.  177T.  4  (Opp.  1802.  p.  853ss.)    A.  Neander,  Jiil.  11.  .-•. 
Zeitalter.  Lps.  1812.  (Sddosser'a  Rcc.  in  d.  Jen.  L.  Z.  Jan.  1818.  p.  12188.)    Idem.  [II.  of  the  Chr. 
ReL  and  Church,  vol.  II.  pp.  86-67.]    C.  II.  van  Ilerwerden,  do  Jul.  rel.  chr.  boste  eodemquo  Yin- 
dice.  Lugd.  182T.     G.  F.   Wiygers,  Jul.  d.  Abtr.  (Illgen's  Zeltschr.  1887.  vol.  VII.  p.  1.)    //  Schulze, 
de  phll.  et  morib.  Jul.  Strals  1889.  4     F.  A  Tevfel,  de  JuL  Imp.  christianismi  contemtore  et  osore. 
Tub.  1644.    [A  short  account  of  the  Life  of  JnL  the  Ap.  Lond.  1632. 12.    Life  of  Jul.  Lond.  16S2.  8. 
Two  Orations  of  J.  transl.  Lond.  1798.  8.] 

Julian  had  been  educated  for  the  Christian  priesthood,  but  he  had  learned 
to  regard  Christianity  as  a  tissue  of  subtle  formulas,  and  as  a  religion  of  sla- 
very. The  victory  it  had  acquired  over  the  religion  of  his  ancestors  he  as- 
cribed to  the  violent  measures  of  him  who  had  been  the  murderer  of  his 
father's  family.  By  an  acquaintance  with  the  poets  of  antiquity  and  the 
philosophers  of  heathenism,  which  he  had  acquired  in  secret,  he  found  what 
seemed  to  him  a  higher  life.  Having  attained  the  throne  by  a  bold  use  of 
favorable  circumstances  (361),  he  looked  upon  himself  as  destined  by  the 
gods  to  bring  back  the  delightful  times  of  antiquity.  His  religious  views 
were  of  the  New-Platonic  school,  and  in  his  restoration  of  paganism,  he  in- 
tended to  ingraft  upon  it  all  the  excellencies  of  Christianity.  Christians 
were  removed  from  civil  offices,  condemned  to  rebuild  the  temples  which  had 
been  destroyed,  and  excluded  from  all  professorships  in  which  the  national 

e)  Constantis  Lex  adv.  sacrif.  a.  841.  L.  2.  Cod.  Theod.  de  pagan.  (XVI,  10.)  Constanta  Bescr. 
ad  Taurura.  a.  853.  ibid.  L.  4. 

/)  L.  3.  Cod.  TJieod.  de  pagan.  (XVI,  10.) 


CHAP.  I.    VICTOEY  OF  CHRISTIANITY.    §  94.  JULIAN.    §  95.  PAG  ANISM.     105 

literature  was  taught,  (a)  Even  the  claims  of  justice  were  conceded  in  such 
a  way  as  to  favor  his  hostile  design ;  all  sects  were  tolerated,  all  banished 
bishops  were  recalled,  and  the  Jews  were  invited  to  rebuild  their  sanctuary. 
Those  who  had  remained  heathen  now  began  to  lift  up  their  heads,  and  the 
ever  venal  multitude  returned  to  their  deserted  temples.  These  very  efforts, 
however,  merely  showed  how  well  Constantino  had  understood  the  age  in 
which  he  lived.  The  ridicule  and  hatred  of  the  Christians  Julian  met  with  the 
weapons  of  a  philosopher  rather  than  with  those  of  a  universal  ruler.  In 
his  controversies  with  the  Galileans,  he  endeavored  especially  to  show  that 
they  were  condemned  by  their  own  sacred  books  when  they  deified  a  de- 
ceased Jew,  complied  with  the  new  custom  of  honoring  other  deceased  per- 
sons, and  renounced  Judaism.  (5)  The  virtues  he  exhibited  in  his  official  duties 
procured  peace  and  esteem  even  from  those  who  personally  disliked  him,  and 
those  differences  which  existed  between  him  and  his  people  did  not  make 
him  a  tyrant.  The  more  beautiful  traits  of  the  Greek  national  spirit  could 
not  be  developed  in  him,  but  he  was  nevertheless  a  hero  and  a  philosopher 
on  the  throne,  and  a  pious  and  virtuous  man  in  private  life.  Even  his  de- 
clamatory vanity  was  connected  with  his  high  regard  for  the  free  judgment 
of  his  people.  After  a  busy  reign  of  twenty  months  as  sole  emperor,  and 
after  a  restless  but  fruitless  life,  he  fell  while  yet  a  youth  in  a  battle  with  the 
Persians  (363).  Though  he  passed  away  like  a  flying  cloud,  he  was,  with  the 
exception  of  Athanasius,  the  greatest  man  of  his  century. 

§  95.     Fall  of  Paganism. 

After  Julian,  the  empire  was  governed  by  Christian  emperors,  but  hea- 
thenism continued  undisturbed  in  its  civil  relations  until  the  reign  of  Theo- 
dosius  I.  This  monarch  having  conquered  the  Goths  and  suppressed  the 
heretics,  felt  bound  also  to  persecute  the  pagans  (381).  It  was  at  this  time 
also  that  Gratianus  had  the  altar  of  Victory  removed  from  the  hall  of  the 
Eoman  senate.  It  was  in  vain  that  Symmachus,  in  the  name  of  the  senators, 
implored  that  an  altar  with  which  the  early  and  happy  recollections  of  so 
many  venerable  fathers  were  connected,  and  already  so  dear  even  to  the  ten- 
derest  youth,  might  be  spared.  In  vain  did  he  plead  in  the  name  of  the 
eternal  city  itself,  that  in  the  present  uncertain  condition  of  things,  the  usages 
of  their  ancestors  might  be  respected,  and  a  religion  under  which  they  had 
conquered  the  world  might  not  be  exterminated.  (a)  In  the  exercise  of  his 
power  as  sole  ruler  (392),  Theodosius  proclaimed  every  form  of  idolatry  a 
crime,  and  every  attempt  to  learn  the  secrets  of  the  future  by  animal  sacri- 
fices, high  treason.  (5)  Those  enthusiastic  teachers  who  relied  wholly  upon 
the  spiritual  power  of  the  gospel  to  overcome  all  its  opponents,  were  out- 
numbered by  the  zealots  who  urged  the  emperor,  as  a  matter  of  conscience, 

a)  Jul.  Ep.  42.  Ammian.  Marc.  XXII,  10.  Orosii,  Hist.  VII,  30.  The  misunderstanding  iu 
Sotsom.  V,  18.  Socrat.  Ill,  12.  'Iheodoret.  Hist  ecc.  Ill,  S. 

&)  Marquis  d'Argens,  Defense  du  paganisme  par  1'Emp.  Julian.  Ber.  1764.  ed.  3.  1769. 

a)  Symmachi  1.  X.  Ep.  61.  (Ed.  Pareus,  Neost.  Nem.  1628.) 

&)  L.  12.  Cod.  Theod.  de  pagan.  (XVI,  10.)—Stuffken,  de  Theodosii  M.  in  rem  chr.  meritii 
Lugd.  1828. 


106  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IL  IMPEEIAL  CHUECH.  A.  D.  312-800. 

to  destroy  paganism  by  fire  and  sword.  The  populace  were  excited  by  vio- 
lent monks  to  rise  against  the  temples.  It  was  to  no  purpose  that  Libanivs 
eloquently  interceded  for  those  edifices  which  he  had  just  assisted  Julian  to 
embellish,  (c)  A  few  of  the  more  beautiful  ancient  temples  were  saved,  to  be 
converted  into  churches.  When  the  mysterious  Serapion  at  Alexandria  was 
destroyed,  and  the  statue  of  the  god  was  broken  to  pieces,  the  Egyptians 
expected,  according  to  an  ancient  prophecy,  that  the  world  would  sink  back 
into  its  original  chaos,  (d)  Philosophy  sought  consolation  in  magical  arts, 
and  hopes  were  entertained  that  tho  power  of  Christianity  was  destined  to 
extinction  during  the  year  399.  (e)  Tho  heathen  oracles  withheld  their  re- 
sponses, and  the  Sibylline  books  were  consumed  in  the  flames.  Before  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  idolatry  was  completely  exterminated  in  every 
part  of  tho  Eastern  empire.  In  the  West,  where  the  continual  incursions 
of  tho  barbarians  rendered  the  emperor's  authority  less  effective,  it  was  found 
impossible  wholly  to  put  down  the  worship  of  the  gods,  to  whose  vengeance 
the  devastation  of  the  empire  was  ascribed.  Hence,  after  Rome  had  been 
plundered  by  the  barbarians,  Augustine  (426)  and  Orosius  (417)  found  it  ne- 
cessary, by  labored  apologies,  to  prove  that  Christianity  was  not  responsible 
for  tho  calamities  of  the  times,  the  former  taking  tho  ground  that  the  whole 
history  of  the  world  was  only  a  development  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  con- 
ditioned by  the  opposition  of  men.  (/)  The  great  multitude  indeed  followed 
where  fortune  and  ^power  led  the  way,  but  Augustine  found  by  experience, 
as  Libanius  had  intimated,  that  it  was  easier  to  exclude  the  gods  from  tho 
temples,  than  from  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  that  Jesus  was  not  often 
sought  for  from  disinterested  motives.  (?)  Heathenism  maintained  its  ground 
only  here  and  there  in  some  remote  districts  (paganismus,  368),  where  it  was 
protected  by  the  rustic  simplicity  and  honesty  of  its  votaries,  in  particular 
individuals  or  families  of  an  exalted  character,  and  in  tho  schools  of  philoso- 
phy. A  few  philosophers  fell  a  sacrifice  to  tho  frantic  zeal  of  the  Christian 
populace.  The  learned  and  amiable  Hypatia,  who  presided  over  the  New- 
Platonic  school  of  Alexandria,  was  horribly  murdered  in  a  church,  not  with- 
out guilt  on  the  part  of  Cyril  the  bishop,  (h)  Heathenism,  however,  from 
its  very  nature,  could  never  attain  ascendency  by  its  martyrdoms.  Jus- 
tinian I.  destroyed  its  last  intellectual  hold,  by  abolishing  the  schools  of  phi- 
losophy, and  he  annihilated  even  those  secret  vestiges  of  it  in  Rome  which 
had  become  concealed  under  an  indifference  to  all  external  forms  of  wor- 
ship, (i)  Photius  alone  preferred  a  voluntary  baptism  of  blood  in  defence 

c)  Orat  ad  Theodos.  vitfp  TUV  Ifpwv.    Opp.  ed.  lieiske.  Th.  II.    More  complete:  Novus  S.  Pa- 
trum  Grace.  Saec.  IV.  delectus,  rec.  L.  de  Sinner.  Par.  1S42. 

d)  Eufini,  H.  ecc.  II,  22-80.    tiocrat.  V,  16. 

e)  Sozom.  VI,  85.    Avgusiin.  de  Civ.  Dei.  XVIII,  53. 

/)  August,  de  Civitate  DeL  L  XXII.  c,  comment  Jo.  L.  Vims  et  Coguael,  Ilamb.  16C2.  2  Th. 
J.  van  Goens,  de  Aug.  Apologeta  sec.  II.  de  Civ.  DeL  Amst  1838.  Pauli  Orosii  adv.  Paganos  his- 
toriar.  L.  VII.  (Honnesda  mundi,  Moestitia)  rec.  Sig.  ffaverfcamp,  Lugd.  1738.  4.  Th.  de  Moerner, 
de  Oros.  vita  ejusque  Hist,  libris.  Ber.  1844. 

0)  Uban.  Opp.  vol.  II.  p.  17T.    Aug.  Senn.  62.  in  Ev.  Jo.  tr.  25, 10.    7i)  Socrat.  VII,  15.^  Wern*. 
dorf,  de  Hyp.  philosopha  Dss.  IV.  Vit  1748.  4.    Munch,  Hypatia.  (Verm.  Schriften.  Ludwigsb. 
1828.  vol.  L) 

1)  Procopii,  Hist  arcana  c.  11.  Theophan.  Chronogr.  ad  ann.  522.   Com  p.  Agathiae  Hist  II,  30. 


CHAP.  I.  VICTOKY  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  §  95.  MAINOTTES.  §  96.  MASSALIANS.  107 

of  freedom,  to  a  constrained  baptism  in  behalf  of  Christianity ;  and  the 
Mainottes,  in  their  mountain  homes,  defended  at  the  same  time  their  own 
liberties  and  the  ancient  gods  of  Sparta.  So  many  religious  phrases  and  fes- 
tivals connected  with  idolatry  were  preserved  at  Eome,  that  it  may  more 
properly  be  said  to  have  been  incorporated  into  the  life  of  the  Church  than 
abolished.  The  last  adherents  of  the  ancient  faith  were  found  in  the  seventh 
century,  inhabiting  some  remote  valleys  of  the  Italian  islands. 

§  96.     Massaliam  and  Hypsistarians. 

I  Epiph.  haer.  80.  Cyrill.  Alex,  de  adoratione  in  spiritu  et  verit.  1.  III.  (Par.  Th.  I.  p.  92.) 
Gregor.  Nae.  Orat.  XVIII.  §  5.  (Opp.  p.  333.)  Gregor.  Nyss.  adv.  Eunom.  1.  II.  (Th.  II.  p.  440.) 

II.  Ullmann,  de  Hypsistariis.  Heidelb.  1823.  4.  On  the  other  side :  JBoehmer,  de  Hyps.  PraeSi- 
tua  est  Neander.  Berol.  1824.  together  with  various  replies. 

Many  persons  had  no  confidence  in  the  ancient  gods,  who  nevertheless 
had  no  faith  in  Christ.  These  were  indifferent  about  what  might  be  the  re- 
sult of  the  great  struggle  for  religion,  or  without  professing  adherence  to  any 
particular  Deity,  they  contented  themselves  with  the  most  general  forms  of 
piety.  The  more  sincere  portion  of  this  class  longed  for  some  religious  fel- 
lowship, and  therefore  associated  themselves  together.  Accordingly,  the 
Massalians  of  Syria  and  Palestine  (Euchites,  Euphemites,  3eoo-e/3e?r,  and  in 
Africa  Coelicolae),  conceded,  indeed,  that  there  might  be  many  gods,  but 
actually  worshipped,  in  their  splendidly  illuminated  oratories,  at  morning 
and  evening  twilight,  only  One  universal  Kuler.  The  Hypsistarians  (V-^LO-TCO 
3e<3  irpoo-KwovvTcs)  of  Cappadocia  can  be  reckoned  in  the  same  class  with 
them,  only  on  the  ground  that  both  were  worshippers  of  but  one  God,  for 
their  peculiar  sentiments  respecting  the  eating  of  meats  and  the  Sabbath  in- 
dicate that  they  must  have  been  a  kind  of  proselytes  of  the  gate.  That  they 
ever  had  any  connection  with  Parsism,  is  very  doubtful.  The  indifference 
of  the  former  class  and  these  latter  sects  of  the  fourth  century  must  have 
disappeared,  after  a  few  generations,  before  the  internal  and  external  power 
of  Christianity. 

§  97.     Christianity  under  the  Persians. 

Christianity  made  no  very  great  progress  in  Persia,  on  account  of  the 
newly  awakened  national  spirit,  the  volatile  character  of  the  people,  and  the 
superficial  knowledge  then  possessed  by  Christians  of  the  Persian  system  of 
religion.  In  the  fourth  century,  however,  Christian  congregations  existed 
in  every  part  of  that  country  under  the  Metropolitan  of  Seleucia.  But  in 
consequence  of  the  hatred  felt  against  them  by  the  priestly  caste,  who  were 
bound  together  by  the  closest  bonds,  and  some  suspicions  of  a  political  na- 
ture awakened  against  them,  they  became  victims  of  a  persecution,  after  343, 
which  raged  almost  without  interruption  for  a  whole  century,  and  nearly  an- 
nihilated the  Church,  (a)  No  parties  bearing  the  name  of  Christian  could 
find  an  asylum  there,  except  those  which  had  been  expelled  from  the  Roman 
empire.  Chosroes  II.  conquered  Jerusalem  (614)  and  put  to  death  all  Chris- 
tians whom  he  found  in  Palestine.  Heraclius  restored  the  holy  city  to  free- 

a)  Emeb.  Vita  Const.  IV,  9-13.  Soaom.  II,  9-14  Soer.  VII,  18-21.  Theodoret.  V,  38.  Acta 
Martyr.  Orient,  et  Occid.  ed  S.  E.  Assemanus.  Eom.  1T48.  f.  P.  I. 


108  ANCIENT  CHUECtI  HISTOEY.  PEE.  II.  IMPEEIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

dom,  and  triumphantly  reinstated  the  cross  in  its  former  glory  (621-628) 
Armenia  fell  at  last  beneath  the  power  of  the  Persians  (429),  but  its  Chris- 
tianity was  more  heroically  defended  than  its  freedom.  (5) 

§  98.     Abyssinia  and  the  Diaspora. 

The  preservation  of  two  young  men  belonging  to  the  murdered  crew  of  a 
Grecian  vessel,  was  the  occasion  of  the  conversion  of  the  Abyssinians.  One 
of  these,  named  Frumentius,  obtained  influence  at  court,  received  episcopal 
ordination  from  the  hands  of  Athanasius  (327),  and  lived  to  see  the  whole 
nation  professing  the  Christian  faith,  (a)  Cosmas,  the  Indian  traveller,  found 
(before  635)  Christian  congregations  at  three  different  points  along  the  coast 

01  the  East  Indies.    Thomas  was  honored  by  them  as  their  apostle,  but  they 
must  have  been  originally  composed  of  mercantile  colonies  from  Persia,  (ft) 
The  existence  of  a  church  at  Chumdan,  in  China  (after  636),  with  all  that  is 
related  of  it,  is  proved  only  by  a  record  discovered  by  the  Jesuits,  (c)    Ara- 
bia was  furnished  with  an  apostle  with  many  rich  gifts  by  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantius.    But  wherever  Christianity  became  prevalent  in  that  country,  it 
was  violently  assailed  by  the  Jews.    "Whole  nomadic  tribes  received  baptism 
at  once  from  the  hermits  of  the  desert,  but  probably  without  much  inquiry 
into  the  nature  of  Christianity,  or  further  practice  of  its  precepts. 

§  99.    Mohammed. 

L  The  Koran :  arab.  et  lat  cd.  Maraccius.  Patav.  1C98.  f.  Petersb.  1787.  4.  Flugel,  Lps.  (1834.) 
1841.  4.  Abulfeda,  (14th  cent)  Hist  anteislamica,  arab.  ct  lat  ed,  Fleischer,  Lps.  1881.  Do  vita 
Muhamedls,  arab.  et  lat  ed.  Gagnier,  Oxon.  1723.  f.  (Tho  1st  Part  of  Abulfeda's  Ann.  Moslemici, 
arab.  et  lat  ed.  Reiske,  Havn.  1789ss.  5  Th.  4.)  Comp.  J.  v.  Hammer  in  the  Wiener  Jahrb.  1835. 
vol.  69.  January,  Ac.  [The  Koran ;  transl.  from  the  Arab.  Into  Engl.  by  G.  Sale.  Lond.  1829. 1844. 

2  vols.  8.    Selections  from  the  K.  with  an  interwoven  comm.  transL  from  the  Arab,  with  notes,  etc. 
by  K  W.  Lane.  Lond.  1844.  8.] 

IL  J.  Gagnier,  la  vie  de  Mah.  Amst  1732.  2  Th.  G.  Bush,  Life  of  Mob.  New  York.  1832.  12. 
[  W.  Irving,  Mob.  and  his  Successors.  New  York.  1852.  2  vols.  8.  &  Ockley,  Hist  of  the  Saracens, 
comprising  the  lives  of  M.  and  his  successors,  &c.  4  ed.  Lond.  1847.  8.  A.  Sprenger,  Life  of  Moii. 
Allahabad.  12.]— Garcin  d«  Tossy,  Doctrine  et  devoirs  de  la  reL  mnsulmane.  Par.  1826.  Cli.  For- 
ster,  Mahomotanismo  unveiled.  Lond.  1829.  2  vols.  8.  Dettinger,  z.  Theol.  dcs  Korans.  (Tub.  Zeit- 
Bchr.  1881.  P.  2.)  J.  V.  Hammer- Pur  g  stall,  Moh.  d.  Prophet  Lps.  1887.  Comp.  Umbreit,  in  d. 
Stud.  u.  Krit  1841.  P.  1.  G.  Weil,  Moh.  de  Proph.  Stuttg.  1848.  [W.  ff.  Neale,  The  Moham.  Sys- 
tem of  Theology.  Lond.  1823.  8.] — Tychsen,  quatcnus  M.  aliarum  rell.  sectatores  toleraverit? 
(Cmmtt  Soc.  Goett  Class.  Hist  Th.  XV.  p.  152ss.)  Mbhler,  Verb,  in  welchem  nach  d.  Koran  J.  C. 
zu  M.  steht  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1830.  P.  1.)  A.  Geiger,  was  hat  M.  aus  dem  Judenth.  aufgenommen  ? 
Bonn.  1838.  C.  F.  Gerock,  Chrlstologie  d.  Koran.  Hamb.  1839.  [IT.  Prideaiue,  Nature  of  Imposture 
in  the  Life  of  M.  Lond.  8vo.  H.  Martyn,  Controv.  Tracts  on  Chr.  and  Mahommedanism.  ed.  & 
Lee.  Lond.  1824  8.  J.  B.  White,  Comparison  of  Moham.  and  Chr.  Bampton  Lectt  Lond.  8.  W.  T. 
Thompson,  Pract  PhiL  of  the  Mohammedans,  transl.  from  the  Per.  of  Jany  Muh.  Asdad.  Lond. 
1839.  8.  Art  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  BibL  Lit  voL  L] 

The  Arabians  were  a  free,  warlike,  and  imaginative  people,  subsisting 

6)  Elisaeus,  History  of  Yartan,  transl.  by  Neumann.  Lond.  1S30.  4.  p.  12ss.  Saint  Martin. 
(§  63.  note  d.)  Th*.  I.  p.  306ss,  Th.  II.  p.  472ss. 

a)  Ruftn.  I,  9.— Jobi  Ludolfi  Hist  Aethiopica.  Frcf.  1681.  f.  Ill,  2.  and  Cmtr.  ad  H.  Aetb.  ib. 
1691.  f.  p.  583ss. 

J)  Cosmas,  Toiroypafyia  xpwriai'iK-f].  (Montfaucon,  Collectio  nova  PP.  graec.  Par.  1706.  £  Th. 
II.)  L.  III.  p.  178.  L  XI.  p.  336.  comp.  Philoatorg.  Ill,  14. 

c)  Kircheri  China  illustrata.  Eom.  1667.  f.  p.  43sa. 


CHAP.  I.    YICTOET  OF  CHEISTIANITY.    §  99.  MOHAMMED.  1 09 

npon  their  flocks,  and  with  only  a  few  commercial  towns.  "With  no  literary 
cultivation,  they  took  great  delight  in  a  poetic  language.  From  the  most 
ancient  times,  the  Oaaha  at  Mecca,  originally  consecrated  to  the  worship  of 
the  one  God,  had  been  the  national  sanctuary,  but  more  recently  each  tribe  had 
possessed  a  deity  for  itself.  Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Parsism,  had  severally 
found  entrance  into  Arabia,  and  it  was  not  uncommon  for  them  to  be  com- 
bined or  exchanged  the  one  for  the  other.  Mohammed  (b.  571)  belonged  to 
the  race  of  Ishmael,  the  tribe  of  the  Koreish,  and  the  family  of  Hashem, 
whose  business  it  was  by  inheritance  to  take  charge  of  the  Caaba.  He  was 
originally  a  merchant  and  a  herdsman,  of  a  quiet  temperament,  with  very 
little  indication  of  his  future  character,  though  frequently  lost  in  religious 
reveries.  All  at  once  he  began  (611)  to  proclaim :  "  There  is  no  God  but 
God,  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet."  On  this  fundamental  principle  was 
constructed  a  system  of  faith  and  morals,  which  combined  together  the  four 
forms  of  religion  prevalent  among  his  people.  Mohammed  was  acquainted 
with  these  only  as  he  had  found  them  in  his  intercourse  with  men — Judaism 
in  its  Talmudic,  and  the  life  of  Jesus  in  its  apocryphal  form.  His  professed 
object  was  to  re-establish  the  religion  of  Abraham,  the  great  ancestor  of  his 
nation ;  and  as  he  regarded  Judaism  and  Christianity  as  divine  revelations, 
he  in  the  Koran  honored  their  founders  with  legends  of  their  miracles.  His 
opinion  respecting  what  he  called  the  later  corruptions  of  these  systems,  be- 
came gradually  more  intolerant,  and  was  aggravated  with  respect  to  the 
Jews  by  motives  of  personal  hatred.  It  became  still  more  developed,  as  he 
advanced  beyond  the  idea  of  a  national  toward  that  of  a  universal  religion — 
an  Is  lam,  without  which  there  was  no  salvation.  His  system  of  religious 
ethics  demanded  stated  seasons  and  forms  of  prayer,  fastings  and  ablutions, 
almsgiving,  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  an  earnest  contention  for  the  faith,  and  a 
willingness  to  die  in  its  behalf.  A  confidence  in  the  doctrine  of  an  absolute 
predestination,  raised  the  courage  of  a  brave  people  by  inducing  them  joy- 
fully to  surrender  themselves  to  the  will  of  the  Almighty.  He  prohibited 
his  followers  the  use  of  wine,  but  indemnified  them  by  an  unrestrained 
allowance  of  sexual  pleasures.  The  prospect  of  sensual  enjoyments  in  an- 
other world  gave  the  finishing  stroke  to  this  system,  and  adapted  it  solely  to 
man's  sensuous  and  intellectual  nature.  He  then  presented  it  to  his  fellow- 
men  with  all  the  peremptoriness  of  a  direct  revelation  from  heaven,  and  in 
all  the  fanciful  richness  of  the  popular  poetry.  Few  in  his  native  city  were 
disposed  to  put  confidence  in  his  messages,  and  he  was  even  obliged  to  escape 
the  swords  of  his  fellow-citizens  by  flying  (July  15th,  622,  Hedschra)  to  Me- 
dina. By  bold  predatory  expeditions  from  this  place,  he  conquered  a  part 
of  Arabia,  and  the  remaining  portion  was  convinced  by  his  success  that  he 
was  indeed  an  apostle  of  God.  His  personal  appearance  was  remarkably  pre- 
possessing ;  he  was  eloquent,  enthusiastic  in  piety,  as  well  as  artful  in  policy, 
so  bold  in  his  measures  that  he  even  resorted  to  assassination  to  effect  them, 
yet  ordinarily  just  and  magnanimous  enough  to  be  esteemed  by  an  adoring 
people  as  a  messenger  from  God.  In  his  private  life  he  was  faithful,  sincere, 
and  temperate,  though  addicted  to  women.  When  first  called  of  God  to  hia 
work,  he  cquld  neither  read  nor  write ;  his  travels  could  nave  given  no  great 


J  10  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.  PEE.  II.  IMPEEIAL  CHUECH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

information,  and  most  of  what  he  knew  he  had  acquired  at  Mecca,  to  which 
pilgrims  resorted  from  the  whole  oriental  world.  He  professed  to  receive  his 
revelations,  as  occasion  called  for  them,  from  the  lips  of  the  angel  Gahriel, 
in  inspired  language,  though  in  the  day  of  his  prosperity  they  were  not  with- 
out a  remarkable  adaptation  to  his  desires.  They  were  preserved  sometime? 
in  popular  tradition,  and  sometimes  in  detached  manuscript  fragments,  until 
two  years  after  his  death,  when  they  were  collected  as  holy  scriptures  (Al- 
koran)  hy  Alubelv.  This  prophet,  poet,  priest  and  king  of  Arahia,  died  (632) 
in  the  midst  of  his  plans  of  conquest,  from  the  effects  of  a  slow  poison  given 
him  to  test  his  prophetic  powers. 

§  100.     Victories  of  Islam. 

Oeltner,  des  effets  de  la  rel.  de  Moh.  pendant  les  trols  prem.  Bteclea  Par.  1810.  MIt  Zus.  dcs 
Verf.  v.  E.  D.  M.  FrkC  1810.  J.  J.  Ddttinger,  Mnh.  EeL  nach  Ihrer  Entwickj.  u.  ihrem  Einflnsse. 
Munch.  1888. 

To  his  successors  the  Caliphs,  Mohammed  left  the  assurance  that  God  had 
given  them  the  world  to  be  conquered  for  Islam.  This  system  had  even  then, 
in  its  various  sects,  been  developed  in  some  splendid  forms  of  life.  The  Ro- 
man empire  had  become  debased  by  effeminacy;  and  the  oriental  Church  was 
split  up  into  factions.  But  a  religious  enthusiasm  which  has  seized  the 
sword,  cannot  be  overcome,  at  least  by  ordinary  armies,  and  Christianity  had 
hitherto  been  far  from  cultivating  the  military  virtues.  The  Arabians  suc- 
cessively conquered  Egypt  and  Syria  before  640,  Persia  before  651,  and  the 
African  provinces  before  707.  "With  extreme  difficulty  Constantinople  with- 
stood the  storm.  The  conditions  on  which  the  patriarch  Sophronius  had  sur- 
rendered Jerusalem  (637),  were  generally  complied  with  by  the  Saracens,  so 
far  as  they  referred  to  the  Christian  population.  Christians  were  tolerated 
in  the  exercise  of  their  religion  on  the  payment  of  a  poll-tax,  but  many  of 
them  renounced  their  faith,  and  followed  the  fortune  of  their  conquerors. 
Mohammed  defended  Jesus  from  the  attempts  of  Christians  to  deify  him,  and, 
according  to  a  prevalent  tradition,  Christ  is  at  his  second  advent  to  become 
the  last  Caliph.  The  efforts  of  the  Christian  apologists  were  confined  princi- 
pally to  a  defence  of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  of  the  doctrine  that  God 
could  not  be  the  author  of  evil.  The  only  reply  of  the  Mussulmen  was  with 
their  swords. 


CHAP.  II.— THEOLOGY  AND  SCIENCE. 

§  101.     Conflicts  and  Sources  of  Ecclesiastical  Life. 

As  the  various  parties  became  developed  within  the  Church,  the  latter 
was  necessarily  urged  to  a  more  precise  determination  of  the  essential  arti- 
cles of  its  faith.  The  unity  of  the  Church,  which  had  been  externally  estab- 
lished, operated  unfavorably  to  an  unrestrained  diversity  of  opinions.  No 
sooner  had  the  common  external  enemies  of  the  Church  been  overcome,  than 
its  consciousness  of  essential  unity  became  so  obscured  by  the  rancor  of  indi- 
vidual parties,  that  not  only  elements  foreign  to  Christianity,  but  some  of 


CHAP.  IT.    DOCTRINE.    §  101.  CONFLICTS,  SOURCES.  1  1 1 

the  mere  modes  in  which  real  Christianity  was  received,  were  rejected  by  the 
Church.  Indeed  it  was  for  a  long  time  uncertain  which  of  the  parties  in 
this  contest  would  prove  to  be  the  Catholic  Church.  The  passions  of  the 
people  and  of  the  government  were  enlisted  in  the  conflict.  The  natural  de- 
velopment of  the  ecclesiastical  spirit  was  determined  by  mechanical  majori- 
ties and  imperial  decisions.  The  Oriental  Church  endeavored  to  fathom  the 
mystery  of  the  divine,  while  the  "Western  attempted  rather  to  explore  the 
abyss  of  the  human  nature.  The  whole  literature  of  the  Church  was  in- 
volved in  these  theological  disputes,  which  became,  especially  in  the  East, 
central  objects  in  the  history  not  merely  of  the  Church,  but  of  the  empire. 
Tradition  and  the  Scriptures  were  as  usual  regarded  as  the  standard  of  au- 
thority, but  while  individuals  sought  salvation  only  in  the  word  of  God,  the 
living  voice  and  opinion  of  the  Church  became  in  practice  more  and  more  in- 
fluential. Vincentius  of  Lirinum  (d.  about  450)  proposed  that  the  tradition 
which  could  plead  in  its  behalf  the  established  usage  of  the  primitive  Church 
and  universal  consent  as  the  conditions  of  its  proper  organic  progress,  in  op- 
position to  all  heretical  innovations  and  ecclesiastical  rigidity,  should  be 
regarded  as  the  warrant  and  the  standard  of  the  true  faith,  (a)  Those  por- 
tions of  the  sacred  writings  which  had  been  subjects  of  suspicion  at  an  early 
period,  were  still  opposed  by  many  in  the  time  of  Eusebius.  (5)  But  the 
unity  of  the  Church  rendered  it  indispensable  that  all  portions  should 
be  agreed  respecting  its  sacred  writings,  and  accordingly  near  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  the  disputed  books  were  almost  universally  received.  "We 
have,  however,  no  well  authenticated  law  on  the  subject  of  the  canon,  with 
the  exception  of  a  decree  passed  by  an  African  synod,  which  seems  to  have 
been  adopted  in  other  countries  as  a  part  of  the  common  law  of  the  Church. 
Various  translations  were  in  use  among  the  Latin  portions  of  the  Church ; 
one  of  these,  the  Itala,  used  at  Eome,  was,  at  the  request  of  the  Bishop  Da- 
masus,  amended  by  Jerome,  and  in  connection  with  a  version  of  the  received 
text  of  the  Old  Testament,  maintained  its  position  and  found  acceptance  in 
spite  of  much  opposition. 

I.  THE  AEIAN  CONTROVERSY.          , 

I.  1)  Respecting  some  fragments  of  the  writings  of  Arius :  Fabricii  Bibl.  gr.  Th.  VIII.  p.  309s. 
esp.  Ep.  ad  Euseb.  Nicom.  (in  Epiph.  haer.  69,  6.  Theodore!,  H.  ecc.  I,  5.)  Ep.  ad  Alexandr.  & 
flragm..  from  the  ©aAeia  (in  Athan.  d.  Synod.  Arim.  et  Selene.  Opp.  Th.  I.  p.  885s.)  Philostorgiua 
(§  92.)  Fragmenta  Arianor.  about  383.  (Aug.  Maji  N.  Coll.  Rom.  1S28.  Th.  III.)  2)  Partaking  the 
least  of  a  partisan  character :  Afhctnasius,  Eusebius,  and  Socrates.  A  partisan  treatise :  Epiph. 
haer.  69.  73.  75s. 

IT.  Walch,  Hist  d.  Ketzereien.  vol.  II.  III.  Travasa,  Storia  critica  della  vita  di  Ario.  Ven.  1746. 
(Stark)  Yers.  e.  Gesch.  d.  Arianism.  Brl.  1783.  Mbhler,  Athan.  d.  Grosse  u.  d.  Kirche  seiner  Zeit 
Mainz.  1827.  2  vols.  L.  Lange,  in  Illgens  Zeitschr.  1834s.  vol.  IV.  pt.  2.  vol.  V.  pt  1.—  Wetzer,  Resti- 
tutlo  verae  chronolog.  rernm  ex  controv.  Arianis  inde  ab  a.  325  usque  ad  a.  350  exortarum.  Frcf.  1827. 
— F.  G.  Baur,  d.  chr.  L.  v.  d.  Dreieinigk.  u.  Menschw.  Gottes.  Tub.  1841.  Th.  I.  p.  306ss.  G.  A. 
Meier,  L.  v.  d.  Trin.  vol.  I.  p.  134sa.  J.  A.  Dorner,  Entwicklungsgesch.  d.  L.  v.  d.  Person  Chr.  in  d. 

a)  Commonitorium  pro  cath.  fidei  antiquitate  et  universitate  adv.  profanas  omnium  haer.  novi- 
tates.  Denuo  ed.  Herzog.  Vrat  1839. 

I)  H.  tec.  Ill,  8.  VI,  25:  6fj.o\oyovfjisva, 


1  12  ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  312-800. 

ersten  4  Jahrh.  1845.  Part  II.  [J.  IT.  Neioman,  The  Arians  of  the  4th  cent  Lond.  183S.  8.  J.  Whit- 
aker,  Hist  of  Arianism  disclosed.  Lond.  1791.  8.  W.  Berrimann,  An  hist.  Account  of  controversies 
on  the  Trinity,  in  8  sermons.  L«nd.  1725.] 

§  102.     The  Synod  of  Nicaea.    325.     Cont.  from  §  90. 

I.  Euseb.  Vita  Const  III,  6ss.    The  Creed :  Theodoret,  1, 12.  Socrat.  I,  8.    Respecting  its  com- 
position :  Ernef).  Caesar.  Ep.  ad  Caesarienses.  AOianas.  Ep.  de  decretis  syn.  Nic.  &  Ep.  ad  Afros. 
Gelasii  Cyziceni  (about  476)   ^vvraypa  TUI>  KaraT^v  fvNiKaiaayiav<rvi>o$ot'TrpaxOet'Twi'. 
(Mansi  Th.  II.  p.  759ss.)    [Landon,  Manual  of  councils.  Nicaea.  pp.  480-38.] 

II.  F.  G.  Ifawencamp,  Hist  Ariatiae  controv.  ab  initio  usque  ad  syn.  Nicaenam.  Marb.  1S45.— 
Jtiig.  Hist  Cone.  Nic.  Lps.  1712.  4— Munscher,  G.  d.  Sinn  d.  nic.  Glaubensformel.  (Henkes  N.  Mag. 
voL  VL  p.  8348S.)    Eitentchmidt,  d.  Unfehlbark.  d.  Cone,  zu  Nicaa.  Neust  1830.    [J.  Kayo,  Athana- 
Bius  &  the  Council  of  Nice.  Lond.  1853.  8.     W.  A.  Hammond,  Definitions  of  faith  &  canons  of  Disc. 
of  the  6  oecumenical  councils,  &  code  of  the  univer.  Church,  and  apost  canons.  Lond.  1S43.  New 
York.  1S44. 12.] 

The  contradiction  involved  in  the  idea  of  a  God  existing  at  the  same  time 
with  another,  or  of  a  God  subordinate  to  another,  was  yet  to  he  declared  and 
overcome.  Arius,  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria,  maintained  that  the  Son  was 
at  some  period  created  out  of  nothing  *by  the  divine  will,  that  he  was  the 
first  of  all  creatures,  and  the  Creator  of  the  world,  that  he  was  endowed  witli 
the  highest  natural  gifts  in  the  highest  state  of  development,  and  that  he  was 
not  truly  God,  though  he  might  be  so  called.  Arias  had  been  educated  at 
Antioch,  was  eloquent  in  prose  and  verse,  a  skilful  logician,  though  not  biased 
by  any  predominant  intellectual  tendency,  and  a  rigid  ascetic  in  his  habits  of 
life.  Proceeding  from  the  ground  of  the  ordinary  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
ho  attempted  to  find  some  clear  idea  which  should  at  once  be  consistent  with 
Monotheism,  and  opposed  to  Sabellianism.  His  Bishop  Alexander,  produced 
in  opposition  to  his  views  (after  318)  the  other  side  of  Origen's  doctrine,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  Logos  was  from  eternity  begotten  from  the  essence  of 
the  Father,  and  was  consequently  equal  to  the  Father.  At  a  synod  held  at 
Alexandria  (321),  Arius  was  deposed  and  excommunicated.  But  the  people 
and  many  of  the  oriental  bishops  attached  themselves  to  his  party ;  many 
perhaps,  like  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  not  so  much  because  they  shared  in  his 
sentiments,  as  because  they  looked  upon  them  as  harmless,  and  others,  like 
Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  because  they  regarded  such  subjects  as  lying  beyond 
the  bounds  of  human  knowledge  or  of  divine  revelation.  The  emperor  Con- 
stantine,  having  made  many  fruitless  efforts  to  induce  the  parties  to  give  up 
what  then  seemed  to  him  a  useless  controversy,  summoned  a  general  assem- 
bly of  bishops  at  Nicaea,  principally  for  the  settlement  of  this  question. 
More  than  250  bishops,  almost  exclusively  from  the  East,  came  together. 
Both  Arius  «nd  Alexander  were  in  a  minority,  since  most  of  the  bishops 
dreaded  in  the  former  an  exaggerated  system  of  subordination,  and  in  the 
latter  a  covert  Sabellianism,  or  an  open  Tritheism.  But  Alexander's  friends, 
through  the  influence  of  the  court  bishop,  Hosius  of  Cordova,  induced  the 
emperor  to  embrace  their  cause,  and  dictated  the  decision  on  matters  of  faith. 
The  only  embarrassment  which  they  experienced  arose  from  the  readiness 
with  which  the  Arians  subscribed  all  their  articles,  until  the  expression  as- 
serting that  the  Son  was  of  the  same  essence  with  the  Father  (r&>  irarpi  6/zoo'v- 
o-ios)  was  proposed  and  rejected,  and  became  henceforth  the  watchword  of  the 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTRINE.    §  102.  ARIANISM,  >NICAEA.    §  103.  ATHANASIUS.      lib 

new  orthodoxy.  Most  of  the  opposing  bishops,  out  of  reverence  for  the 
imperial  authority,  or  for  the  sake  of  peace,  on  finding  that  it  could  be  inter- 
preted so  as  to  harmonize  with  their  views,  gave  in  their  subscription  to  this 
creed.  Arius  was  banished  to  Illyria,  and  was  accompanied  by  only  two 
Egyptian  bishops.  Three  months  afterwards,  Eusebim  of  Nicomedia,  who 
had  promptly  subscribed  not  only  the  creed  but  the  condemnation  of  Arius, 
was  compelled  to  share  his  fate.  The  Emperor  commanded  that  all  the  writ- 
ings of  Arius  should  be  burned ;  all  who  would  not  surrender  his  works  were 
threatened  with  death,  and  his  followers  were  to  be  regarded  as  the  enemies 
of  Christianity.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  the  Jatter  were  sometimes  called 
Porphyrians. 

§  103.     AtJianasius  and  Arius. 

A  controversy  thus  decided  by  the  mere  authority  of  an  incompetent  and 
unstable  sovereign  was  sure  speedily  to  be  renewed.  Athanasius  five  months 
afterwards  was  made  Metropolitan  of  Alexandria,  and  became  the  leader  of 
the  Nicaean  party,  which  even  when  a  deacon  he  had  completely  governed  at 
Nicaea.  By  his  enemies  he  has  been  described  as  a  tyrant ;  by  the  emperors 
he  was  sometimes  persecuted,  sometimes  honored,  and  always  feared ;  and  by 
the  Egyptians  he  was  beloved  as  a  friend  of  the  people,  and  venerated  as  a 
saint.  During  twenty  of  the  forty-six  years  which  he  spent  in  the  episcopal 
office  he  was  a  fugitive  for  his  life,  or  in  banishment.  His  life  was  often  pre- 
served through  the  fidelity  of  his  friends,  who  were  ready  to  die  for  him.  The 
great  object  of  his  life  was  to  contend  for  the  divine  dignity  of  Christ,  and 
in  this  for  all  that  was  essential  to  Christianity,  in  opposition  to  a  new  hea- 
thenism, (a)  The  Arians  regarded  themselves  as  the  special  advocates  of  the 
divine  unity,  and  an  intelligible  form  of  thought.  Constantino  finally  recurred 
to  his  earlier  view  of  the  uselessness  of  this  controversy,  and  was  satisfied 
with  a  creed  drawn  up  by  Arius  in  the  most  general  terms  (328).  At  a  synod 
convened  at  Tyre  (335)  Athanasius  was  deposed  and  banished  to  Gaul.  Arius 
died  on  the  very  day  in  which  he  went  in  solemn  procession  from  the  impe- 
rial palace  to  the  church  of  the  apostles  (336),  according  to  his  enemies  the 
victim  of  a  divine  judgment,  but  according  to  his  friends  poisoned  by  magical 
arts.  (5)  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  after  338  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  again 
became  the  leader  of  the  party  which  had  been  the  true  majority  at  Nicaea, 
and  taught  that  the  Logos  was  from  eternity  begotten  of  the  substance  of  the 
Father,  and  was  similar  in  nature  (ojuoiouo-tos)  but  subordinate  to  the  Father. 
This  party,  then  called  the  Eusebian,  and  at  a  later  period  the  Semiarian^ 
embraced  those  who  had  been  known  as  Arians,  and  had  the  complete  ascend- 
ency in  the  East,  (c)  but  the  "West  had  been  gained  over  by  the  personal 
energy  and  presence  of  Athanasius.  An  attempt  was  made  to  reconcile  both 
portions  of  the  imperial  Church  at  a  synod  convened  at  Sardica  (347"),  but  so 

a)  Collections  for  a  biography  of  Athanasius  may  be  found  in  the  edit  of  his  works  by  Montfau- 
con,  and  in  Tillemont,  Th.  VIII.  Mohler  (bef.  §  102.) 

&)  Socrat.  I,  38.  Sozom.  I,  29s.  Honorable  &  true ;  Athanas.  Ep.  ad  Serap.  (Opp.  Th.  I.  p.  670ss.) 
Ad  Episcc.  A  eg.  et  Lib.  §  19. 

c)  Esp.  at  the  Synods  of  Antioch,  341,  and  Ancyra,  35S.  Athan.  de  synodis  §  22ss.  Socrat.  II 
iOss.  Epiph.  haer.  73. 

8 


1  1  4  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOET.  PEE.  IL  IMPEEIAL  CHTJBCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

unsuccessful  was  it  that  the  two  parties  came  to  a  complete  rupture  with  each 
other,  and  the  oriental  held  distinct  sessions  in  the  neighboring  city  of  Philip- 
popolis.  Constantly*  was  compelled  to  restore  Athanasius  to  the  see  of  Alex- 
andria by  a  threat  of  war  from  his  brother,  but  as  soon  as  he  became  the 
sole  ruler  of  the  empire  (353)  he  had  the  cathedral  of  Alexandria  taken  by 
storm,  and  endeavored  also  to  eradicate  the  Nicaean  faith  from  the  Western 
portions  of  the  Church.  The  occidental  churches  were  compelled  to  condemn 
Athanasius  and  accept  of  a  Semiarian  creed  at  synods  held  at  Arelate  (353), 
at  Mediolanum  (355),  and  at  Ariminum  (359).  After  these  triumphs  a 
schism  in  the  dominant  party  became  developed  subsequently  to  the  second 
symxl  of  Sirmium  (357),  in  the  contentions  between  the  Eusebians  and  the 
decided  Arians.  Among  the  leaders  whoso  names  they  bore,  Acaeius,  Bishop 
of  Caesarea  endeavored  at  first  to  conceal  this  schism,  by  refusing  to  ac- 
knowledge any  of  the  controverted  articles,  on  the  ground  that  they  were 
unscriptural,  (d)  but  Aetius  and  Eunomius,  in  accordance  with  the  assertion 
that  the  divine  nature  could  be  as  easily  understood  as  the  human,  carried 
out  the  views  of  Arius  with  greater  acuteness  and'  logical  consistency,  and 
denied  that  Christ  possessed  any  divine  nature  (di/o'/ioior,  'Ai/o'jiotoi).  (c)  After 
the  death  of  Constantius  (361)  the  Athanasian  party  attained  once  more  its 
natural  strength  in  the  West.  In  the  East  Valena  (364-78)  was  so  furious 
against  it  that  he  spared  not  even  the  Semiarians.  The  result  was  that  the 
latter  adopted  views  much  nearer  those  of  the  Athanasian  party  (after  366.) 
The  struggles  of  these  various  parties  were  maintained  quite  as  much  by  the 
weapons  of  court  intrigue  and  insurrection  as  by  proofs  derived  from  the 
Scriptures,  from  tradition,  and  from  logic.  Synods  were  arrayed  against 
synods,  and  force  was  opposed  to  force.  Athanasius,  whose  last  years  had 
been  spent  in  peace  among  his  own  people,  died  about  873,  while  the  conflict 
was  yet  unabated. 

§  104.    Minor  Controversies. 

1.  Marcellus,  Bishop  of  Ancyra,  and  a  leader  of  the  Nicaean  party,  repre- 
sented the  Logos  as  the  eternal  wisdom  of  God,  which  became  the  only  begotten 
Son  of  God  first  at  the  Incarnation,  and  after  the  day  of  judgment  will  once 
more  become  one  with  the  Deity.  Photinus,  Bishop  of  Sirmium,  regarded  the 
man  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God,  only  as  far  as  he  was  ordained  to  bring  the  di- 
vine kingdom  to  its  complete  realization,  and  as  he  was  filled  by  the  Spirit 
and  was  a  power  of  God.  The  deposition  of  Marcellus  (336)  was  regarded 
in  the  West  as  a  martyrdom  for  the  Athanasian  cause.  The  doctrine  of  Pho- 
tinus  was  condemned  by  the  Eusebians  at  Antioch  (after  345),  and  he  was 
himself  deposed  at  Sirmium  (about  351),  but  even  the  Athanasian  party 
hastened  to  relieve  themselves  of  the  reproach  of  his  opinions  by  a  rejection 
of  them  at  the  Synod  of  Mediolanum  (347).  (a) 

<f)  Philoetorg.  IV,  12.    Socrat  II,  40.    Sozvm.  IV,  22. 

«)  PhUostorg.  Ill,  15-17.  Epiph.  baer.  W.— PhUostorg.  VI,  1-4.  Valesiu»  ad  Socrat.  V,  10. 
Fabricii  Bibl.  gr.  Th.  VIII.  p.  2G2ss.— C.  R.  W.  flose,  Gesch.  u.  Lehre  des  Eunom.  Kiel.  1538. 

a)  Fragments,  esp.  jrepl  viroray^s.  Marcelliana  ed.  ff.  O.  Retiberg,  Goett  1794.  Against  him 
Euseb.  Ca.es.  Kara  Map/feAAou  and  -jrepl  TTJS  (KK\rjffiaffTiKrit  &eoA.  (both  after  Euneb.  De- 


CHAP.  II.  DOCTRINE.    §  104.  MACEDONIANS.    §  105. 1st.  SYN.  OF  CONSTTLE.  115 

2.  The  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  its  very  nature  necessarily  par- 
ticipated in  the  fortune  of  that  of  the  Logos,  but  as  no  ecclesiastical  party 
was  formed  with  the  special  object  of  developing  it,  it  remained  in  an  indefi- 
nite state.    "When  the  Eusebians  changed  their  ground,  but  retained  the  Se- 
miarian  doctrine  respecting  the  Spirit,  AtJianasius  perceived  the  necessity  of 
maintaining  his  equality  with  the  Son,  and  gave  to  those  who  opposed  his  views 
the  appellation  of  (after  362)  fighters  against  the  Holy  Ghost  (^j/eu/zaro'/iuxoi) ; 
but  when  Macedonius  of  Constantinople  became  a  leader  of  the  Semiarians, 
they  were  called  Macedonians.    The  views  of  the  Church  however  still  re- 
mained unsettled,  and  many  learned  men  looked  upon  the  Spirit  as  an  opera- 
tion of  God,  others  as  a  creature,  others  as  God,  while  others  still  from  defe- 
rence for  the  Scriptures,  formed  no  conclusion  on  the  subject.  (5) 

3.  The  more  distinctly  the  divine  nature  of  Christ  was  recognized,  the 
less  were  men  willing  to  regard  the  humanity  in  connection  with  it  as  pro- 
perly represented  by  a  sensuous  nature.    When  therefore  Apollinaris,  Bishop 
of  Laodicea,  a   philosopher  who   had   been   classically  educated,  and  was 
then  a  friend  of  Athanasius,  distinctly  proposed  (after  362)  the  opinion  which 
had  extensively  prevailed  in  the  primitive  Church,  but  which  was  then  prin- 
cipally favored  by  the  Arians,  that  the  Logos  connected  himself  only  with  a 
human  body  and  an  animal  soul,  with  which  he  sustained  the  same  relation 
as  was  ordinarily  borne  by  the  human  spirit  (i/our),  he  met  with  opposition  in 
many  ways,  (c) 

§  105.     The  Synod  of  Constantinople  and  the  Holy  Trinity. 

The  Emperor  TJieodosius  Z,  who  had  been  educated  in  the  Nicaean  creed, 
during  his  protracted  and  powerful  reign  triumphantly  accomplished  what 
had  long  been  the  consistent  effort  of  the  Church.  He  first  proclaimed  that 
none  but  those  who  received  the  Nicaean  creed  should  bear  the  name  of 
Catholic  Christians,  and  denounced  their  opponents  as  deluded  and  base  here- 
tics, who  must  ultimately  endure  the  divine  as  they  would  speedily  the  im- 
perial indignation,  (a)  But  when  he  entered  Constantinople  (380)  he  found 
Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  the  bishop  of  the  Nicaean  party,  preaching  in  a  con- 
venticle belonging  to  the  suburbs  of  the  city.  This  bishop  he  brought  at  the 
head  of  his  legions  into  the  Church  of  the  Apostles,  and  drove  the  Arians  out 
of  all  the  churches  of  the  East.  To  legalize  these  violent  proceedings  a  coun- 
cil was  called  together  at  Constantinople  (381.)  (&)  This  second  general  synod 


monst  ev.  Par.  1628.  f.)  Cyrilli  ffieros.  Cat.  XV,  27-33.  For  him :  Athan.  Apol.  c.  Arian,  §  21-35. 
About  him:  Epiph.  haer.  72— Athan.  de  synodis,  §  26s.  Socrat.  11,19.  Hieron.  catal  c.  107.— Klose, 
Gesch.  ti.  Lehre  d.  Marc.  n.  Phot.  Hamb.  1837. 

l>)  Basil,  Ep.  113.  Athan. :  ad  Pallad.  (Th.  I.  p.  952.)  ad  Serapion.  (Th.  I.  p.  166ss.)  Epiph.  haer. 
74.  Gregor.  Naz.  (380)  Orat  87.  Comp.  Vllmann,  Greg.  p.  378ss. 

c)  Fragments  of  Apollinaris  in :  Qregor.  Nyss. ;  Theodoret.  haer.  fabb.  IV,  8.  &  Leontius  Byzant. 
*dv.  fraudes  Apollonaristarum  L  II.  (Gallandii  Bibl.  Th.  XII,  p.  706ss.)  Principal  work  in  opposi- 
tion: Gregor.  2fyss.  \6yos  avrippriTiKb?  Trpbs  TO.  '  A.iro\\ivapiov.  (Gallandii  Bibl.  Th. 
VI.  p.  517ss.) 

«)  L.  2.  Cod.  Tlieod.  de  fide  cath.  (XVI,  1.) 

l~)  Mansi  Th.  III.  p.  521ss.  Rufin.  II,  29.  Socrat.  V,  6ss.  Theodoret.  V,  1sa.—  UUmann,  Gregor, 
v.  Naz.  p.  154ss.  Stuffken,  Theod.  p.  142ss. 


1  16  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOET.    PER.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

having  been  diminished  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  Macedonians,  consisted  of 
150  bishops  chosen  under  the  arbitrary  dictation  of  the  emperor.  The  Ni- 
caean  creed  was  revised  and  clothed  in  such  terms  as  had  become  established 
during  the  more  recent  controversies,  and  in  this  new  form  was  confirmed  by 
them.  The  Eunomians,  Macedonians  and  Apollinarians  were  condemned  as 
heretics,  (c)  The  Arians  were  tolerated  in  the  West  under  Valentinian  II., 
until  Theodosius  obtained  their  suppression  as  the  price  of  his  assistance 
against  the  usurper  Maximus  (388).  "With  the  fifth  century  they  completely 
disappeared  in  all  parts  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  synodal  edicts  of  the  vic- 
torious party  declared  that  the  Son  and  Spirit  were  co-equal  with  the  Father 
in  the  divine  Unity.  In  the  theological  discussions  held  from  the  time  of 
Athanasius  to  that  of  Augustine,  the  views  of  all  parties  were  gradually  so 
accommodated  and  carried  out,  that  the  contents  of  the  apostolic  creed  were 
exalted  to  the  speculative  idea  of  the  Trinity  consisting  of  three  divine  per- 
sons in  the  unity  of  the  divine  nature.  In  this  form  the  doctrine  was  pro- 
claimed as  a  theological  mystery.  The  article  which  declared  that  the  Spirit 
proceeded  also  from  the  Son  (filioque),  was  generally  adopted  in  the  Western 
Church,  and  at  a  synod  of  Toledo  (589)  it  was  incorporated  in  the  confession 
of  faith.  It  was  not  very  different  from  what  had  been  vaguely  taught  by 
the  Greek  ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  fourth  century,  but  it  did  not  awaken 
attention  and  opposition  among  the  Greek  churches  as  an  interpolation  in  the 
Nicaean  creed,  until  some  time  in  the  eighth  century,  (d)  In  the  creed  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Athanasius,  which  has  generally  been  received  in  the  West 
since  the  seventh  century,  and  has  evident  marks  of  the  character  of  the  Latin 
Church  of  the  fifth  century,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  expressly  set  forth, 
and  its  reception  is  made  a  condition  of  salvation.  («) 

§  106.    Ecclesiastical  Literature. 

With  the  exception  of  the  cloister  and  the  desert  the  most  celebrated 
school  for  the  education  of  the  teachers  of  the  Church  was  at  Athens,  (a) 
A  few  of  these  might  have  taken  a  high  rank  among  sophists  and  rhetoricians, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  serious  character  of  Christianity  they  became  ec- 
clesiastical fathers.  They  regarded  their  classical  attainments  generally  with 
mingled  sentiments.  The  twilight  of  ancient  poesy  even  then  cast  a  lingering 
radiance  over  the  Church.  When  Julian  excluded  all  Christians  from  the 
schools  of  ancient  literature,  the  two  Apollinarii  hastened  to  resolve  the  con- 
tents of  the  Scriptures  into  a  series  of  epics,  tragedies,  and  Platonic  dia- 
logues. (&)  Prudentius  (d,  about  405)  in  the  evening  of  his  political  life, 
that  he  might  do  something  for  eternity,  wrote  some  songs  adapted  to  his 
times  and  to  the  conflicts  and  triumphs  of  the  Church,  but  exhibiting  less 

c)  Suiceri  Symb.  Nicaeno-ConsL  expositum.  Traj.  ad  Rh.  1718.  4. 

d)  Augustin.  de  Trin.  IV,  20.    Cone.  Tolet.  symb.  &  can.  2.    (Afansi  Th.  IX.  p.  931.)    Euseb. 
de  ecc.  Theol.  Ill,  4.  Epiph.  Ancor.  fe  9.  (Th.  IL  p.  14.)— J.  G.  Walch,  Hist  controv.  de  procesau  Sp 
8.  Jen.  1751.    Ziegler,  Geschichtsentw.  v.  dogma  v.  H.  G.  (TheoL  Abh.  GGtt.  1791.  vol.  L  p.  204sa.) 

e)  Waterland,  Crit.  Hist  of  the  Atban.  creed.  Camb.  (1724)  1723. 
a)  Arcbiv.  t  Gescb.  by  Schlosser  4-  Bercht,  1833.  vol.  L  p.  217ss. 

&}  Socrat.  Ill,  16.  Sozom.  V,  13.  probably  thence  X/Jt<rroy  ita.a\<av. 


CHAP.  IL    DOCTRINE.    §  106.  SCHOOLS  OF  ALEXANDRIA  &  ANTIOCH.        117 

poetical  than  rhetorical  character,  (c)  Two  schools,  situated  the  one  at  Alex- 
andria and  the  other  at  Antioch,  were  especially  remarkable  for  the  different 
manner  in  which  they  treated  the  Scriptures.  In  the  former  prevailed  an  al- 
legorical system  of  interpretation  and  a  bold  spirit  of  speculation,  both  of 
which  had  been  exemplified  in  Origen,  though  his  peculiarities  were  in  some 
instances  exchanged  for  what  was  common  in  the  Church,  and  in  others  were 
abandoned.  In  the  latter,  the  simple  signification  of  the  words  was  more  par- 
ticularly investigated,  the  circumstances  of  the  original  writers  and  speakers 
were  better  appreciated,  the  divine  was  more  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  human,  and  a  merely  formal  use  was  made  of  philosophy,  and  this  more 
after  the  method  of  Aristotle,  (d)  I.  From  the  Alexandrian  school  proceeded 
those  who  represented  the  theology  of  their  century:  Atlianasius,  a  didactic 
rather  than  an  exegetical  writer,  who  ingeniously  and  enthusiastically  reduced 
all  Christianity  to  the  simple  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of  Christ ;  (e)  and  the 
three  Cappadocians,  Gregory  of  Nyssa  (d.  about  394),  who,  next  to  Origen, 
was  most  distinguished  for  his  scientific  profundity  and  originality,  (/)  his 
brother,  Basil  the  Great,  Metropolitan  of  Caesarea  (d.  379),  equally  zealous 
for  science  and  monasticism,  but  more  remarkable  for  his  talents  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  (g)  and  the  abused  friend  of  his  youth, 
Gregory  of  Nazianzen  (6  SeoXoyor,  d.  390),  by  inclination  and  fortune  so  tossed 
between  the  tranquillity  of  a  contemplative  life  and  the  storms  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal government,  that  he  had  no  satisfaction  in  either,  neither  a  profound 
thinker  nor  a  poet,  but  according  to  the  aspirations  of  his  youth  an  orator, 
frequently  pompous  and  dry,  but  laboring  as  powerfully  for  the  triumph  of 
orthodoxy  as  for  genuine  practical  Christianity.  (A)  Next  to  these  were  Eu- 
selius  of  Caesar ea  (d.  340),  whose  simple  but  not  artless  style  was  like  that 
of  one  whose  knowledge  was  abundant,  who  was  fond  of  peace,  and  disin- 


c)  Opp.  e<L  Heinsius.  Amstel.  1667. 12.  Cellaring,  Hal.  1703.— Middeldorpf,  de  Prui.  et  Theo- 
logia  Prud.  1823ss.  2  P.  (Illgens  Zeitschr.  1832.  voL  IL  part  2.  Abb.  5.)     For  other  references  see 
ITase's  Leben  Jesu.  p.  33. 

d)  Hunter,  d.  Antiocb.  Schule.  (Staudlins  u.  Tzschirners  Arcb.  vol.  I.  P.  1.) 

e)  His  writings  were  occasioned  by  bis  circumstances.    Tbey  were  partly  controversial  in  behalf 
of  Christianity,  the  Nicene  faitb  and  himself  personally,  and  partly  devotional  for  the  promotion  of 
monasticism.    Opp.  ed.  B.  de  Montfaucon,  Par.  16S9ss.  3  Th.  £  Giustiniani,  Putev.  et  Lps.  1777. 
4  Th.  f.  [His  select  treatises  against  the  Arians  in  two  vols.  and  bis  Historical  Tracts  in  one  vol.  have 
been  publ.  in  the  "Lib.  of  the  Fathers  anterior  to  the  division  of  the  East  &  West"  transl.  by  mem- 
ber of  the  Engl.  Church.  Oson.  1S30.— His  orations  were  transl.  by  Parker.  Lond.  1718.  8.] 

f)  A.6yos  KaTrjxiT"fbs  6  yueyay.    Polemical  writings  against Eunomius  &  Apollinaris,  Homiliee 
&  Ascetic  tracts.    Opp.  ed.  Morellius,  Par.  1615.  2  Th.   Append,  add.  Gretser,  Par.  1618.  Benedic- 
tine ed.  (Par.  1780.  Th.  I.)  interrupted  by  the  Revolution.   Lately  found  and  relating  to  the  Arians  & 
Maced.  in  A.  Maji  Scrr.  vett  Coll.  Eom.  1834.  Th.  VIII  —  &  P.  Heyns,  de  Gr.  Nyss.  Lngd.  B. 
1835.  4.    J.  Rupp,  Greg.  v.  N.  Leben  u.  Meinungen.  Lps.  1834. 

g)  Against  Eunomius,  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  Homilies  &  Letters.  Opp.  ed.  fronto  Ducaeus,  Par. 
1618.  2  Th.  f.  Gamier,  Par.  1721ss.  rep.  L.  de  Sinner,  Par.  1839s.  8  Th.— J.  E.  Feisser,  de  vita  Bas. 
Groning.  1828.  Klose,  Bas.  d.  G.  Strals.  1835.  A.  Jahnius,  Bas.  M.  plotinizans.  Bern.  1838.  4.  Ani- 
madvv.  in  Bas.  opp.  Bern.  1842.  Fase.  I.  [On  Solitude,  transL  by  Barksdale.  Lond.  1675.  8.  &  Sel. 
Passages  from  Basil.  Lond.  1810.  8.] 

7i)  Apologies  for  his  official  errors,  Eccles.  discourses  of  all  kinds,  Epistles,  Poems.  Opp.  ed.  Morel' 
Urn,  Par.  1630.  2  Th.  f.  Clemencet,  Par.  1778.  Th.  L  Oaillau,  Par.  1840.  2  Th.  f.  [His  Panegyric  on 
Maccabees  is  transl.  by  Collier.  Lond.  1716.  8.]—  Ullmann,  Greg.  v.  Naz.  Darmst.  1S25.  [Transl.  into 
Engl.  by  G.  V.  Cox,  Lond.  1851.] 


1  18  ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  312-SOO. 

clined  to  the  new  formulae  of  orthodoxy,  (i)  and  the  blind  Didymus  (d.  395) 
in  spirit  and  in  fact  the  last  faithful  follower  of  Origen.  (£)  In  the  Latin 
Church  were  :  Hilarius,  Bishop  of  Poictiers  (Pictavium,  d.  368),  in  his  ac- 
tions, sufferings  and  writings,  the  Athanasius  of  the  West  ;  (0  Ambrosius, 
Archbishop  of  Milan  (374-97),  a  zealous  praefect  even  in  the  Church,  fof 
whose  freedom  and  orthodoxy  he  contended,  fearing  the  Lord  of  all  more 
than  the  sovereign  of  this  world,  and  more  influential  by  his  simplifying  imi- 
tations of  Greek  models  than  by  any  thing  original  in  his  works,  (m)  II.  Lu- 
cianus,  a  presbyter  of  Antioch,  whose  Scriptural  learning  acquired  additional 
honor  by  his  death  (311),  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Antioch- 
ian  school.  Emebius,  Bishop  of  Emisa  (d.  860),  whose  classical  attainments 
and  eloquence  were  acknowledged  even  by  his  opponents,  was  a  Semiarian 
only  so  far  as  he  defended  the  indefinite  terms  of  the  primitive  creed  as  more 
scriptural  in  doctrine  than  the  later  speculations,  (n)  Cyrillus,  with  various 
changes  of  fortune  (350-86),  was  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  and  a  Eusebian,  but  he 
obtained  the  honor  of  canonization  in  consequence  of  his  acknowledgment  of 
the  Nicaean  creed,  though  he  never  used  it  in  his  popular  instructions,  (o) 
Ephrem  (d.  at  Edessa  about  378)  became  the  principal  instructor  of  the  Sy- 
rian Church  (propheta  Syromm),  by  transplanting  into  it  the  Greek  learn- 
ing. (  p)  Diodorw,  Bishop  of  Tarsus  (378  —  about  94),  and  Theodorus,  Bishop 
of  Mopsuestia  (893-428),  both  of  whom  had  been  at  an  earlier  period  pres- 
byters at  Antioch,  developed  the  peculiarities  of  their  school  in  the  most  de- 


f)  IlavToSair^  'urropla,  Chronlcon  ed.  Morns.  Amst  1658.  f.  completed  from  tho  Armenian  ;  ed. 
by  Aucher,  Yen.  1818.  2  Th.  4.  in  Greek  &  LaL  ed.  A.  Majue.  (Scrr.  veterum.  Col.  Th.  VIIL)  Ilpoira- 
paffitevti  fvayye\iirf),  L  XV,  ed.  Vigtrut,  Par.  162&  f.  ffeinichen,  Lps.  18428.  2  Th.  Gaiaford, 
Oxon.  1848.  4  vols.  'Air6Sf^is  evayy.  I  XX.  (I.-X.)  c.  n.  Jfontacutii,  Par.  1623.  1  (The  parts  de- 
fective in  the  1st  &  10th  B.  are  completed  in  Fdbridi  Delectus  arg.  et  syllabus  scrlptt)  Comment. 
on  the  Psalms  &  Isaiah.  Comp.  Fdbricii  Bibl.  Or.  Th.  VII.  p.  835ss.  J.  Bitter,  Ens.  de  divinltate  C. 
placita.  Bon.  1328. 

*)  L.  de  Spiritu  S.  in  the  tranal.  of  Jerome.  (Opp.  Th.  IV.  P.  L)  L.  adv.  Manichaeos.  (Combejlaii 
Auctuar.  gr.  PP.  Th.  II.)  L.  IIL  de  Trinltate.  (ed.  MingareUi,  Bonon.  1769.  f.)  Expositio  VII.  canoni- 
carnm  Epp.  ;  the  transl.  of  which  was  procured  by  Catsiodoru*  through  Eplphanius  Scholast.  and 
the  orig.  text  of  which  Lucke  has  partially  restored  by  means  of  Matthaei's  Scboliae  :  Quaestiones  ac 
vindiciae  Didymianae.  Gott  1829-82.  4  P.  comp.  Com,  u,  Br.  d.  Job.  p.  299ss.  D.  v.  Colin,  Did.  in 
Ersch.  u.  Grub.  Enc.  voL  XXIV. 

Z)  De  Trinitate  1.  XII.  L.  ad  Constantinam.  De  synodis  adv.  Arianos.  De  synodis  Ariminensi  et 
Seleucensi.  Comment  on  Psalms  &  Matth.  Opp.  ed.  Benedictt  (Constant)  Par.  1693.  Ma/el,  Veron. 
1T80.  2  Th.  f.  Oberthur,  Wire.  1785ss.  4  Tb.  A.  Maji  Scrr.  veterum  CoL  Th.  VI. 

m)  Hexaemeron.  De  officiis  L  IIL  De  fide  L  V.  De  8.  Spiritu  1.  Ill,  92.  Epistles.  Opp.  ed.  Bone- 
dictt  Par.  1686-90.  2  Th.  £  Gilbert,  Lps.  1889s.  2  P.—F.  Bohringer,  die  K.  u.  ihreZeugen  o.  KGesch. 
in  Biographien.  Zur.  1845.  vol.  I.  pt  8.  [Ambrose's  Christian  Offices  have  been  transl.  by  Humphreys, 
Lond.  1637.  4] 

n)  Hieron.  catal.  c.  91.  comp.  119.  Soorat.  II,  9.  Sozom.  Ill,  6.—  Euseb.  Opuscc.  (3  Discourses 
«fe  exeget  &  dogm.  fragments)  ed.  Augusti,  Elberf.  1829.  Evidence  that  the  Discourses  belong  to  a 
certain  Euseb.  of  Alex,  of  tho  4th  or  6th  cent  &  information  rsspecting  the  genuine  writings:  Thilo. 
ft.  d.  Schrr.  d.  Eus.  v.  Alex.  u.  des  Ens.  v.  Em.  HaL  1832. 

0)  Catecheses  (about  347.)  Opp.  rec.  Touttee,  Par.  1720.  Ven.  1763s.—  Colin,  Cyr.  in  Ersch.  u.  Gru- 
bers  Encykl.  vol.  XXII.  p.  148ss.  J.  J.  van  Vollenhoven,  de  Cyr.  Hier.  catecheeib.  Amst.  1837.  [St. 
Cyril  '«  Lectures,  3  ed.  in  Lib.  of  the  Fathers.  See  note  e.] 

p)  Comment  on  the  0.  T.,  Devotional  treatises,  Homilies,  Hymns.  Opp.  ed.  J.  £  Asseman.  Eom 
1732ss.  6  Th.  f.  Auserw.  Schrr.  uebers.  v.  P.Zingerle,  Insbr.  1830ss.  5  vols.—  C.  a  Lengerke:  da 
Ephraemo  Sc.  S.  interprete.  Hal.  1828.  4.  De  Ephr.  arte  hermenentica.  Eegiom.  1831.  [J.  Ausleben, 
'  Lib.  d.  Eph.  Syr.  Lps.  1853.  8.] 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTRINE.    §  106.  THEODORE  OF  MOPS.    §  107.  SYNES.  EPIPH.  1  IS 

cided  form.  The  first  was  destitute  of  classical  education,  and  the  last  inter- 
preted the  Old  Testament  without  an  acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew;  but  by 
his  bold  separation  of  the  human  element  in  the  writings  of  inspired  men, 
in  opposition  to  the  common  views  of  the  Church,  he  incurred  the  suspicion 
and  finally  the  condemnation  of  the  Greek  Church,  though  in  the  more  re- 
mote East  he  has  always  been  honored  as  the,  Interpreter,  (q)  Arius  was  a 
pupil  of  Lucianus,  and  indeed  most  of  the  Eusebians  were  educated  in  the 
Antiochian  school.  But  as  even  this  school  could  not  have  sprung  up  with- 
out the  influence  of  Origen,  to  whom  the  Arians  no  less  than  the  Athanasians 
appealed,  the  opposition  of  the  two  schools  was  principally  of  a  scientific 
character,  and  produced  no  suspicion  in  the  Church  until  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century.  It  was  a  conflict  between  the  allegorical  and  the  historical 
method  of  interpretation,  between  ecclesiastical  philosophy  and  ecclesiastical 
biblical  theology. 

II.  THE  OEIGENISTIC  CONTECVEESY. 

§  107.    Synesius,  EpipJianius  and  Hieronymm. 

Those  doctrines  which  had  been  left  undetermined  by  the  Apostles'  Creed 
and  the  various  ecclesiastical  controversies,  were  freely  agitated  in  many  ways 
as  late  as  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  (a)  Synesius,  a  faithful  disciple  of 
Hypatia,  was  made  Bishop  of  Ptolemais  (410-31),  notwithstanding  the  reluc- 
tance with  which  he  resigned  the  leisure  of  a  private  life,  and  his  open  avowal 
that  his  philosophical  opinions  were  inconsistent  with  the  popular  faith.  (J) 
In  consequence,  however,  of  the  exclusive  respect  then  paid  to  ecclesiastical 
orthodoxy  and  an  ascetic  life,  a  strong  party  was  gradually  formed  in  oppo- 
sition to  Origen,  or  rather  to  the  free  theological  investigation  occasioned  by 
the  cultivation  of  Grecian  learning.  At  the  head  of  this  party  stood  EpipJia- 
nius  of  Palestine,  the  perfect  model  of  a  monkish  saint.  In  the  year  367  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Constantia  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  he  died  in 
403.  (c)  In  a  not  altogether  pure  narrative  of  events  which  he  professes  to  have 
taken  place  in  his  day,  and  in  his  work  against  the  heretics,  he  has  brought  a 
confused  mass  of  historical  knowledge  into  the  service  of  a  passionate  but 
pious  zeal,  (d)  Having  in  these  works  placed  Origen  in  the  list  of  heretics,  (e) 
he  demanded  of  the  leaders  of  the  Alexandrian  school  in  Palestine,  John, 

q)  Hieron.  catal.  c.  119.  Socrat.  VI,  3.  A  catalogue  of  the  writings  of  Diodorus  (principally  lost 
as  yet):  Assemani  Bibl.  orient  Th.  III.  P.  I.  p.  28.— A.  Majo:  N.  Coll.  Eom.  1832.  vol.  VI.  p.  Iss. 
Spicil.  Eoman.  Eom.  1840.  Th.  IV.  p.  499ss.  Theodori  quae  supersunt  omnia  ed.  A.  F.  a  Wegnern, 
Th.  I.  Commtr.  in  prophetas  VII.  Ber.  1834.— .F.  L.  Sieffert,  Theod.  Mops.  Veteris  T.  sobrie  interpre- 
tandi  vindex.  Eegiom.  1827.  0.  Fridol.  Fritzsche,  de  Th.  M.  vita  et  scriptis.  Hal.  1836. 

«)  Comp.  JTieron.  prooem,  in  1.  XVIII.  in  Esaiam. 

V)  Opp.  ed.  Petavius,  Par.  (1612)  1640.  f.  C.  Thilo,  Commtr.  in  Syn.  hymnum  II.  v.  1-24.  Hal 
1S42.  4  [Select  Poems  of  Syn.  transl.  by  H.  S.  Boyd.  Lond.  1814.  8.] — Aem.  Th.  Clausen,  de  Syn. 
Philosopho.  Libyae  pentap.  Metropolita.  Havn.  1831. 

c)  EpipJi.  haer.  51,  80. 

d)  Havdpiov,  adv.  haereses,  prefixed  to  the  'A.yKVpuT6s,  de  fide  sermo.  Opp.  ed.  Petavius,  Pai 
1622.  2  Th.  f.  Comp.  ffieron.  catal.  c.  114.  Socrat.  VI,  10. 12.  Sosom.  VI,  32.  VII,  27.  VIII,  14s. 

e)  Haer.  44.    Of  a  similar  character:  O.  ff.  E.  Lommatesch,  de  origine  et  progressu  haeresis  Ori 
genianae.  Lps.  1846.  P.  I.  4. 


120  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOKY.  PER.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  312-800. 

Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  Hieronymus,  and  Rufinus,  that  they  should  sustain  hit 
opinion  (394).  Hieronymus  (Jerome)  of  Stridon  (ahout  331-420),  after  many 
conflicts  in  the  world  and  in  the  desert,  presided  over  a  company  of  hermits 
and  pious  Roman  ladies  at  Bethlehem.  In  a  dream  he  was  once  permitted 
to  choose  whether  he  would  become  a  Ciceronian  or  a  Christian.  He  then 
nbjured  all  worldly  literature,  though  he  never  seems  to  have  taken  the  vow 
in  a  very  rigid  sense.  His  spirit  was  active,  his  knowledge  extensive,  his 
policy  worldly,  and  his  enthusiasm  intense  for  all  that  was  then  esteemed  for 
sanctity.  Though  destitute  of  profound  thought  or  feeling,  he  was  the  means 
of  introducing  Greek-ecclesiastical  and  Hebrew  learning  into  the  Western 
portion  of  the  Church.  In  his  exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  the  Alexandrian 
tendency  was  predominant,  but  the  Antiochian  interpreters  were  consulted, 
and  all  kinds  of  sentiments  are  rapidly  and  cautiously,  learnedly  and  conve- 
niently thrown  together,  (f)  At  one  time  Origen  was  extolled  above  all 
human  authors,  and  the  suspicions  which  many  entertained  respecting  him 
were  imputed  to  a  malignant  jealousy  of  his  reputation,  (g)  but  it  was  charac- 
teristic of  a  nature  like  that  of  Hieronymus,  afterwards  to  abandon  him. 
This  produced  a  rupture  between  Hieronymus  and  Rufinus,  in  consequence 
•of  which  their  characters  are  utterly  blackened  in  each  other's  writings.  (/*) 
Rvfinus  withdrew  to  Aquileia  (d.  410),  where  he  endeavored  to  spread  the 
fame  of  Origen  in  tho  "West  by  translations  from  his  works,  and  to  save  these 
from  imputations  of  heresy  by  alterations  of  them,  (f) 

§  108.     Chrysoatom. 

I.  Opp.  ed.  B.  de  Montfcmcon  ;  Par.  1718-38.  18  Th.  t.  rep.  Par.  1884-89. 18  Th.  4  Comp.  Fabricil 
BibL  Th.  VIIL  p.  454SS.    [Most  of  the  Homilies  on  the  N.  T.  are  transl.  &  publ.  in  tho  Lib.  of  the 
Fathers,  see  g  100,  note  e.    Ills  treatise  on  Compunction  is  transl.  &  publ.  by  Veneer.  Lond.  1728.  8. 
and  that  on  the  Priesthood,  by  Bunce,  Lond.  1759.  8.]— Palladii  Episc.  Hclenopolit  Dial,  do  vita 
Jo.  Cbrys.  ed.  Bigot,  Par.  1680.  4  and  in  Montfaucon,  Th.  XIII.  Socrat.  VI,  8-18.  Sozom.  VIII, 
7-20.    Writings  of  Hieron.  &  TheophiL  in  Hier.  Opp.  rallarsi,  Th.  I.  Ep.  96as. 

II.  Stilting,  de  S.  Chrys.  (AcU  Sanct  Sept  Tb.  IV.  p.  401ss.)    A.  Neander,  d.  h.  Job.  Chrys.  u. 
d.  Kirche  be*,  des  Orientcs  In  desscn  Zcita.  BrL  (1821s.)  1832*8.  2  vols.    [Joh.  Cbrys.  &  the  Oriental 
Church  in  his  times,  from  the  Germ,  of  Neander,  by  Stapleton,  Lond.  1838.  8.]    Bohringer,  d.  K.  u. 
Ihre  Zeugen.  vol.  L  Abth.  8.    [Art  In  Kitto's  Journal  of  BlbL  Lit  vol.  I.] 

/fovuu 

Most  of  the  Egyptian  monks  in  their  controversies  with  the  followers  of 
Origen  residing  among  them,  described  God  as  a  pure  spirit,  and  could  form 
no  conception  of  Him  who  made  man  after  his  own  image  except  in  a  hu- 

/)  Commentaries,  Literary  history,  Chronology,  Histories  of  saints,  Satires,  Epistles,  Ac.  Opp.  ed. 
Erasmus,  Bas.  1516ss.  9  Th.  £  &  oft  Martianay,  Par.  1693ss.  5  Th,  f.  Vallarsi,  Ver.  1784ss.  11  Th. 
4  Ven.  1766ss.  11  Th.  4  [SeL  Epp.  of  Jerome,  transl.  into  EngL  Lond.  1680.  4  Epistle  to  Nepotian 
transl.  Lond.  1715.  8.]— For  him:  Martianay,  la  vle-de  8.  Jerome.  Par.  1706.  4  Stilting,  de  S.  Hier. 
(Acta  Sanct  Sept  Th.  VIIL  p.  418ss.)  Against  him :  Clericus,  Quaestt  Uieronymianae.  Amst  1700. 
OfWrn:  Engdtstoft,  Hieron.  Havn.  1797.  D.  v.  Colin,  llier.  in  Erech.  n.  Grub.  Encykl.  Sect  II. 

vol.  vni. 

0)  Hieron.  Opp.  vol.  IV.  Th.  II.  pi  68.  480.— Ep.  57.  ad  Tbeoph. 

h)  Hieron.  Epp.  38-41.  Rufin.  Praet  ad  Orig.  de  princ.  &  Apol.  8.  Invectivarum  in  Hier.  L  IL 
Hieron.  Apol.  adv.  Ruf.  L  IL  &  (a  rejoinder  to  Rufln's  lost  answer)  Responsio  8.  Apol.  L  III. 

f)  Tyrannii  Rufmi  Opp.  ed.  Vallarsi,  Ver.  1745.  f.  Th.  I.— Mar.  de  Rubeis,  Monumenta  Ecc. 
Aquilejensis.  Argent  1740.  f  p.  SOss.  &  de  Ruflno.  Ven.  1754  4  J.  ff.  Jfarsuttini,  de  Turannii  Euf, 
fide  et  rcl.  Pair.  1835.  Cacciari  &  Kimmel.  (§  92.  note  b.) 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTRINE.    §  103.  THEOPIIILUS.    CHRYSOSTOM.  121 

man  form  (anthropomorphites).  Tlieopliilus,  the  crafty  and  violent  Bishop 
of  Alexandria  (385-412),  who  had  been  an  admirer  of  Origen,  suddenly 
became  convinced  that  he  was  a  heretic  in  consequence  of  some  offences 
received  from  the  followers  of  that  teacher,  and  some  threats  from  the  An- 
thropomorphites, whose  fanaticism  he  wished  to  render  subservient  to  his 
purposes.  He  passed  sentence  of  condemnation  upon  the  memory  of  Origen 
(399),  and  was  sustained  in  his  decision  by  the  Eoman  Church,  (a)  Those  of 
the  monks  who  favored  Origen  were  much  abused  by  him,  but  found  a  pro- 
tector in  John,  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  called:  in  subsequent  ages  CTirysos- 
tom.  Contrary  to  the  wishes  of  Theophilus,  as  well  as  his  own,  he  was  taken 
from  Antioch,  and  (after  398)  presided  over  the  church  at  Constantinople. 
Theophilus  was  summoned  by  the  Emperor  to  the  capital,  where,  after  be- 
coming thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  state  of  affairs,  he  contrived  to  ob- 
tain the  position  of  judge  instead  of  defendant.  Chrysostom,  with  sincere 
Christian  earnestness,  had  carried  out  the  intelligent  method  of  Scriptural 
interpretation  pursued  in  the  school  of  Antioch,  and  the  rhetorical  principles 
of  Libanius,  arid  had  exemplified  in  his  own  life,  as  far  as  was  possible  for 
any  man,  the  ideal  of  the  priesthood,  which  in  his  youthful  fervor  he  had  de- 
scribed. (5)  His  habits  were  strictly  monastic,  he  was  poor  with  respect  to 
himself,  but  rich  in  his  benefactions  to  the  poor,  and  mild  in  disposition,  but 
terribly  eloquent  in  opposition  to  all  courtly  extravagances.  By  the  Empress 
Eudoxia  and  her  dependants  such  a  man  was  soon  doomed  to  destruction. 
At  the  synod  of  The  OaTc  (403),  after  many  confused  and  absurd  accusations, 
Theophilus  pronounced  against  him  a  sentence  ef  deposition  and  banish- 
ment. The  lamentations  and  threats  of  the  people  were  powerful  enough  to 
effect  his  speedy  recall,  but  the  Empress,  like  a  modern  Herodias,  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  having  him  banished  to  Pontus.  (404)  Innocent  I.  pleaded  his  in- 
nocence in  vain,  (c)  Praising  God  for  all  that  had  taken  place,  he  died  in 
extreme  distress  (Sept.  14,  407).  The  body  of  the  saint  was  brought  back  to 
Constantinople  (438)  in  a  triumphal  procession,  (d)  The  goodness  of  Chry- 
sostom was  highly  honored  by  an  age  which  forgot  and  misunderstood  the 
splendid  talents  of  Origen. 

III.  THE  PELAGIAN  CONTEOVEESY. 

I.  1)  The  polemical  writings  of  Augustine :  Opp.  Th.  X.  edd.  Benedictt   Hieron.  Epp.  43.  ad 
Ctesiphontem.  DIall.  adv.  Pelagianos  1.  III.  (Th.  IV.  P.  II.)  Orostt  Apologeticus  contra.  Pel.    Ac- 
count of  the  controversy  in  Palestine.  415.  (Opp.  ed.  Haverkamp,  Lugd.  1738.  4.)  Marius  Mercator, 
Commonitoria.  429,  481.  (Opp.  ed.  Bolus.  Par.  1684)    2)  Fragments  of  Pelagius  &  Coelestius  may 
be  found  in  these  polemical  -writings,  and  some  treatises  of  Pelagius  have  been  preserved  because 
they  were  mistaken  for  works  of  Hieronymus.    Before  the  controversy :  Expositt.  in  Epp.  Paulinas 
(Hier.  Opp.  Th.  V.  p.  925ss.)    In  the  time  of  the  controversy :  Ep.  ad  Demetriadem  (ed.  Semler,  Hal. 
1775.)  &  Libell.  fidei  ad  Innoc.  I.  (Hier.  Opp.  Th.  V.  p.  122ss.)    Fragments  of  the  polem/  treatises  of 
Julianus  of  Eclanum  in  Augustine  &  Mercator.    3)  Original  documents  in  August.  Opp.  Th.  X. 
Mansi  Th.  IV. 

II.  G.  J.  Vossii  II.  de  controversii?,  qtias  Pel.  cjusque  reliquiae  moverunt  Lugd.  1618.  4.  auct.  ed. 

a)  Mansi  Th.  III.  p.  979ss. 

1}  Uepl  tepcoo-ucTj?  1.  VI.  ed.  J.  A.  Bengel,  Stuttg.  1725.    Leo,  Leips.  1834.  [transl.  into  Engl.  by 
Bunce,  Lond.  1759.  8.]    ITebers.  v.  Hasselbach,  Strals.  1820.  v.  Eitter.  Brl.  1821. 
c)  Mansi  Th.  III.  p.  1095ss.    d)  Socrat.  VII,  44.    NicepJi.  XIV,  43. 


122  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

G.  Voss.  Amst  1655.  4  Norisii  H.  Pelagiana.  Pat  1673.  f.  (Opp.  Veron.  1729.  Th.  L)  Garnerli  D-* 
VII.  quibus  Integra  continetur  Pelagianor.  Hist  (In  his  edit  of  Mercator.  Par.  1673.  Th.  I.)  G.  F 
Wiggers,  pragm.  Darstell.  des  Augustinismus  u.  Pelagianism.  Brl.  1821.  vol.  I.  Hamb.  1883.  vol.  IL 
[An  Hist  Presentation  of  Augustinism  &  Pel.  from  the  Germ,  of  G.  F.  "Wigzera  by  G,  B.  Emerson. 
Andover.  1840.  8.  Art  in  Christ  Spect  on  Early  H.  of  Theol.  vol.  IV.  p.  291ss.  for  the  year  1832. 
Princeton  TheoL  Essays.  voL  I.  p.  80ss.  An  able  Hist  of  Augustinism  has  been  written  in  French 
In  Paris,  by  M.  Poujalot.]  J.  G.  Voigt,  do  theoria  Augustiniana,  Scmipel.  et  Synergist  Goett  1S29. 
Lenten,  de  Pelagianor.  doctr.  principib.  Colon.  1833.  J.  L.  Jacoli,  d.  Lehre  d.  Pelagius.  Lpz.  1843. 

§  109.     Pelagianism  and  Augustinism. 

The  freedom  of  man  is  identical  with  his  dependence  upon  God,  but  when 
we  reflect  upon  the  subject  both  these  relations  appear  very  different.  In 
their  controversies  with  the  Montanists  and  Manichaeans  the  Greek  fathers 
gave  special  prominence  to  the  doctrine  of  human  freedom.  The  Latin 
Church,  which  had  been  much  affected  by  Tertullian's  Montanistic  spirit, 
gave  greater  prominence  to  the  doctrine  of  man's  dependence,  and  its  writers, 
without  denying  the  innocence  of  children  or  the  freedom  of  adults,  demon- 
strated the  necessity  of  divine  grace  in  opposition  to  human  freedom,  by 
proving  that  ever  since  Adam's  fall  the  nature  of  man  has  been  continually 
depraved.  Pelagius  and  Coelcstius,  pious  monks,  driven  by  the  incursions  of 
tjio  barbarians  from  Britain  (Bretagne  ?),  their  native  country,  first  to  Rome 
(409),  and  afterwards  to  Africa  (411),  that  they  might  promote  the  interests 
of  morality,  were  especially  zealous  for  the  freedom  of  the  will.  In  oppo- 
sition to  the  views  then  prevalent  in  Africa,  they  maintained  that  man's  na- 
ture was  not  corrupted  by  the  fall  of  Adam,  and  that  even  where  Christian- 
ity was  not  known  men  might  render  themselves  by  the  power  of  their  own 
wills  proper  subjects  of  divine  grace.  They  acknowledged,  however,  that 
men  received  much  assistance  from  the  Church,  where  it  could  be  obtained, 
and  that  those  who  were  subjects  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  participated  in 
more  exalted  blessings.  Augustine  perceived  that  if  this  doctrine  were  con- 
sistently carried  out,  men's  confidence  in  redemption  and  in  the  Church,  as 
indispensable  to  salvation,  would  be  seriously  endangered.  In  behalf  of 
these,  therefore,  he  maintained  his  theories  of  Original  Sin  and  Predestina- 
tion, alleging  that,  "  in  consequence  of  Adam's  fall  man's  nature  has  been 
burdened  with  an  infinite  guilt,  and  is  incapable  of  good  by  its  own  power. 
By  divine  grace,  therefore,  without  man's  co-operation,  and  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  Church,  a  new  life  is  imparted  to  some,  while  others  are 
abandoned  by  divine  justice  to  their  own  corruption,  and  from  all  eternity 
were  ordained  to  condemnation." 

§  110.    Augustinus. 

I.  Opp.  edd.  Benedictini,  Par.  1679-1700. 11  Th.  f.  (recus.  c.  app.  Clericus.)  Antu.  1700ss.  12  Th.  f. 
(Yen.  1729ss.  12  Th.  f.  lT56ss.  18  Th.  4)  Par.  1835-9.  11  Th.  k—Possidius,  vita  Aug.  &  Indiculus  Ope- 
rum  (about  432)  in  the  editt  of  his  works.  The  life  of  Aug.  by  an  anon,  writer  (ed.  Cramer,  Kil.  1832.) 
was  compiled  from  the  Confessions  &  Possidins.  Gennadius,  de  viris  illustr.  c.  88. 

II.  C.  Bindemann,  d.  h.  Aug.  Brl.  1844.  vol.  L  Bohringer,  d.  K.  u.  ihre  Zcngen.  vol.  I.  Abth.  3. 
K.  Branne,  Monnika  u.  Augustin,  Gremma.  1846.    [Augustine's  City  of  God,  transl.  Lond.  1620.  f. 
Meditations  by  Stanhope.  Lond.  1745.  &  Confessions  by  Watts,  Lond.  1C31  12.    His  Confessions,  3  ed. 
revised  by  Fusey  (&  repriblished  in  Boston,  1842.  12.),  in  vol.  L   Sermons  in  vols.  16  &  20,  &  Com- 
ment on  Psalms  in  vols.  24  &  25,  and  on  John  in  vol.  26  of  the  Lib.  of  the  Fathers.    See  §  106,  note  e. 
P.  Schaff,  Life  &  Labors  of  St.  Aug.  from  the  Germ,  by  T.  C.  Porter.  New  York.  1854  12.] 

Aurelius  Augustinus  was  born  at  Tagaste  in  Numidia,  Nov.  13,  354.    His 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTEINE.    §  107.  AUGUSTINE.  123 

mind  had  been  deeply  imbued  during  childhood  with  the  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity, through  the  instructions  of  his  mother  Monica.  But  when  only  a 
youth  of  seventeen  years  he  studied  the  Koman  classics,  and  gave  himself  up 
to  worldly  pleasures.  Cicero's  eloquent  pleadings  for  the  value  of  Phi- 
losophy re-awakened  his  desire  for  something  more  certain  and  eternal. 
The  Scriptures  were  too  simple  for  his  glowing  fancy.  Seduced  by  the  prom- 
ise of  the  Manichaeans  that  complete  truth  would  be  revealed  to  all  whose 
reason  independently  investigated  its  own  depths,  he  continued  for  nine  yeara 
under  their  instruction,  when  he  became  satisfied  that  he  had  been  deceived, 
and  doubted  whether  any  truth  could  be  known.  But  on  his  acquaintance 
with  New-Platonism  another  life  seemed  open  to  his  pursuit.  As  an  in- 
structor in  eloquence  he  visited  Eome  in  383  and  Milan  in  385,  still  devoting 
himself  to  the  enjoyment  of  sensual  pleasures.  Prompted  by  some  recollec- 
tions of  early  childhood  he  was  induced  to  listen  to  Ambrose  simply  as  an 
orator,  that  he  might  compare  the  Platonic  wisdom  with  the  gospel.  Then 
commenced  in  his  heart,  principally  through  the  influence  of  the  writings  of 
Paul,  a  severe  struggle  between  the  temporal  and  the  eternal,  the  progress  of 
which  was  much  assisted  by  the  prayers  and  tears  of  his  mother.  In  a  sud- 
den transport  of  his  feelings  he  became  satisfied  of  his  own  miraculous  con- 
version, and  on  Easter-night,  387,  he,  with  his  natural  son,  was  baptized  by 
Ambrose.  He  immediately  resigned  his  professorship  of  rhetoric  and  re- 
paired to  his  native  city,  where,  with  a  company  of  devout  associates,  he  lived 
in  retirement  from  the  world  until  he  was  ordained  in  Hippo  Regius  (Bona), 
first  a  presbyter  (391),  afterwards  an  assistant  bishop  (395).  Then  commenced 
his  ecclesiastical  life,  and  the  African  churches  were  subsequently  governed 
by  his  intellectual  energies.  His  influence  became  predominant  in  every 
part  of  the  West,  and  his  fame  had  extended  through  the  whole  Church, 
when  he  was  for  three  months  besieged  in  his  own  city  by  the  Vandals,  and 
died  August  28,  430,  singing  the  Penitential  Psalms. — His  earlier  writings 
treat  of  Rhetoric  and  Philosophy,  and  are  for  the  most  part  lost.  His  thdo- 
logical  writings,  consisting  of  devotional,  doctrinal,  and  especially  controver- 
sial treatises,  are  diffuse,  full  of  repetitions,  artificial,  and  often  insipid  by 
mere  plays  upon  words.  His  interpretations  of  Scripture  exhibit  no  extensive 
knowledge  of  languages,  or  historical  accuracy.  («)  And  yet  all  his  works 
are  characterized  by  an  exuberance  of  intellectual  life,  a  profound  knowledge 
of  the  human  heart,  and  an  all-controlling  love  to  God  breaking  forth  in  the 
most  impassioned  forms  of  speech.  He  never  shrunk  from  a  thought,  how- 
ever startling,  and  in  his  writings  he  has  freely  expressed  the  most  liberal,  as 
well  as  the  most  tremendous  conceptions  which  ever  rose  in  an  inquiring 
spirit,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  his  tram  of  reasoning.  In  his  Confes- 
sions (about  400),  with  the-  proud  self-abasement  of  a  saint,  as  it  were  in  a 
confessional  before  God,  he  has  freely  described  himself  in  his  intellectual 
nakedness.  (&)  His  Retractations  (about  429)  contain  indeed  a  severe  criti- 


a)  H.  N.  Clausen,  Augustinus  S.  Scr.  interpres.    Hafn.  1828. 

V)  Confessionum  1.  XIII.  praef.  Neander,  Bor.  1823.  ed.  Cruder,  Lps.  1837.    Transl.  as  an  excel  • 
lent  work  of  devotion  into  the  various  languages  of  Europe.    [Revised  from  a  former  Engl.  transl.  by 


1  24  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

cism  on  his  writings  by  his  own  hand ;  but  it  is  evident,  also,  that  they  were 
intended  to  recall  or  mitigate  whatever  in  his  earlier  works  was  favorable  tc 
the  Pelagians.  In  his  writings  against  the  Manichaeans  he  had  given -promi- 
nence to  some  sentiments  favorable  to  the  freedom  and  goodness  of  the  hu- 
man will.  In  his  controversy  with  the  Donatists  the  idea  every  where  pre- 
vailing is,  that  of  a  Church  which  is  the  only  source  of  truth  and  certainty. 
In  his  own  life  there  had  been  the  most  direct  contrast  between  the  opera- 
tions of  sin  and  of  grace,  and  his  exalted  piety  took  pleasure  in  uncondition 
ally  rejecting  himself  that  he  might  live  wholly  upon  God's  grace  in  Christ. 

§  111.     Victory  of  Augustinism. 

The  controversy  commenced  with  personal  reproaches  against  Coelestius. 
At  a  synod  held  at  Carthage  (412)  he  was  expelled  from  the  Church,  when 
he  betook  himself  to  Ephesus,  and  was  there  ordained  a  presbyter.  Pelagiiis 
had  previously  gone  to  Palestine,  where  he  was  opposed  by  Hieronymus  on 
the  ground  of  his  being  a  follower  of  Origen.  Augustine,  at  first,  in  a  very 
respectful  manner,  by  writing,  and  through  Orosius,  his  messenger,  opened  a 
controversy  with  him.  At  a  synod  convened  at  Diospolis  in  Palestine  (415), 
•he  was  accused  of  maintaining  that  men  could  live  without  sin,  but  his  con- 
demnation was  prevented  by  John,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem.  The  African 
Church,  however,  convinced  by  Augustine  of  the  danger  which  threatened 
the  cause  of  truth  through  him,  condemned  him  at  the  Synods  of  Mileve  and 
Carthage  (416),  and  was  sustained  in  its  decision  by  the  concurrence  of  Inno- 
cent I.  Zo&imus,  the  successor  of  Innocent,  entirely  mistaking  the  impor- 
tance of  this  controversy,  at  first  gave  protection  to  the  Pelagians  (417),  but 
afterwards,  when  the  African  Church  and  the  imperial  court  demanded  their 
condemnation,  with  a  similar  ignorance  he  denounced  them  in  his  Epistola 
tractatoria  (418).  Julianus  of  Eclanwn  and  eighteen  other  bishops  were  de- 
posed and  driven  from  Italy  as  Pelagians.  These  generally  took  refuge  at 
Constantinople,  where  Nestorius,  in  accordance  with  the  general  spirit  of  the 
Oriental  Church,  received  them.  This  gave  occasion  for  a  connection  of  their 
cause  with  that  of  the  heresy  of  Nestorius,  in  consequence  of  which  the  Pe- 
lagians were  condemned  with  the  Nestorians  at  the  general  Synod  of  Ephe- 
8us  (431). 

§  112.    Semipelagianism. 

Jo.  Gefcken,  Hist  Semlpelaglanisml  antiqulsslma  (till  434)  Goott  1826.  4.  Wiggers,  Augustinls- 
mus  u.  Pelaglantemns,  vol.  II.  (till  529.)  [See  bet  §  109.  Also  an  Essay  of  Prof.  Wiggera  In  Nlcd- 
ner's  Zeitechr.  for  Jan.  1854.] 

The  Greek  Church  had  never  taken  any  real  interest  in  this  controversy, 
and  even  at  a  later  period  it  simply  taught  that  human  nature  had  been  ren- 
dered infirm  in  consequence  of  Adam's  fall.  But  even  in  the  Western 
churches  the  whole  system  of  Augustinism  had  never  been  sincerely  and 
openly  accepted  by  the  public  mind.  Augustine  himself  received  informa- 
tion that  an  intermediate  opinion  had  been  propagated  among  the  monks  of 

K  B.  Pusey,  &  publ.  In  the  Lib.  of  ,,he  Fathers  (see  §  106,  note  «.)  vol.  I.  Oxf.  1840.  &  republ.  Eos- 
ton.  1842.1 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTRINE.    §  112.  SEMIPELAGIANS.    CASSIAN.    FAUSTUS.       125 

Massilia,  principally  through  the  influence  of  John  Oassianus  (a),  a  disciple  of 
the  Desert  and  of  Chrysostom.  According  to  this  view  (afterwards  called 
Semipelagianism),  the  moral  power  of  man  has  indeed  been  enfeebled,  but 
not  destroyed,  in  consequence  of  Adams'  fall,  and  hence  divine  grace  and  hu- 
man freedom  conspired  together,  and  acted  in  concert  with  each  other  in  the 
work  of  man's  salvation.  This  doctrine,  which  conceded  as  much  to  the 
Church  as  to  the  free  moral  nature  of  man,  and  without  which  there  seemed 
to  be  no  special  advantage  in  a  monastic  life,  obtained  great  favor.  The 
Church,  however,  had  too  decidedly  committed  itself  on  the  side  of  Augus- 
tine, the  authority  of  this  father  was  then  too  great,  and  the  reasoning  by 
which  his  doctrines  were  sustained  was  too  irresistible,  to  permit  a  general 
and  open  departure  from  his  principles.  In  the  West,  therefore,  there  was 
always  an  obscurity  and  instability  of  sentiment  on  this  subject.  In  Gaul 
Semipelagianism  was  decidedly  in  the  ascendant.  Acting  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Synod  of  Arelate  (472),  Faustus,  Bishop  of  Khegium,  but  pre- 
viously Abbot  of  Levius,  drew  up  a  Semipelagian  confession,  which  was  sub- 
scribed by  all  the  bishops  at  the  Synod  of  Lyons  (475).  (b)  From  policy  and 
a  pious  regard  for  Augustine,  the  sacred  name  of  that  father  was  not  men- 
tioned, but  this  was  only  to  assail  with  greater  recklessness  the  character  of 
his  followers.  A  sect  of  Predestinarians,  distinctively  so  called,  never  ex- 
isted except  in  the  imaginations  of  their  opponents,  and  an  extreme  defence 
of  predestination  professing  to  have  been  put  forth  at  that  time,  is,  if  not  a 
Jesuitical^  at  least  a  Pelagian  work,  (c)  In  Africa  and  Koine  a  tendency  to 
Augustinism  prevailed,  and  through  Eomish  influence  at  the  Synods  of  Arau- 
sio  (Orange)  and  Valentia  (529)  a  decision  was  obtained  in  favor  of  the  ex- 
clusive operation  of  divine  grace,  (d)  although  predestination,  which  must 
necessarily  be  inferred  from  this,  was  evidently  evaded.  As  both  parties 
therefore  shrunk  from  extreme  views  the  controversy  never  produced  an  ac- 
tual schism  in  the  Church,  although  sometimes  a,  monk  or  a  presbyter  was  op- 
pressed by  his  bishop,  now  in  the  name  of  Augustine,  and  again  in  defence 
of  human  freedom.  But  just  as  Augustine  has  been  regarded  as  a  saint  by 
the  whole  Church,  Cassian  and  Faustus  have  always  been  honored  as  saints 
in  their  own  country. 

a)  DQ  institutes  coenobioruin  1.  XII.  Collationes  Patrum  XXIY.  De  incarn.  Christi  adv.  Neater, 
1.  VII.  Opp.  ed.  Alardus  Gazaeus,  Duaci.  161C.  3  Th.  auct.  Atrebati.  1628.  f.—  Wiggers,  de  Jo.  Cass. 
Massilicuse  cmm.  III.  Eost.  1824s.  4. 

J)  De  gratia  Dei  et  humanae  mentis  libero  arbitrio.  (Bibl.  PP.  Lugd.  Th.  VIII.)  Mansi  Th.  VIL 
p.  lOOTss. 

c)  In  the  2d  vol.  of  the  Predestinatus.  Ed.  Sirmond,  Par.  1643.  &  Gallandii  Th.  X.  p.  357sa- 
Wiggers,  vol.  II.  p.  329ss.    [Neander,  Hist  vol.  II.  p.  341ss.] 

d)  Mansi  Th.  VIII.  p.  Tllss.  [Zawrfon'a  Man.  of  Councils,  p.  447.] 


I  26  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOEY.  PEE.  II.  IMPEEIAL  CI1UECH.  A.  D.  312-SOO. 


IV.    CONTROVERSIES  RESPECTING  THE   TWO   NATURES   OF   CHRIST. 

i.  Liberali  (Arcbidiac,  Carth.  about  553)  Breviarium  causae  Nestorianorum  et  Eutychian.  Ed 
Garneriu*.  Par.  1675.  and  in  Maruri  Th.  IX.  p.  659ss.  (Gelasius  I.  f)  Breviculus  Hist  Eutychian- 
istarntn  s.  gesta  do  nomine  Acacii.  (Manxi,  Th.  VII.  p.  106f ss.)  Leontius  Hyzantinus :  de  sectis 
actio  5-10.  Contra  Eutychianos  et  Nestorian.  (Gallandii  Th.  XII.  p.  621ss.  656s8.)— II.  Walch, 
Ketzerhist  Tb.  V.-YIIL  Eaur,  L.  v.  d.  Dreieinigk.  vol.  I.  p.  69Sss.  vol.  II.  Dorner,  Entwick- 
lungsgesch.  d.  L.  v.  d.  Person  Chr.  Stuttg.  1S39.  p.  50ss.  \R.  J.  W^berforcf,  On  tbe  Incarnation  of 
T.  C.  2  fid.  Lond.  1849.  Philad.  1849.  p.  151ss.] 

§  113.     Tlie  Nestor  ian  Controversy. 

I.  Orig.  Documents  In  Manni  Tb.  IV.  p.  567ss.  Th.  V.  VII.  p.  241ss.    Marius  Mercator,  de 
bneresi  Nest  (Opp.  vol.  II.)    Socrat.  VII,  29ss.    Evagr.  I,  Tsa. 

II.  JaMonski,  De  Nestorianismo.  Ber.  1724.  4.     Gengler,  (L  d.  Verdammung  d.  Nest  (Tub. 
Quartalschr.  1835.  P.  2.)—Saliff,  de  Eutychianismo  ante  Eutychen.  Wolfenb.  172a  4 

The  doctrine  of  a  divine  nature  in  Christ  had  now  forced  its  way  to  a 
general  acceptance,  and  that  of  his  human  nature  had  always  been  taken  for 
granted;  but  when  men  reflected  upon  the  relation  which  these  sustained 
toward  each  other,  they  were  in  danger  of  either  asserting  their  unity  so 
strictly  that  the  human  nature  was  wholly  lost  in  the  Deity,  or,  to  secure  the 
existence  of  the  human  nature,  of  maintaining  its  separation  so  rigidly 
that  the  unity  of  Christ's  person  would  be  destroyed.  The  natural  tendency 
of  each  school  induced  the  Alexandrian  to  adopt  the  former,  and  the  An- 
Jiochian  the  latter  extreme.  Accordingly,  when  Nestorius,  originally  a  pres- 
byter at  Antioch,  but  after  428  the  Metropolitan  of  Constantinople,  fnll  of 
zeal  for  orthodoxy  fand  according  to  the  customary  language  of  his  school, 
carefully  distinguished  in  opposition  to  Apollinaris  between  the  two  natures 
of  Christ  (Mary  being  called  xpio-ToroKor,  not  SeoroW ,  and  the  relation  of  the 
natures,  awdfaia  and  eVotKT/o-tf),  so  that  the  qualities  (Idiufjiara)  co-operated 
in  the  accomplishment  of  man's  redemption,  Cyril  of  Alexandria  (412-444), 
the  nephew,  and  in  every  respect  the  successor  of  Theophilus,  advocated  a 
union  of  natures  (0vo-t*cf/  «va><m)  so  complete,  that  the  peculiarities  of  each 
were  predicable  of  the  other.  These  opposite  views,  sustained  respectively 
by  the  two  great  eastern  bishoprics,  and  by  the  schools  of  Alexandria  and 
Antioch,  from  their  peculiar  nature,  afforded  ample  occasion  for  misunder- 
standings and  unhappy  inferences.  Both  parties  were  charged  with  having 
destroyed  all  faith  in  man's  redemption ;  Nestorius  by  his  assertion  of  the 
doctrine  of  two  independent  natures,  and  Cyril  by  his  denial  of  the  human 
nature  of  Christ.  Cyril  succeeded  in  arraying  the  Roman  Church  against 
Nestorius,  by  connecting  the  controversy  with  the  Pelagian.  Nestorius  was 
condemned  at  the  Synods  of  Alexandria  and  Rome  (430),  and  Cyril  pub- 
lished his  doctrines  in  twelve  Anathemas,  to  which  Nestorius  opposed  twelve 
others,  (a)  A  general  assembly  of  the  Church  was  convened  by  Theodosivs 
II.  at  Ephesus  (431),  in  which  Cyril  and  his  bishops  pronounced  condemna- 
tion upon  Nestorius  before  the  Syrian  and  Greek  bishops  had  arrived.  On 
the  arrival  of  these  bishops  they  chose  John  of  Antioch  for  their  president, 
and  deposed  Cyril.  The  latter,  however,  well  knew  how  to  gain  the  favor 

a)  Mansi,  Th.  IV.  p.  106788.  p.  1099ss.    Muensclier,  Colin,  DGesch.  vol.  I.  p.  290s«. 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTKINE.    §  113.  NESTOKIANISM.    §  114  EUTYCHIANISM.       127 

of  the  emperor,  and  to  produce  dissension  among  the  bishops  of  the  opposite 
party.  He  even  became  reconciled  to  John  o£  Antioch,  having  finally  con- 
sented to  subscribe  (433)  the  articles  of  faith  which  that  prelate  had  induced 
his  party  to  adopt  at  Ephesus,  (5)  in  which  the  two  natures  of  Christ  were 
especially  distinguished.  In  such  a  strife  of  mere  intrigues,  Nestorius,  with 
his  monastic  learning  and  want  of  practical  tact,  was  no  match  for  his  op- 
ponents. He  was  soon  deserted  by  all  parties,  and  died  in  wretchedness 
(about  440),  with  his%character  misunderstood  and  his  doctrine  misrepresent- 
ed. The  only  advocate  of  his  opinions  by  which  the  conflict  was  continued, 
was  the  theological  school  of  Edessa,  a  branch  of  the  Antiochian,  and  this 
gradually  withdrew  to  Persia.  Under  its'  influence,  the  Persian  churches 
persevered  in  their  opposition  to  the  Synod  of  Ephesus,  and  under  the  name 
of  Chaldean  Christians,  or  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  as  they  were  called  in 
India,  or  Nestoriam,  as  they  were  called  by  their  opponents,  they  became 
numerous,  and  carried  far  into  Asia  the  principles  of  Christian  beneficence 
and  Grecian  refinement.  But  even  in  the  imperial  Church,  a  disposition 
friendly  to  Nestorianism  was  continued,  especially  under  the  influence  of 
Ibas,  Bishop  of  Edessa  (436-457),  and  the  learned  Theodoret.  (c) 

§  114.     The  Eutychian  Controversy. 
Acts  in  Mansi  Th.  VI.  VII.    Evagr.  I,  9ss.  II,  2. 

The  controversy  which  had  been  thus  violently  and  deceptively  settled 
burned  faintly  still,  with  Alexandria  and.  Palestine  on  the  one  side,  and  Con- 
stantinople and  Asia  on  the  other.  When,  therefore,  Eutyches,  an  archiman- 
drite of  Constantinople,  obstinate  in  his  disposition,  but  well  versed  in  the 
Scriptures,  taught,  in  direct  opposition  to  jSTestorianism,  that  every  thing  hu- 
man in  the  nature  of  Christ  was  absorbed  by  his  divinity,  and  became  one 
nature  with  it,  Flavianus,  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  had  him  condemned  at 
a  synod  of  his  diocese  (448).  (a)  Leo  the  Great  approved  of  this  decision  in 
an  epistle  in  which,  though  he  maintained  that  the  two  natures  of  Christ  acted 
in  perfect  harmony,  he  clearly  distinguished  between  what  was  divine  and 
what  was  human  in  the  life  of  Jesus,  (ft)  Dioscurus  of  Alexandria  (444-51), 
who,  in  defending  Eutyches,  felt  that  he  was  equally  defending  his  predecessor 
Cyril,  succeeded  at  the  general  synod  of  Ephesus  (449),  through  the  influ- 
ence of  an  excited  populace,  in  justifying  Eutyches  and  deposing  Flavian. 
We  are  assured  by  the  emperor  Theodosius  II.,  that  the  decision  was  obtained 
in  a  perfectly  legal  manner,  on  the  basis  of  the  prior  decrees  of  Ephesus  and 
Nicaea.  But  on  the  sudden  death  of  the  emperor  (450),  the  general  feeling 
of  displeasure  at  the  violent  proceedings  of  Dioscurus  found  a  public  ex- 
pression. The  empress  Pulcheria  and  her  husband  Marcianus  convoked  a 
General  Council  at  Chalcedon  (451),  whose  decision  was  secured  by  the  mode 


1)  Mansi.  Th.  IV.  p.  878.  cornp.  781s.  303ss. 

c)A*semani  De  Syris  Nestorianis.  (Bibl.  Orient  Eom.  1728.  f.  Th.  III.  P.  II.)  Eleoljesu  L. 
margaritae  de  verit  fidei.  (A.  Maji  N.  Coll.  Th.  X.  P.  II.)  [A,  Grant,  Hist  of  the  Nestorians. 
New  York.  12mo.] 

a)  The  Acts  in  the  Actio  I.  of  Chalcedon.    Man«i  Th.  VI.  p.  649ss.    [Landon,  p.  167ss.] 

Z>)  Ep.  ad  Flavianum.    Leon.  Opp.  edd.  Ball&rinl.  Ep.  28. 


128  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CI1UECII.  A.  D.  312-800. 

in  which  it  was  constituted.  Dioscurus  was  deposed,  Eutyches  was  con- 
demned, not  only  Ibas  and  Theodoret,  but  even  Cyril  were  declared  or- 
thodox, and  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  was  established  on  the  basis  of  the 
Roman  epistle  :  Two  natures  are  without  confusion  but  inseparably  united  in 
thd  one  person  of  Christ.  The  Synod  of  Ephesus  has  ever  since  been  regard- 
ed as  the  Kobber-Synod  (o-JvoSoy  Xrjo-TpiKtj).  (c) 


§  115.     The  Monophysites.     The  Contest  respecting  Clialcedon. 

Acts  in  Mansi  Th.  VII.  p.  4S1-IX.  p.  700.  Leontius  Byz.  de  scctls  liber,  actio  5-10.  and  Contra 
Eutychianos  ct  Nestorian.  1.  III.  (Gallandil,  BibL  Th.  XII.)  Writings  and  Fragments  of  tbe 
Party  Leaders  in  A.  Maji  N.  ColL  1883.  Th.  VII.  P.  I.  and  Spictt.  Rom.  Th.  III.  X.  Evagr.  II,  5ss. 

The  Alexandrians,  who  gave  special  prominence  to  the  divine  nature  in 
Christ,  and  yet  were  unwilling  to  connect  themselves  with  the  Eutychian 
party,  felt  much  aggrieved  by  the  action  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  They 
were  called  by  their  opponents  Monophysites,  and  these  opponents  were 
called  by  them  Nestorians  and  Dyophysites.  •  The  controversy  was  at  first 
conducted  by  insurrections  of  monks  and  of  people,  and  in  Palestine  was 
attended  with  bloodshed,  but  in  Alexandria  and  Antioch  each  party  set  up 
its  rival  bishops.  The  emperor  Leo  I.  (457-474)  sustained  the  decisions  of 
Chalcedon,  though  with  a  judicious  moderation.  Peter  Fullo  (yvafavs)  hav- 
ing assum6d  the  office  of  Bishop  of  Antioch,  and  introduced  into  the  liturgy 
a  Monophysite  formula,  which  asserted  that  God  had  been  crucified  (thence 
called  Theopaschites),  was  expelled  by  the  emperor.  In  the  revolutions 
which  then  took  place  so  frequently  in  the  imperial  palace,  ecclesiastical  con- 
troversies were  made  'subservient  to  political  intrigues.  When  the  emperor 
Zcno  Isauricus  was  overthrown  by  Basiliscus  (476),  the  latter  strengthened 
his  party  by  gaining  over  the  Monophysites,  and  published  a  circular  in 
which  he  condemned  the  Synod  of  Chalcedon.  (a)  The  insurrection  in  Con- 
stantinople by  which  Zeno  was  restored  to  his  throne  (477),  was  under  the 
direction  of  the  Catholic  patriarch  Acacius.  The  Monophysites,  however, 
had  exhibited  so  much  power  under  the  usurper,  that  the  ,  emperor,  by  the 
advice  of  the  patriarch,  endeavored  to  reconcile  them  by  publishing  a  creed 
called  the  Henoticon  (b)  (482),  in  which  the  disputed  articles  were  entirely 
avoided.  Felix  //.,  the  Roman  bishop,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  those 
zealots  who  were  opposed  to  this  fellowship  with  the  Monophysites,  and 
excommunicated  Acacius  (484).  But  even  the  more  rigid  portion  of  the 
Monophysites  in  Egypt  withdrew  from  their  own  patriarch,  who  had  been 
so  easily  pacified  (thence  called  'AK«'<£aAot).  Though  both  parties  equally 
reviled  the  Henoticon,  it  was  the  means  of  external  peace  in  the  Oriental 
Church,  and  Anastasius  (491-518),  who  attempted  to  free  the  state  from 
both  parties,  was  equally  hated,  threatened  and  calumniated  by  both.  Justin 
I.  (518-527)  decided  against  the  Monophysites  and  expelled  their  bishops, 
but  in  Egypt,  where  their  cause  was  popular,  he  was  politic  enough  not  to 
assail  them.  In  Alexandria,  however,  they  fell  out  among  themselves,  for 


c)  Lewald,  die  sogen.  Eaubersynode.  (Illgens «eitschr.  vol.  VIII.  P.  1.)    [London,  p.  286. 113.] 
a)  Evagr.  Ill,  4.     V)  Hid.  Ill,  14    Eerger,  Henotica  Orient  Vit  1723.  4. 


CHAP.  IL    DOCTEINE.    §  115.  SEVEKIANS.    §  116.  JUSTINIAN  1.  129 

the  Severians,  so  called  from  Severus  their  leader,  the  expelled  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  who  was  rather  inclined  to  confound  the  divine  with  the  human 
nature,  and  acknowledged  that  the  principal  attribute  of  the  latter  was  the 
corruptibility  of  the  body  of  Christ  (therefore  reproached  as  SSaproXarpat), 
were  opposed  to  the  Julianists  CAtpSaproSo^rai),  the  followers  of  Julian  of 
Halicarnassus,  who  taught  that  there  was  such  an  absorption  of  the  human 
nature  into  the  divinity  that  nothing  mortal  remained,  (c) 

§  116.     Justinian. 

Procopius  (d.  about  552),  especially  his  military  history,  and  his  hist,  of  the  court :  'Aj/e'/cSoro, 
Hist  arcana,  ed.  Orelli.  Lps.  1827.  Contin.  of  the  Imp.  Hist  552-559.  by  Agathias,  cd.  Niebuhr. 
Bon.  1828.  (Corpus  Scrr.  Byzant  P.  III.  1829-44. 

Justinian  /.,  in  the  course  of  his  long  and  frequently  brilliant  reign 
(52V-565),  by  the  successful  weapons  of  his  generals  restored  the  Roman 
dominion  in  Africa  and  Italy  to  its  former  splendor.  Dutiful  toward  the 
Church,  temperate  even  to  monastic  strictness,  covetous  and  yet  prodigal, 
active  in  many  departments  of  business,  and  untiring  in  his  diligence,  though 
moderate  in  natural  talents,  he  was  eager  to  acquire  the  reputation  of  a  mas- 
ter in  every  kind  of  human  knowledge.  Even  while  burdened  with  the 
cares  of  his  despotic  reign,  he  digested  from  the  treasures  of  Eoman  juris- 
prudence a  code  of  civil  law  which  has  been  ever  since  the  source  of  legal 
science  for  all  civilized  nations.  He  then  attempted  in  like  manner,  as  a 
theologian,  to  annihilate  all  heresies,  reconcile  all  parties,  and  establish  a 
true  system  of  orthodoxy  for  all  future  time.  But  while  he  loaded  the 
Church  with  gifts,  he  increased  the  distractions  of  both  Church  and  State  by 
his  creeds,  and  efforts  to  establish  uniformity.  In  all  these  he  doubtless  be- 
lieved that  he  was  guided  by  his  own  sagacity,  while  he  was  really  the  mere 
tool  of  court  divines  and  eunuchs.  He  was  disposed  to  favor  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  but  Theodora  well  knew  how  to  direct  his  edicts  so  that  they 
generally  were  favorable  to  the  Monophysites.  This  woman,  having  shame- 
lessly spent  her  youthful  beauty  amid  all  the  dissipations  of  Constantinople, 
was  exalted,  by  the  favor  of  the  emperor,  to  be  the  sharer  of  his  power  over 
the  empire,  and  the  sole  mistress  of  himself.  On  the  throne  she  was  tyran- 
nical, but  her  disposition  was  lofty  and  her  morals  were  irreproachable. 
1.  On  finding  that  the  discussions  which  he  had  ordered  between  the  Catho- 
lics and  the  Monophysites  were  of  no  avail,  (d)  the  emperor  hoped  to  win 
the  latter  by  allowing  them  to  use  their  formula  asserting  simply  that  one  of 
the  sacred  Trinity  was  crucified  (533).  But  while  this  only  embittered  the 
feelings  of  the  Catholics,  it  was  not  enough  for  the  Monophysites.  Anthi- 
inus  (535),  the  Monophysitic  patriarch,  who  had  been  appointed  through 
Theodora's  influence,  was  removed  the  next  year  by  the  Catholic  party,  and 
Vigilius,  who  had  been  assisted  in  his  attainment  of  the  Roman  see  (538) 
with  the  secret  understanding  that  he  would  favor  the  Monophysites,  found 


c)  Gieseler,  Monophysitarum  vett  variae  de  Chr.  persona  opiniones  inpr.  ex  ipsorum  effatis  recens 
editis  illnstr.  Gott  1835.  38.  2  P. 

a)  Collatio  Catholicor.  c.  Severianis  a.  531.    (Mansi  Th.  VIII.  p.  817ss.) 


1  30  ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

no  difficulty  in  absolving  himself  from  his  oath.  (5)  2.  The  name  of  Origer 
was  dear  to  a  monastic  party  in  the  East,  not  so  much  for  his  scientific  char- 
acter as  for  the  relation  of  his  system  to  the  Monophysites.  This  party 
gained  great  influence  at  court  by  means  of  Theodorus  Ascidas,  Metropolitan 
of  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia.  The  Catholic  party,  however,  found  means 
through  Mennas,  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  to  procure  from  the  empe- 
ror a  condemnation  of  Origen.  3.  Theodorus  soon  revenged  himself  by  con- 
vincing the  emperor  that  the  Monophysites  would  be  reconciled  to  the 
Church  by  a  sentence  of  condemnation  upon  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  the 
instructor  of  Nestorius,  Theodoret  of  Cyrus  and  Has  of  Edcssa,  the  princi- 
pals of  the  Antiochian  school.  The  errors  of  these  teachers  having  been 
collected  (about  544)  into  three  chapters  (tria  capitula),  were  accordingly 
condemned  by  Justinian,  (c)  Though  the  Monophysites  were  much  delighted 
with  this  act,  they  were  on  that  account  no  more  partial  to  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon.  The  Catholics,  on  the  other  hand,  looked  upon  it  as  a  direct 
assault  upon  that  council.  To  quell  these  discussions,  Justinian  convoked 
the  fifth  (Ecumenical  Council  at  Constantinople  (553),  which,  in  compliance 
with  the  imperial  theology,  condemned  the  three  Antiochian  teachers.  (<•/) 
Yigilius,  who  at  first  led  the  West  in  its  opposition  to  this  proceeding,  lost 
the  glory  of  his  martyrdom  by  frequent  vacillations  and  concessions.  Pela- 
gius  became  his  successor  in  consequence  of  his  acknowledgment  of  the 
imperial  synod  (555).  A  large  portion  of  the  Western  bishops  now  broke 
off  connection  with  Rome  as  well  as  Constantinople,  and  the  liberty  of  the 
Church  found  some  bold  champions  not  only  against  the  despotism  of  the 
emperor,  but  the  pliant  disposition  of  the  Roman  bishop,  (e)  4.  The  last 
attempt  of  Justinian  to  draw  over  the  Monophysites,  was  made  when  he  had 
(564)  the  doctrine  of  the  Incorruptibility  of  Christ's  body  adopted  as  an 
article  of  the  authorized  creed.  Ho  had  just  commenced  the  work  of  ex- 
pelling those  Catholic  bishops  who  resisted  him,  when  the  Church  was  deliv- 
ered from  the  confusion  produced  by  his  zeal  for  the  faith  by  his  death.  (/) 

§  117.  The  Edict  of  Peace  and  the  Monophysite  Church. 
No  sooner  had  Justin  II.  reach  the  throne,  than  he  issued  an  edict 
(565),  (a)  in  which  he  admonished  all  Christians  to  unite  with  him  to  pro- 
mote the  glory  of  the  Redeemer,  and  to  contend  no  more  about  words  and 
persons.  The  apostolic  Catholic  Church,  however,  was  at  the  same  time 
assured  that  its  present  position  would  be  maintained.  The  arbitrary  man- 
ner in  which  the  imperial  laws  for  the  regulation  of  faith  had  for  some  time 
been  enforced,  rendered  such  a  request  from  an  emperor  peculiarly  grateful 
to  the  public  mind.  The  successors  of  Yigilius  were  now  more  zealous  in 

5)  Liberatl  Breviar.  c.  22.      Yigilil  Ep.  ad  Justin.    (Mansi  Th.  IX.  p.  35.)  ad  Mennam. 
(Ibid.  p.  88.) 

c)  Justin,  ad  Mennam  adv.  imptam  Orlg.  (Mansi  Tb.  IX.  p.  487ss.  comp.  895ss.) 
*     d)  Acts  in  Mansi  Th.  IX.  p.  157ss. 

e)  Esp.  Facundus  Hermianensis  (about  6-18)  pro  defensione  trium  capitt  1.  XII.  (Opp.  ed.  J. 
Sirmond.  Par.  1629.     Gallandii  Th.  XL) 

/)  Evagr.  IV,  88^0.     Walck,  Ketzergesch.  vol.  X.  p.  57888. 

a)  Evagr.  V,  4.    Niceph.  XVII,  85. 


CHAP.  II.    DOCT1UNE.    §  117.  MONOPHYSITES.    §  118.  MONOTHELITES.      131 

enforcing  the  authority  of  the  fifth  oecumenical  council  in  the  "West,  than 
he  had  formerly  been  in  opposing  it.  It  was  not,  however,  generally 
acknowledged  until  subsequent  centuries,  when  it  was  not  opposed,  because 
the  subjects  in  dispute  were  nearly  forgotten.  In  the  East,  each  party 
retained  possession  of  all  that  it  had  obtained.  In  opposition  to  the  Catholic 
patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who  was  sustained  entirely  by  the  emperor's  power, 
the  Monophysites  possessed  a  patriarch  of  their  own  (after  536),  and  consti- 
tuted the  Egyptian  national  Church  of  the  Copts,  with  which  was  connected 
the  Ethiopia  Church.  (Z>)  The  Armenians  availed  themselves  of  the  occa- 
sion when  the  Henoticon  was  enacted,  to  renounce  the  authority  of  the  Synod 
of  Chalcedon,  and  thus  in  the  sixth  century,  when  they  were  subject  to  the 
Persian  yoke,  they  entirely  renounced  all  connection  with  the  Church  of  the 
empire,  (c)  The  apostolic  zeal  of  Jacob  Baradai  (541-*578)  gave  the  Mono- 
physites of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  a  permanent  ecclesiastical  constitution, 
and  the  name  of  Jacobites,  (d)  These  disruptions  from  the  imperial  Catholic 
Church  were  gradually  confirmed  by  the  peculiar  customs  of  the  provinces 
where  they  took  place,  until  by  the  conquests  of  Islam,  to  which  they  con- 
tributed, they  became  irreparable.  In  the  conquered  provinces,  the  Catho- 
lics, on  account  of  their  connection  with  the  empire  (hence  called  Melchites 
from  f^B))  were  even  more  oppressed  than  the  Monophysites,  and  their 
patriarch  generally  resided  at  Constantinople. 

§118.     The.MonotTielite  Controversy. 

I.  Orig.  Documents  inMansi  Th.  X.  p.  863-1186.  Th.  XL  p.  190-1023.  Anastasii  Bibliothecarii  (about 
870).  Collectanea  de  iis,  quae  spectant  ad  Hist.  MonotheL  ed.  Sirmond,  Par.  1620.  and  Gallandii  Tb. 
XIII.  Mcephori  (Patriarch  of  Constant,  d.  828),  Breviarium  Hist  (602-769.)  ed.  Petavius,  Par.  1616. 

II.  F.  Conibefisii,  Hist.  baer.  Monotbelitarum.    In  his  Auctuar.  PP.  Par.  1648.  II,  3. 

While  the  emperor  Ileraclius  (after  622)  was  re-establishing  the  power 
of  the  empire  in  Syria  and  Armenia,  he  endeavored  to  reconcile  the  Mono- 
physites with  the  imperial  Church,  by  conceding  that  although  there  were 
two  natures  in  Christ,  there  was  but  one  manifestation  of  will  (evepyeia  %eav- 
dpiKrj}.  Cyrus,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  emperor  patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria, succeeded  by  this  expedient  in  gaining  over  the  Severians  of  his 
diocese  (633).  But  when  SopTironius,  a  monk  of  Palestine,  and  after,  634  Patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem,  who  happened  then  to  be  in  Alexandria,  excited  a  violent 
opposition  to  it,  the  emperor  published  a  creed  ("EKSecris,  638)  (a)  composed  by 
Sergius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  approved  by  Honoring,  the  Roman 
bishop,  (5)  which  assumed  that  there  was  but  one  Christ  and  one  will  (ej/ 
3e'X?7/Lia).  In  this  he  had  more  regard  to  the  final  adjustment  of  the  contro- 
versy, than  to  the  victory  of  the  imperial  party.  But  in  such  an  age,  a  dis 
pute  thus  awakened  was  not  easily  set  to  rest.  The  Boman  bishops  aftei 

6)  Taki-eddini  MaJcrizii  (d.  1441),  Hist  Coptorum  christ.  arab.  et  lat.  ed. '  Wetoer.  Solisb.  1828 
Mich.  Lequien,  Oriens  in  IV  Patriarcbatus  digestus.  (Par.  1740.  8  Th.  f.)  Th.  II.  p.  857ss. 

c)  Saint- Martin,  Mem.  sur  TArmen.  Th.  I.  p.  329ss.  Eccl.  Armeniacae  canones  selectL    (A, 
Maji  N.  ColL  Th.  X.  P.  II.) 

d)  Assemani,  Bibl.  orient.  Th.  II.    Lequien  1.  c.  Th.  II. 
«)  Manti  Th.  X.  p.  992s. 

Z>)  Honorii  Ep.  ad  Sergium.  (Manai  Th.  XL  p.  537.  comp.  579.) 


132    ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.  PEE.  II.  IMPEEIAL  CHTJECH.  A.  D.  312-800. 

John  IV.  (639),  with  a  stricter  reference  to  the  true  faith  or  the  injury  of 
their  rivals  than  to  the  orthodoxy  of  their  predecessors,  placed  themselves  at 
the  head  of  the  opposition  to  the  Monothelites,  and  excluded  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  from  the  communion  of  the  Church.  A  law  (TVTTOS)  (c) 
enacted  hy  Constam  II.  (648)  was  intended  to  enforce  peace  by  an  arbitrary 
prohibition  of  the  controversy.  But  Martin  I.  of  Eome,  at  the  first  Synod 
of  Lateran  (649),  condemned  the  Monothelites  and  both  the  imperial  laws. 
He  was  consequently  first  imprisoned,  then  condemned  at  Constantinople  for 
treason,  and  finally  he  died  in  great  distress.  (d)  To  allay  the  strife  which 
now  threatened  the  precarious  power  of  the  empire  in  Italy,  the  emperor 
Constantine  Pogonatus  convoked  the  sixth  oecumenical  synod  at  Constanti- 
nople (680).  This  assembly,  under  the  influence  of  Agatho,  the  Roman 
bishop,  besides  condemning  Honorius,  (e)  recognized  in  Christ  consistently 
with  the  doctrine  of  two  natures,  and  certain  passages  of  Scripture  inter- 
preted so  as  to  conform  to  it,  two  wills  made  one  by  the  moral  subordination 
of  the  human.  The  Monothelites,  however,  obtained  one  more  transient 
victory  in  the  Greek  Church  under  Philip  Bardancs  (711-713).  But  after 
the  elevation  of  Anastasiu*  II.  to  the  throne,  they  were  generally  rejected, 
and  only  a  small  remnant  sustained  themselves  in  the  convent  of  St.  Maro  on 
Mount  Lebanon,  under  a  patriarch  of  their  own.  (/') 

§  119.     Ecclesiastical  Literature. 

Chrysostoin  and  Augustine  were  still  peerless  models  for  the  churches  in 
which  their  languages  were  respectively  spoken.  The  energies  of  the  Alex- 
andrian and  Antiochian  schools  were  exhausted  in  party  strifes.  Cyril  (d. 
444),  whose  natural  acuteness  was  under  the  guidance  of  his  passions,  ex- 
ceeded the  characteristic  limits  of  the  Alexandrian  spirit,  (a)  and  Thcodoret, 
Bishop  of  Cyrus  (d.  457),  the  last  of  the  Antiochian  school,  though  a  judi- 
cious expounder  and  a  devout  historian,  could  not  escape  the  malediction  of 
the  Church.  (5)  The  qualities  of  both  schools  appear  to  have  been  once 
more  combined  in  the  collection  of  the  Epistles  of  Isidore  of  Pelwium  (d. 
about  440),  who,  though  a  resident  in  Alexandria,  was  the  friend  of  Chrysos- 
tom,  and  found  among  the  monastic  virtues  liberty  to  be  mild  in  science  and 
fearless  in  his  opposition  to  the  powerful  both  in  the  world  and  in  the 
Church,  (c)  The  writings  which  assumed  the  name  of  Dionysius  Areopagita, 
indicate  that  the  Athenian  New-Platonism  had  become  Christianized  near 
the  commencement  of  the  sixth  century,  and  they  have  ever  since  been  the 
model  of  those  dispositions  which  strive  to  die  to  themselves,  and  are  wait- 

c)  Mansi  Th.  X.  p.  1029s.     d)  Manti  Th.  X.  p.  851s. 

«)  Manst  Th.  XL  p.  556.  622.  781. 

/)  Lequien,  Oriens  Chr.  Th.  III.  p.  Iss.     Walch,  vol.  IX.  p.  474ss. 

a)  Commentaries,  Polem.  Treatises,  Homilies,  and  Letters.  Opp.  ed.  J.  Avbert,  Par.  1633.  7  Th.  f 
On  Matth.,  Hebrews,  and  7  dogm.  Essays  In  A.  Maji  Col.  Th.  Till. 

6)  Commentaries,  History  of  the  Church,  Hist,  of  Heresies,  Lives  of  Saints,  and  Polem.  Treat- 
ises. Opp.  edd.  Sirmond  et  Gamier,  Par.  1742-84  5  Th.  f.  Schulze  et  Noesadt,  Hal.  1769-74  5  Th.- 
RicMer,  de  Theor.  Epp.  Paulinar.  interprets  Lps.  1822. 

c)  Epp.  1.  IV.  ed.  Ritterhw,  Hdlb.  1605.  f.  Epp.  ineditae,  ed.  Sehott.  Antu.  1623.  f.  All  together 
Par.  16&3.  Ven.  1745.  f.— H.  A.  Niemeyer,  de  Isid.  Pelasiotae  vita,  scriptis  et  doctr.  Hal.  1825.  comp 
Arch.  f.  KGesch.  1825.  P.  2.  p.  197ss. 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTRINE.    §  119.  PHILOPONUS.    BOETHIUS.    CASSIODORUS.    133 

ing  patiently  for  a  complete  union  with  the  Deity,  (d)  The  Aristotelian  sys- 
tem of  logic  was  used  in  all  theological  controversies.  John  Philopomt* 
(middle  of  the  6th  century),  the  acute  expounder  of  Aristotle,  and  the  inde- 
pendent Christian  philosopher,  but  an  adherent  of  the  Monophysites,  declared 
himself  in  the  Greek  Church  decidedly  partial  to  this  tendency,  though  not 
unfriendly  to  many  doctrines  of  Platonism.  He  was  accused  of  Tritheism, 
because  the  ideas  entertained  by  the  Church  on  the  subject  of  the  divine 
nature  and  personality  were  not  satisfactory  to  him,  and  he  took  offence  at 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  which  he  described  as  a  new  creation,  since 
with  the  form  he  maintained  that  the  matter  of  the  body  was  gone,  (e)  The 
Eoman  Church  became  acquainted  with  Aristotle  through  the  labors  of 
A.  M.  T.  S.  Boethius.  In  the  writings  which  bear  his  name,  Aristotelian 
formulae  are  used  to  defend  the  doctrines  of  the  Incarnation  and  the  Trinity. 
But  in  prison  his  mind  had  been  raised  above  the  fear  of  death  by  the  conso- 
lations of  a  pious  heathen  philosophy.  He  died  (524)  in  defence  of  the 
interests  of  his  native  land,  and  the  Church  has  invested  him  with  the  glory 
of  martyrdom.  By  birth,  merit,  and  success  he  resembled  the  nobler  Ro- 
mans of  the  Augustan  age,  and  indeed  he  may  be  regarded  as  the  last  speci- 
men of  the  race.  (/)  The  sciences  which  had  been  created  by  the  peculiar 
character  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Eomans,  necessarily  shared  in  the  declining 
fortunes  of  those  nations.  The  last  signs  of  Hellenic  refinement  disappeared 
in  the  sixth  century  from  every  portion  of  the  empire  except  Borne  and  Con- 
stantinople with  the  ravages  of  the  Barbarians,  of  the  Pestilence,  and  of  the 
Church  itself.  A  meagre  collection  of  traditions  was  all  that  now  remained, 
because  it  had  been  appropriated  to  her  own  use  by  the  Church.  Even 
Cassiodorus  (a  consul  and  a  monk,  d.  about  562)  attempted  to  preserve  only 
those  fragments  of  science  which  he  thought  might  be  serviceable  to  the 
Church,  (g)  Scriptural  exegesis  consisted  entirely  of  such  compilations  from 
the  treasures  of  former  times  as  had  been  commenced  in  the  East  by  Proco- 
pius  Gazaeus  (about  520),  and  in  the  West  by  Primasius  of  Adrymetum 
(about  650).  (7i)  A  system  of  doctrines  had  likewise  been  formed  for  the 

d)  Tlepl  rfjs  lepapxias.  Hepl  rfjs  e/c/cAeo'tao'Tifc^s  Ifpapx^s.  Hepl  fretuv  ovofJiaruv.   llepl 
/nvffTtKris  &eo\o7/ay.  Epp.  XII.— Opp.  ed.  Corderius,  (Antu.  1634.)  Par.  1644  2  Th.  f.  Constantini, 
Ven.  1755s.  2  Th.  £  Uebers.  m.  Abhh.  v.  Engelhardt,  Sulzb.  1823.— J.  Dalleus,  de  scriptia,  quae  sub 
Ign.  et  Dion.  A.  nomm.  circumfer.  Gen.  1666.  4.    Engelhardt ;  De  Dion.  Plotinizante.  Erl.  1820.    De 
orig.  scriptor.  Areop.  ErL  1822.  A.  Hel/erich,  d.  chr.  Mystik  in  ibrer  Entwickl.  u.  ihren  Denkmalen. 
Goth.  1842.  2  vols.—Saumgarten-Crusius,  de  Dion.  A.  Jen.  1823.    Revised  in  Opp.  theol.  Jen.  1836. 
p.  265ss.    On  the  other  side :  Hitter,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Phil.  vol.  II.  p.  519. 

e)  Kespecting  him:  Jo.  Damasc.  de  haeres.  c.  83.  Phot  c.  21-23.  55.  75.    Nioeph.  XVIII,  45-19. 
Leont-Bye.  de  sectis,  act  5.—Scharfenburff,  de  Jo.  Phil.  Tritheismi  defensore.  Lps.  176S.  (Comci. 
theol.  ed.  Velthusen,  etc.  Th.  I.)    Treeteel,  Jo.  Phil.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1885.  P.  1.) 

/)  Commentaries  and  translations  of  Aristotle — De  duabus  nat  et  una  persona.  Quod  Trinitas 
sit  unus  Deus,  etc. — De  consolatione  philosophiae,  ed.  Helfrecht,  Curiae.  1797.  and  often.  Uebers.  v. 
Freitag,  Eiga.  1794.— Opp.  ed.  Rota,  Bas.  1570s.— (Gervaise)  Hist  de  Boece.  Par.  1715.  2  Th. 
Ileyne,  Censura  Boethii.  (Opuscc.  Th.  VI.  p.  143ss.)— .F.  Hand,  Boeth.  (Ersch.  u.  Gruber'a  Encykl. 
vol.  XI.  p.  283ss.)  Gust.  £aur,  de  Boethio.  Darmst.  1841. 

0)  De  artibus  ac  disciplinis  liberalium  litt  Institutio  ad  div.  lectiones.  Hist  Ecclcsiae  tripartita. 
Variae  Epp.— Opp.  ed.  Garet.  Eothomag.  1679.  Ven.  1729.  2  Th.  t—Stdudlin,  u.  Cassiod.  (Archiv.  f. 
KGesch.  1825.  p.  259ss.  881ss.) 

/O  J.  F.  &  Augustin,  de  catenis  PP.  graecis  in  N.  T.  Hal  1762.  (Noessdti  Commentt  ad  IL 
ecc.  Hal.  1817. 


134     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.   PER.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

Latin  Church  (i)  from  sentences  taken  from  the  more  ancient  fathers  by  Isido* 
rus,  Bishop  of  Hispalis  (d.  636),  and  another  more  complete,  and  on  account 
of  its  application  of  Aristotelian  formulae  more  scientific,  was  compiled  for 
the  Greek  Church  by  the  monk  John  Damasccnus  (d.  Y54).  The  latter 
also  collected  together  the  various  decisions  which  had  been  given  by  the 
Church  in  its  earlier  religious  controversies,  and  thus  settled  these  disputes 
for  his  Church  for  a  thousand  years  after  him.  (£)  A  Roman  catalogue  of 
apocryphal  and  rejected  works,  which  had  been  gradually  enlarging  from  the 
time  of  Hormisdas  (514—523),  and  had  finally  become  essentially  fixed  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  exhibits  the  contracted  spirit  as  well  as  the 
state  of  criticism  at  that  time,  for  even  some  of  the  more  ancient  fathers  are 
rejected  as  apocryphal  because  they  were  inconsistent  with  some  Roman 
assertions,  or  did  not  correspond  with  the  later  orthodoxy.  (T) 


CHAP.  III.-SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

•Blbliotheca  juris  can.  veteris,  op.  Guil.  et  ITenr.  JusMli,  Par.  1661.  2.  Th.  f.  Spittler,  Qcscb.  tl. 
can.  Kechta  bis  a.  d.  falsch.  IMdor.  H»L  177&  (Works,  ed.  by  Wdchter,  Stnttg.  182T.  vol.  I.)-PJanc*-, 
Gescb.  d.  kirchl.  Gesellscbafts-Verf.  vol.  L  p.  276w..  Haae,  de  Jure  ecc.  P.  I.  p.  82ss.  P.  IL  C 
Riffel,  Gescb.  DarsL  d.  Verb.  zw.  K.  u.  Staat  Mainz.  1836.  vol.  I.  p.  114ss. 

§  120.    Legislation  and  Books  of  Law. 

Ecclesiastical  laws  were  enacted  sometimes  by  synods  and  sometimes  by 
the  emperors.  The  first  idea  of  general  laws  for  the  whole  Church  seems  to 
have  been  derived  from  the  General  Councils,  with  whose  decisions  were 
soon  united  those  of  the  inferior  synods  and  the  canonical  institutes  of  a  few 
fathers,  which  individual  bishops  had  collected  for  their  private  direction, 
but  which  passed  into  general  use.  Such  collections  are  first  noticed  in  the 
Synod  of  Chalcedon,  where,  however,  they  possessed  no  general  authority,  (a) 
But  even  then  it  had  become  customary,  at  least  in  the  Greek  Church,  to 
regard  the  canons  of  certain  synods  as  possessing  the  authority  of  general 
laws.  This  agreement  seems  to  have  become  complete  in  the  sixth  century, 
but  it  was  not  until  the  second  canon  of  the  Trullan  Synod  (Quinisexta  692) 
that  the  constituent  parts  of  the  Greek  canon  law  which  had  long  been  in 
use,  were  recognized  as  legally  binding.  (5)  The  African  Church  at  the 
Council  of  Carthage,  419,  gave  its  sanction  to  a  collection  of  its  own  domes- 
tic canons,  (c)  which  was  gradually  accepted  as  a  part  of  the  general  ecclesi- 

i)  Sententiarum  s.  de  summo  bono  L  IIL  comp.  §  167.  note  a. 

k)TLriy))  yv(t>areus'  a)  ra  <f>iAo(ro<piKa,  )8)  irtpl  alptfffcav,  7)  exSotny  aKpiftys  T^?  op&o- 
86£ov  iriiTTfus.  Opp.  ed.  Mich.  Lequien,  Par.  1712.  2.  Th.  £ 

1)  Threefold  text  in  Jfansi  Th.  VIII.  p.  158ss.  Since  Hincmar  of  Rheims  it  is  commonly  quoted 
as  Decretum  Gelasii  (494),  thus  by  Gratian:  c.  8.  Dist  XV.  comp.  Gieseler,  KGesch.  vol.  L  Abtn. 
II.  p.  883s.  [Davidson^  transl.  vol.  II.  p.  110.  §  114.  note  2.] 

o)  Respecting  collections  called  apostolic:  See  §  57.  comp.  J.  W.  Bickell,  Gescb.  des  Kirchen- 
rechts.  Giess.  1843.  vol  I. 

Z>)  Acts  and  102  canons :  Mansi  Th.  XL  p.  927-1006. 

c)  JusteUi  Bibl.  Th.  I.  303ss.    Mansi  Th.  III.  p.  698ss. 


CHAP.  III.    CONSTITUTION.    §120.  THEODOSIAN  &  JUSTINIAN  CODES.      13£ 

astical  law.  Of  the  Roman  Church  of  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
we  only  know  that  in  its  collection  the  JSTicaean  canons  were  mingled  with 
those  of  Sardica.  The  civil  laws,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
may  generally  he  found  under  their  appropriate  titles  in  the  two  collections 
of  imperial  laws  called  Codex  Theodosianus,  438,  and  Codex  Jmtinianeus} 
534,  and  the  Novels  attached  to  each.  The  efforts  of  Justinian  to  give  a 
scientific  form  to  political  and  civil  law,  must  have  had  a  considerahle  influ- 
ence upon  ecclesiastical  law.  John  Scholasticus,  successively  an  advocate,  a 
preshyter  at  Antioch,  and  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (d.  578),  arranged 
the  canons  which  he  found  in  the  ordinary  collections,  together  with  the 
second  and  third  epistles  of  Basil  relating  to  the  canons,  under  fifty  titles 
according  to  their  suhjects.  (d)  This  digest,  on  account  of  its  adaptation  to 
general  use,  as  well  as  the  reputation  of  its  author,  soon  became  a  standard 
authority  in  the  Greek  Church.  A  collection  of  civil  laws  relating  to  the 
Church,  prepared  by  this  same  John,  contains  extracts  from  the  ten  Novels 
of  Justinian,  arranged  under  eighty-seven  chapters,  (e)  Another  collection, 
embracing  the  whole  ecclesiastical  legislation  of  Justinian,  sometimes  in  full 
and  sometimes  abridged,  together  wi;h  an  appendix  containing  the  four 
Novels  of  Heraclius,  has  been  erroneously  attributed  to  Theodore  Balsamon, 
but  really  belongs  to  the  seventh  century.  (/)  The  practical  wants  of  the 
Church  called  forth  a  work  in  which  the  civil  laws  relating  to  the  Church 
(w'/ioi)  were  arranged  in  harmony  with  the  ecclesiastical  laws  (Kavoves),  and 
which  has  since  been  called  the  Nomocanon.  Under  the  fifty  titles  of  the 
collection  of  canons  by  Scholasticus,  the  corresponding  civil  laws  were  intro- 
duced, and  even  these  were  principally  derived  from  his  book,  (g)  The  peni- 
tential laws  were  systematized,  and  their  severity  was  accommodated  to  the 
mildness  of  his  age,  and  of  his  own  disposition,  by  John  the  Faster  (vrjo-Tevrrj ?), 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (585-595).  (A)  The  old  code  of  the  Roman 
Church,  (i)  called  by  Dionysius  Translatio  prisca,  was  gradually  increased 
and  strengthened  in  authority  after  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  by  translations 
from  the  Greek  books  of  laws.  The  incompleteness  and  want  of  arrange- 
ment which  characterized  this  work,  induced  Diocysius  Exiguus,  a  Scythian 
and  a  Roman  monk,  to  revise  it,  and  to  form  a  new  code  (498-514).  (k}  The 
first  part  contains  a  faithful  translation  of  the  principal  articles  of  the  Greek 
synodal  laws,  the  canons  of  Sardica,  and  the  African  collection.  The  second 
part  contains  all  the  decretals  which  could  then  be  found  at  Rome,  by  eight 
popes,  from  Siricius  (d.  398)  to  Anastasius  II.  (d.  498).  This  Codex  Dionysii 


d)  Justelli  Bibl.  Th.  II.  p.  499-602. 

e)  ^vvaycayrj  veaptav  ^lard^cau.    Unprinted. 

/)  Tajy  e/c/cA.  Siard^cav  av\\oyy.  Justelli  Bibl.  Th.  II.  p.  1217-147S.— F.  E.  Biener,  de 
collectionibus  canonum  Ecc.  graecae.  Bcr.  1827. 

g)  Justelli  Bibl.  Th.  II.  p.  603-672. 

7i)  'A/coAou&ia  Kal  ra£jy  eVl  e'lojUoAoyou^ueWr.  The  existing  Eecension  formed  from  later 
revisions  is  in  Morini  Comm.  hist,  de  disciplina  in  administr.  sacr.  poenitentiae.  (Par.  1651.  f.)  Von. 
1702.  f.  p.  616ss. 

i)  In  Leon.  Opp.  Th.  III.  p.  473ss.  and  Mansi  Th.  VI.  p.  HOBsa. 

fc)  Ed.  Fr.  Pithoeus,  Par.  16S7.  f.  Justelli  Bibl.  Th.  I.  p.  97ss.  comp.  Ballerin.  Ds.  in  Leon. 
Opp.  Th.  III.  p.  17468. 


1 36  ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CDUECII.  A.  D.  312-800. 

f 

was  much  favored  by  the  popes,  and  became  a  standard  legal  authority  not 
only  in  the  Roman  Church,  whose  domestic  laws  were  found  in  it,  but  in 
almost  all  the  West.  Later  decretals  were  therefore  gradually  appended  tc 
it.  The  book  of  laws  for  the  Spanish  Church  originated  in  tho  first  half  of 
the  sixth  century,  and  was  probably  revised  by  Isidore  of  Hispalis,  whose 
name  it  bears,  but  continual  additions  have  been  made  to  it  since  his  time.  (I) 
It  contains  in  the  first  part  not  only  the  greater  part  of  the  Greek  synodal 
laws,  but  the  canons  of  the  Spanish  and  Gallican  councils,  and  in  the  second 
part,  besides  the  decretals  of  the  Dionysian  code,  a  few  letters  from  the 
popes  to  the  Spanish  and  Gallican  bishops.  Other  systematic  compilations 
made  during  this  period  are  of  less  importance.  They  are  the  Breciarium 
of  Fulgentius  lerrandtit,  a  deacon  of  Carthage  (about  547),  a  work  which 
had  no  dependence  upon  the  Dionysian  code,  (m)  and  the  Concordm  of 
Cresconius,  an  African  (about  690),  which  was  an  analysis  of  that  code 
according  to  its  contents,  (n) 

§  121.     TK*  Roman  Empire. 

Tho  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts  had  entirely  ceased  from  the  time  of  Con- 
stantino, and  no  ornaments  could  be  found  for  his  new  city  and  his  trium- 
phal arch  in  the  very  forum  of  Rome,  but  by  spoiling  the  ancient  monuments. 
Nearly  the  whole  intellectual  energy  of  the  age  was  enlisted  in  the  service 
of  the  Church,  so  that  the  only  science  which  seemed  to  flourish  without 
ecclesiastical  influence  was  jurisprudence.  In  consequence  of  the  founding 
of  Constantinople,  the  whole  power  of  the  empire  was  directed  to  the  East, 
and  after  the  division  made  by  Theodosius  (895)  the  East  and  the  West  re- 
mained permanently  separated.  But  so  perfectly  had  tho  various  nations 
conquered  by  the  Romans  been  made  to  feel  as  one  people,  that  both  these 
divisions  regarded  themselves  as  only  different  parts  of  the  one  great  empire. 
While  the  Germanic  nations  stormed  at  the  portals  of  the  West,  and  even 
when  they  broke  through  them  in  the  fifth  century,  the  civil  constitution  and 
the  habits  of  the  people  remained  Roman  under  the  long  dominion  of  the 
Goths  in  Italy.  The  East  was  governed  by  a  lifeless  and  rigid  mechanism, 
the  moving  spring  of  which  was  at  Constantinople.  The  extinction  of  the 
reigning  families  and  the  ascendency  of  the  army,  rendered  abortive  the  fre- 
quent efforts  to  establish  a  popular  hereditary  monarchy,  but  the  want  of  this 
was  in  some  degree  supplied  by  the  imperial  nomination  of  colleagues  and 
successors.  But  the  majesty  of  the  Roman  people  and  the  confidence  that 
they  were  destined  to  universal  dominion  had  been  transferred  to  their  rulers. 
In  this  form  it  was  now  consecrated  by  the  Church,  and  systematically  de- 
fended by  arguments  supplied  by  jurisprudence.  Amid  all  the  agitations  pro- 
duced by  dynastic  changes,  this  idea  of  an  imperial  government  appointed  by 
God  for  supreme  dominion  on  earth  became  profoundly  fixed  in  the  hearts 
of  the  people. 

J)  Collcctio  canonnm  EccL  Hlspaniae.  MatriL  1808.  t  Epistolae  decretales  ac  rescr.  Bom.  Pontiil 
cum.  Matr.  1821.  f.  (e<L  A.  Goneabe.) 

«»)  Jmtflli  BibL  Th.  I.  p.  456sa.      n)  Justdli  Bibl.  Th.  I.  Append,  p.  3338. 


CHAP.  III.    CONSTITUTION.    §122.  RELATIONS  OF  CHUECII  &  STATE.       137 

§  122.    Power  of  the  Emperor  over  the  Church. 

The  emperors,  accustomed  to  exercise  the  power,  not  only  of  an  absolute 
sovereign  but  of  a  supreme  pontiff,  endeavored  to  sell  their  favor  to  the 
Church  at  the  price  of  its  ancient  liberties.  A  decisive  influence  was  gained 
by  them  in  the  right  of  nominating  the  bishops,  especially  the  metropolitan. 
The  Church  on  the  other  hand  was  anxious  to  compel  all  its  members  to  ob- 
serve the  well  defined  and  slow  process  of  a  regular  advancement  from. the 
inferior  to  the  superior  stations,  and  disapproved  of  all  translations  of  a 
bishop  from  one  diocese  to  another,  as  nothing  less  than  spiritual  adultery. 
The  emperor  frequently  entertained  the  appeals  of  those  who  considered 
themselves  aggrieved  by  the  bishops.  A  regular  system  of  punishments  was 
then  appointed  by  the  Church  for  all  who  should  thus  appeal  from  its  deci- 
sions to  the  emperor,  (a)  The  emperors  called  together  the  general  councils 
of  the  Church,  presided  in  them  through  their  envoys,  and  published  their 
decrees  as  laws  of  the  empire.  (5)  As  none  but  the  Catholic  Church  was  en- 
titled to  civil  privileges,  when  different  bishops  were  opposed  to  each  other, 
the  emperor  himself  was  obliged  to  decide  which  of  them  belonged  to  the 
orthodox  church.  Hence  many  laws,  even  on  matters  of  doctrine,  were 
enacted  by  them,  and  those  who  obtained  their  ends  by  court  favor  en- 
couraged them  in  this  and  commended  them  for  it.  The  imperial  edicts  were 
also  published  by  being  read  in  the  churches,  (c)  Many  bishops  who  longed 
for  the  imperial  favor  were  pliant  tools  in  the  hands  of  ambitious  rulers,  and 
the  Italian  clergy  had  some  reason  to  suspect  that  a  Greek  bishop,  for  his 
own  emolument,  could  be  induced  to  grant,  without  fear  or  shame,  any 
request  which  might  be  made  of  him.  (d)  The  emperors,  however,  were  fre- 
quently the  mere  tools  of  an  ecclesiastical  party,  and  their  laws  for  the  regu- 
lation of  doctrines,  when  not  confirmed  by  the  authority  of  the  Church,  sel- 
dom survived  their  authors.  The  freedom  of  the  Church  never  wanted  bold 
and  successful  advocates,  and  though  it  was  practically  violated  in  every  pos- 
sible way,  its  legality  was  always  acknowledged  by  the  emperors  themselves,  (e) 
The  people  generally  regarded  it  as  the  highest  principle  of  law,  that  God 
has  bestowed  all  power  on  earth  upon  the  monarchy  and  the  priesthood,  but 
that  he  had  assigned  to  each  of  these  certain  immovable  boundaries  which 
neither  could  transgress  without  guilt  and  peril.  (/) 

§  123.    Power  of  the  Church  over  the  State. 

The  severity  of  the  ancient  Roman  laws  was  much  mitigated  by  the  influ- 
ence of  Christianity  whenever  they  did  not  fall  in  with  the  prejudices  of 
the  Church,  and  thus  a  way  was  prepared  for  an  acknowledgment  of  the 

a)  Cone.  Antiocfi.  can.  12.    [Landon,  p.  33.  can.  12.]    Constant.  I.  can.  6. 
&)  Cone.  Constant.  I.  Ep.  ad  Theodos.  (Nansi  Th.  III.  p.  557.) 

c)  L.  20.  Cod.  Theod.  de  rebus  eccl.  (XVI,  2.)  et  Gothofredus  ad  h.  1. 

d)  Mansi  Th.  IX.  p.  153. 

e)  On  the  other  hand  Constantino's  episcopacy  (Euseb.  vita  Const.  IV,  24.)  was  referred  to  with 
the  same  semblance  of  argument  as  was  used  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  bishops :  Sosom.  I,  IT. 
Rwftn.  I,  2. 

/)  Gelasius  I.  ad  Anastasinm  a.  494.  (Ifanrf  Th.  VIII.  p.  81.) 


138     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER.  IL  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

general  rights  of  man.  (a)  Some  bishops  went  so  far  as  to  oppose  even  capita* 
punishments,  on  the  ground  that  their  barbarity  was  inconsistent  with  reason 
and  humanity.  (J)  The  right  of  asylum  which  had  formerly  been  conceded 
to  a  few  of  the  ancient  temples  was  extended  to  all  Christian  churches,  and 
proved  a  serious  detriment  to  the  administration  of  justice.  But  Chrysostom 
lived  to  enjoy  the  triumph  of  seeing  the  very  minister  whose  exorbitant 
power  once  threatened  to  abolish  this  privilege,  clinging  to  the  altar  for  his 
own  protection,  (e) "  Great  political  power  was  acquired  by  the  bishops  in 
consequence  of  their  personal  influence  among  the  people,  and  the  devotion 
of  the  emperors  to  theological  controversies.  The  law  gave  them  a  certain 
right  to  superintend  the  affairs  of  the  congregations  both  in  town  and 
country ;  they  also  possessed  a  certain  right,  frequently  usurped  but  finally 
regulated  by  law,  of  acting  as  intercessors  for  those  who  were  unfortunate  or 
criminal,  and  a  certain  kind  of  patronage  was  conceded  to  them  for  all  per- 
sonae  miserdbiles.  (d)  The  Church  undertook  the  censorship  of  the  morals 
of  civil  functionaries,  and  summoned  to  their  bar  those  who  were  above  hu- 
man enactments,  (e)  No  one  dared  to  meet  the  fury  of  a  Governor  of  the 
Pentapolis  but  Synesius  the  bishop.  When  a  whole  city  had  fallen  a  sacri- 
•fice  to  the  wrath  of  Theodosius  /.,  Ambrose  ventured  to  give  utterance  to 
the  monarch's  conscience,  and  the  royal  offender  was  excluded  from  the 
Church.  (/)  When  an  unlimited  power  was  exercised  by  the  civil  rulers, 
the  Church  thus  became  a  safe  retreat  for  popular  freedom,  and  saints  played 
the  part  of  tribunes  bf  the  people.  Sometimes  even  royal  honors  were  be- 
stowed upon  bishops,  and  what  was  at  first  accorded  by  pious  humility, 
pious  arrogance  took  care  to  demand  and  retain.  From  the  truth  that  heavenly 
things  were  superior  to  earthly,  the  inference  was  drawn  that  the  hierarchy 
should  be  greater  than  the  monarchy,  and  should  have  precedence  in  earthly 
dignity,  (g)  In  his  City  of  God,  the  secular  power  is  described  by  Augustine 
as  an  irrational  despotism  which  commenced  with  a  fratricide,  and  tends  to 
subversion  that  it  may  give  place  to  the  celestial  kingdom. 

§  124.    Ecclesiastical  Jurisdiction. 

Stryck,  de  orlg.  ct  usu  Jurisdiction!*  ecc.  HaL  1710.  4.  (Opnscc.  Th.  XIV.)  JT.  M.  Hebenstrelt 
Hist  jurisd.  ecc.  Das.  III.  177388.  4  Bruno  Schilling,  do  orig.  jurisd.  ecc.  in  causts  civil.  Lps.  1825.  4. 
C.  F.  A.  Jungk,  de  Grig,  et  progressu  eplscopalis  Jud.  in  causU  civil,  laicorum  usque  ad  Justinian. 
Ber.  1882. 

Although  the  sentence  of  the  episcopal  court,  in  its  capacity  of  a  court  of 

a)  Euseb.  Vita  Const  IV,  26.  L.  2.  Cod.  Theod.  de  poen.  (IX.  40.)—  C.  G.  de  Rhoer,  Dissert,  de 
cffectu  rel.  chr.  in  jurlspr.  Rom.  Gron.  1776.  H.  O.  de  Meytenlurg,  de  chr.  rel.  vi  et  effectu  In  Jus 
civile  (speciatim  Institt  1. 1.)  Getting.  1828.  4  Troplong,  do  1'influence  du  Christ  Bur  le  droit  civil 
des  Remains.  Par.  1848. 

1)  Ambros.  Ep.  25.  26.  (aL  51.  52.)  Augustin,  Ep.  133. 134. 153.— L.  15  et  16.  Cod.  Theod.  de 
poen.  (IX.  40.) 

c)  Cod.  Theod.  de  his,  qu!  ad  Ecc.  confnginnt  (IX,  45.)    Socrat.  VI,  5.    Sozom.  V  III,  7. 

d)  Cone.  Sardic.  can.  7.    Ambros.  de  Offic.  II,  29.    Const  22.  24.  27s.  80s.    C.  de  Eplsc. 
ludientia.  (I,  4.) 

e)  Cone.  Arelat.  a.  314.  c.  7.  Gregor.  Naz.  Orat  17.  (Th.  L  p.  271.) 

/)  Synesii  Ep.  57s.  72.  89.— Eufin.  XI,  18.  Theodoret  V,  17.  Sozom.  VII,  24.  L.  13.  Cod.  Theod. 
de  poen.  (IX,  40.)  Comp.  T.  L.  F.  Tafel,  de  Thessalonica.  Ber.  1839.  p.  XLVIIss. 

g)  Constitt.  aposfll,  34.  Chrysost.  de  Sacerd.  Ill,  l.—Sulp.  Severi  Vita  Martini,  c.  20. 


CHAP.  III.  CONSTITUTION.  §  121  ECCLE&  JURISDICTION.  §  125.  PEOPEETY.    1  39 

arbitration  possessed  a  certain  legal  authority,  (a)  its  voluntary  jurisdiction 
was  not  much,  needed  under  a  Christian  government,  and  after  the  sixth 
century  it  was  less  resorted  to.  The  claim  that  all  causes  relating  to  mar- 
riage and  to  wills  (causae  mixtae)  should  be  decided  there,  was  generally 
resisted  by  the  secular  tribunals,  but  the  obstacles  to  marriage  laid  down  in 
the  Mosaic  law  were  recognized  by  the  civil  code,  and  were  sometimes  ex- 
tended even  to  spiritual  relationships.  Divorces  very  rarely,  and  the  marriage 
of  divorced  persons  still  less  frequently,  were  permitted  by  the  episcopal 
courts.  These  first  became  the  ordinary  tribunals  for  the  clergy  in  civil  causes 
about  the  time  of  Justinian  I.,  (5)  but  the  municipal  courts  continued  to  exer- 
cise jurisdiction  as  at  first  in  criminal  causes  until  Valentinian  III.  gave  (452) 
the  plaintiff  the  privilege  of  choosing  before  which  of  these  courts  his  cause 
should  be  tried,  (c)  Justinian  I.  assigned  particular  parts  of  every  such 
criminal  cause  to  each  of  these  courts,  (d)  and  Heraclius  (623)  entirely  ex- 
cluded them  from  the  municipal  courts,  (e)  According  to  ecclesiastical  usage 
it  was  thought  unbecoming  for  a  clergyman  to  appear  in  his  own  cause  either 
as  plaintiff  or  defendant  before  a  civil  tribunal.  (/)  When  cited  before  the 
emperor  the  bishops  would  indeed  make  their  appearance,  but  a  sentence  of 
condemnation  was  not  readily  acknowledged  except  where  a  synod  concurred 
in  it.  In  all  matters  purely  ecclesiastical  the  episcopal  courts  and  synods  were 
regarded  as  the  only  competent  tribunals,  (g) 

§  125.     Church  Property. 

J6romo  a  Costa  (Eichard  Simon.)  Hist,  de  1'origine  et  du  progres  dea  revenus  ecc,  Frcf.  1684.  21. 
Tlwmassin.  (§  9.  note  b.) 

The  clergy  were  supported,  especially  under  the  first  Christian  emperors, 
by  revenues  supplied  by  the  government,  by  a  portion  of  the  property  they 
inherited  from  the  old  temples,  and  by  ecclesiastical  possessions  falling  to 
them  from  heretics.  Though  they  often  preached  to  the  people  that  they  had 
a  divine  right  to  the  first-fruits  and  the  tithes,  their  preaching  was  not  much 
regarded,  (a)  But  when  Constantino  confirmed  (321)  to  the  people  a  com- 
plete right  to  devise  property  at  pleasure  to  the  Church,  such  bequests  be- 
came an  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth.  (&)  It  was  not  long  before  one 
could  scarcely  die  without  being  reminded  of  his  duty  to  the  Church,  and  a 
law  became  necessary  in  which  the  clergy  were  forbidden  to  solicit  such  be- 
quests (370).  (c)  As  this  wealth,  however,  was  possessed  by  the  Church  in 
trust  for  the  poor,  it  was  looked  upon  with  much  affection.  All  institutions  • 
of  benevolence  originated  in  the  Church,  (d)  Its  wealth  contributed  to  its 
power  and  freedom.  The  management  of  the  funds  was  generally  in  tho 

a)  Sozom.  I,  9.    The  legal  passages  in  Hase,  de  jure  ecc.  P.  I.  p.  53ss. 
&)  Nov.  83.  Praef.  et  §  1.  Nov.  123.  c.  21. 

c)  L.  4T.  Cod.  Theod.  de  Episc.  (XVI,  2.)  Nov.  1.  de  Episc.  judicio  in  Aniani  Collectione. 

d)  Nov.  123.  c.  21.  §  1.    e)  Justelli  Bibl.  Th.  II.  p.  1361s. 

O  Cone.  Garth.  III.  a  39T.  can.  9.  IV.  a,  419.  can.  19.  Chalc.  can.  9. 

0)  L.  1.  Cod.  Theod.  de  rel.  (XVI,  11.)  Justini  Nov.  123.  c.  21.  §  2. 

a)  JBingham,  Origg.  eccl.  V,  5.    &)  L.  4.  Cod.  Theod,  de  Episc.  (XVI,  2.) 

c)  L.  20.  Cod.  Theod.  de  Episc.  Comp.    Hieron.  Ep.  34.  (al.  2.)  ad  Nepotian. 

d)  L.  6.  Cod.  Theod.  de  Episc.  (XVI,  2.)    Gelasii  Ep.  IX.  §  27. 


1  40  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER.  IL  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

bands  of  the  bishop,  the  distribution  of  them  was  regulated  by  certain  pre- 
cise forms,  and  the  alienation  of  the  property  was  controlled  by  prescribed 
conditions.  Every  church  was  the  legal  heir  of  all  the  property  which  ite 
intestate  clergyman  had  accumulated  from  ecclesiastical  revenues.  Whatever 
the  Church  possessed  was  secured  by  an  investment  in  real  estate.  This  wae 
variously  taxed  according  to  the  disposition  and  wants  of  the  different  gov- 
ernments, but  it  was  usually  exempted  from  extraordinary,  personal,  and  im- 
proper burdens,  (e) 

§  126.     The  Congregation  and  the  Clergy. 

As  the  clergy  were  generally  independent  of  the  favor  of  the  people  by 
their  ecclesiastical  possessions,  the  congregations  were  entirely  shut  out  from 
all  participation  in  the  government  of  the  Church.  Sometimes^the  people 
still  gave  effect  to  their  wishes  in  a  tumultuous  manner,  when  a  bishop  was 
chosen,  and  a  certain  influence  was  exercised  on  such  occasions  by  distinguished 
citizens,  and  was  legalized  by  Justinian  I.,  but  it  was  disapproved  of  by  the 
second  Synod  of  Nicaea  (787).  (a)  In  the  West,  however,  and  especially  in 
Rome,  the  people  asserted  their  right  to  participate  in  elections,  and  the  power 
of  the  clergy  was  too  dependent  upon  popular  opinion  to  allow  of  many  im- 
portant privileges  being  withheld  from  the  congregations.  Even  then  some 
voices  continued  to  be  raised  in  favor  of  a  priesthood  of  all  Christians  before 
God.  (6)  The  clergy  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  burdens  which  the  State 
had  imposed  upon  it,  and  a  series  of  civil  enactments  became  necessary  to 
prevent  the  entrance  6f  too  many  persons  into  ecclesiastical  offices.  These 
required  that  no  person  should  be  ordained  except  to  supply  the  place  of  a 
deceased  clergyman,  and  none  who  owed  any  service  to  a  master  or  to  the 
state  without  the  consent  of  those  to  whom  it  was  due.  An  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt was  made  to  procure  a  law  by  which  none  but  indigent  persons  on 
whom  the  state  had  no  claim  should  be  ordained  to  the  sacred  office.  On  the 
other  hand  the  spiritual  power  was  frequently  strengthened  by  the  ordination 
of  distinguished  philosophers,  advocates,  and  high  civil  officers.  In  such 
cases  the  law  required  that  all  landed  property  burdened  with  obligations  to 
the  state  should  be  surrendered  to  the  municipal  authorities.  The  clergy 
were  principally  supported  from  the  funds  of  the  Church,  but  even  as  late  as 
the  fifth  century  some  ecclesiastical  laws  recommended  that  they  should  sus- 
tain themselves  by  agricultural  or  other  pursuits,  (cfs  In  the  fourth  century 
the  ordination  of  deaconesses  was  looked  upon  as  a  Montanistic  custom,  and 
after  the  fifth  their  office  was  in  the  West  entirely  abolished,  (d)  The  choice 
of  all  his  clergy  came  into  the  hands  of  the  bishop,  although  the  presbyters 
once  more  augmented  their  authority  by  their  attempts  in  some  instances  to 
become  independent  pastors  both  in  town  and  country.  In  this  way  they 

«)  L.  1.  Cod.  Tkeod.  de  annona.  (XL,  L)  L.  15. 18.  21sa.  Ood.  Theod.  de  oxtraord.  (XI,  6.)  L.  63*. 
ISes.  Cod.  Theod.  de  Episc. 

a)  Justin.  Nov.  123.  c.  I.  Nov.  1ST.  c.  2.  Cone.  Nic.  IL  can.  8. 
I)  August  de  Olv.  Dei.  XX,  10.  Ambrosiaster  ad  Ephes.  4,11. 

c)  Cone.  Garth,  a.  419.  can.  52.  58. 

d)  Amorosiaster  in  I.  Tim.  3,  11.  Cone.  Epaonenee,  can.  21. 


CHAP.  III.    CONSTITUTION.    §  126.  CLERGY.    §  12T.  PATRIARCHS  141 

hoped  to  attain  the  position  of  the  country  hishops  who  had  been  supplanted 
ever  since  the  fourth  century,  and  that  the  episcopal  name  might  become  less 
common  and  more  important.  Other  presbyters,  together  with  the  deacons 
as  the  clergy  of  the  bishop's  church  (cathedralis),  constituted  the  bishop's 
privy  council.  One  of  these  was  chosen  an  Archpresbyter,  to  preside  over 
the  public  worship,  and  another  was  appointed  an  Archdeacon,  to  preside 
over  the  eDiscopal  court,  (e) 

§  127.     The  Patriarchs. 

D.  Slondel,  traite  hist  de  la  Primaute  en  1'egl.  Gen.  1641.  f.  J.  Morini  Exercitt.  ecc.  et  bibl.  (Ds. 
I.  de  Patriarch,  et  Primat.  origg.)  Par.  1669.  f.  Janus,  de  origg.  Patriarch,  chr.  Dss.  II.  Vit  171S.  4. 
Thomassini  I,  7-20. 

f 

The  great  dioceses  and  prerogatives  ot  the  Bishops  of  Rome,  Alexandria, 
and  Antioch  were  recognized  at  Nicaea,  on  the  ground  of  their  being  estab- 
lished upon  usage,  (a)  At  the  Synod  of  Constantinople  (881)  the  Bishop  of 
New  Rome  was  associated  with  these,  in  rank  next  to  the  Roman  bishop.  (&) 
His  diocese  was  continually  increasing,  but  at  Chalcedon  (451)  it  was  consti- 
tuted of  Thrace,  perhaps  already  a  part  of  it,  (c)  the  more  distant  part  of 
Pontus,  and  Asia  Minor.  To  him  also  was  granted  the  privilege  of  receiving 
complaints  against  the  metropolitans  of  other  dioceses,  (d)  since  the  foreign 
bishops  who  were  continually  going  to  and  from  the  imperial  court  formed 
around  him  an  almost  perpetual  council,  (e)  As  by  this  arrangement  the 
Metropolitans  of  Ephesus,  Heraclea  and  New-Caesarea  were  subjected  to  his 
jurisdiction,  to  save  their  dignities  from  detriment,  a  new  ecclesiastical  office 
was  introduced,  to  which  the  name  of  archbishop  or  exarch  was  applied.  In 
the  fifth  century,  however,  the  name  of  Patriarch  which  had  before  com- 
monly been  applied  to  all  bishops  was  exclusively  used  to  designate  them. 
To  the  patriarchs  belonged  the  duty  of  ordaining  the  metropolitans,  con- 
vening synods  of  their  whole  dioceses,  bringing  to  an  issue  causes  of  more 
than  ordinary  importance  (causae  majores),  and  deciding  finally  all  cases  of 
appeal  which  might  be  submitted  to  them.  These  four  great  dioceses  which 
in  the  East  alone  corresponded  tolerably  well  with  the  great  provinces  of  the 
empire  were  gradually  made  to  include  every  part  of  the  Church.  Some 
bishops,  however,  especially  in  the  West,  and  in  the  East  all  in  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  preserved  their  independence.  The  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  was  reck- 
oned at  Nicaea,  as  a  mark  of  honorable  respect,  among  the  great  bishops,  and 
after  a  long  struggle  he  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Metropolitan  of  Caesarea,  and  at  Chalcedon  received  Palestine  as  an  inde- 
pendent diocese.  (/)  The  exorbitant  and  much  abused  power  of  the  Alex- 
andrian bishop  was  broken  at  Chalcedon.  The  two  Eastern  patriarchates 
were  also  stripped  of  their  power  in  consequence  of  the  Monophysites  and 

e)  PerUdh,  v.  Urspr.  d.  Archidiac.  Hildesh.  1743. 

a)  Cone.  Nic.  can.  6.    &)  Cone.  Constant.  I.  can.  3.    c)  Thus  according  to  Socrat.  H.  ecc.  V.  8. 

<f)  Cone.  Chalcedon,  can.  28.  et  9. 

«)  SwoSoy  fv^r)fj.ovffa.     Cone.  Chalc.  Actio.  IV.  (Mansi  Th.  VII.  p.  91s.)— J.  £  Vater,  y.  d. 

eV5.    (KHist.  Archly.  1823.  P.  3.) 
/)  Cone.  Nic.  can.  7.  Cone.  Chalc.  Actio  VII.  (Mansi  Th.  VII.  p.  ISlss.) 


142     ANCIENT  CUUBCH  HISTOEY.  PEE.  IL  IMPEEJAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

Arabians.  The  Bishops  of  Old  and  New  Kome  alone  stood  as  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Eastern  and  Western  divisions  of  the  empire,  and  watched  each 
other  with  a  jealous  eye.  The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  was  generally 
powerful  on  account  of  the  favor  of  the  emperor,  but  he  was  also  the  subject 
of  the  imperial  caprice,  while  the  Roman  bishop  was  much  more  indepen- 
dent, in  consequence  of  his  political  position,  and  hence  often  became  the 
champion  of  ecclesiastical  freedom  and  the  prevailing  orthodoxy.  When  John 
the  Faster  (after  687)  assumed  the  title  of  an  oecumenical  bishop,  Gregory  the 
Great  pronounced  such  a  name  unchristian,  and  in  opposition  to  it  took  for  him- 
self the  more  Christian  designation  of  a  servant  of  the  servants  of  God ;  Greg- 
ory's successors,  with  more  sincerity,  soon  after  assumed  the  name  of  a  Uni- 
versal Bishop,  (g)  Neither  title  was  at  that  time  entirely  unknown.  In  the 
edict  of  the  usurper,  Phocas,  an  acknowledgment  was  made,  simply  from 
political  and  personal  considerations,  that  the  Roman  Church  was  entitled  to 
the  first  rank,  (h)  Both  these  patriarchs  were  successful  in  their  own  pecu- 
liar spheres,  but  the  same  political  events  which  reduced  the  territories  of  the 
one  proportionally  enlarged  those  of  the  other. 

8  128.     The  Eoman  Bishopric  before  Leo. 

Epp.  Rom.  PonUflcum  a  3.  Clcmentc  usque  ad  Innoc.  III.  ed.  Constant.  Par.  1721.  rep.  ScJuxne- 
mann,  Qott  179C.  Th.  I.  (until  482.)— CJ.  Salmatii,  Libror.  de  Primata  Papae  P.  I.  c.  apparatu.  L. 
B.  1645.  4. 

The  Roman  bishop  exorcised  a  metropolitan  jurisdiction  over  the  ten 
suburbicarian  provinces,  which  was  as  far  as  the  political  district  of  Rome 
extended,  (a)  while  the  metropolitanates  of  the  diocese  of  Italia,  especially 
Milan,  under  Ambrosius  and  his  successors,  claimed  to  be  fully  equal  to  him 
within  their  respective  dioceses.  But  Rome  was  the  only  see  which  could 
claim  to  be  apostolic,  and  was  almost  the  only  medium  of  ecclesiastical  connec- 
tion with  the  East.  The  high  reputation  which  it  possessed  with  respect  to 
apostolical  traditions,  was  so  successfully  and  dispassionately  used  in  the  con- 
troversies of  the  East,  that  the  party  which  had  the  favor  of  Rome  might 
generally  be  sure  of  ultimate  victory.  Hence,  her  opinion  and  her  decision 
as  a  mediator  was  continually  sought  for  and  as  readily  given.  And  even 
when  her  interference  was  disregarded,  as  in  the  case  of  Chrysostom,  it  was 
always  in  behalf  of  humanity  and  the  people.  In  consequence  of  its  attach- 
ment to  the  Nicaean  creed  when  the  whole  Eastern  Church  was  Arian,  East 
niyria  sought  a  connection  with  the  Roman  Church,  and  the  Bishop  of 
Thessalonica  was  regarded  as  a  Roman  vicar.  *  This  same  state  of  affairs 
made  the  Roman  court  at  the  Council  of  Sardica  (347)  a  Court  of  Cassation, 
for  the  reception  of  appeals  in  the  case,  of  bishops.  (6)  The  Eastern 
churches,  when  they  were  so  disposed,  and  when  united  among  themselves, 

— * — 

0)  Gregor.  1.  V.  Ep.  ISss.  VII,  83ss.— C.  M.  Pfaff,  de  titulo  Patr.  oecumenici,  porno  oridis.  1736. 4. 
(Tempe  ffelv.  Th.  IV.  Sect  I.  p.  99ss.) 

h)  Anastas.  in  Vita  Bonifacii  IIL  Paultu  Dice.  gestaLpngob.  IV,  87. 

a)  Kortiiott)  de  Ecc.  8uburbicariis.,Lps.  1780s.  4.  Dioecesis  Romae :  Campania,  Thnscia  et  Uin- 
bria,  Picenum  suburbicariam,  Sicilia,  Apulia  et  Calabria,  Bruttii  et  Lucania,  Samnlum,  Sardinia,  COT- 
Bica,  Valeria, 

V)  Cone.  Sard.  can.  3  et  5. 


CHAP.  III.  CONSTITUTION.  §  128.  EOMAN  SEE.  §  129.  LEO  THE  GREAT.   1 43 

never  hesitated  to  disregard  the  interference  of  the  Roman  bishop,  and  the 
,  Synods  of  Nicaea  and  Constantinople  were  entirely  independent  of  his  influ- 
ence ;  but  when  the  patriarchs  contended  with  each  other,  or  with  the  impe- 
rial court,  his  powerful  friendship  was  generally  sought  by  both  parties,  and 
was  often  purchased  by  concessions.  From  observing  these  facts,  Innocent  I. 
became  convinced  that  even  in  his  day,  nothing  in  the  whole  Christian  world 
could  be  brought  to  a  decision  without  the  cognizance  of  the  Roman  see,  and 
that,  especially  in  matters  of  faith,  all  bishops  were  under  the  necessity  of 
consulting  St.  Peter,  (c)  The  position  of  the  Roman  bishops  in  the  state, 
was  that  of  powerful  subjects  who  could  be  judged  only  by  the  emperor  him- 
self, (d)  but  who,  as  in  the  case  of  Liberius  for  his  defence  of  the  Nicaean 
creed,  might  sometimes  be  abused  by  him.  (e)  But,  although  the  glory  sur- 
rounding the  apostolic  chair  had  already  become  so  attractive,  that  those  who 
contended  for  it  sometimes  pressed  toward  it  over  the  bodies  of  their  com- 
petitors, it  was  still  the  subject  of  derision  and  complaint  among  the  hea- 
then. (/)  The  recollection  that  this  worldly  glory  commenced  only  in  the 
time  of  Constantine,  gave  occasion  to  the  remark,  that  Sylvester  (314-335) 
lived  long  enough  to  do  and  witness  what  was  suitable  for  a  Raman  bishop, 
according  to  more  modern  views. 

§  129.     Leo  the  Great,  440-461. 

I.  Leonis  N.  Opp.  ed.  Pasch.  Quesnel,  Ltigd.  1700.  2  Th.  f.    P.  et  IT.  Ballerini,  Yen.  1753-57. 
3  Th.  f. 

II.  W.  A.  Arendt,  Leo  d.  Gr.  u.  s.  Zeit  Mainz.  1835.    G.  PertJiel,  P.  Leo's  I.  Leben  u.  Lehren. 
Jen.  1843. — Griesbach,  Ds.  locos  communes  theol.  collectos  ex  Leone  M.  sistens.  Hal.  1768.  (Opuscc. 
ed.  GaMer,  Th.  I.  p.  45ss.) 

Leo  /.,  justly  called  the  Great,  whether  reference  is  had  to  his  character 
as  a  prince,  or  as  a  teacher  of  the  Church  in  his  day,  was  the  real  founder  of 
the  subsequent  greatness  of  the  Roman  see.  Hitherto  it  had  owed  more  to 
its  peculiar  circumstances  than  to  the  power  and  sagacity  of  its  bishops. 
What  he  now  did  was  from  a  well-defined  aim,  and  a  clear  presage  of  a  more 
glorious  future.  Regarding  the  Roman  Church  as  in  possession  of  the  true 
succession  from  the  Apostle  Peter,  he  looked  upon  it  as  the  rock  on  which 
the  Catholic  Church  was  built,  and  upon  the  Roman  bishop  as  appointed  by 
God  to  be  the  head  of  the  whole  Church,  and  to  have  the  care  of  its  inter- 
ests. Humbly  conscious  of  his  personal  unworthiness  for  such  an  office,  he 
proudly  trusted  that  Peter  himself  acted  through  him.  He  retained  a  firm 
hold  upon  the  opposing  Illyrian  Church,  by  the  protection  he  gave  to  its 
bishops  against  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Thessalonica,  which  was  reminded 
that  if  he  had  shared  with  it  some  of  his  cares  and  duties,  he  had  by  nc 
means  resigned  any  of  his  plenary  powers,  (a)  The  disturbed  state  of  the 
African  Church  on  account  of  the  Arian  Vandals,  supplied  him  with  an  occa- 
sion for  drawing  Africa  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  patriarch, 
under  the  plea  of  the  necessity  of  the  case.  Some  complaints  against  the 


c)  Constant,  p.  883.  896. 

d)  Ep.  Concilii  Eom.  ad  Gratian.  a.  878.  (Constant,  p.  529.)     e)  Theodoret.  H.  ecc,  II,  16as. 
/)  Ilieron.  Ep.  61.  ad  Pammach.    Ammian.  Marc.  XXVII,  8.  9. 

a)  Leo  ad  Anastasium  Thessalon.  (Opp.  Th.  I.  p.  686.) 


144     ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTORY.  PER.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

severity  of  Hilarius,  the  Metropolitan  of  Arelate  (Aries),  supplied  him  with 
a  pretext  for  interfering  with  the  affairs  of  Gaul.  Hilarius,  who  was  really 
no  severer  toward  others  than  toward  himself,  was  obliged  to  atone  for  the 
indifference  with  which  he  heard  of  the  sensitiveness  with  which  Rome  had 
heard  of  these  complaints,  and  for  his  refusal  to  acknowledge  any  tribunal 
for  him  beyond  the  Alps.  Valentinian  III.  enacted  a  law  which  declared 
the  apostolic  see  the  supreme  legislative  and  judicial  authority  for  the  whole 
Church.  (J)  Leo  had  dictated  this  law,  and  had  satisfied  the  emperor  that  it 
would  be  wise  to  unite  the  already  crumbling  provinces  with  the  capital  by 
an  ecclesiastical  bond.  It  was  originally  intended  only  for  the  "West,  but 
even  there  it  was  ineffectual  against  Hilarius,  (<•)  and  in  consequence  of  the 
decay  of  the  empire  beyond  the  Alps,  it  became  an  empty  legal  title,  to  take 
effect  only  in  subsequent  times.  It  was  even  then  uncommon  for  a  Roman 
bishop  to  preach,  but  Leo  declared  that  this  was  to  be  one  of  his  ordinary 
duties.  As  a  proof  that  this  was  not  neglected,  he  left  ninety-six  sermons 
for  various  festivals,  distinguished  for  their  ecclesiastical  spirit,  their  rhythmi- 
cal harmony,  and  their  grandiloquence,  but  without  very  strict  logical  con- 
nection. If  the  work  on  the  Call  of  all  nations  was  written  by  him  in  his 
early  years,  (d)  he  proposed  in  it  an  accommodation  of  the  controversial 
questions  then  agitated  in  the  "West.  His  epistle  to  Flavianus  presents  a 
decision  upon  the  theological  disputes  of  the  East.  The  tyranny  of  Dioscu- 
rus,  and  the  atrocities  of  the  Robber-Synod,  were  a  scandal  to  the  whole 
Church.  Leo  spared  neither  tears  nor  bold  reproofs  to  prevent  the  evil  con- 
sequences which  might  follow  that  synod.  The  death  of  Theodosius  II. 
occurred  in  good  time  for  his  wishes,  as  no  authority  was  superior  to  his  with 
the  imperial  pair  who  then  ascended  the  throne  of  the  East.  His  legates  pre- 
sided at  Chalcedon,  and  every  acquittal  or  condemnation  which  took  place 
there  was  in  Leo's  name.  "When  Attila  had  crossed  the  Alps,  and  Rome  lay 
helpless  before  the  scourge  of  God  (452),  Leo,  in  his  pontifical  robes,  went  to 
meet  him,  and  the  pagan  conqueror  of  the  world  turned  his  hosts  another  way. 
Attila  may  have  seen  good  reasons  for  listening  to  the  prayers  and  warnings 
of  the  priest,  but  so  miraculous  seemed  this  deliverance  of  Italy,  that  in  the 
popular  account  of  it,  Peter  himself  stood  by  the  side  of  his  successor  with 
a  brandished  sword,  (e) 

§  130.     The  Papacy  after  Leo.     Gregory  the  Great,  590-604. 

Liber  diurnus  Horn.  Poniificum,  (Legal  Usages  of  the  Rom.  See,  collected  about  715.)  eel.  JIol- 
sten.  Rom.  1658.  Garner.  Par.  1680.  4.  (ffq/manni,  nova  Scrr.  ac  Monum.  Collectlo.  Lps.  1783.  4. 
Th.  II.)  Anastasii  BiUiothecarii  (about  870),  liber  pontiflcalis  s.  vitae  Rom.  Pontif.  a  Petro  Ap. 
usque  ad  Nicol.  I.  (with  the  orig.  docc.  only  from  the  time  of  Constantino,  708.)  ed.  JBlanchini, 
Rom.  1718-85.  4  Th.  f.  (Muratori,  Rer.  ItaL  Scrr.  Th.  III.  P.  I.) 

I.  Greg.  M.  Expositio  in  Jobum  s.  Moralinm  1.  XXXV.  Liber  pastoralis  curae.  (Ingolst  1825.) 
Dialogorum  de  vita  et  miracc.  Patrum  Ital.  et  de  aeternlt  animar.  1.  IV.  Epp.  1.  XIV.  Opp.  ed  Bene- 


V)  Leon.  Opp.  Th.  I.  p.  642.  and  Theodosii  Nov.  tit  24 

o)  PertJiel,  Leo's  Streit  mit  d.  B.  v.  Aries.  (Illgen's  ZeHschr.  1843.  P.  2.) 

d)  De  vocatione  omnium  gentium.    Quesnel  has,  however,  merely  shown  that  it  was  possible  for 
Leo  to  be  the  author  of  this  treatise.    Comp.  Perihel  (as  above),  p.  127ss. 

e)  Ileyne,  de  Leone  Attilae  et  Genserico  supplice  facto.  (Opp.  acad.  Goett  1788.  Th.  III.  p.  134ss.) 


CHAP.  III.    CONSTITUTION.    §130.  GEEGOEY  THE  GREAT.  145 

dictt.  Par.  1705.  4  Th.  f.  GaUiccioli,  Yen.  1768ss.  17  Th.  4.  Paulus  Warnefridi  (about  775),  de 
vita  S.  Gregorii.  Joannis  Ecc.  Eom.  Diaconi  (about  875),  de  vita  S.  Greg.  1.  IV.  Both  in  the  4tb 
vol.  of  the  Benedictine  ed. 

•II.  Jfaimbourff,  Hist,  du  Pontiflcat  de  S.  Greg.  Par.  1CS6.  4.     G.  F.  Wigyers,  de  G.  M.  ejusq 
placitis  anthropol.  Eost  1839.  P.  I.    M  W.  Marggraff,  de  G.  M.  v5ta  Ber.  1845. 

The  Eoman  bishops,  who  after  the  sixth  century  were  called  Popes, 
as  the  Alexandrian  bishops  especially  had  before  been  designated,  acknow- 
ledged that  they,  above  all  others,  were  bound  to  execute  the  edicts  which 
the  Church  sent  forth  from  her  councils,  (a)  but  the  historical  basis  on  which 
their  power  was  claimed  was  derived  from  the  divine  right  of  St.  Peter. 
Sometimes  a  vague  and  inconsiderate  reference  was  made  with  the  same 
object  even  to  Paul  as  the  supreme  head  of  the  Gentile  Church.  (5)  As  the 
imperial  government  was  frequently  powerless  in  Rome,  the  popes,  by  their 
patrimonial  rights  as  great  proprietors,  and  by  their  episcopal  courts,  were 
able  sometimes  to  supply  its  place.  More  than  once  they  delivered  Rome 
and  the  surrounding  country  from  the  hands  of  the  barbarians.  "When, 
therefore,  the  last  shadow  of  the  "Western  Empire  had  disappeared  (476),  and 
Arian  monarchs  had  set  up  a  German  kingdom  in  Italy,  the  popes  were 
regarded  by  the  Roman  people  as  their  native  lords,  and  with  the  exception 
of  some  instances  in  which  they  were  abused  by  their  conquerors,  they  were 
the  actual  masters  of  the  country.  The  Roman  clergy  of  that  day  were  pow- 
erful enough  to  proclaim,  that  every  interference  of  a  layman  in  the  affairs 
of  the  Church,  was  by  its  own  nature  invalid,  and  that  the  successors  of  St. 
Peter  could  be  judged  by  none  but  God.  (c)  But  when  Justinian  I.  recon- 
quered Italy,  they  again  became  dependent  upon  Constantinople,  and  even 
their  ancient  reputation  for  orthodoxy  was  thus  endangered.  This  continued 
until  the  time  of  Gregory  /.,  who  saw  that  the  only  condition  on  which 
ecclesiastical  power  could  be  enjoyed,  was  that  they  should  throw  off  this 
political  dependence.  In  the  midst  of  the  embarrassments  produced  by  the 
settlement  of  the  Longobards  in  Italy  (after  568),  he  contrived  so  to  use  that 
event  that  it  prepared  the  way  for  their  independence.  He  was,  however, 
compelled  himself  to  publish  a  law  of  the  emperor  which  he  regarded  as 
inconsistent  with  the  law  of  God,  (d)  and  to  congratulate  a  regicide  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  (e)  He  was  originally  of  a  patrician  family,  and  on 
the  road  to  the  highest  civil  offices,  when  he  suddenly  renounced  the  world, 
and  turned  the  palace  of  his  ancestors  into  a  convent.  From  this  he  was 
called  to  the  government  of  the  Church,  but  in  the  midst  of  pontifical  splen- 
dor his  monastic  severity  became  intense.  Toward  his  dependants  he  was 
more  and  more  imperious  in  his  demands  of  duty  to  the  Church,  but  lavish 
in  his  expenditures  upon  the  poor  and  the  idle.  By  means  of  hit  school  for 
music,  he  effected  considerable  improvements  in  psalmody,  (/)  and  to  the 
public  worship  of  Rome  he  imparted  that  mysterious  pomp  for  r'hich  it  has 


a)  Gelasii  Ep.  13.  (Mansi  Th.  VIIL  p.  51.)     6)  Gregor.  M.  in  I.  Eeg.  5.  (Th.  lit  P.  II.  p.  250.) 

c)  Cone.  Eom.  III.  sub  Symmacho  a.  502.  (Mansi  Tb.  VIIL  p.  266s.)    Ennodii,  L.  apolog.  pro 
8yn.  IV.  Eom.  s.  palmari.  (Mansi  Th.  VIIL  p.  284ss.) 

d)  L.  III.  Ep.  65.  ad  Mauric.     e)  L.  XIII.  Ep.  81.  ad  Phocam. 

/)  Gerlert,  de  cantu  et  musica  sacra.  Bamb.  et  Frib.  1774.  Th.  I.  p.  247ss.   D,  Antony,  archaeol 
Lehrb.  d.  Gregorian  KGesangs.  Munst  1829.  4. 
10 


146     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-8001 

since  been  distinguished.  To  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  especially, 
he  gave  the  essential  character  of  a  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  (g)  and  thoroughly  im- 
bued the  popular  mind  with  the  notion  of  a  Purgatory.  If  he  did  not  authorize 
the  burning  of  the  Palatine  library,  he  certainly  had  a  great  contempt  foi 
worldly  science  and  literature,  and  thought  it  a  shame  for  the  word  of  God 
to  be  restrained  by  the  rules  of  Donatus.  (A)  In  his  practical  works  he  has 
done  quite  as  much  to  promote  in  the  whole  "Western  Church  a  blind  eccle- 
siastical credulity  as  an  intense  zeal  in  behalf  of  the  Church.  He  was  full  of 
passionate  ardor  to  promote  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  but  that  kingdom  was 
identical  with  that  of  the  Pope.  His  successors  sometimes  acknowledged 
their  allegiance  to  the  emperor,  but  it  was  only  when  they  were  compelled 
to  do  so.  When  contending  for  the  faith,  and  about  images,  they  never 
hesitated  to  exclude  even  the  monarch  and  the  patriarchs  of  his  court  from 
the  communion  of  the  Church. 

§  131.     General  Councils  and  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  Synods  of  the  Patriarchal  and  Metropolitan  dioceses  continued  to  be 
the  regular  authorities  for  legislation  and  superior  jurisdiction.  The  efforts 
of  the  Church  to  attain  general  unity  rendered  it  indispensable,  that  as  far 
as  political  circumstances  would  allow,  deputies  of  the  whole  Church  should 
be  assembled  for  deciding  theological  controversies.  These  general  assem- 
blies of  the  Church  were  in  fact  composed  only  of  bishops  residing  within  the 
Roman  empire,  and  their  organization  was  much  influenced  by  the  caprice 
of  the  emperor  and  the  patriarchs ;  but  as  the  main  body  of  the  Catholic 
Church  was  found  within  the  empire,  and  bishops  from  countries  called  bar- 
barian were  admitted  to  seats,  these  assemblies  were  looked  upon  as  the 
proper  representatives  of  the  Catholic  Church,  (a)  Near  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  they  therefore  received  the  name  of  (Ecumenical  Synods, 
although  it  was  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  them  from  other  orthodox 
synods.  Seven  of  these  synods,  in  fact,  gradually  attained  the  authority  of 
a'curaenlcal  assemblies,  and  to  these  in  the  West  was  added  the  Synod  of 
Sardica,  and  in  the  Greek  Church  the  Second  Trullan  Synod.  The  primary 
object  for  which  they  were  assembled  was  to  determine  theological  questions, 
but  they  also  formed  canons  upon  various  legal  subjects,  and  when  occasion 
called  for  it,  they  were  the  highest  judicatories  of  the  Church.  Legal  ques- 
tions were  decided  by  a  majority  of  votes,  but  in  matters  of  faith,  unanimity 
was  secured  by  an  exclusion  of  the  dissenting  minority.  The  ultimate  de- 
cisions were  disregarded  by  those  whose  consciences  were  violated  by  them. 
No  one  could  pretend  that  all  of  them  were  true,  as  in  the  fourth  century 
synods  were  arrayed  against  each  other.  A  celebrated  bishop  entirely  de- 
spaired of  them,  (fc)  and  even  less  passionate  teachers  acknowledged,  that 
when  the  spirit  of  the  Church  should  become  more  perfectly  developed,  a 

g)  Greg.  L.  sacrame/itornm  de  clrculo  anni  s.  Sacramentarium.     Ordo  et  canon  missae  Grego- 
rianus  in  the  Codex  liturg.  Ecc.  Rom.  cur.  H.  A.  Daniel,  Lps.  1847. — LilientfMl,  do  canone 
Gregoriano.  Lugd.  1740. 

/O  Ep.  ad.  Leandr.  prefixed  to  tho  Expos!  tlo  in  Jobnm. 

a)  Emeb.  Yita  Const  III,  7.      V)  Greg.  Naz.  Ep.  55.  ad.  Procop.  (Th.  I.  p.  814.) 


CHAP.  III.  CONSTITUTION.  §181.  CECUM.  SYNODS.  CHAP.  IV.  ECCLES.  LIFE.     147 

better  expression  of  it  might  be  expected  from  the  Synods,  (c)  But  even 
at  Chalcedon  the  decisions  of  the  Nicaean  Fathers  were  looked  upon  as  an 
immutable  law,  expressed  by  the  divine  Spirit  himself.  (<£)  Past  ages  were 
not  supposed  to  possess  any  authority  greater  than  the  present.  Hence,  from 
about  the  time  of  the  fifth  oecumenical  council,  it  was  generally  supposed 
that  every  such  oecumenical  council,  in  matters  of  faith,  declared  the  truth 
in  an  infallible  form  in  consequence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  especially  bestowed 
upon  the  bishops.  In  these  general  assemblies  the  Catholic  Church  felt  itself 
to  be  what  it  was  so  anxious  to  be,  viz. :  The  divine  kingdom  of  Christ  on 
earth,  the  only  source  of  truth  and  salvation,  pervading,  "indeed,  the  whole 
earth,  but  constituting  a  single  external  community,  independent  of  all  civil 
power,  and  directed  according  to  ecclesiastical  laws  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
through  the  bishops. 


CHAP.  IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

§  132.  Religious  Spirit  of  the  People  and  Ecclesiastical  Discipline. 
An  earnest  struggle  was  for  some  time  kept  up  between  primitive  abste- 
miousness and  hostility  to  the  world  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  worldly-mind- 
edness  which  had  now  entered  the  Church  and  those  means  by  which  it 
sought  gratification  on  the  other.  Plays,  dances,  oaths,  and  loans  upon  usury, 
were  declared  to  be  sinful.  But  as  a  complete  renunciation  of  the  world  was 
found  to  be  impossible  in  the  new  circumstances  of  the  Church,  a  higher  sys- 
tem of  morality  was  devised  for  those  who  would  be  perfect,  and  were  will- 
ing to  practise  unnatural  self-denials,  and  another  of  a  lower  nature,  in  which 
many  indulgences  were  allowed,  was  formed  for  ordinary  Christians.  The 
former  system  ran  great  risks  in  consequence  of  the  pride  and  hypocrisy 
which  were  soon  found  to  be  incidental  to  it.  From  a  nobler  spirit  of  dis- 
simulation, some  persons  of  an  eccentric  character  quietly  submitted,  or  some- 
times gave  occasion  to  evil  reports,  (a)  The  practical  wisdom  tolerated  by 
the  lower  system  was  debased  by  the  consciousness  of  its  own  imperfection. 
Even  marriage  was  looked  upon  as  belonging  to  this  lower  condition.  There 
was  some  doubt  whether  it  should  be  regarded  as  a  necessary  evil  in  general, 
or  as  an  inviolable  sacrament,  but  second  marriages  were  condemned,  and  in 
the  West,  after  the  fifth  century,  the  marriage  of  a  divorced  person  was  pun- 
ished as  adultery.  (5)  External  forms,  such  as  fasting,  almsgiving,  and 
prayers,  without  reference  to  the  internal  spirit  which  produced  them,  were 
regarded  as  meritorious  and  expiatory.  The  object  of  education  was  the 
attainment  of  the  most  humble  submission  to  authority,  and  the  ideal  of  all 
excellence  was  the  mortifications  and  conflicts  of  the  saints.  The  means  of 
grace  were  often  used  as  mere  charms,. and  heathenish  superstitions  of  every 

c)  Athanas.  de  synod.  Arim.  et  Seleuc.  c.  43.  (Th.  I.  p.  91T.)    Augustin,  de  bapt  c.  Donatist. 
II,  8.  (Gratian :  c.  8.  D.  X.)  c.  Maximin.  Arian.  II,  14,  8. 

d)  Cone.  CJialced.  actio  1.    (Mansi  Th.  VI.  p.  672.)    Respecting  Nicaea,   Constantine  in  /&>• 
yrat.  I,  9.    Isidor.  Pelus.  L.  IV.  Ep.  99. 

a)  Evagr.  II.  ecc.  IV,  83.     ZO  Innocent  I.  Ep.  6,  c.  6.    Comp.  Cone.  M-ileott.  a.  416.  c.  17. 


1 48     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A,  D.  812-8W 

kind  remained  in  full  force.  We  already  find  traces  of  the  belief  that  men 
could  form  a  compact  with  the  devil,  from  which  no  penitence  could  obtain 
deliverance  but  through  the  goodness  of  the  holy  Virgin,  (c)  But  even  in  this 
time  of  general  helplessness  the  world  was  full  of  miracles.  Christianity 
was  frequently  a  mere  subject  of  controversy  and  of  entertainments,  and  yet 
people  took  part  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  with  an  earnestness  and  activity 
which  amounted  to  absurdity,  (d)  Brotherly  love  was  no  longer  the  peculiar 
badge  of  the  Christian  community,  and  an  observing  pagan  remarks,  that 
even  wild  beasts  were  not  more  furious  against  each  other  than  were  the 
Christians  of  his  day.  («)•*  The  Church  had  no  remedy  for  this  general  cor- 
ruption of  social  life,  and  for  the  luxury  and  extreme  refinement  which  were 
side  by  side  with  popular  misery  and  universal  servility.  Indeed,  it  was 
itself  rapidly  becoming  swallowed  up  in  the  general  abyss  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Many  were  raised  by  it  above  the  feeling  of  this  relaxation  of  all 
public  relations,  and  made  to  participate  in  the  liberty  of  the  kingdom  of  tho 
Spirit.  The  severity  of  the  ancient  discipline  was  gradually  made  to  yield 
to  new  circumstances  by  numerous  dispensations,  but  a  multitude  of  minor 
penances  were  introduced  and  regulated  by  a  well-arranged  penal  code.  In 
'the  East  the  confession  of  secret  sins  was  left  to  the  option  of  each  individ- 
ual, and  public  opinion  became  inflexibly  opposed  to  auricular  confession,  on 
account  of  certain  flagrant  crimes  known  to  have  been  connected  with 
it.  (/)  In  the  West,  confession  was  more  and  more  regarded  as  indispensa- 
ble to  forgiveness,  but  after  Leo's  time  this  might  be  made  in  the  ear  of  a 
prk«t  bound  to  secresy.  (g) 

§  133.     Celibacy  and  Moral  Condition  of  the  Clergy. 

Theiner,  ToL  1.  (|  9.  not*  6.)  Carovi,  Betracbt  d.  CoeL  pwt  1.  SunmL  d.  Cocllbatogesetze. 
I  *t  2.  Frkt  1882.  C  [7.  Taylor,  Andent  CbrUUanltj.  PhlUwL  1840.  8.J 

A  larger  number  of  synodal  enactments  were  published  against  the  mar- 
riage of  priests  after  their  ordination,  but  in  the  East,  when  even  bishops  had 
been  married  before  ordination,  they  were  generally  unmolested.  "When  a 
new  law  on  this  subject  was  proposed  at  Nicaea,  Paphnutius,  an  aged  con- 
fessor and  a  rigid  ascetic  who  had  never  touched  a  woman,  so  powerfully  de- 
fended the  chastity  and  sanctity  of  the  marriage  state,  that  the  liberty  which 
had  always  been  customary  in  this  matter  was  confirmed,  (a)  and  the  Orien- 
tal Church  even  anathematized  those  who  rejected  a  married  priest.  (&)  The 
right  of  a  clergyman  to  live  with  a  wife  whom  he  had  married  before  his 
ordination,  and  who  had  been  a  free  and  spotless  virgin  before  her  marriage, 
was  also  recognized  and  confirmed  by  the  Trullan  Synod,  but  the  bishops 
were  required  to  separate  themselves  from  their  wives,  (c)  In  the  West, 

c)  Aem.il.  Sommer,  de  Theophlli  cum  dlab.  foedere.  Bcr.  1844. 

d)  Greg.  Nyss.  Or.  de  Deitate  FiliL  (Th.  I.  p.  466s.)     e)  Ammian.  Marcett.  XXII,  5. 
/)  Socrat.  H.  ecc.  V,  19. 

g)  Leon.  Ep.  168.  c.  2.  (Opp.  p.  1480s.)— Dallaewt,  de  sacramentall  s.  auricular!  Latlnor.  confe» 
Bione.  Gen.  1661.  4    Boileau,  Hist  cont  auric.  Par.  1CS4,    flee,  cL  Beichte.  Frkt  1828. 
a)  Socrat.  H.  ecc.  1, 11.    Sozom.  H.  ecc.  I,  23. 

V)  Socrat.  II,  43.    Syn.  Gangr.  a.  862-870.  c,  4.  (Mantl  Th.  IL  p.  1096.)  comp.  Can.  apott.  6. 
c)  Syn.  Trull,  can,  8.  6. 18.-12. 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  m  CELIBACY.    §  184  ORIENTAL  MONAS.  LIFE.     1 49 

after  the  time  of  Siricius,  Bishop  of  Rome  (385),  the  provincial  synods  de- 
clared that  none  but  subdeacons  should  be  allowed  to  have  wives,  (d)  and 
gradually  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  was  universally  demanded.  Human 
laws,  however,  were  comparatively  ineffectual  when  opposed  to  the  very 
nature  of  man.  Although  persons  of  an  elevated  spirit  among  the  clergy 
maintained  the  same  contempt  of  the  world  which  had  formerly  prevailed, 
and  were  rewarded  and  prompted  to  do  so  by  the  honor  of  their  order,  many 
low-minded  men  were  attracted  by  the  wealth  and  honors  of  the  Church, 
and  lived  in  hypocrisy,  or  in  open  devotion  to  worldly  pleasure.  These 
looked  upon  the  performance  of  outward  worship  as  the  sole  business  of  the 
priesthood,  and  changed  their  creed  according  to  the  imperial  mandate.  Sal- 
manus  wrote  a  satire  against  the  covetousness  of  such  priests,  in  which  he 
exhorted  every  one  to  purchase  salvation  in  this  easy  way  by  a  proper  payment 
for  his  sins,  (e)  But  dark  as  was  the  picture  of  this  corruption,  painted  by  the 
ecclesiastical  teachers  themselves,  the  very  indignation  which  these  express 
against  it,  the  ideal  of  the  true  priesthood  which  they  held  up,  and  the 
acknowledgment  which  these  received  among  their  contemporaries, ,  prove 
that  even  exalted  virtues  were  esteemed  and  found  among  the  clergy.  (/) 
When  the  barbarians  overran  the  country,  the  priests  were  not  only  ready 
to  administer  consolation  and  deliverance  to  their  people  in  the  performance 
of  their  official  duties,  but  to  surrender  their  lives  for  their  religion,  (g) 

§  134.    Monastic  Life  in  the  East.     Oont.  from  §  65. 

PaUadii  (d.  about  420),  Hist  Lausiaca.  Theodoreti,  <t>i\6beos  Iffropta  %  UO-/CTJTI/C};  iroXireia. 
Boorat.  IV,  23ss.  Sosom.  1, 12-14  III,  14  VI,  28-34  Lives  of  the  monastic  saints,  and  many  let- 
ters by  Hieronymus.  Cassianus.  (§  12.)  [<&  P.  Day,  Monastic  Institutions,  their  Origin,  Progress, 
&c.  2  ed.  Lond.  1846.  112.] 

From  the  ethical  system  which  required  a  renunciation  of  the  world,  was 
produced  monasticism.  The  necessity  of  having  some  society  induced  the 
hermits  to  assemble  in  cloisters  (KotvojBiov,  /xai/Spa,  claustrum),  and  the  bishops 
were  favorable  to  an  institution  by  means  of  which  order  and  supervision 
became  practicable.  Pachomius,  a  disciple  of  Anthony,  first  established 
monasteries  for  each  sex  on  the  island  of  Tabenna  in  the  Nile  (about  340), 
and  the  same  thing  was  subsequently  done  by  Amun  in  the  desert  of  Nitra, 
by  Hilarion  in  the  desert  of  Gaza,  and  by  Basil  the  Great  near  New  Caesa- 
rea.  Every  convent  was  governed  by  rules  imposed  upon  it  by  its  founder, 
but  most  of  these  required  unconditional  submission  to  the  will  of  the  supe- 
rior (fiyovfjievos,  ap^i/idi/Spm^,  a/3/3a$),  a  complete  surrender  of  all  private 
will  and  possessions,  a  mortification  of  the  sensual  nature,  and  a  life  entirely 
devoted  to  God  and  to  divine  things.  Their  time  was  wholly  taken  up  with 
pious  exercises  and  easy  manual  employments.  The  tortures  which  they 
inflicted  on  themselves  when  battling  with  the  temptations  of  an  excited 

d)  Siricii,  Ep.  ad  Hiinerium  c.  7-9.  (Constant,  p.  630ss.) 
«)  Adv.  avaritiam  L  IV.  (about  450.)  Opp.  ed.  Baluz.  Ven,  1728. 

/)  Gregor.  Nass.  ets  (avrbv  KO.\  Trepi  tiriffKoirwv.     Comp.  JTllmann,  Greg.  v.  Naz.  p.  521ss. 
&)  Socrat.  VI,  6.    Sosom.  VIII,  4     Tlieodoret.  V,  SB.     Victor  VU.  et  Vig.  Taps.  Opp.  1664.  4 
p.  9.    Niceph.  XIII,  6. 


1 50     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.   PER.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

fancy,  frequently  exceeded  the  requirements  of  their  rule,  and  sometimes 
terminated  in  suicide  or  insanity.  From  the  suppression  of  the  natural,  pro- 
ceeded unnatural  passions.  A  return  to  the  world  was  not  impossible,  but  it 
was  threatened  with  ecclesiastical  penances.  After  the  time  of  Basil,  the 
opinion  generally  prevailed,  that  the  marriage  of  a  virgin  espoused  to  God 
was  not  only  adulterous,  but  void.  Some  eminent  teachers  were  opposed  to 
this  view,  (a)  and  there  were  even  some  married  monks.  (2>)  None  but  the 
abbots  were  usually  ordained  as  priests,  and  in  some  instances  these  took 
rank  by  the  side  of  the  bishops,  their  monasteries  being  looked  upon  as  con- 
gregations of  laymen.  But  after  a  brief  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  rigid 
class,  (c)  the  convents  became  the  ordinary  seminaries  of  the  clergy.  This 
divine  philosophy  was  so  generally  received,  that  cities  became  solitary  and 
deserts  full  of  people.  The  burden  of  the  declining  state  was  not  felt  within 
the  cloister's  walls,  noble  minds  were  attracted  by  the  magnanimity  of  8  bold 
renunciation  of  the  world,  and  what  was  then  regarded  as  the  most  exalted 
state  could  not  be  found  in  the  world.  In  the  hands  of  the  more  violent 
bishops,  the  monks  became  an  easily  -excited  host,  which  in  their  contests 
with  pagans  and  heretics  often  controlled  the  hearts  and  clubs  of  the  popu- 
lace, and  feared  neither  the  imperial  despotism,  nor  the  laws,  nor  human 
nature  itself. 

§  135.    Hermits.    Simeon  Stylites. 

Sotom.  VI,  2S-84.  Rufini  Vitae  Patrnm  s.  Hist,  eromitlca.  In  the  2d  voL  of  the  Vitae  Patrum, 
ed.  Rosweidiu*,  Antu.  (1616.)  1628.  t  In  the  Protestant  selection :  Vitae  P.  repnrgatae  p.  O.  Mojo- 
rem  c.  praef.  Lutherl,  Vlt  VAl—Theodoretl,  Hist  rellgios.  c.  2«.  Evagr.  H.  ecc.  1, 18.  Life  of 
Simeon,  by  his  pupil  Antoniu*  (Acta  Sanctor.  Jan.  vol.  I.  p.  261ss.)  and  his  contemporary  Cotma* 
(Assemani  Acta  Mart  P.  IL  p.  268ss.) 

Not  only  might  the  nuns  reside  in  the  cloister,  but  they  were  sometimes 
allowed  even  to  remain  in  their  father's  house,  or  in  the  dwelling  of  a  priest 
(§  64).  The  ordinary  home  of  the  monks  was  in  the  desert.  The  Anachorets 
either  entered  into  some  fellowship  with  a  neighboring  monastery,  or  re- 
mained solitary  until  some  of  them  became  half  savages.  In  the  lives  of 
those  primitive  fathers  who  were  the  idols  of  popular  tradition,  we  meet 
with  exalted  virtues  and  heroic  self-tortures  carried  to  such  an  extreme,  that 
human  dignity  and  propriety  were  annihilated.  "We  sometimes  find  a  wis- 
dom which  seems  almost  supernatural,  and  sometimes  the  pious  simplicity  of 
an  ecclesiastical  mountebank  like  Paul  the  Simple.*  Simeon,  a  Syrian,  either 
invented  a  new  kind  of  life,  or  imitated  that  which  prevailed  among  the 
Indian  penitents.  "When  a  boy,  he  forsook  his  flock,  and  more  than  once 
was  saved  from  a  fanatical  suicide  in  the  convent.  For  thirty  years,  on  a 
pillar  near  Antioch  (after  42^  as  a  mediator  between  heaven  and  earth,  he 
preached  repentance  to  the  astonished  multitudes  that  gathered  around  him. 
He  became  an  umpire  and  an  apostle  to  the  wild  Arab  tribes,  and  gave  coun- 
sel, and  even  dictated  laws  to  an  emperor.  He  had  imitators  as  late  as  the 


a)  Epiph.  haer.  61,  7.    August,  de  bono  vldult  c.  10.    Comp.  Cypr.  Ep.  62. 
Z>)  Augtist.  de  haer.  c.  40.      c)  Cassian.  de  Instit  coenobb.  XI,  IT. 
*  General  view  of  the  accounts  In  Tittemont.  Th.  VII.  p.  144ss. 


CHAP.  IV.    EOCLES.  LIFE.    §  135.  SIMEON  STYLITES.    §  18G.  BENEDICTINES.     151 

twelfth  century,  but  while  many  endured  his  tortures,  few  attained  the  spirit 
or  the  reputation  of  his  life. 

§  136.     Monasticism  in  the  West.    Benedictines. 

Hieron.  and  Cassian.  (§  134.)  Dacherii  et  Habillonii  Acta  Sanctor.  Ord.  S.  Bencd.  (Hi: 
1100.)  1CG3-1T01.  9  Th.  f.  Mabillonii  Annales  Ord.  S.  Bened.  (till  1157.  Par.  1703-39.)  Luc. 
1739-45.  6  Th.  f.  In  the  Praef.  Saec.  I.  p.  7 :  Obss.  de  monachis  In  Occid.  ante  Benedictum.— 
Gesch.  d.  Benedictinerord.  A.  Spittler's  Vorles.  v.  Gurlitt.  Hamb.  1823.  4.  [Article  in  Edinburgh 
Eev.  for  Jan.  1849,  in  Eclectic  Magazine  for  April,  1849.] 

Monasticism  became  known  in  the  West  through  the  followers  of  Atha- 
nasius.  At  first  it  was  looked  upon  with  astonishment,  ridiculed  or  abhorred, 
but  in  a  short  time  it  was  extensively  propagated  through  the  influence  of 
Martin  of  Tours  and  Cassian  in  Gaul,  of  Ambrose  and  Jerome  in  Italy,  and 
of  Augustine  in  Africa.  Martinus,  Bishop  of  Turonum  (373-400),  was  the 
saint  of  his  people,  was  able  to  recognize  Satan  even  in  the  form  of  the 
Saviour,  and  according  to  his  disciples,  possessed  power  to  suspend  or  confirm 
the  laws  of  the  universe.  Her  was  carried  to  his  grave  by  two  thousand 
monks,  (a)  At  first,  those  rules  were  adopted  which  had  been  devised  in 
the  East,  but  it  was  soon  found  that  the  privations  of  the  desert  were  not 
suited  to  a  Gallican  stomach  and  winter.  (V)  Benedict  of  Nursia,  who  had 
dreamed  away  his  youth  in  the  grotto  of  Subiaco,  and  had  been  looked  upon 
as  a  saint  by  the  mountain  shepherds,  established  in  the  wilderness  of 
Monte  Cassino  (529)  a  society  of  monks,  whose  mild  but  well- arranged  rules 
and  inviolable  vows  soon  united  most  of  the  Western  monasteries  into  a  per- 
fectly organized  community,  and  bound  them  to  a  useful  course  of  life,  (c) 
Already,  in  Martin's  establishment,  the  disciples  had  been  employed  in  the 
labor  of  copying  books,  (d)  So  when  Cassiodorus  escaped  from  the  storms 
of  his  political  life,  and  found  refuge  (538)  in  his  convent  of  Vivarium,  he 
directed  the  attention  of  the  monks  to  literary  pusuits.  (e)  The  Benedictines 
preserved  the  monuments  of  antiquity  for  a  more  cultivated  age,  made  the 
deserts  fertile,  and  became  the  instructors  of  the  people.  The  convents  were 
placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  bishops  within  whose  diocese  they  were, 
but  these  had  no  power  to  violate  the  constitution  of  the  order.  A  few 
monasteries  attempted  to  escape  the  jurisdiction  or  the  oppression  of  their 
bishop,  by  putting  themselves  under  the  care  of  some  distinguished  bishop 
at  a  distance. 

§  137.     Veneration  for  Saints. 

In  an  age  when  people  quietly  enjoyed  all  that  they  possessed,  those  cen- 
turies in  which  painful  struggles  liad  been  endured  were  looked  upon  as 
heroic,  and  those  heroes  who  had  purchased  victory  with  their  blood  were 
invested  with  a  growing  splendor  in  the  grateful  recollections  of  subsequent 
generations.  The  pious  respect  which  all  felt  for  their  earthly  remains,  in 
the  course  of  time,  and  through  the  influence  of  Egyptian  customs  and  hea- 

«)  Sulpicii  Set),  de  vita  B.  Martini  L.  et  Epp.     Greg.  Tur.  de  miracc.  S.  Mart, 
fc)  Sulpicii  Sev.  Dial.  I,  8.    Cassian.  de  instit  coen.  1, 11. 
r)  Legends :  Gregorii  H.  Dialog.  1.  II.    Eule :  Holsten.  Th.  I.  p.  lllss. 
d)  Sulp.  Vita  Mart  c.  10.      e)  Institt  ad  div.  lect.  (§  119.  note  g.) 


j  52     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

thenish  superstitions,  became  exaggerated  into  a  veneration  for  their  bones, 
many  of  which  were  discovered  by  special  miracles  and  revelations.  Sc 
lucrative  finally  became  the  traffic  in  these  relics,  that  various  laws  were 
formed  against  it.  People  took  delight  in  other  and  strange  relics  which  had 
been  in  any  way  connected  with-  the  daily  lives  of  former  saints.  Public 
prayers  for  the  martyrs  were  gradually  changed  into  prayers  to  them  as  inter- 
cessors with  God. '  The  same  feeling  which  had  induced  their  heathen  ances- 
tors to  deify  men,  now  led  them  to  regard  the  saints  as  subordinate  deities. 
Some  were  honored  only  in  those  localities  in  which  they  had  lived,  or  in 
which  their  relics  were  preserved,  but  others  in  much  larger  circles.  Whole 
orders  and  nations  attached  themselves  to  particular  saints,  and  others  were 
made  to  preside  over  certain  kinds  of  assistance.  The  heathen  had  some 
occasion  for  ridiculing  Christians  on  the  ground  that  their  religion  had  be- 
come paganized.  Agrippa's  cheerful  Pantheon,  once  dedicated  to  Jupiter 
and  all  the  gods,  was  now  consecrated  to  the  Mother  of  God  and  all  the  mar- 
tyrs (COS).  As  soon  as  the  Nestorian  controversy  had  decided  that  the  Vir- 
gin had  given  birth  to  God,  she  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  saintly  host. 
Epiphanius,  on  the  one  hand,  points  out  those  as  heretics  CAvrtStKo/iaptai/irai) 
who  believed  that  Mary  had  been  the  mother  of  several  children  after  the 
birth  of  our  Saviour,  and  on  -the  other  calls  a  female  sect  (KoXXvpiSmyof) 
which  bestowed  divine  honors  upon  her  by  the  offering  of  a  cake,  the  priest- 
esses of  the  Mother  of  God.  (a)  Though  all  were  not  agreed  upon  the  sub- 
ject, it  was  generally  believed  that  her  virginity  was  unimpaired  even  when 
she  brought  forth  offspring.  Prayers  were  also  addressed  to  angels,  espe- 
cially as  it  seemed  unsuitable  that  they  should  be  regarded  as  inferior  to  the 
saints.  (Z»)  Some  persons  who  had  been  objects  of  devout  admiration  during 
their  lives,  on  account  of  their  exalted  or  at  least  singular  piety,  were  placed 
by  their  contemporaries  on  an  equality  with  the  martyrs.  In  acknowledging 
these  as  saints,  the  bishops  only  expressed  the  popular  will.  Such  a  venera- 
tion, often  amounting  even  to  adoration,  did  indeed  put  imperfect  mediators, 
with  their  generally,  overwrought  virtues,  in  the  place  of  Christ,  but  it  pre- 
served in  its  freshness  a  poetic  recollection  of  the  illustrious  examples  of  bet- 
ter times.  From  the  very  nature  of  these  recollections,  they  could  never 
attain  their  complete  significance  until  they  had  been  reproduced  in  popular 
legends  and  stories.  Thus  St.  Agnes  with  her  lamb  became  the  type  of  pious 
virginity,  (c)  just  as  Christopher  had  become  the  type  of  a  dauntless  man- 
hood, when  he  made  diligent  search  among  all  the  great  men  of  the  earth, 
that  he  might  serve  only  the  greatest,  and  finally  found  what  he  desired  in 
the  child  Jesus,  (d)  Even  the  soil  whicla  our  Lord  once  trod  became  an 
object  of  devotion  on  account  of  recollections  of  him.  Beneath  a  temple  of 
Yenus  was  discovered  the  grave  of  the  risen  Saviour,  and  over  the  spot  Con- 
stantine  erected  the  Church  of  the  Resurrection.  (<?)  His  mother  Helena 


a)  Epipli,  haer.  78  et  19.— Hunter,  ce  Collyrid.  fanaticis  saec.  IV.  (Miscell.  Hafn.  1818.  Th.  I 
Fasc.  2.) 

&)  Anibros.  de  vlduis  9,  55.  com  p.  Justin.  ApoL  I.  c.  6. 

c)  TiUemont.  Th.  V.  p.  344sx      d)  Review  of  the  Legends :  Annalen  d.  Theol.  1834.  Nov. 

f)  Euteb.  Vita  Const  III,  25-40. 


CHAP.  IV.  ECCLES.  LIFE.  §  13T.  SAINTS.  §  138.  PUB.  WORSHIP.  FESTIVALS.     153 

had  herself  baptized  in  the  Jordan  (826),  and  it  was  near  the  close  of  this 
century  that  the  legends  first  delighted  the  hearts  of  men  by  revealing  the 
sacred  cross,  which  has  since  been  preserved  unimpaired  in  spite  of  the 
removal  from  it  of  innumerable  pieces.  (/)  Annually,  at  Easter,  pilgrims 
assembled  out  of  all  countries  around  the  sacred  sepulchre. 

§  138.    Public  Worship. 

The  outward  forms  of  religion  became  gradually  more  and  more  imposing. 
From  the  ancient  temples  the  incense  and  many  ancient  customs  of  heathenism 
were  transferred  to  the  churches,  (a)  By  the  use  of  tapers  and  perpetual  lamps, 
the  solemnity  of  nocturnal  festivals  was  combined  with  the  light  of  day.  In 
some  places  a  piece  of  metal  was  struck  by  a  hammer  to  call  the  people 
together,  but  in  the  seventh  century  lells  were  used  for  that  purpose.  Soon 
after,  in  face  of  continual  opposition  to  all  instrumental  music,  the  organ 
(opyavov),  worthy  of  being  the  invention  of  a  saint  who  had  listened  to  the 
minstrelsy  of  angels,  was  brought  to  Italy  from  Greece.  (5)  Church  music  in 
alternate  parts  had  been  extended  in  every  direction  from  Antioch,  and  had 
been  much  improved,  especially  in  the  "West,  after  the  time  of  Ambrosius.  (c) 
In  the  Greek  Church  the  principal  part  of  public  service  consisted  in  the 
sermon,  though  it  was  often  only  a  rhetorical  amusement  rewarded  by  clap- 
ping of  hands.  From  looking  upon  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  eucharist,  men 
gradually  passed  to  regard  it  as  an  expiatory  sacrifice,  and  we  find  in  some 
uncertain  figures  of  speech,  intimations  of  a  change  of  the  bread  and  wine 
into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  Love-feasts  long  survived  the  renuncia- 
tion of  the  ecclesiastical  family  life  which  had  first  given  occasion  for  them, 
and  now  took  the.  form  of  repasts  for  the  poor,  prepared  by  the  whole 
Church,  but  with  only  a  few  local  exceptions  they  were  regarded,  even  in  the 
commencement  of  the  fifth  century,  as1  an  antiquated  custom.  As  baptism 
was  generally  administered  to  infants,  and  in  a  public  assembly,  and  as  Chris- 
tianity had  now  become  universal,  every  thing  like  Christian  mysteries  had 
been  gradually  laid  aside,  although  some  expressions  (missa  catechumenorum 
et  fidelium)  derived  from  them  still  remained.  A  monkish  custom,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  priests  of  Isis,  who  tried  to  assume  the  appearance  of  slaves  by 
shaving  their  heads,  was  so  far  adopted  by  the  clergy  of  the  fifth  century  in 
the  Roman  Church,  that  they  merely  made  bare  the  crown  of  the  head  (ton- 
sura  Petri).  Particular  kinds  of  vestments  were  also  adopted  by  the  clergy  for 
their  various  orders  and  different  sacred  services.  A  white  woollen  cloak,  like 
the  holiday  costume  of  the  Greek  bishops  (a)fj.o<pupiov,  pallium),  was  sent,  after 
the  sixth  century,  by  the  popes  to  the  individual  bishops  of  the  West  as  a 
token  of  special  honor  and  of  connection  with  the  apostolic  see.  In  the  sev- 


f)  According  to  different  accounts :  Sozom.  II,  1.  (counterfeit  letter  of  Cyril  to  Constantius.) 
Ambros.  Or.  de  obitu  Theodosii.  Paulini  Nolani  Ep.  81.  (al.  11.)  comp.  J.  Dallaeus,  adv.  Latino- 
rnm  de  cultus  rel.  objecto  traditionem.  Gen.  1664.  4.  p.  704s. 

a)  According  to  Mussard  and  Middleton :  Blunt,  Vestiges  of  Anc.  Manners  and  Customs  discov- 
erable in  Mod.  Italy  and  Sicily.  Lond.  1823. 

V)  Chrysander,  hist  Nachr.  v.  KOrgeln.  Eint  1755.  J.  Antony,  Gesch.  Darst.  d.  Entst  u.  Ver- 
vollk.  d.  Orgel.  Munst  1832.  c)  §  130.  note/ 


154     ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.  PEE.  II.  IMPEEIAL  CHUECH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

enth  century,  Western  bishops  carried  with  them  the  ring  and  staff,  (d)  Or. 
Sunday,  Constantino  ordered  that  all  worldly  employments  should  cease,  except 
works  of  necessity  in  the  field,  and  the  manumission  of  slaves.  The  Roman 
festival  of  the  birth  of  Jesus,  on  the  twenty-fifth  of  December,  was  adopted 
also  in  the  East  in  the  time  of  Chrysostom.  (e)  Epiphany  was  then  observed 
as  a  celebration  of  Christ's  baptism,  and  in  the  West  had  a  reference  to  the 
Magi  as  the  first  fruits  of  the  heathen  world.  The  judaizing  Passover  having 
been  condemned  at  Nicaea,  those  who  observed  it  in  Asia  Minor  were 
regarded  as  heretics  (Teo-0-ap«/«u&f Karma,  Quartodecimani.)  (/)  The  time 
for  the  festival  of  Easter  was  announced  at  Alexandria,  though  sometimes 
different  days  were  observed  in  different  provinces.  The  great  Fast  before 
Easter  was  prescribed  by  the  Church,  and  even  the  civil  law  required  that 
it  should  be  regarded  as  a  time  for  quiet  reflection,  though  the  number  of 
days  included  in  it  was  not  uniform.  (</)  Some  traces  of  a  pious  preparation 
for  Christmas  (adventus)  appear  in  the  seventh  century.  The  fortieth  day 
of  Pentecost  was  selected  in  the  fourth  century  for  the  commemoration  of 
the  Ascension  of  Christ  ((oprfj  rfjs  avdXtyecas.')  (A)  In  the  other  festivals  was 
exhibited  the  new  spirit  which  had  become  prevalent  in  that  age :  Lady- 
,  days,  including  the  feast  of  the  English  Annunciation  (17  roO  eiuyyeXto-fioi/, 
annuntiationis,  March  25th),  and  that  of  the  churching  of  women  (purifica- 
tionis,  Feb.  2d) ;  (i)  a  festival  of  All  Martyrs,  which  occurs  in  the  Greek 
Church  on  the  Sunday  after  Pentecost,  and  of  All  Saints,  which  is  observed 
in  the  Roman  Church  on  the  1st  of  November,  the  celebration  of  the  First 
Martyrs  (Dec.  26th),  and  a  festival  for  martyrs  and  children  referring  to  tho 
massacre  of  the  children  of  Bethlehem  (Dec.  28th).  The  heavenly  birth- 
days (deaths)  of  Peter  and  Paul  (June  29th)  were  observed  with  peculiar 
solemnity,  especially  in  Rome.  With  similar  pomp  was  observed  there  a  fes- 
tival in  honor  of  St.  Peter's  chair  (Feb.  22d),  which  originally  commemorated 
tho  establishment  of  the  Roman  see,  but  being  connected  with  the  ancient 
Roman  feast  for  the  dead  (Feb.  10th),  finally  degenerated  into  a  sacrificial 
feast  for  the  dead.  The  only  festival  yet  observed  in  honor  of  the  natural 
birth  of  any  saints,  was  that  of  John  the  Baptist,  on  the  day  of  the  year  in 
which  the  days  began  to  shorten.  (£)  The  yearly  festival  of  the  recovered 
cross  (Sept.  14th),  called  the  Elevation  of  the  Cross,  was  not  sufficient  to 
inspire  men  with  courage  to  defend  the  holy  sepulchre.  In  contrast  with 
the  heathenish  festivities  practised  at  the  commencement  of  the  secular  year, 
the  Church  at  first  set  apart  that  time  for  fasting ;  but  in  the  seventh  century, 
New  Year's  day  was  in  some  places  connected  with  Christmas,  and  celebra- 
ted as  the  Feast  of  the  Circumcision.  The  Church  usually  commenced  the 
year  with  Easter,  though  in  some  instances  at  a  later  period  it  was  dated 


cT)J.du  Tour,  de  origine,  antiqnit  et  sanctit  vestinm  sacerdotalium.  Par.  1662.  4    PerUch,  <5t 
»rig.,  usu  et  auctorit  pallii.  Hlmst  1754.  4    J.  A.  Schmid,  de  annulo  pastoral!.  Hlmst  1705.  4 
e)  Planck,  variar.  de  orig.  festi  nat  Chr.  sententt  epicrisis.  Gott  1796.  4 
/)  Euseb.  Vita  Const  III,  18.  comp.  14    Socrat.  I,  9.    Cone.  Antioch.  can.  1.  7. 
g)  Dallaeu*,  de  jejuniis  et  quadrageslma.  Daventr.  1654  12. 
7i)  Horn.  Alter  d.  H.  F.  Festes.  (  Wagnitz,  lit  Journ.  1806.  vol.  V.  sect  3.) 
t)  Schmidt,  proluss.  Marianae  c.  praef.  Moshemii.  HlmsC  1783.  4.    Lambertini,  de  J.  C.  Ma 
trisque  festis.  Patav.  1751.  Bonn.  1766.  f.     jfc)  Augmtini  Horn.  287.  comp.  Jo.  3.  30. 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §139.  CHURCH  ARCHITECTURE  &  DECORATION.     155 

from  Advent.    Every  church  celebrated  the  day  of  its  original  consecration, 
and  the  days  on  which  their  patron  saints  died. 

§  139.     Ecclesiastical  Architecture  and  Works  of  Sacred  Art. 

Pomp.  Scirnelli,  antics  Basilicografia.  Neap.  1686.  4.  J.  Fdbricii,  Or.  de  templia  vet.  Christt 
Illmst  1704.  4  Gfuttensohn  e  Knapp,  Monum.  di  rel.  christ.  ossia  raccolta  delle  antiche  cbiese  di 
Roina  dal  quarto  Sec.  Rom.  1822ss.  3  vols.  f.  Plainer  u.  Rostell,  Roms  Basiliken.  (Beschr.  d.,Stadt 
Rom.  vol.  I.  p.  417ss.)  (Bunseri)  Die  Basiliken  d.  christl.  Rom.  Munch.  1843.  f.—Muratori,  de  tem- 
plor.  apud  vet  christt.  ornatu.  (Anecdota.  Th.  I.  p.  178ss.)  <7.  G.  Mutter,  bildl.  Darst.  im  Sanctua- 
rium  d.  Kitchen  v.  5.  b.  14.  Jahrh.  Lintz.  1835.— Augusti,  Beitrage  z.  chr.  KunstGesch.  1841.  vol.  I. 
1846.  vol.  II.  [IT.  G.  Knight,  Eccles.  Arch,  of  Italy  from  Const  to  15th  cent.  2  vols.  Lond.  1844. 
Brown,  Sacred  Architecture,  its  rise,  prog.  &c.  Lond.  1846.  4.  F,  Close,  Church  Arch,  from  the  ear- 
liest ages  to  the  present  time.  Lond.  1850. 12.] 

Immediately  after  the  time  of  Constantine  sprung  up  in  all  parts  of  the 
empire  a  desire  as  well  as  a  necessity  of  building  churches.  They  were  gen- 
erally erected  over  the  graves  of  the  martyrs,  in  the  form  and  with  the  name 
of  the  Basilica.^  This  was  an  oblong  parallelogram  divided  lengthwise  by  ^  JU  ;/ 
double  or  quadruple  rows  of  pillars/- and  terminating  in  a  semicircular  hall 
(jS/Jpi,  Sanctuariura).  Immediately  upon  these  pillars  rested  a  beam,  which  V«  /' 
in  wealthy  churches  was  overlaid  with  brass,  or  a  second  row  of  pillars  with 
arcades  (S.  Agnese),  and  above  these  a  rather  flat  gable-roof.  Before  the  . 
entrance  was  a  quadrangular  court  (atrium,  paradisus),  surrounded  with  '  , 
colonnades^and  with  a  fountain  in  the  centre,  (a)  The  division  of  the  main 
body  of  the  church  by  a  partition  into  an  exterior  and  interior  apartment 
(vdp%r)g  and  raos),  was  probably  common  only  while  the  penitents  were  kept 
apart  from  the  congregation,  and  the  catechumens  were  numerous.  In  some 
churches,  at  a  later  period,  the  exterior  hall  became  properly  a  porch.  In 
the  sanctuary,  separated  from  the  other  parts  by  lattice-work  and  curtains, 
stood  the  main  altar,  behind  which  were  the  seats  for  the  priests,  with  the 
episcopal  throne  in  the  centre.  Before  the  altar  was  an  elevated  choir  for 
the  singers,  by  the  side  of  which  was  a  pulpit  (apfiuv)  or  two.  Smaller 
churches,  and  in  general  baptisteries,  were  in  the  Roman,  temple-form  of  the 
Rotunda,  surrounded  by  pillars  in  the  interior,  and  on  the  outside  by  a  gable- 
screen  upon  pillars.  "When  architecture  had  attained  a  more  perfect  Chris- 
tian character,  the  foundation  of  the  Basilica  gradually  assumed  the  form  of 
the  cross  (S.  Paolo,  386.)  This  was  either  the  Latin  cross,  when  the  longest 
arm  formed  the  nave,  or  the  Greek  cross,  when  all  the  arms  were  equal,  and 
by  connection  with  the  rotunda,  a  cupola  spanned  the  intersection  in  a  hemi- 
spherical vault,  so  as  to  be  an  image 'of  the  heavens.  The  church  of  St. 
Sophia  in  Constantinople,  as  it  was  built  by  Justinian  after  the  conflagration 
(538),  is  the  principal  monument  of  this  style.  Pillars  and  other  ornaments 
were  frequently  taken  from  the  heathen  temples.  The  walls  especially  of 
the  sanctuary  were  adorned  with  figures  in  mosaic.  These  were  for  a  short 
time  opposed,  but  they  finally  triumphed,  not  so  much  on  account  of  any 
enthusiasm  for  the  arts,  as  from  the  general  tendency  of  men's  minds  in  pub- 
lic worship.  Statues,  however,  were  always  excluded  from  the  oriental 
churches.  Modern  art  still  retained  some  of  the  skill  which  belonged  to 

a)  Euseb.  H.  ecc.  X,  4 


156     ANCIENT  CIIUECH  IIISTOEY.  PEE.  II.  IMPEEIAL  CHUECH.  A,  D.  812-800. 

antiquity.  Bnt  a  pious  veneration  at  an  early  period  produced  an  invariable 
tradition,  that  our  Lord  should  be  represented  as  Salvator,  and  the  apostles 
with  a  serious  and  dignified  aspect,  in  ancient  Roman  costume.  The  Mother 
with  her  child  was  painted  after  the  Nestorian  controversy.  Crucifixes  ap- 
pear hi  the  seventh  century.  Subjects  for  the  arts  were  generally  taken  from 
sacred  history,  but  sometimes  the  lives  and  sufferings  of  the  saints,  and  even 
of  living  persons,  were  chosen.  (&)  In  opposition  to  all  representations  of 
the  Father,  it  was  alleged  that  he  was  visible  only  in  the  Son.  (c)  The  Tnil- 
lan  Council  decided  against  the  ancient  representation  of  Christ  as  a  lamb,  (d) 
It  was,  however,  a  fundamental  principle  of  all  Christian  art,  that  the  visible 
was  to  bo  only  a  type  of  the  invisible.  Pictures  or  images  were  to  be  a  sub- 
stitute for  books  to  those  who  could  not  read.  But  before  this,  Augustine 
had  complained  of  some  who  adored  the  image  itself,  and  women  excused 
their  splendid  garments  by  the  plea  that  they  were  embroidered  with  scenes 
from  sacred  history. 

§  140.    Iconoclastic  Controversy. 

L  Imperialia  dccrcta  do  culta  imaginum,  coll.  et  illustr.  a  M.  Ilaiminffeldio  Goldasto,  Frcf.  1GOS. 
Jo.  Damasceni  A6yoi  airoA.077jTticol  wpby  rovs  Sja/JaAAorras  ray  017/01  ciWcar.  (Opp.  Th.  I. 
•  p.  80688.)  Nicephori  Brevlar.  Hist  (till  769.)  e<L  Petavius,  Par.  1616.  TheopTianes.  ($  92.) 

II.  DaUaeun,  de  Imagtnib.  Lugd.  1642.  Maimlourg,  Hist  do  I'lii-rcsto  dcs  Iconoclastes.  Par. 
1679.  and  1688.  2  Th.  12.  Spanhtmii  Hist  imaginum  restituta.  Lugd.  1686.  (Opp.  Th.  II.  I.)  Walch, 
Ketzergesch.  rol.  X.  XI.  F.  L.  ScMo$ser,  Gcsch.  d.  Bilderst&rm.  Kaiser  dea  ostrGm.  Eeichs.  Frkf. 
1812.— r£  Mane,  d.  Bllderetreit  d.  byz.  Kaiser.  Trier.  1S89.  * 

A  worship  of  certain  persons  was  very  intimately  connected  with  a  wor- 
ship of  their  images.  Some  of  these  had  been  painted,  as  people  generally 
believed,  by  apostolic  hands,  or  had  been  miraculously  sent  down  from 
heaven,  and  were  therefore  supposed  to  be  worthy  of  adoration  («WoXar/jei'a). 
But  the  spirit  of  primitive  Christianity  which  had  always  been  so  averse  to 
artificial  representations,  and  the  spiritual  view  of  it  which  had  recently 
been  revived  by  the  reproaches  of  the  votaries  of  Islam,  soon  took  offence  at 
what  seemed  a  new  form  of  heathenism.  Leo  III.,  the  Isaurian,  bad  all 
images  used  for  worship  removed  from  the  churches  (726),  and  becoming 
irritated  by  opposition,  he  proceeded  to  destroy  them  (730).  The  pious  sen- 
sibilities of  the  people  were  violently  wounded  by  this  proceeding  (duovo- 
K\a<TfjL6s).  But  while  some,  during  the  conflict,  became  possessed  of  an  idol- 
atrous and  absurd  regard  for  images,  others  had  their  hatred  to  them  so  much 
inflamed,  that  the  persons  represented  by  them  became  objects  of  contempt. 
It  is  not  difficult,  therefore,  to  perceive  in  this  controversy  a  secret  struggle 
between  the  friends  of  progress  and  the  advocates  of  a  sensuous  devotion, 
between  the  Protestant  and  the  Catholic  principle.  Political  malcontents 
took  advantage  of  these  dissensions,  and  a  military  despotism  was  arrayed 
against  the  hierarchy.  Constantinus  Copronymus  had  a  synod  convened  at 
Constantinople  (754),  which  claimed  to  be  oecumenical,  and  in  obedience  to 
the  imperial  requirement,  rejected  the  use  of  images,  (a)  But  the  monks,  in 

I)  Paulin.  Nolan.  Natal  Felicia  carm.  9  et  10.    Ejusd.  Ep.  32. 
c)  Gruneisen,  u.  bildl.  Darst  d.  Gotth.  Stnttg.  1828.    d)  Can.  82. 

a)  The  decrees  may  bo  learned  from  the  Acts  of  the  Second  Nicaean  Council.  [Landon't  Manila 
of  Councils,  p.  187.] 


CHAP.  IV.  ECCLES.  LIFE.  §  140.  ICONOCLASTS.  CHAP.  y.  OPPOSITION.        157 

whose  convents  they  were  manufactured,  placed  themselves  at  the  head  ol 
the  popular  party,  and  after  some  encouragements  from  the  Roman  bishop 
raised  an  insurrection.  A  series  of  emperors,  in  fearful  hostility  to  the  feel- 
ings of  the  people,  continued  the  struggle  against  images.  Two  empresses 
decided  in  favor  of  them :  Irene,  by  whose  direction  the  seventh  oecumenical 
synod  &t,Nicaea  (78V)  recognized  the  propriety  of  image-worship,  (5)  and 
Theodora,  who,  after  many  vicissitudes  in  the  struggle,  proclaimed  the  vic- 
tory of  the  image-worshippers  (842),  by  appointing  an  annual  festival  in 
which  the  triumph  of  orthodoxy  (17  Kvpuutrj  TTJS  op3oSo£i'as)  should  be  com- 
memorated. 


CHAP.   V.— OPPONENTS  OF  THE  ORDINARY  ECCLESIASTICAL 

SYSTEM. 

§  141.     General  View. 

As  Catholicism  became  more  and  more  developed,  individual  protests 
were  heard  against  every  departure  of  the  Church  from  the  simplicity  of 
apostolical  Christianity.  This  protesting  spirit  was  shown  sometimes  by 
teachers  of  high  standing,  -when  they  boldly  reproved  crimes  committed  in 
the  Church,  and  advocated  a  spiritual  worship  instead  of  one  which  was 
merely  external,  and  sometimes  by  men  in  inferior  stations,  but  with  a  more 
decided  and  hostile  opposition  to  the  Church  of  their  age.  Among  these  we 
should  distinguish  between  those  parties  which  were  striving  to  exceed  the 
ordinary  Church  in  strictness  and  purity,  but  which  came  down  from  earlier 
times,  and  those  which  had  recently  sprung  up  in  opposition  to  the  new  ten- 
dency of  the  ecclesiastical  spirit. 

§  142.     The  Donatists. 

I.  Optatus  Milemtanus  (about  86S),  de  schismate  Donatistarum,  also,  Monumenta  vett.  ad  Do- 
natist. Hist,  pertinentia,  ed.  L.  E.  Du  Pin,  Par.  1700s.   Augustine's  Controv.  Writing.  Opp.  Th.  IX. 

II.  Valesius,  de  schism.  Donatist.  (following  his  edit,  of  Euseb.)  Hist.  Donatist.  ex.  Norisianis 
schedla  excerpta.  (Norisii  Opp.  cdd.  Hollering  Veron.  1729ss.  f.  Th.  IV.)     Walch,  Ketzergesch.  vol. 
IV.    A.  fiouas,  de  August,  adversario  Donatist.  Lugd.  B.  1838. 

The  schism  of  the  Donatists  was  produced  by  those  who  favored  a  rigid 
and  inexorable  ecclesiastical  discipline,  in  opposition  to  the  lenient  and  pru- 
dent policy  of  the  later  Church,  and  those  who  longed  for  martyrdom. •'  When 
Caecilianus,  who  as  an  archdeacon  had  been  unfriendly  to  the  confessors,  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Carthage,  and  was  ordained  by  a  traditor  (311),  those  who 
were  opposed  to  him  set  up  Majorinus  as  a  rival  bishop.  The  latter  was 
succeeded  by  Donatus,  called  by  his  adherents  the  Great,  who  with  his  friend 
Donatus  of  Casae-nigra  gave  name  to  his  party.  In  their  views  of  the 
Church,  and  in  the  exclusiveness  with  which  they  administered  baptism,  this 
sect  only  adhered  to  the  primitive  African  traditions.  On  their  application 
to  Constantino,  a  commission  was  appointed  at  Rome  (313),  and  a  synod  was 
assembled  at  Arelate  (314),  to  investigate  their  cause.  In  conformity  with 

V)  Cone.  Nicaen.  II.  Acts  in  Mansi  Th.  XII.  p.  951.-XIII.  p.  820.  [Summary  of  them  in  Lan- 
don,  p.  486.] 


158     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  IMPERIAL  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-900. 

the  decision  of  these  bodies,  severe  laws  were  proclaimed  by  the  .emperor 
against  them.  But  the  peasants  and  some  wandering  tribes  of  Numidia  and 
Mauritania  (Agonistici,  Circumcelliones),  who  had  never  really  been  subject 
to  the  Roman  dominion,  seized  their  clubs  to  avenge  the  conflagration  of 
their  churches,  and  the  blood  of  some  of  their  priests.  With  a  wild  love  of 
slaughter,  they  maintained  during  the  fourth  century  a  predatory  war  with 
the  Catholic  Church  and  the  Roman  empire.  Augustine  endeavored  to  con- 
ciliate or  to  confute  the  milder  portion  of  this  party  (411),  but  with  little 
success.  They  were  finally  overcome  by  the  Roman  laws  and  legions,  but 
not  nntil  individuals  had  struggled  and  suffered  on  till  some  time  in  the  sev- 
enth century,  and  had  shown  the  prodigious  power  which  even  a  mistaken 
faith  may  exert  over  sincere,  vigorous  and  gloomy  dispositions. 

§  143.    Audians.    Massalians. 

Audius  broke  off  from  the  Church  in  Mesopotamia,  because  it  paid  no 
attention  to  his  formal  reproofs,  and  he  finally  established  monastic  commu- 
nities in  Scythia  (about  840),  which  observed  the  passover  according  to  the 
Jewish  mode,  and  are  said  to  have  believed  that  God  possesses  a  human 
form,  (a)  The  Christian  Massalians  ("pbjriQ ,  Eu^n-m,  in  Armenia  and  Syria, 
'after  360)  held,  that  to  overcome  the  evil  disposition  of  the  natural  heart,  it 
was  necessary  to  pray  internally  without  intermission ;  that  all  other  means 
of  grace  were  indifferent,  and  that  labor  was  sinful.  They  wandered  about 
and  begged,  refusing  to  hold  any  property  of  their  own  on  earth.  All  traces 
of  them  disappear  in  the  seventh  century.  (5) 

§  144.    Prucillianus. 

Sulpic.  Sen.  H.  sacr.  II,  46-51.  Ill,  Use.  Orotii  Commonltorlum  «d  Aug.  de  errore  Prlscilllan- 
istar.  (Aug.  Opp.  Tb.  VIIL)—  Walch,  Ketzerhlst  voL  III.  p.  878a&  &  van  Vrita,  de  Priscillianistis. 
Traj.  1746.  4  J.  H.  B.  Lulkert,  de  hatred  Priscilllanlstar.  Hann.  1840. 

Under  Manichaean  influence  a  Gnostic  party  more  rigid  than  the  Church 
was  formed  under  Priscillianus  (879),  the  object  of  which  was,  by  unusual 
self-denials  and  efforts,  to  release  the  spirit  from  its  natural  life.  At  the 
Synod  of  Caesar  Augusta  (880),  Itacius,  a  bishop,  procured  their  condemna- 
tion, and  obtained  from  the  emperor  Gratian  a  decree,  according  to  which 
they  were  no  longer  to  be  tolerated  on  earth.  But  having  gained  the  favor 
of  the  court,  they  began  to  think  of  persecuting  their  opponents,  when  Gra- 
tian was  hurled  from  his  throne  by  his  general  Maximum.  The  usurper  gave 
his  countenance  to  the  party  of  Itacius,  and  Priscillian  was  summoned  to 
Treves,  where  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  sword  (885).  This  was  the  first 
time  in  which  the  blood  of  a  heretic  was  shed  by  the  solemn  forms  of  law. 
The  Church  was  struck  with  horror  at  the  act.  The  Priscillianists,  roused  to 
enthusiasm  by  the  blood  of  their  martyr,  survived  the  persecution  until  some 
time  in  the  sixth  century. 

«)  Epiph.  haer.  70.     Theodoret.  haer.  fabb.  IV,  10.  H.  ecc.  IV,  9. 

1)  Epiph.  haer.  80.    Theodoret,  haer.  febb.  IV,  11.  H.  ecc.  IV,  10.    Pliotii  cod.  52. 


CHAP   V.    OPPOSITION.    §  145.  AEKIUS.    JOVINIANUS.    §  146.  PAULICIANS.     159 

§  145.     Protesting  Ecclesiastical  Teachers. 

Aerius,  a  presbyter  in  Sebaste,  in  opposition  to  his  former  friend  and 
bishop  Eustathiw,  taught  that  there  was  no  essential  distinction  between 
bishops  and  presbyters ;  that  fasts  ordained  by  the  authority  of  the  Church 
were  Jewish  compulsory  forms,  and  that  prayers  and  alms  were  of  no  avail 
for  the  dead.  This  schism  at  Sebaste  appears  to  have  become  extinct  prin- 
cipally because  the  monastic  ethics  of  Eustathius  were  rejected  at  the  Synod 
of  Gangra  (between  362  and  370).  (a)  Jovinianus,  a  Koman  ascetic,  maintained 
that  there  was  no  difference  before  God  between  fasting  and  a  pious  enjoy- 
ment of  food,  nor  between  a  state  of  celibacy  and  an  honorable  wedlock,  and 
that  a  difference  in  good  works  presents  no  reason  for  expecting  different 
degrees  of  reward.  For  these  opinions  he  was  expelled  from  the  Church, 
first  by  his  bishop  Siricius,  and  then  on  the  report  of  that  prelate,  by  Arribro- 
sius  of  Milan,  to  whom  he  had  applied  for  redress  (about  388).  (5)  Vigilan- 
tius,  a  native  of  Gaul  and  a  presbyter  in  Barcelona,  in  an  eloquent  treatise 
denounced  the  ecclesiastical  superstition  of  honoring  deceased  persons  as  idol- 
atry, vigils  as  occasions  for  licentiousness,  and  vows  of  chastity  as  tempta- 
tions to  unnatural  lusts,  and  maintained  that  it  was  far  more  Christian  to 
use  in  a  wise  and  beneficent  way  the  property  which  had  been  inherited, 
than  to  cast  it  away  as  a  burden.  He  was  favored  by  his  bishop  and  some 
neighboring  prelates,  but  Hieronymus  defended  against  him  the  customs  of 
the  Church  with  all  his  accustomed  asperity,  (c) 

§  146.    History  of  the  Paulicians.    Sect.  I. 

I.  Petrus  Siculus  (about  870)  Iffropta  irepl  TTJJ  otpeVews  Mcwtx°»WI/  TWJ/  fa*  Tlav\iKiavuv 

,  gr.  et  lat  ed.  fiaderua,  Ingolst  1604.  4.  Gieseler,  Gott.  1846.  4.  Photius,  irfpl  rrjs 
a.va&\a.<rrr)<T<:<as,  (Wolfii  Anecdot  gr.  Hamb.  1T22.  Th.  I.  II.  &  Gallandii  BibL  Th. 
XIII.)  Jo.  Damasc.  AtaAoyos  Kara  Maj/txa*a"''  (OPP-  Th.  I.  p.  428ss.)  Jo.  Ozniensis,  Arme- 
niorum  Catholic!,  Or.  c.  Paulicianos,  after  718.  (Opp.  ed.  Aucher,  Yen.  1834.  Comp.  Windischmann 
in  d.  Tub.  Quartalschr.  1835.  P.  1.  Formula  receptionis  Manich.  (Tollii  Insignia  itin.  Italici.  p.  144ss.) 

II.  Frid.  Sohmicf,  Hist.  Paulicianorura  orientalium.  Hafn.  1826.  (Engelhardf)  Die  Paulic.  (Wi- 
ners u.  Engelh.  Journ.  1827.  vol.  VII.  Part  1.  2.)  Gieseler,  u.  d.  Paulic.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1829.  vol.  II. 
P.I.) 

Constantine,  from  the  neighborhood  of  Samosata,  and  connected  with  a 
Gnostic  congregation  at  Cibossa  in  Armenia,  found  in  the  perusal  of  the  New 
Testament  a  world  unknown,  and  became  animated  with  the  hope  (about  660), 
of  bringing  back  a  state  of  things  like  that  which  had  prevailed  in  the  Apos- 
tolic Church.  He  assumed  the  name  of  Sylvanus,  and  called  those  commu- 
nities which  acknowledged  him  as  a  Reformer,  Pauline  congregations.  By 
their  opponents  they  were  called  Paulicians  (at  first  according  to  I.  Cor.  1, 12); 

a)  EpipJi.  haer.  75.  Gangra:  Mansi  Th.  II.  p.  1095ss.  comp.  Socrat.  II,  43.  [Art  in  KItto's 
Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  IV.] 

Z>)  Siricii  Ep.  ad  diversos  Episc.  adv.  Jovin.  (Constant,  p.  663ss.)  Ambrosii  Rescript,  ad  Siric. 
(/&.  p.  670ss.)  Hieron.  1.  II.  adv.  Jovin.  (392.)  Augustin. :  De  haer.  c.  82.  De  bono  conjugali.  Do 
s.  virginit 

c)  Hieron.  Ep.  37.  ad  Eipuarium  a,  404.  and  Liber  adv.  Vigil,  a.  406.  (Th.  IV.)  Gennadii  de  vir. 
illustr.  c.  85.— J.  G.  Walch,  de  Vig.  haeretico-orthodoxo.  Jen.  1756.  (Pottii  Syll.  Cmtt  theol.  Th, 
VII.)  G.  B.  Lindner,  de  Jovin.  et  Vigil,  purioris  doctr.  antesignanis.  Lps.  1840. 


160     ANCIENT  CHTJECH  HISTORY.  PEPw  IL  GERMANIC  CHURCH.  A.  D.  312-900. 

but  they  themselves  acknowledged  no  name  but  that  of  Christians,  and  ap 
plied  the  title  of  Romans  to  the  Catholics.  They  adhered  to  the  Gnostic  doo 
trines  which  maintained  that  the  history  of  the  world  exhibits  only  the  strug 
gle  between  the  good  and  the  evil  principles,  that  Judaism  was  the  work  of 
an  inferior  spirit,  that  the  Old  Testament  was  no  part  of  the  holy  Scriptures 
(Jo.  10,  8),  and  that  the  conflict  of  the  flesh  with  the  spirit  was  in  conse- 
quence of  their  creation  by  two  different  creators.  Their  principal  attention 
however,  was  directed  to  a  revival  of  apostolic  and  spiritual  Christianity. 
On  every  subject  they  appealed  to  the  New  Testament  as  a  sacred  book  for 
the  people  in  the  text  used  by  the  Church,  but  with  the  exclusion  of  the 
Epistles  of  Peter.  They  rejected  all  the  external  forms  then  in  use,  as  the 
ecclesiastical  system,  fasts  and  monasticism,  worship  of  saints  and  of  Mary, 
crosses  and  relicts,  and  regarded  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  as  only 
spiritual  acts.  Constantino  was  killed  (about  684)  by  a  traitor,  but  at  the  in- 
stigation of  an  imperial  officer.  The  community  always  had  a  chief  like  him, 
and  called  after  one  of  the  companions  of  Paul,  but  neither  he  nor  any  of  his 
fellow-pilgrims  (oW/tfyfiot)  and  scribes  (vorapioi)  exercised  any  hierarchical 
powers.  As  they  were  joined  by  some  Manichaean  congregations  and  were 
favored  by  the  iconoclasts,  the  Panlicians  spread  over  the  extreme  provinces 
of  Asia,  in  spite  of  bloody  persecutions  from  without,  and  their  own  internal 
divisions.  Their  principal  city  was  Phanaroea  in  Helenopontus.  Some  of 
them  considered  it  right  to  adopt  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  with  an  alle- 
gorical signification,  and  to  submit  to  the  external  forms  of  the  Catholic  wor- 
ship, on  the  ground  that  these  might  be  beneficial  to  the  body.  The  death 
of  Constantino  was  so  heroic  that  the  very  judge  who  condemned  him,  after 
some  years,  left  the  capital  of  that  region  to  take  his  place.  The  reproach 
of  unnatural  licentiousness  which  was  cast  upon  them  may  have  been  occa- 
sioned by  their  entire  disregard  of  the  Mosaic  prohibitions  with  respect  to 
consanguinity.  It  is,  however,  possible  that  their  opposition  to  the  law  near 
the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  may  have  given  occasion  to  a  moral  degene- 
racy, of  which  their  overseer,-  Baants  (6  pwapos),  may  have  been  the  most 
prominent  specimen. 


DIVISION  II.-THE  GERMANIC  CHURCH. 

§  147.     Original  Authorities. 

I.  Semler,  Vers.  den  Gebr.  d.  Qnellcn  In  d.  Staats-u.  KOesch.  A  mittL  Zeiten  zu  erleichtern.  Hal. 
1761.  Hosier,  de  annsllam  medii  sevi  condlt  &  de  arte  crit  in  ann.  Tub.  1788s.  4.  Dahlmann, 
Quellenkunde  d.  deutschen  Gescb.  Gctt  (1S80.)  1833.— Meibomiircr.  Germ.  Scriptores.  Hlmst  168853. 
8  Th.  £  Leibnitz,  Scrr.  rer.  Brnnsvlc.  illustrationl  inservientes.  Han.  1707sa.  8  Th.  t.  Freheri  rer. 
Germ.  Scrr.  ed.  Strung,  Argent  1717ss.  8  Th.  f.  Uarzhmiii  Concilia  Germ,  (till  1747.)  Col.  1759ss. 
11  Th.  t.  Ussermanni  Monamenta  res  Alemannicas  lllustr.  Typis  8.  Blasian.  1790.  2  vols.  4.  Pertz, 
^Mon.  Germ,  hlstorica.  Han.  1826sa.  8  Th.  t—Du  Chesne,  Hist  Francor.  Scrr.  Par.  1636ss.  5  Th.  f. 
Bouquet-Dom  Srial,  rer.  Gallicar.  et  Franc.  Scrr.  Par.  173S-1883.  19  Th.  l—Muratori,  rer.  Ital. 
Bcrr.  Mediol.  1723ss.  21  Th.  t.—Eccard,  Corpus  hist  medii  aevi.  Lps.  1723.  2  Th  f.  1)  Gregor.  TV 
ronens.  Hist  eccL  Francor.  1.  X.  till  694,  selected  from  &  cent  by  Fredegar  till  641.  ed.  Ruinart, 
Par.  1699.  f.  (Bouquet,  Th.  II.  p.  75.)  Beda  Venerabilis,  Hist  eccl.  gentls  Anglor.  1.  V.  till  731. 
Ed.  Jo.  Smith,  Cantabr.  1722.  f.  Stevenson,  Lond.  1833.  [Bede's  Eccles.  Hist  with  the  Sax.  Chron. 


DIV.  II.    GERMANIC  CHUKCH.    §  147.  OKIGINAL  AUTHOPvITIES.  161 

transl.  into  Engl.  with  notes,  maps,  &c.  by  J.  A.  Giles,  Lond.  1845.]  2)  Jornandes,  de  reb.  Getlck 
till  540.  Ed.  Fabric.  Hamb.  1706.  f.  (Muratori  Th.  I.  P.  I.  p.  187.)  Isidor.  ffisp.  Hist  Gothorum. 
Vandalorum,  Suevorum  till  625.  Ed.  Rosier,  Tub.  1803.  4.  Isidor.  Pacens.  (about  754.)  Chronicon. 
(Henrique  Flores,  Espafla  sagrada.  Madr.  1743ss.  Tb.  VIII.  Du  Chesne  Th.  I.)  Paulus  Warns- 
fi-idi,  Diaconus,  de  gestis  Longobard,  I.  VI.  till  744.  (Muratori  Th.  I.  P.  I.  p.  395.)  3)  Annalcs  rer. 
Francicarnm :  Laurissenses  741-829,  revised  &  conk  since  783  by  Einhard.  (Pertz  Th.  I.  p.  124.) 

II.  fifths,  Gesch.  d.  Mittelalt  Brl.  1816.  Hallam,  [State  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
Lond.  1846.  8  vols,  8.  New  York,  1847.  8.]  Luden,  Gesch.  d.  MA.  Jen.  1821s.  2  vols.  Rehm,  Gesch. 
d.  MA.  Marb.  1821-85.  3  vols.  Leo,  Gesch.  d.  MA.  Hal.  1830.  2  vols.  Moeller,  Precis  de  1'Hist  du 
moycn  age.  Louv.  1841.  Gibbon  &  Schlosser  in  their  larger  works. —  Wachsmuth,  europ.  Sitten- 
gesch.  Lps.  1831-33.  2  vols.  Charpentier,  Hist  litteraire  du  moyen  age.  Par.  1833.— J?.  v.  Eaumer, 
die  Einwirk.  d.  Christenth.  a.  d.  Althochdeutsche  Sprache.  Stuttg.  1845.  F.  W.  Retfberg,  KGesch. 
Deutschlands.  Gott  1846.  vol.  I.  [F.  Kohlrausch  Hist,  of  Germ,  transl.  by  J.  D.  Haas.  New  York. 
1847.  8.  J.  J.  Mascon,  Hist  of  the  Ancient  Germans,  transl.  by  Lediard,  Lond.  1833.  2  vols.  4.  T. 
Greenwood,  First  Book  of  the  Hist,  of  the  Germans :  Barbaric  Period.  Lond.  1836.  4.  8.  A.  Dun- 
ham, II.  of  Eur.  during  the  Mid.  Ages.  Lond.  4  vols.  12.  W.  Menzel,  II.  of  Germ,  transl.  by  G.  Hor- 
rocks.  Lond.  1848.  S  vols.  12.  Guisot,  H.  of  Civilization.  New  York.  1840.  4  vols.  12.] 

A  picture  of  this  age  is  especially  to  be  found  in  some  contemporary  bio- 
graphies (a)  and  letters  (5)  of  persons  prominent  in  the  Church  or  State  of 
that  day.  A  vivid  representation  of  German  affairs,  as  they  would  appear  to 
a  Roman,  is  given  by  Procopius.  (c)  The  German  historical  writers  were  ex- 
clusively clergymen,  and  confine  their  attention  to  their  own  respective  na- 
tions, with  only  occasional  glances  at  the  affairs  of  others  in  the  vicinity. 
Gregory  of  Tours  (d.  595)  and  the  Venerable  Bede  (d.  V35)  wrote  ecclesiasti- 
cal histories.  The  former,  with  an  honest  simplicity  and  an  excessive  faith, 
described  a  rude  age  as  a  warning  to  all  who  might  be  tempted  to  treat  the 
Church  with  violence,  (d)  The  latter  collected  together  the  original  documents 
and  traditions  relating  to  the  history  of  the  English  Church,  as  they  existed 
among  the  clergy,  and  presented  them  in  a  learned  style  and  in  the  spirit  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  for  the  instruction  of  subsequent  ages.  Jornandes 
(Jordanis,  about  550),  a  monk,  possibly  a  bishop,  but  at  an  earlier  period  a 
private  secretary,  an  Ostrogoth  but  not  an  Arian,  wrote  a  history  of  his  na- 
tion both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West.  His  was  the  first  German  voice  heard 
in  the  midst  of  the  national  migrations.  His  materials  were  principally  de- 
rived from  Roman  authorities,  and  his  notices  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  are  not 
very  abundant.  Paul  (d.  799),  the  son  of  Warnefrid,  a  monk  of  Montecassino, 
belonging  to  the  literary  circle  around  Charles  the  Great,  collected  and  incor- 
porated in  his  history  of  the  Longobards,  the  lively  traditions  preserved  among 
the  people.  Ecclesiastical  subjects  always  seemed  interesting  to  him,  but  he 
has  introduced  them  but  sparingly  into  his  narrative.  In  the  Annals  of  the 
convent  of  Lorsch,  as  well  as  in  those  of  Egirihard,  the  exploits  of  the  Frank- 
ish  kings,  and  their  relations  to  the  Church,  are  recorded  in  a  simple  and  con- 
cise  style,  but  with  respect  to  the  principal  facts  in  the  animated  language 
of  interested  witnesses. 

a)  Generally  in  Pertz.  Th.  I.  II.    Z>)  Especially  Epp.  Bonif.  &  Codex  Carolinus. 

c)  De  bello  Vandalico.    De  bello  Gothico.  Ed.  G.  Dindorf,  Bonn.  1883.  2  vols. 

d)  Lobell,  Gregor.  v.  Tours  u.  s.  Zeit  Lpz.  1S35.    C.  G.  fries,  de  Greg.  Tur.  Vita  et  Scriptia. 
Trat.  1839. 


11 


1  62     ANCIENT  CHUKCH  IIISTOBY.  PER.  II.  GERMANIC  CHURCH.  A.  D.  812-900. 

CHAP.  I.— ESTABLISHMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 
§  148.    Religion  of  the  Germans. 

1.  1)  Taciti  Germ.  c.  2.  9. 11.  27.  89.  40.  4a  45.  Annal.  XIII,  57.  Hist  IV,  64.  2)  Abrenuntiati-. 
diaboli  <k  Indicates  sapereUtlonam  ct  paganiarnra,  c,  a.  743.  (Epp.  Bonifac.  ed.  Wurdtw.  p.  126.S& 
Pert*  Th.  IIL  p.  19s.)  CapltulaUo  de  partib.  Sax  (  Walter,  Corp.  jar.  Germ.  Tb.  II.  p.  lOlss.) 

IL  Mono,  Gcsch.  d.  Heidenth.  1m  nordl  Earopa.  Lps.  u.  Darmst  1822s.  vol.  II.  p.  1-822.  Jac. 
Grimm,  Deatsche  Mythologia  Gdtt  (1835.)  1840.  L.  Uhland,  d.  Mythas  v.  Thor.  Stuttg.  1886.  G. 
Klemm,  Handb.  d.  germ.  Alterthumskunde,  Dresd.  1886.  [D.  MalUt,  Nortbera  Antiquities, 
Lend.  1848.  S.) 

When  the  Germans  first  began  to  have  intercourse  with  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, either  as  allies  or  as  enemies,  they  were  trained,  not  for  civilization, 
bnt  for  military  freedom.  They  were  a  hold,  faithful,  and  chaste  people,  high- 
spirited  -whether  in  life  or  death,  living  by  agriculture  or  by  the  sword,  and 
addicted  to  no  excesses  but  those  of  the  table.  Their  women  were  admitted 
to  equal  privileges  with  themselves,  and  indeed  were  supposed  to  possess  a 
peculiarly  holy  and  prophetio  character.  Their  history  was  preserved  in  oral 
traditions  and  poems.  Their  religion,  as  described  by  Tacitus,  was  a  respect- 
ful awe  in  the  presence  of  a  mysterious  power,  which  ruled  over  all  things 
and  was  worshipped  by  all  who  spoke  a  common  language,  however  variously 
apprehended  by  different  tribes.  In  the  ancient  songs,  Thuisto,  a  deity  which 
sprung  from  the  earth,  and  his  son  Mannus,  the  man,  are  extolled  as  the  an- 
cestors of  the  nation.  The  Semnones  boasted  that  they  were  in  possession 
of  the  most  ancient  sanctuary.  There  a  divinity  who  ruled  over  all  was  wor- 
shipped in  a  forest  so  sacred  that  none  could  enter  it  but  in  fetters.  The 
deputies  of  all  the  tribes  belonging  to  the  same  race  assembled  there  to  cele- 
brate a  festival  for  the  whole  confederacy.  On  such  an  occasion  a  human 
being  was  offered  up  in  sacrifice,  as  none  bnt  the  most  exalted  being  of  earth 
appeared  to  them  worthy  of  the  Deity.  Captives  taken  in  war  were  gene- 
rally the  victims,  and  in  extreme  circumstances  a  whole  hostile  army  was  de- 
voted to  death.  On  an  island  of  the  ocean  was  a  grove  sacred  to  Hertha 
(Nerthus).  At  times  her  veiled  chariot  was  drawn  forth  dispensing  joy  and 
peace  among  the  people.  On  her  return  the  goddess  and  her  chariot  were 
plunged  into  a  mysterious  sea,  and  all  the  slaves  who  had  attended  her  were 
swallowed  up  in  the  waves.  Other  gods  are  mentioned  by  Tacitus,  but  with 
Roman  names.  There  was  a  god  of  wisdom,  another  of  power,  another  of 
war,  and  two  youthful  brothers  like  Castor  and  Pollux,  but  natives  of  the 
country,  and  served  by  a  priest  in  a  woman's  apparel.  Victory  in  battle  was 
the  gift  of  the  gods.  These  were  supposed  to  have  their  home  beyond  the 
great  ocean  from  which  their  forms  were  sometimes  seen  to  emerge  and  illu- 
minate all  around  them  by  the  beams  which  streamed  from  their  heads.  Per- 
sons praying  turned  their  eyes  toward  the  heavens.  The  Germans  thought 
it  inconsistent  with  the  greatness  of  celestial  beings  to  be  confined  by  walls, 
or  to  be  represented  by  a  human  form.  Groves  and  forests  were  their  sacred 
places,  and  they  applied  the  name  of  God  to  that  mystery  which  they  could 
reverently  contemplate  only  in  the  inner  spirit.  Unlike  the  Gauls  (a)  in  these 

a)  Cawar,  de  bcllo  GalL  VI,  21. 


CHAP.  I.    ESTABL.  OF  CHE.    §  143.  GEEMANIC  EELIGION.  162 

respects,  they  had  no  priestly  caste,  nor  splendid  sacrificial  rites,  but  priests 
presided  over  their  sacred  things  and  in  the  religious  assemblies  of  the  people, 
and  corporeal  punishments  could  be  inflicted  on  freemen  only  in  the  name  of 
the  gods.  The  military  weapons  of  a  deceased  person  were  buried  with  his 
body  in  the  grave.  Such  was  the  religion  which  the  first  Christian  mission- 
aries called  the  worship  of  the  devil.  The  Irminsul  was  then  regarded 
among  the  Saxons  with  especial  veneration,  because  it  was  supposed  to  be  the 
pillar  which  sustained  the  universe.  This  was  only  a  vestige  of  the  imageless 
worship  of  the  one  God,  and  was  connected  with  recollections  of  Hermann 
the  national  hero.  (5)  The  gods  worshipped,  though  with  different  degrees 
of  honor  among  different  tribes,  were :  Wuotan^  the  arbiter  of  worlds  and  of 
battles,  and  the  father  of  heroes  and  of  kings ;  Thunar,  the  god  of  war  and 
of  thunder,  to  whom  were  dedicated  the  most  ancient  oaks ;  Fro,  who  dis- 
pensed peace  and  fertility ;  Freyja,  the  lovely  consort  of  Wuotan,  and  Eostra, 
the  goddess  of  Spring,  (c)  Later  traditions  give  us  slight  notices  of  Frau 
Holla  in  Lower  Germany,  and  of  Frau  Bertha  in  Upper  Germany,  beautiful 
goddesses  of  the  earth  who  preside  over  the  affairs  of  the  household  and  of 
husbandry.  The  gods  were  supposed  to  look  down  upon  men  through  the 
windows  of  heaven,  and  to  direct  human  destiny,  (d)  Though  the  old  sanc- 
tuaries under  the  canopy  of  the  lofty  forest  were  sometimes  seen  at  the  period 
of  which  we  are  writing,  sometimes  too  might  be  found  temples  and  images 
of  the  gods.  Offerings,  were  also  presented  at  fountains  and  rocks,  and  in 
times  of  peculiar  joy  or  necessity,  human  sacrifices  were  offered.  In  some  in- 
stances in  Which  men  could  not  determine  what  was  right,  the  judgment  was 
submitted  to  God,  and  the  method  most  preferred  was  the  duel.  So  strong 
was  the  hope  of  meeting  friends  in  another  world,  that  the  Friesan  king,  Kad- 
bot?  scorned  the  Christian's  heaven,  from  which  his  predecessors  were  ex- 
cluded, (e) 

§  149.    Religion  of  the  Northern  Germanic  Nations. 

I.  The  older  Edda  collected  by  Saemund  Sigfusson  (d.  1133.)  iu  Ireland :  Edda  Saemundar 
Mnns  Froda.     Edda  rhythmiea,  Saemundina  dicta,  ed.  Thorlacius,  Finn  Magnusen,  etc.  Hafn. 
1T87-1S28.  3  Th.  4.    Miniature  ed.  e.  rec.  Raskii  cur.  Afaelius,  Holm.  1818.    Translations  of  most  of 
the  songs  (in  Germ.)  by  Hagen,  Brl.  1S12.  Bresl.  1814.  Grimm,  Brl.  1815.  Legis,  Lps.  1829s&  3  vols. 
The  prose  Edda,  was  commenced  by  Snorre  Sturleson  (d.  1241),  and  was  completed  in  the  14th  cent. : 
Snorra-Edda  asamt  Skaldu  af  Itask.  Stock.  1818.  Uebers.  v.  liuhs.  Brl.  1812.  Muspilli,  hrsg.  v. 
Schmeller.  (Buchner's  Beitrage,  Mun.  1832.  vol.  I.  P.  2.)  Auxiliary  sources :  For  the  northern  heroic 
Sages,  see  Mutter,  Sagabibliothek.  KjGb.  1817.  3  Th.    Uebers.  d.  1.  B.  Lachmann,  Brl.  1816.    Saxo 
Grammaticus  and  Adam  Bremensis. 

II.  After  the  investigations  of  Suhm,  Thorlacius  and  Finn  Magnusen,  Gen.  reviews :  Grundt- 
vig,  Nordens  Mytology.  Kjiib.  (180S.)  1832.     Stuhr,  Glaub.  Wiss.  u.  Diet  der  alt  Skandinavier. 
Kopenh.  1825.    Hone,  vol.  I.  p.  216-479.    Hunter,  KGesch.  v.  Danem.  u.  Norw.  Lpz.  1S23.  vol.  I.  p. 
1-204.     Dirckink-IIolmfeld,  nord.  Vorzeit  Kopenh.  1828s.  2  P.  (Petersen  u.  Thomson)  Leitf.  z. 
nord.  Alterthumskunde  hrsg.  v.  dl  konigl.  Gesellsch.  f.  nord.  Alterth.  Uebera.  v.  Paulsen,  Kopenh. 
1837.    [Mallet.  (§  147.)  K.  F.  Wilorg,  Die  Mythol.  des  Nordens  a.  d.  Danisch.  v.  Anton  v.  Eteel, 

1)  L  Perte,  Th.  I.  p.  228.  Th.  II.  p.  676.— II.  J.  Grimm,  Irmenstrasse  u.  Irmensaule.  Wien.  1815. 
Hagen,  Irmin.  Bresl.  1817. 

c)  Beda,  De  temper,  rat  c.  13. 

d)  Paul.  Diac.  I,  8.     Grimm,  Mythol.  Edit  1.  p.  96ss. 

«)  Jonae  Vita  S.  Wulframi  c.  9.  (HaWlon,  Acta  SS.  Benedict.  Saec.  IIL  P.  1.)   Comp.  Apptani 
Hist  Eom.  IV,  18. 


164     ANCIENT  CHUKCH  HISTORY.  PEE,  II.   GEEMANIC  CHUECH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

Berl.  1847.  G.  Pigott,  Manual  of  Scand.  Myth.  Lend.  1839.  8.  A.  CricJiton,  Scandinavia,  Anc.  snc 
Mod.  Edinb.  1839.  2  vcls.  12.  Wheatorfa  Hist  of  the  Northmen.  2  ed.  New  York.  1847.  H.  Christ' 
mas,  Universal  Myth.  p.  278-315.  Lond.  1838.] 

The  Scandinavian  is  a  special  branch  of  the  common  German  mythology, 
but  its  general  character  was  more  fanciful  and  gloomy,  and  it  penetrated 
deeper  into  the  grotesque  and  monstrous  forms  of  nature.     Neither  the 
purely  historical  view  of  it,  according  to  which  Odhinn  was  a  mortal  king  or 
even  an  impostor,  nor  the  purely  symbolical,  according  to  which  the  doctrine 
of  the  Asa  is  only  a  figurative  representation  of  the  origin,  the  redemption, 
and  the  regeneration  of  the  world,  corresponds  with  the  character  of  this 
people.    The  fact  that  the  worship  of  Odhinn  was  brought  to  the  North  by 
a  nomadic  tribe  from  the  Caucasus,  and  that  the  original  inhabitants  with 
their  gods  were  overcome,  is  clearly  indicated  in  the  tradition  that  the  Aser 
themselves  came  from  that  region,  and  maintained  a  perpetual  war  with  the 
conquered  race  of  giants  and  dwarfs.    The  world  was  created  by  Odhinn  out 
of  the  dead  body  of  the  giant  Ymer  whom  he  had  slain,  *'.  e.,  out  of  the 
organic  powers  which  had  been  brought  into  subjection.    Creation  therefore 
commenced  with  a  murder,  and  a  bloody  feud  sprung  up  between  the  gods 
who  formed  the  world  and  the  race  of  the  giant  who  wished  to  revenge  his 
death.     Odhinn  is  in  nature  the  sun  which  gives  life  to  all  things,  and  in  his- 
tory he  is  royal  wisdom  f^Thor  is  the  god  of  thunder,  and  the  honest  but 
wild  prince  of  war ;  Freyr,  with  his  lovely  sister  Freyja,  represent  the  gene- 
rative and  conceptive  powers  of  nature.    Among  men  the  latter  represents 
love,  but  was  originally  different  from  Frigg,  the  beautiful  wife  of  Odhinn. 
In  the  popular  legends,  however,  all  these  gods  are  looked  upon  as  personal 
beings,  and  their  divine  life  and  adventures  while  warring  with  the  giants  and 
magicians,  is  a  picture  of  the  military  life  of  the  people  in  their  struggles 
with  the  powers  of  nature,  with  heroes,  and  with  enchanters.    The  charac- 
ter of  the  goddesses  is  the  only  point  which  is  strange,  and  indicates  an 
Asiatic  origin ;  for  although  in  other  respects  they  well  represent  the  attrac- 
tions of  the  German  women,  they  do  not  generally  exhibit  a  very  high 
regard  for  chastity.    The  gods  presided  over  the  fortunes  of  men ;  Odhinn 
was  the  bestower  of  victory,  of  fame,  and  of  the  power  of  song,  and  Freyja 
is  the  giver  of  the  pleasures  and  pains  of  love.    The  Nornas  descry,  weave, 
and  announce  the  destinies  of  heroes.    The  deceitful  and  the  cowardly  are 
tormented  in  Nifiheim^  and  such  as  die  without  renown  wander  as  ghosts  in 
the  kingdom  of  Hela  ;  but  the  Valerias  hover  over  the  field  of  battle,  and 
select  their  favorite  heroes  for  the  slaughter.  t  Those  who  fall  gloriously 
ascend  to  the  Valhalla,  where  they  continue  to  spend  a  life  of  heroic  activ- 
ity with  the  gods.    Thus  love,  death,  and  a  higher  life  were  united  in  the 
same  moment,  and  hence,  notwithstanding  their  joy  in  life,  their  delight  in 
a  hero's  death  was  always  great.    Sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  gods,  and  in 
circumstances  of  extremity  a  nation  once  offered  up  its  own  king.    Ordi- 
narily, however,  the  only  offerings  were  such  as  were  found  on  the  tables  of 
their  cheerful  feasts.    This  national  faith  knew  nothing  of  self-inflicted  tor- 
tures, but  a  gloomy  sadness  pervades  the  Edda,  since  pain  and  death  are  con- 
nected with  all  life,  and  spare  not  even  the  gods.    Indeed,  the  very  gods  are 
aware  of  a  prophecy  which  predicts  their  death.    Loclce,  who  represents  the 


CHAP.  I.    ESTAB.  OF  CHR.    §  149.  EDDA-EELIGION.    §  150.  AEIANISM.        165 

all-devouring  fire  and  the  principle  of  evil  in  opposition  to  the  new  world  of 
the  gods,  contrives  to  intrude  himself  among  the  Aser.  Already,  hy  his 
subtle  artifices,  Balder,  the  noblest  of  all  the  gods,  has  fallen.  By  stratagem 
and  power  the  Aser  are  yet  able  to  ward  off  their  own  destruction.  But  a 
time  is  coming  called  the  Twilight  of  the  gods,  when  all  the  powers  of  the 
abyss  will  break  their  bonds,  and  all  the  Aser  and  the  heroes  of  the  Val- 
halla will  contend  against  them.  As  in  the  Niebelungen  Noth,  all  the  gods, 
the  heroes,  and  the  powers  of  the  abyss  will  be  slain  together.  In  the 
mighty  death-struggle,  the  world  itself  will  become  a  confused  mass,  and  be 
consumed  by  fire.  Then  a  new  earth  will  be  produced,  and  be  inhabited  by 
an  innocent  human  pair  nourished  by  the  morning  dew,  by  a  few  sons  of  the 
fallen  gods  who  will  survive  the  ruin,  and  by  Balder,  who  will  then  return 
from  the  lower  world.  They  will  spend  their  time  in  relating  to  each  other 
the  conflicts  of  the  former  world.  But  far  above  all  this  strife  and  change 
exists  an  unknown  power  which  has  been  called,  perhaps  from  some  hint 
taken  from  Christianity,  the  Universal  Father  (Alfadur). 

§  150.    Arianism. 

Near  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  the  "Western  provinces  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  partly  through  conquest  and  partly  through  the  increasing  influ- 
ence of  German  generals  and  mercenaries,  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Germans.  This  people  then  had  either  become  Christian,  or  were  inclined 
to  be  so.  The  Goths  had  received  the  gospel  by  means  of  prisoners  taken  in 
war,  and  a  Gothic  metropolitan  had  a  seat  in  the  Synod  of  Mcaea.  Among 
the  West  Gothic  princes,  Fritigern  was  favorable  to  Christianity,  but  Atlian- 
arich  persecuted  all  who  embraced  it.  When  the  Western  Goths  fled  before 
the  Huns,  and  sought  the  hospitality  of  the  Roman  empire  (376),  their  bap- 
tism was  the  condition  of  their  settlement  on  the  further  side  of  the  Dan- 
ube, (a)  The  form  of  Christianity  which  they  then  received  from  the  em- 
peror Valens  was  Arian,  and  to  this  they  adhered  with  a  German  fidelity, 
even  when  another  creed  was  announced  to  them  by  imperial  edicts.  Their 
bishop,  Ulphilas,  by  natural  disposition  and  by  education  well  fitted  to  be  a 
mediator,  translated  the  Scriptures  into  their  native  language,  (5)  and  after 
performing  the^  duties  of  his  office  for  forty  years,  died  at  Constantinople 
(388),  deeply  affected  on  account  of  the  subversion  of  his  -faith,  (c)  But  in 
consequence  of  the  victories  achieved  by  this  nation,  and  the  general  recep- 
tion of  his  German  gospel,  the  other  German  conquerors  embraced  the 
Arian  faith.  It  was  carried  by  the  Western  Goths  into  Spain,  by  the  East- 
ern Goths  into  Italy,  and  by  the  Vandals  into  Africa.  The  greater  part  of 
the  Burgundians,  after  a  brief  period  of  partial  sympathy  with  Catholicism, 

a)  J.  Ascfibach,  Gesch.  der  Westgothen.  Frkf.  182T. 

Z>)  Tjtphilae  partiam  inedit  spec.  ed.  A.  Mojus  et  Castilloneus,  Med.  1819.  4  Cent,  from  the 
Epp.  of  Paul:  1829.  1834. 1835.  4  Ulfilas.  V.  et  N.  Test  versionis  goth.  fragmm.  edd.  C.  de  Oabe- 
lente  et  J.  Loebe,  Altenb.  et  Lps.  1836-47.  2  Th.  4— Skeireina  Aivaggeljons  Jdhannen,  hrsg.  v. 
Massmann,  Munich.  1835.  4  comp.  Loeb&,  Beitr.  z.  Textbericht  u.  Erkl.  d,  Skeireins.  Altenb. 
1839.  [Art.  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit  vol.  III.] 

c)  Socrat.  IV.  23.  Soeom.  VI,  37.  Theodoret.  IV,  83.  Philostorg.  II,  5.  Jornand.  c,  25s.  <?. 
Waits,  u.  Leben  u.  Lehre  d.  Ul£  Han.  1S40. 


166     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOEY.  PEE.  II.  GEEMANTC  CHUECH.  A.  D.  812-800. 

finally  followed  this  example.  Many,  however,  who  professed  to  be  Arians 
were  only  Semiarians,  or  altogether  ignorant  of  the  difference  between  tho 
two.  (d)  The  Catholic  Church  to  which  the  native  Eomans  belonged  re- 
mained unmolested,  for  the  German  kings  held  that  religion  could  not  bt 
enforced  by  authority,  and  that  as  God  tolerated  various  forms  of  it,  no  par- 
ticular form  should  be  forced  upon  aM  persons,  (e)  The  Vandal  kings  in 
Africa  (after  431)  were  the  only  sovereigns  who  by  a  violent  persecution 
gave  new  martyrs  and  miracles  to  the  Catholic  Church,  (/)  and  thereby  pro- 
pared  the  way  for  their  own  overthrow,  and  for  the  victories  of  Belisarius, 
by  whom  the  Roman  empire  was  once  more  established  there  (533). 

§  151.     Victory  of  Catholicism. 
Gregor.  Tur.  H.  Franc.  II,  2Tss.— Michelet,  H.  de  France.  Tar.  1888.  vol.  L 

Clovis,  of  the  Merovingian  family,  united  the  Franks  under  one  monarchy, 
and  subdued  the  various  tribes  of  Gaul  and  of  the  provinces  on  the  confines  of 
Germany  (481-511).  His  Catholic  wife  Clotilda,  a  Burgundian  princess, 
endeavored  to  turn  his  mind  from  the  gods  whom  his  fathers  had  wor- 
shipped. In  the  battle  of  Ziilpich  (Tolbiacum,  496)  against  the  Allemanni, 
when  he  saw  his  ranks  give  way,  he  raised  his  hands  in  supplication  to  the 
God  of  the  Christians.  After  his  baptism  on  Christmas  by  St.  Remigius,  in 
the  Cathedral  at  Rheims,  the  victor  was  anointed  as  a  Christian  king,  (a)  and 
saluted  as  another  Constantine.  He  obtained  considerable  reputation  for  hia 
military  exploits,  his  sanguinary  selfishness,  and  his  zeal  for  the  Catholic 
faith.  As  he  was  then  the  only  orthodox  king,  he  professed  to  feel  bound  in 
conscience  to  obtain  possession  of  the  beautiful  territories  of  the  Arian 
princes,  and  in  his  attempts  to  do  so,  he  received  much  assistance  from  their 
Catholic  subjects.  With  a  precipitate  faith  the  Franks  and  Allemanni  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  their  victorious  monarch.  In  consequence  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Franks,  and  the  mental  superiority  of  the  native  Catholic  inhab- 
itants, Arianism  began  to  decline,  and  in  the  eighth  century,  when  the 
Longobard  kingdom  (5)  was  overthrown,  its  independence  as  a  national  reli- 
gion was  entirely  lost. 

§  152.    British  and  Anglo-Saxon  Church. 

I.  Wilkins,  Concilia  Brit,  ct  Hibern.  Lond.  1T37.  4  vols.  f.    Beda  Yen.  H.  ecc. 

II.  Usserii  Britannicar.  Eccl.  antiquitt  (Dubl.  1639.  4.)  Lond.  168T.  f.    Lingard,  Antiquities  ol 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Church.  Newcastle.  1806.  2  vols.    Stdudlin,  KGesch.  v.  Grossbrit  Gott.  1819.  2 
vols.    J.  Lanigan,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland.  Dubl.  ed.  2. 1829.  2  vols.    Munter,  die  altbrit  K.  (Stud.  u. 
Krit  1833.  P.  Is.)    K.  Schroedl,  d.  1.  Jahrh.  d.  engl.  K  Pass.  1840.    [Stittingfleet,  Orig.  Britannicae. 
with  notes  by  Pautin,  Oxon.  1842.  2  vols.  8.    G.  Smith,  Eeligion  of  Anc.  Britain,  historically  con- 
sidered. Lond.  2  ed.  8.    IT.  Soames,  The  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  its  hist.  &c.  Lond.  3  ed.  8.     Wm. 

d)  Theodoret.  H.  ecc.  IV,  83.  Procop.  Hist  Goth.  c.  4. 

e)  Cassiodor.  variar.  1.  II.  Ep.  27. 1.  X.  Ep.  26. 

/)  Victor,  Episc.  Vitensis  (487),  Hist  persecutions  Afric.  (Ruinarti  Hist  persecutions  Van- 
dalicae.  Par.  1694.  Yen.  1732.  4.)-Papencordt,  Gesch.  d.  Vand.  Herrsch.  in  AfivBrL  1837. 

a)  The  popular  account:  Hincmar,  Yita  S.  Eemigii  c.  3.— G.  G.  v.  Murr,  d.  h.  Ampullo  za 
Rheims.  Nurnb.  1801. 

Z>)  Koch-Sterriberg,  Eeicb.  d.  Longobarden.  Munch.  1S39. 


CHAP.  I.    ESTAB.  OF  CUE.    §  152.  BRITISH  &  ANGLO-SAXON  CHURCHES.       167 

Kales,  Origin  of  the  Prim.  Church  of  the  Brit.  Isles.  Lond.  8.  F  Thackeray,  Researches  Into 
the  Eccl.  and  Polit.  State  of  Anc.  Brit.  Lond.  1843.  2  vols.  8.  S.  Turner,  II.  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
5  ed.  8  vols.  8.  Lond.  1836.  F.  Palgrave,  H.  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Lond.  1837. 12.  Amer.  and 
For.  Clir.  Union,  vol.  II.  (1851.)  p.  86ss.  Tlss.  LitteWa  Bel.  Mag.  vol.  III.  (1829.)  p.  315&S,  C.  An- 
derson, Hist  Sketches  of  the  Ancient  Irish.  Edinb.  1828.  8.] 

The  Church  in  Ireland  was  founded  (after  430)  by  Patrick,  a  Briton,  who 
labored  there  with  the  zeal  of  a  sincere  and  recent  convert,  and  with  the 
power  of  one  who  was  believed  not  only  by  others  but  by  himself  to  work- 
miracles,  (a)  The  convents  he  established  were,  until  some  time  in  the  sev- 
enth century,  the  centres  of  a  fervent  ecclesiastical  activity  for  the  island, 
and  Ireland  was  called  the  Isle  of  Saints.  From  it  proceeded  Columba  (afte? 
565),  by  whom  the  Picts  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  were  brought  over  to 
the  Christian  faith.  Adopting  some  remnants  of  Druidical  customs,  he 
established  on  the  island  of  Hy  (St.  Jona)  a  sacerdotal  order,  to  which,  in 
various  records  after  the  ninth  century  the  name  of  Culdees  (Kele-De)  was 
probably  exclusively  applied.  (&)  The  bishops  of  the  surrounding  country 
acknowledged  this  presbyter-abbot  as  their  superior,  (c)  Britain  is  men- 
tioned as  a  Christian  country  in  the  fourth  century.  But  when  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  who  had  been  invited  to  enter  it  as  allies  (after  449),  became  its  con- 
querors, the  British  Church  continued  only  in  Wales  and  in  the  mountains 
of  Northumberland.  The  national  hatred  of  the  tribes  was  too  intense  to 
allow  the  Saxons  to  receive  the  gospel  from  the  Britons.  Gregory  the  Great, 
who  for  a  long  time  took  a  deep  interest  in  this  people,  availed  himself  of 
the  marriage  of  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  with  a  Frankish  princess,  to  send  a 
solemn  embassy  of  forty  Benedictines  to  proclaim  himself  and  Christ  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  king  was  baptized,  and  Augustine,  the  principal  per- 
son belonging  to  the  embassy,  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(597).  From  Kent,  Eoman  Catholicism  was  propagated,  in  spite  of  many 
vicissitudes  during  the  succeeding  century,  among  the  other  Saxon  kingdoms, 
more  by  covert  concessions  and  gradual  changes  than  by  an  open  conflict 
with  heathenism.  For  Gregory  had  instructed  those  whom  he  had  sent  not 
to  destroy  the  temples  of  the  gods,  but  to  consecrate  them. to  the  true  Deity; 
to  allow  the  people  to  bring  the  oxen  which  they  had  been  accustomed  to 
sacrifice  at  their  heathen  festivals,  and  on  days  devoted  to  the  dedication  of 
a  church,  or  to  the  commemoration  of  some  saint,  to  slay  them  in  honor  of 
the  true  God,  and  to  hold  joyful  feasts  for  them  under  green  arbors  near  the 
churches.  By  retaining  such  customary  pleasures,  he  hoped  gradually  to 
make  these  obstinate  dispositions  form  a  relish  for  the  spiritual  enjoyments 
of  Christianity,  (d)  It  soon  became  evident,  however,  from  the  efforts  to 
unite  the  Saxon  and  British  churches,  that  the  latter  would  acknowledge  no 
other  subjection  to  the  Eoman  bishop  than  that  which  was  due  to  any  other 
Christian,  (e)  But  they  tolerated  each  other  with  greater  or  less  degrees*  of 

o)  Patricii  Confessio.  (Opuscc.  ed.  Waraeus,  Lond.  1658.  and  in  W.  Betham,  Irish  Antiquarian 
Researches.  Dubl.  1826s.  P.  II.  App.  p.  49.)  Popular  accounts:  Jocelini  (12th  cent.)  Vita  S.  Patric. 
(Acta  SS.  Mart.  vol.  II.  p.  540.)  [Amer.  and  For.  Chr.  Union,  vol.  I.  (1850.)  p.  489ss.  535ss.] 

&)  John  Smith,  Life  of  Bt  Col.  Edinb.  1798.— J.  Jamieson,  Hist  Account  of  the  Anc.  Culdees  of 
Jona.  Edinb.  1811.  4.— J.  G.  J.  Braun,  de  Culdeia.  Bonn.  1840.  4>  c)  Beda,  H.  ecc.  Ill,  4. 

d)  Gregor.  Ep.  ad  Mellitum.  (Opp.  voL  IL  p.  l!T6s.  and  Beda  I,  80.) 

e)  Wilkins,  Cone.  vol.  I.  p.  26.    Beda,  Hist  ecc.  II,  2. 


168     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER.  II.  GERMANIC  CHURCH.  A.  D.  S12-SOO. 

I 

hostility  until  the  final  uniqn  of  the  two  nations,  when  the  Church  of  the 
most  numerous  people  gained  the  victory. 

§  153.    Irruption  of  Islam  in  the  West. 

J.  AschbacJi,  Gesch.  d.  Ommayaden  in  Spanien.  Frkf.  1829s.  [Pascual  tie  Gayangos,  II.  of  the 
Mohammedan  Dynasties  in  Spain,  from  the  text  of  Al  Makkari,  Lend.  1840-48.  2  vols.  4  J.  C. 
Murphy,  H.  of  the  Mob.  Empire  in  Spain,  Lond.  1816.  4.] 

In  consequence  of  a  dispute  about  the  succession  to  the  throne,  Spain  was 
opened  to  the  Arabians,  the  conquerors  of  Africa.  The  kingdom  of  the  "West- 
ern Goths  was  speedily  overthrown  by  Musa,  the  general  of  the  Caliphate,  and 
Spain  was  subjected  to  the  Arabian  prophet  (711).  Through  this  country 
AbderrTiaman  was  preparing  to  pass  for  the  conquest  of  the  entire  West, 
that  he  might  unite  it  with  his  Eastern  empire.  He  had  already  obtained 
possession  of  France  as  far  as  the  Loire,  when  the  power  of  the  Arabians  on 
the  north  of  the  Pyrenees  was  broken  for  ever,  by  Charles  Martel,  at  the 
battle  of  Poictiers  (732).  In  Spain  the  Christians  received  toleration  from 
the  Arabians  (Mozarabes)  as  a  distinct  sectf  and  from  their  mountains  in  the 
North  commenced  against  the  Arabian  government  a  chivalrous  contest  fo* 
their  national  independence  and  for  Christianity. 

§  154.     Germany.    Bonifacius,  680-755. 

I.  Bonifacii:  Epistolae,  ed.  Wurdtwein,  Mog.  17S9.  f.    Vita,  scr.  "Willibald  about  760.  (Pertz 
Th.  II.  p.  831.) 

II.  Othlonus  (about  1066),  Vita  S.  Bon.  (Acta  S3.  Jun.  Th.  I.  p.  452.)    Serarius,  Moguntiac. 
rcrum  1.  V.  Mog.  604.  4.  ed.  Johannes,  Frcf.  1722.  t  Tb.  I.    Sagittarius,  Antiquitt  gentillsmi  et 
christianismi  Thuringici.  Jen.  1685.  4.     Gudenii,  Ds.  de  Bon.  Helmst  1720.  4.    Lqffler,  Bon.  Gotha. 
1812.    Setters,  Bon.  Mainz.  1845. 

Bishoprics  had  been  established  during  the  fourth  century  in  Germany, 
along  the  Ehine  and  the  Danube,  as  far  as  the  Roman  dominion  extended, 
but  in  the  fifth,  Christianity  was  partially  driven  back  by  the  national  mi- 
grations. Under  the  influence  of  the  Franks  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century,  it  pressed  forward  as  far  as  the  Saale  and  the  Elbe,  but  it  was  under 
no  ecclesiastical  regulations,  and  was  much  corrupted  by  paganism.  The 
gospel  was  also  carried  by  British  monks  as  far  as  the  Main  and  among  the 
Allernanni,  but  had  no  connection  with  Rome.  Thus  Columban  (d.  615), 
who  had  been  driven  from  the  Yosges  as  far  as  the  Apennines,  established 
some  convents  as  seminaries  of  Christianity,  and  his  disciple  Gall  (d.  about 
650),  who  had  been  left  at  the  lake  of  Constance,  and  had  become  a  hermit 
on  the  Steinach,  made  a  lasting  and  beneficial  impression  on  the  minds  of  the 
people,  by  destroying  their  idols,  by  casting  out  demons  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  and  by  refusing  to  accept  the  bishopric  of  Constance,  (a)  But  Win- 
fred,  an  Anglo-Saxon  monk,  originally  from  Kirton  in  Devonshire,  better 
known  by  his  Roman  name  of  Boniface,  was  sent  from  Rome  to  undertake 
the  conversion  of  Germany  (718),  and  finally  became  the  apostle  of  the  Ger- 

d)  I.  Vita  S.  Columbani  by  his  pupil  Jonas,  Vita  8.  Galli  by  Walafrid  Strabo  in  MaUUon 
Acta  Ord.  8.  Bened.  Saec.  II.  p.  1.  228.  The  older  sources  of  the  latter  in  Pertz,  Th.  I.  p.  1.— C.  J. 
ffefele,  Gesch.  d.  Einfuhr.  d.  Christenth.  im  sudwestl.  Deutschl.  Tub.  1837.  G.  C.  KnotteribeU,  d« 
Columbano.  Lugd.  1889.  F.  G.  Retfberg,  Obss.  ad  vitam  S.  Galli  spectantes.  Marb.  1842.  4. 


CHAP.  I.    ESTAB.  OF  CUE.    §  154.  BONIFACE.    §  155.  SAXONS.  1 GS 

mans.  This  title,  however,  belongs  to  him  not  so  much  because  he  first  pro- 
claimed the  gospel  to  the  people,  as  because  he  effected  the  complete  over- 
throw of  paganism,  announced  by  the  destruction  of  the  sacred  oak  at  Geis- 
mar,  (i$)  and  because  he  was  the  founder  of  the  German  Church.  He  was 
superstitious  in  his  views,  rigid  in  his  habits,  narrow-minded  with  respect  to 
external  forms,  and  arrogant  towards  inferiors,  but  submissive  to  popes, 
except  when  he  thought  they  protected  abuses,  (c)  In  conformity  with  his 
oath,  (<Z)  he  made  the  German  Church  dependent  upon  the  pope,  but  with- 
out the  authority  of  the  Koman  bishop  and  of  the  Frankish  monarch,  he 
would  have  found  the  enforcement  of  his  strict  rules  in  opposition  to  the 
general  resistance  almost  impossible.  In  consequence  of  the  plenary  powers 
given  him  by  the  Koman  see,  he  was  looked  upon  (after  732)  as  the  general 
bishop  of  Germany,  and  by  a  decree  of  the  German  diet  (747),  the  old  epis- 
copal city  of  Mentz  was  given  him  as  a  permanent  see.  When  too  old  to 
perform  the  duties  of  ecclesiastical  government,  he  requested  that  his  disci- 
ple Lullus  might  be  appointed  his  successor,  and  resumed  a  task  which  had 
been  unsuccessful  in  his  youth — the  conversion  of  the  Frieslanders.  His 
tent  was  pitched  on  the  bank  of  the  Borne,  when  he  was  suddenly  attacked 
by  a  band  of  heathen  robbers.  He  allowed  his  followers  to  make  no  resist- 
ance, and  all  were  slain.  His  body,  in  compliance  with  *his  last  will,  was 
buried  in  his  favorite  convent  of  Fulda. 

§  155.     The  Saxons. 

Meinders,  Tr.  de  statu  rel.  et  reip.  sub  Carolo  M.  et  Lud.  P.  in  Sax.  Lemgo.  1711.  4.  Just.  Moeser, 
6snabr.  Gesch.  Brl.  1T80.  vol.  I.  Funk,  u.  d.  Unterwerfung  d.  Sachsen  unter  K.  d.  G.  (ScLlosser's 
Arch.  f.  Gesch.  u.  Lit.  1833.  vol.  IV.  p.  293ss.)  G.  Zimmermann,  de  mutata  Saxonuin  vetemm  reL 
Darmst  1839.  4.  P.  I.  Ozanam  (§  14S.) 

The  Saxons  defended  their  national  independence  and  the  religion  of  their 
ancestors  (after  772)  against  the  butcher  Charles,  (a)  until  a  series  of  battles 
and  violated  treaties  made  them  desperate,  and  they  finally  resolved  (804) 
to  unite  with  the  Franks  as  one  nation  and  pay  tithes.  The  "Westphalian 
bishoprics  were  erected  to  serve  as  a  kind  of  ecclesiastical  fortresses.  Laws 
written  in  blood  forbade  all  return  to  the  customs  of  heathenism,  (5)  and  it 
was  not  until  the  Saxons  had  been  completely  subdued  by  the  sword  and  the 
cross,  that  Charles  the  Great  saw  his  plans  accomplished. 

§  156.     Overthrow  of  German  Paganism. 

\H.  RucTcert,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Bildung  in  d.  Per.  d.  Ueberganges  Heidentb.  in  Chr.  Berl.  1S54. 12.] 

As  the  Germans  were  in  the  habit  of  acknowledging  gods  besides  their 
own,  they  readily  conceded  to  their  guests  that  Christ  might  be  divine.  But 
although  the  doctrine  of  a  crucified  God  was  not  altogether  strange  to  their 

6)  Pertz,  Th.  II.  p.  843.      c)  Wurdtw.  p.  108. 

d)  Wiirdtio.  p.  19s.     [The  oath  itself:  Gieseler,  Hist  vol.  II.  p.  214  ut.  3.] 

«)  Gelubde,  Uncertain  as  an  orig.  doc.  but  often  printed  from  the  Goslar  Archives,  e.  g.  Hannov. 
Mag.  P.  26.  p.  483. 

I)  Capitulatio  de  partib.  Saxoniae.  a.  789.  (Walter,  Corpus  juris  Germ.  Th.  II.  p.  104ss.  with 
comm.  in  Meinders,  p.  23ss.) 


1  70     ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.  PEE.  II.  GERMANIC  CHURCH.  A.  D.  312-500. 

minds,  Christ,  his  apostles,  and  the  monks,  seemed  to  them  a  faint-hearted 
kind  of  people,  until  the  clergy  acquired  military  habits  and  legends  of  chi- 
valrous saints  were  circulated  among  them.  The  hold  assumption  of  supe- 
riority to  the  gods  of  their  country,  and  the  exclusive  reliance  upon  their  own 
power,  which  the  northern  heroes  especially  expressed  without  hesitation  or 
reproof,  was  not  directly  favorable  to  Christianity,  but  proved  that  a  living 
faith  in  the  old  religion  was  already  much  impaired.  They  had  no  powerful 
sacerdotal  caste,  and  the  opposition  which  Christianity  encountered  was  not 
produced  by  a  priestly  nobility  among  any  of  Odhinn's  worshippers,  but  by 
the  various  political  circumstances  in  which  it  was  introduced  to  the  several 
tribes.  («)  The  religion  of  their  ancestors  had  no  support  but  the  public  sen- 
timent of  a  free  people.  For  the  whole  intellectual  fabric  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, and  consequently  for  its  church,  they  entertained  the  profoundest  reve- 
rence. They  were  convinced  by  the  example  of  the  Western  Goths  that 
the  Christians'  God  could  bestow  power  and  victory.  The  twilight  of  the 
gods  which  their  mythology  taught  them  to  expect,  seemed  to  them  realized 
by  Christianity,  but  in  a  milder  and  more  beautiful  form.  Christianity  was 
always  foreign  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  national  character,  and  could  never 
be  received  by  those  nations  without  destroying  their  peculiar  spirit.  The 
disposition  of  the  German  nation  on  the  other  hand  never  found  its  proper 
development  except  in  connection  with  Christianity.  Hence,  wherever  the 
Germans  were  independent  or  victorious  the  gospel  always  had  free  scope. 
But  it  was  not  without  many  touching  lamentations  that  the  ancient  system 
of  paganism  was  renounced.  (&) 


CHAP.  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION"  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

Planck,  Gesch.  d.  klrchl.  Gesellschaftsverf.  vol.  II.  EicJihorn,  deutscho  Staats-u.  Rechtsgesch.  5  ed. 
Gott  1848.  vol.  L  J.  Grimm,  deutscho  Rechtsaltberthumer.  Gott.  1828.  ffuUmann,  Urspr.  d.  KVerf. 
d.  MA.  Bonn.  1831.— Ellendorf,  d.  Karolinger  u.  d.  Hierarchic  ihrer  Zelt.  Essen  1839. 

§  157.  Original  Records  of  the  Canon  Law. 

By  the  principles  of  the  German  law,  the  Church  and  all  ecclesiastics  re- 
tained the  same  privileges  as  they  had  enjoyed  under  the  Roman  empire,  (a) 
and  in  consequence  of  the  new  relations  in  which  these  were  possessed,  a  new 
legal  state  was  developed.  The  Spanish  collection  and  the  Dionysian  Codex 
were  therefore  continually  appealed  to  as  records  of  the  Roman  law.  Any 
new  ecclesiastical  usages,  and  laws  were  either  incorporated  with  the  popular 
code  or  published  as  decrees  of  synods  or  of  the  diet,  (ft) 

a)  On  the  other  hand:  Leo,  Gesch.  d.  ital.  Staaten.  Hmb.  1829.  vol.  I.  p.  55ss. 

6)  Grimm.  MythoL  p.  4.     Uhland,  Thor.  p.  223. 

a)  Cone.  Aurelian,  I,  a.  511.  can.  1.  (MansiTb.  VIII.  p.  350s.)  Lex  Eipuarior.  tit.  58.  c.  1. 
(Walter  Th.  I.  p.  ISO.) 

I)  Walter,  Corpus  juris  Germ,  antiqul  Ber.  1824ss.  3  Th.  Pertz,  Monurn.  Germ.  Th.  Ills.  Le- 
gum  Th.  L  II.  Comp.  Regesta  Carolorum.  All  the  orig.  docc.  of  the  Carolingian  kings  in  the  Extracts 
(752-918)  by  ZoeJimer,  Frkf.  1834.  4. 


CHAP.  II.    ECCLES.  LAW.    §153.  CHUKCH  &  STATE.    §159.  PEOPEETY.        171 

§  158.    Relation  of  the  Church  to  the  State. 

Runde,  v.  TJrspr.  d.  Reichsstandsch.  d.  Bisch.  u.  Aebte.  Gott.  1774.  4.  v.  Roth,  v.  d.  Einflusse  of. 
Geistlichk.  unter  d.  Merowingern.  Numb.  1830.  4. 

The  bishops,  who  were  equally  respected  by  the  conquering  and  the  con- 
quered nations,  were  generally  employed  as  mediators  when  terms  of  peace 
were  to  be  settled.  No  sooner  had  the  kings,  who  were  originally  merely  the 
leaders  of  their  companions  in  arms,  tasted  the  sweets  of  regal  power  as  en- 
joyed under  the  Koman  law,  than  they  became  anxious  to  attach  the  bishops 
to  their  interests.  By  conferring  upon  them  offices  at  court  and  certain  feu- 
dal estates,  ail  ecclesiastical  vassalage  was  created  (a)  which  made  it  their 
policy  to  restrain  any  conquering  hordes,  or  to  conciliate  any  conquered 
tribes.  The  power  of  the  kings  over  the  Church,  or  of  the  bishops  over  the 
state,  may  be  inferred  from  the  feudal  laws  gradually  developed  during  the 
conquest.  The  kings  either  directly  appointed  the  bishops,  or  nominated 
those  whom  they  wished  to  be  chosen  by  the  clergy  or  the  people ;  (&)  but 
the  bishops  themselves,  along  with  the  other  great  vassals,  either  elected  the 
king  or  confirmed  his  hereditary  successor,  (c)  The  bishops  were  required 
to  swear  fealty  to  the  king  and  to  seek  justice  before  the  royal  court,  but  they 
could  be  judged  only  by  their  peers,  (d)  Whoever  felt  aggrieved  by  any  pro- 
ceedings in  a  spiritual  court  could  apply  for  redress,  or  at  least  for  grace,  from 
the  king  as  his  lord  paramount,  (e)  Bishops  sat  in  the  diet  with  all  other 
crown  vassals,  and  it  was  on  this  ground  that  after  the  seventh  century  eccle- 
siastical causes  were  so  much  mingled  with  civil  affairs  in  the  transactions  of 
that  body.  (/)  Subsequently  the  power  of  legislation  resided  in  the  states  and  in 
the  king,  (g)  By  such  a  system  the  Church  seemed  almost  blended  with  the 
state,  but  its  power  and  its  consequent  independence  was  well  represented  by 
that  hierarchical  aristocracy  whose  authority  the  kings  always  found  it  best 
to  maintain,  as  a  counterpoise  to  that  of  an  hereditary  and  military  nobility. 

§  159.     Property  of  the  Church  and  the  Clergy. 

Many  bishops  and  abbots  received  royal  grants  of  land  and  of  people.  These 
ecclesiastical  possessions,  like  all  other  royal  fiefs,  had  immunities  and  juris- 
dictions of  their  own.  They  were  only  bound  to  furnish  a  certain  quota  of 
men  for  a  general  war  (the  Heerbann),  and  the  counts  exercised  jurisdiction 
in  cases  of  life  and  death.  The  divine  institution  of  tithes  was  more  zealously 
proclaimed  than  the  gospel  itself,  and  under  Charles  the  Great,  who  paid 

a)  Fredegarii  Cbron.  c.  41.  76.  SangaUens.  1, 13.  (Pert*  Th.  II.  p.  736.) 

Z>)  Cone.  Aurel.  V.  a.  549,  can.  10.  Cone.  Toletan.  XII.  a  681.  can.  6.  Although  Cone.  Paris.  V. 
a.  615.  can.  1.  yet  comp.  Walter  Th.  II.  p.  13. 

c)  Cone.  Toletan.  VIII.  a.  653.  can.  10.  Wilkins  Cone.  Brit  vol.  I.  p.  148s.    Eespecting  France: 
Planck,  vol.  II.  p.  248ss. 

d)  Greg.  Tur.  II.  Franc.  V,  19.  28.  Cone.  Aquisgr.  a.  789.  c.  37.    (Walter  Th.  II.  p.  84.) 

e)  Cone.  Paris.  V.  a.  615.  can.  3.  [Landon,  Paris,  p.  461.]  with  Clotaire's  enlarged  confirmation- 
(Walter  Th.  II.  p.  14)    Capit.  Franco/,  a.  794.  c.  4.    (  Walter  Th.  II.  p.  116.) 

/)  Reaction  in  Spain :  Cone.  Tolet.  XVII.  a.  694.  c.  1.  (Mansi  Th.  XII.  p.  196.)  Courts  in 
France:  Hincmar.  de  ord.  palatii  c.  29.  comp.  Mansi  Th.  XIY.  p.  64. 

0)  Cone.  Arvernense  a.  535.  Praefatio.  (Mansi  Th.  VIII.  p.  859.)  Cone.  Aurel.  I.  Ep.  ad  Clo- 
dov.  (Mansi  Th.  VIII.  p.  350.) 


1 72     ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTORY.  PEE.  IL  GEEMANIC  CHUECH.  A.  D.  812-SOO. 

tithes  of  all  his  possessions,  it  became  the  general  law  for  the  whole  Frankish 
empire,  (a)  It  was,  however,  much  easier  for  the  Church  to  acquire  immense 
wealth  from  the  scruples  of  the-people  than  to  defend  it  against  the  universal 
robbery  and  violence  which  then  prevailed.  CJiilperic  complained  that  the 
wealth  of  the  kings  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Church,  (5)  but  Charles 
Mattel  distributed  the  ecclesiastical  wealth  among  his  soldiers,  and  left  to  the 
Church  the  consolation  of  thinking  that  the  deliverer  of  Christendom  had 
gone  down  to  hell,  (c)  The  clergy  preserved  their  privilege  of  being  judged 
in  civil  causes  only  before  the  bishop's  court ;  though  in  criminal  cases,  if  the 
offence  was  proved,  they  might  be  arraigned  in  what  was  called  a  mixed 
court.  Between  the  counts  and  the  bishops  of  each  district  (Gau)  sprung  up 
mutual  jealousies  and  encroachments,  which  the  kings  often  found  it  easy  to 
increase.  The  rights  of  the  metropolitans  were  on  various  occasions  con- 
firmed, but  they  could  not  be  sustained  in  opposition  to  the  political  power 
of  individual  bishops. 

§  160.    Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Pope. 

The  authority  of  the  pope  in  countries  beyond  the  Alps  had  its  origin  in 
the  necessity  which  the  Catholics  and  Eomans  felt  of  a  general  centre  of 
union  in  their  conflicts  with  the  Arians  and  Barbarians.  The  legates  of 
Gregory  the  Great  were  therefore  called  upon  to  exercise  supreme  jurisdic- 
tion in  Spain.  But  when  the  Western  Goths  went  over  to  the  Catholic 
party  that  necessity  was  no  longer  felt,  and  the  bishops,  becoming  conscious 
of  their  political  importance,  freely  opposed  the  papal  claims.  Witiza 
(701-10),  who  was  anxious  to  recover  the  royal  prerogatives  from  the  no- 
bility and  the  Church,  went  so  far  as  to  forbid  all  appeals  to  the  Roman 
bishop,  (a)  But  the  overthrow  of  his  throne  and  the  subversion  of  the 
Gothic  kingdom  was  generally  regarded  as  a  divine  judgment  on  the  impious 
attempt.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Church  gradually  prevailed  upon  the  neighbor- 
ing churches  to  place  themselves  under  the  guardianship  of  Rome,  for  the 
people  seemed  to  think  it  rather  hazardous  to  prefer  Columba  to  Peter,  when 
the  latter  held  the  keys  of  heaven.  (5)  The  pope  was  regarded  with  the 
highest  veneration  among  the  Franks,  but  his  power  was  confined  to  remon- 
strances and  intercessions  except  when  the  kings  found  it  for  their  interest  to 
make  it  appear  greater,  (c)  But  when  Pipin  grasped  after  the  imperial 
authority,  he  knew  of  no  better  way  to  silence  the  scruples  of  the  Franks 
respecting  the  oath  which  they  had  sworn  to  their  legitimate  king,  than  to 
obtain  a  declaration  from  Pope  Zacharias  that  whoever  possessed  the  power 
should  have  also  the  name  of  the  king  (750).  (d)  From  that  time  all  the 

a)  Capit.  Franco/,  a.  794.  c.  23.    (  Walter  Th.  IL  p.  118.) 

&)  Gregor.  Tur.  H.  Franc,  VI,  46. 

c)  Sonif.  Ep.  72.  (Wurdtw.  p.  194.)  Hincmar.  Hem.  ad  Lndov.  German.  (Walter,  Th.  III.  p.  85.) 

a)  Sekotti  Hisp.  illustrate  FrcC  1608.  f.  Th.  II  p.  62.  Th.  IV.  p.  69. 

V)  JBeda,  H.  ecc.  Ill,  25. 

c)  Greg.  Tur.  H.  Franc.  V,  21.  cf.  VII,  89. 

d)  Fredeg.  Chron.  appendix.   (BouquetTh.  II.  p.  460.  comp.  Th.  V.  p.  9.)    Annal.  Lauriss.  ad 
a.  749.  (Pertz  Th.  L  p.  136.)— «£  Q,  Loebell,  de  causls  regni  Francor.  a  Merovlngis  ad  Carolina* 
translati.  Bon.  1844.  4. 


CHAP.  II.    ECCLES.  LAW.    §  160.  CLERGY-    §  181.  PAPAL  FOWEE.  1 73 

Carolingians  thought  it  best  to  exalt  the  dignity  of  those  on  whom  the  law- 
fulness and  sacredness  of  their  own  crown  depended.  The  German  Church 
was  from  its  very  origin  in  a  state  of  dependence  upon  Rome,  and  in  its  first 
synod  (743)  all  its  bishops  swore  obedience  to  the  pope,  (e)  Boniface  endea- 
vored to  bring  the  Gallican  Church  under  the  same  regulation,  but  as  its 
bishops  possessed  not  much  zeal  for  the  general  Church  and  great  political 
power,  his  success  was  by  no  means  complete.  Great  efforts  were  made  to 
convince  the  metropolitans  that  the  pallium  was  indispensable  to  the  com- 
pleteness of  their  power.  But  when  Boniface  complained  that  it  was  con- 
ferred at  Rome  for  money,  Zacharias  called  it  a  calumny  to  say  that  the  Ro- 
man see  would  sell  what  had  been  bestowed  upon  it  as  a  gift  by  the  Holy 
Ghost.  (/) 

§  161.    Secular  Power  of  the  Pope. 

Codex  Carolinus.  (Cenni,  Monn.  dominations  Pontificiae.  Eom.  1760s.  2  Th.  4.)—  II.  Orsi  dell 
origine  del  domlnio  e  della  soveranita  degli  rom.  Pont  Eom.  1T54.  Salibathler,  sur  Torigine  de  la  puis- 
sance temporelle  des  Papes.  Haye.  1765.  J.  It.  Becker,  u.  d.  Zeitp.  der  Veriindr.  in  der  Oberh.  u.  Eom. 
Lub.  1769.  Comp.  J.  v.  Muller,  Werke.  1833.  Th.  25. 

As  late  as  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  a  governor  was  placed  by  the 
emperor  over  the  exarchate  and  the  city  of  Rome.  But  in  the  latter  the 
actual  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  pope  as  the  head  of  an  aristocratic  mu- 
nicipal government.  The  Longobards  conquered  the  exarchate  and  threat- 
ened an  attack  upon  Rome.  In  vain  was  protection  sought  from  Constanti- 
nople, and  Stephen  II.  in  the  name  of  St.  Peter  called  upon  the  King  of  the 
Franks,  whom  he  had  anointed,  for  aid.  In  two  campaigns  (754-5)  Pipin 
repelled  the  Longobards,  and  as  the  Roman  Patricius  he  committed  to  the 
pope  the  provinces  which  the  exarch  had  governed,  (a)  alleging  that  the 
Franks  had  shed  their  blood  not  for  the  Greeks  but  for  St.  Peter,  and  for  the 
good  of  their  own  souls.  Charles  the  Great  having  by  systematic  measures  de- 
stroyed the  kingdom  of  the  Longobards  (after  773),  confirmed  and  enlarged 
the  donation  which  his  father  had  made,  and  on  Dec.  25,  800,  laid  the  deed 
which  secured  the  whole  on  the  tomb  of  the  apostles.  By  this  means  the 
king  effected  his  purpose,  which  was  to  gain  a  powerful  ally  in  Italy,  and  the 
pope  became  a  ruler  over  a  considerable  territory  and  its  inhabitants.  Ho 
was  however  obliged  to  acknowledge  a  lord  paramount  with  indefinite 
powers  above  himself,  (&)  and  was  so  much  harassed  by  the  factious  strifes 
of  the  more  powerful  families,  that  he  became  continually  dependent  upon 
the  protection  of  the  King  of  the  Franks. 

§  162.     Charles  the  Great.    768-814. 

L  Annals,  Capitularies  (before  §  147)  &  Letters  in  the  Codex  Carolinus.  Einhard,  Yita  KarolL 
(Perte  Th.  II.  p.  426.  &  Han.  1830.  Opp.  ed.  A.  Teulet,  Par.  1840-3.  2  Th.)  Leben  u.  Wandel  Karls 
d.  G.  v.  EinharcL  Einl.  Urschr.  Erlaut  Urknndensamml.  v.  J.  L.  Ideler.  Hamb.  1839.  Monachua 
SangaUensis,  (Anecdotes)  de  gestis  Karoli  (Peris  Th.  II.  p.  726.)  Poetae  Saxonis  Annal.  de  gcstis 


«)  Bonif.  Ep.  73.    (  Wurdho.  p.  179.)      /)  Zach.  ad  Boni£    (  Wurdtw.  p.  148s.) 
a)  Steph.  ad.  Pip.  a.  754    (Cvnni  Th.  I.  p.  T5. )       &)  Einhard,  Ann.  a.  796. 


I  74     ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOEY.  PEE.  IL  GEEMANIC  CHUECU.  A.  D.  S12-SOO. 

Car.  (Leibnitii  Scrr.  rer.  Brnnsv.  Th.  L  p.  120.)    Helperici  (Angtlberti)  Carol  M.  et  Leo  Papa,  edL 
Oretti,  TUT.  1832. 

II.  K  Dippold,  Leben  K.  Karls.  Tub.  1810.  Bredaw,  K.  Karl.  Altona.  1814.  Capeftgue,  Charle- 
magne. Par.  1S42.  2  Th.— J.  O.  Walch,  Hist  canon isationis  Car.  M.  Jen.  1750.— Putter,  de  instaurat 
Imp.  Rom.  Gctt.  1766s.  10  P.  4,  [G.  P.  /«".  James,  Life  of  C.  Lond.  1847.  &  New  York.  1848.] 

The  grand  objects  to  which  Charles  the  Great  devoted  his  life  were,  the 
union  of  all  the  German  nations  under  his  sway,  and  the  establishment  of 
civilization  among  them.  He  favored  and  governed  the  Church  because  it 
was  a  school  for  the  improvement  of  his  people.  He  was  careful  to  main- 
tain the  same  respect  for  the  popes  which  his  father  had  shown,  and  he  even 
increased  their  power,  but  kept  them  in  a  state  of  dependence  upon  himself. 
For  Hadrian  I.  he  entertained  a  strong  personal  attachment.  Leo  III  (after 
795)  sought  refuge  in  his  court  from  the  ill  treatment  inflicted  by  a  Roman 
faction,  cleared  himself  by  an  oath  from  the  crimes  imputed  to  him,  and  was 
reinstated  by  the  power  of  the  king.  In  gratitude  for  this  kindness,  an4  pro- 
fessing to  act  under  divine  inspiration,  the  pope,  on  Christmas  day  800,  placed 
the  imperial  crown  of  Rome  upon  the  king's  head,  while  the  people  ex- 
claimed, "  Health  and  victory  to  Carolus  Augustus,  crowned  of  God !  "  By 
this  ceremony,  no  actual  increase  of  power  was  directly  acquired,  but  the 
monarch  became  invested  with  an  augmented  dignity  in  the  eyes  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  his  authority  in  the  "West  became  sacred.  It  was  only  a  thought, 
but  the  world  is  governed  more  by  thoughts  than  by  swords.  By  this  re- 
newal of  the  empire  in  the  West  the  pope  recognized  a  master,  but  all  men 
saw  that  this  master  was  of  his  own  creation. 


CHAP.    III.  — ECCLESIASTICAL    LIFE. 

§  1G3.    Religious  Spirit  of  the  People. 

The  innocence  of  a  rude  and  powerful  nation  was  soon  corrupted  by  Ro- 
man vices,  the  new  pleasures  soon  became  necessities  of  life,  and  to  obtain 
them  the  energies  of  the  people  were  employed  in  violence.  The  lives  of  the 
Merovingian  princes  were  filled  with  murders,  adulteries,  and  incests.  But 
just  as  these  children  of  nature  were  suddenly  made  acquainted  with  a  cor- 
rupt civilization,  Christianity  was  also  introduced  among  them,  and  preserved 
in  the  minds  of  the  people  a  love  for  more  exalted  objects,  but  accelerated 
the  period  in  which  the  national  advancement  was  interrupted.  It  pervaded 
even  the  German  language,  not  merely  by  the  naturalization  of  Greek  and 
Latin  ecclesiastical  terms,  but  by  giving  a  Christian  signification  to  original 
German  expressions,  (a)  The  relation  of  the  people  to  Christ  was  conceived 
of  by  them  as  that  of  faithful  vassals  to  a  mighty  leader  (Gefolgsherrn).  If 
the  mysterious  spectacles,  miracles,  and  legends  of  the  Church  did  not  always 
reform  the  people,  they  at  least  produced  some  regrets  for  the  past  and  some 
anxiety  for  the  future.  But  superstition  soon  supplied  them  with  arts  by 
which  they  could  cunningly  escape  her  own  guardianship.  The  perjurer  se- 

«)  R.  v.  Raumer  (§  147)  especially  in  the  8  books,  p.  278ss. 


CHAP.  III.  ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  163.  COMMQN  LIFE.    §  164  DISCIPLINE.          175 

cured  himself  by  relics  against  the  vengeance  of  heaven,  and  the  hired  assas- 
sin consoled  himself  with  the  reflection  that  whatever  might  occur  in  his 
bloody  course,  he  would  have  means  to  purchase  the  masses  needful  for  his 
salvation.  The  virtues  on  which  the  Church  most  insisted  were  liberality, 
hospitality,  fidelity  in  the  payment  of  tithes  and  offerings,  and  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  creed  and  the  Lord's  prayer.  The  liberty  which  the  Ger- 
mans had  always  exercised  of  divorcing  themselves  from  their  wives  on  the 
repayment  of  dower  was  abolished,  and  marriage  was  regarded  as  indissolu- 
ble, except  by  mutual  consent  for  sacred  purposes,  or  on  account  of  adultery, 
conspiracy  against  life,  banishment,  or  bodily  infirmity  on  the  part  of  the 
wife.  (5)  The  Church  and  the  new  government  contended  against  those 
remnants  of  heathenism  which  still  adhered  to  the  faith  or  practice  of  the 
people,  as :  the  exposure  of  children,  the  burning  of  corpses,  the  old  sanctu- 
aries by  fountains,  in  the  lofty  forest  and  in  the  stone  circle,  wooden  repre- 
sentations of  bodily  organs  as  votive  offerings,  images  of  gods  dried  in  ovens 
or  highly  ornamented,  the  use  of  horseflesh,  haunted  places,  watch-fires,  rain- 
making,  sacred  lots,  death-charms,  love  potions,  the  use  of  wooden  images  to 
effect  the  death  of  those  they  represent,  magical  predictions,  and  witchcraft 
of  all  kinds,  (c)  The  less  objectionable  portions  of  the  ancient  were  gradu- 
ally incorporated  with  the  Christian  faith,  legends  of  the  gods  were  trans- 
formed into  legends  of  saints,  recollections  of  the  former  deities  were  so 
changed  as  to  become  a  basis  for  a  belief  in  magic,  in  leagues  with  the  devil, 
and  in  violent  assaults  from  him.  A  pleasant  recollection  was  also  retained 
for  the  silent  people  of  the  elves,  and  the  wonderful  gifts  of  the  fairies.  Or- 
deals were  at  first  tolerated  by  the  Church,  then  opposed,  and  finally  used  for 
its  own  purposes.  A  presentiment  of  the  approach  of  the  last  day  which 
sometimes  comes  up  before  us  in  this  period,  was  suggested  merely  by  those 
Romans  who  thought  that  the  overthrow  of  the  empire  and  the  terrible  na- 
tional migrations  were  signals  of  that  event,  (d) 

§  164.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline. 

The  discipline  of  the  Church  was  much  opposed  by  the  German  people  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  inconsistent  with  their  liberties.  It  was  finally  en- 
forced in  the  eighth  century,  at  least  among  the  common  people,  by  the  Sy- 
nodal courts,  which  were  accommodated  to  the  popular  feelings  of  private 
rights.  In  the  course  of  each  year  the  bishop  or  his  arch-deacon  held  his 
court  in  every  important  place  within  his  jurisdiction,  in  which  honorable 
men  chosen  from  the  congregation  acted  as  a  jury  to  decide  upon  the  case  of 
those  who  were  accused.  This  inquisitorial  process,  which  took  cognizance 
not  only  of  ecclesiastical  but  of  many  civil  offences,  was  an  indispensable 
addition  to  the  easy  proceedings  of  former  times,  when  every  offence  was 
atoned  for  by  a  legal  fine  adapted  to  the  simple  manners  of  the  people.  Tho 
penalties  now  inflicted  were  scourging,  fasting,  prohibition  of  marriage,  and 

fc)  Capitul.  a.  752.  c.  5.  9.    (Walter  Th.  II.  p.  33ss.)    Greg.  II.  ad  Bonif.  c.  2.    (Mansi  Th.  XII 
p.  245.) 

c)  Especially  Indlculus  superstitionum  (§  14S.) 

d}  Gregorii  M.  1.  XI.  Ep.  66.    Greg.  Tar.  H.  Franc.  Prologus. 


1 76     ANCIENT  CHUECH  HISTOKY.  PEE.  II.  GERMANIC  CHURCH.  A.  D.  312-800. 

an  imprisonment,  which  for  the  heavier  offences  was  severe  and  sometimes 
for  life,  (a)  None  but  private  offences  voluntarily  disclosed  in  the  confes- 
sional were  allowed  to  be  atoned  for  according  to  the  former  custom  by  a 
fine.  In  such  cases  the  money  belonged  to  the  poor,  and  the  Church  always 
suffered  under  the  imputation  that  she  allowed  the  rich  to  sin  freely  and  yet 
gave  them  the  hope  of  heaven.  (&)  Confession  to  a  priest  was  looked  upon 
as  beneficial  but  not  indispensable  to  salvation,  (c)  Excommunication  was 
not  common,  and  was  therefore  the  more  dreaded.  Although  the  bishops 
had  obtained  a  law  which  connected  civil  death  with  excommunication,  it 
was  understood  that  such  a  result  would  not  take  place  without  the  consent 
of  the  king.  By  this  means  the  bishops  were  obliged  to  pay  great  respect  to 
the  intercession  of  the  king  or  of  persons  of  distinction,  (d) 

§  165.    Morals  of  the  Clergy,  and  Canonical  Life. 

As  the  bishops  were  generally  selected  from  the  royal  retinue,  and  the 
clergy  were  sometimes  even  slaves  and  servilely  dependent  upon  their  supe- 
riors, bishoprics  were  often  obtained  by  purchase  or  by  flattery,  (a)  and  the 
clergy  were  in  continual  danger  of  becoming  quite  secularized  or  degraded  in 
ignorance.  The  laws  against  the  marriage  of  clergymen  were  frequently  re- 
newed, but  marriage  was  as  common  among  them  as  adultery  and  lewdness. 
What  wa's  called  mere  fondling  was  expressly  declared  to  be  innocent.  (Z>) 
For  every  act  and  degree  of  drunkenness  a  precise  form  of  punishment  was 
carefully  prescribed,  (c)  The  laws  forbade  the  servants  of  God  to  bear  the 
sword,  but  neither  law  nor  shame  could  prevent  what  custom  and  feudal  duty 
required.  Many  a  valiant  bishop  never  knew  peace  till  he  slept  on  the  battle 
field.  The  authority  of  the  Church  was  sufficient  to  make  a  clergyman  hon- 
orable on  account  of  the  sacredness  of  his  office,  but  many  a  layman  was 
clever  enough  to  take  advantage  of  the  solemn  dulness  of  his  bishop,  (d)  In 
a  series  of  synods  (after  742)  Boniface  endeavored  to  rectify  the  unclerical 
manners  and  the  misgovermnent  which  prevailed  in  the  Frankish  Church,  by 
demanding  of  the  clergy  a  peculiar  ecclesiastical  character  and  monastic 
habits,  and  that  he  might  secure  these  he  revived  the  old  institution  of  pro- 
vincial synods.  Chrodegang  of  Metz  gave  to  the  clergy  of  his  episcopal 
church  the  conventual  rule  which  required  a  life  in  common  (about  760).  (e) 
Augustine  was  held  up  as  an  example,  and  the  founder  of  this  kind  of  life, 

a)  Capit.  a.  769.  c.  7.  (Walter  Th.  IL  p.  54s.)  a.  813.  c.  1.  (Ibid.  p.  261.)  This  arrangement  was 
of  an  older  date.  For  Information  respecting  the  proceedings,  see  Sittenspiegel  der  Zeit,  first  in  Jie- 
gino,  de  disc.  ecc.  II,  2ss.  (ffarzhem.  Th.  II.  p.  551s.) 

6)  Cone.  Cloveshovian.  a.  747.  c.  26s.  (Mansi  Th.  XII.  p.  403s.)  Comp.  Homiliade  haereticispec- 
cata  vendentibus.  (Mabillon,  Museum  Italicum,  Th.  L  P.  II.  p.  27.) 

c)  Capit.  Theodulfl  Aurelianens.  c.  80.  (Mansi  Th.  XIII.  p.  1001.)  Comp.  Cone.  CabUonense*. 
813.  can.  83.  (Mansi  Th.  XIV.  p.  100.) 

tf)  Cone.  Paris,  a.  615.  c.  3.  (Walter  Th.  II.  p.  14) 

a)  Gregor.  Tur.  Vitae  patrum.  c.  6.  §  3.  Hist  Franc.  IV,  85.  A  multitude  of  histories  in  the 
Monachus  Sangallensis. 

I)  Gregorii  III.  can.  6.  (Mansi  Th.  XII.  p.  290.)    c)  Ibid.  can.  8. 

d)  E.  G.  the  wag  in  Sangall.  I,  20.  (Perts  Th.  II.  p.  739.) 

e)  Chrodeg.  Eegula  in  Mansi  Th.  XIV.  p.  813ss.  Paulus  Diac.  Gest  Episc.  Metensium.  (Perta 
Th.  II.  p.  267s.)  Comp.  Thomassini  vet.  et  nova  ecc.  disc.  P.  I.  L  III.  c.  2-9. 


CHAP.  III.  ECCLES.  LIFE.    §165.  CANONICI.    §166.  WOESHIP.  177 

which  was  called  canonical,  because  it  was  regulated  by  sacred  laws.  The 
canonici  lived,  eat  and  slept  in  common,  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the 
bishop.  Their  devotions  commenced  long  before  day,  and  were  regulated  by 
a  peculiar  system  of  canonical  hours.  They  were  not  prohibited  the  posses- 
sion of  private  property,  but  their  support  was  provided  for  by  the  bishop, 
out  of  the  ecclesiastical  revenues.  Under  the  favor  of  the  Carolingian  kings 
this  system  was  adopted  in  most  of  the  German  churches. 

§  166.    Public  Worship. 

Ordo  Eomanus  de  div.  officiis  (3th  cent.)  Amalarii,  Chorepisc.  Meteusis,  de  div.  officiis  1.  IV. 
(819-27.)  Rabani  Mauri  de  clericorum  instit.  et  ceremoniis  ecc.  1.  III.  (819)  &  de  sacris  ordinib, 
sacramentis  div.  et  vestimentis  sacerd.  Collectively  in :  De  div.  cath.  Ecc.  officiis  varii  vett.  Patruin 
ac  Scrr.  libri,  ed.  ffittorpius.  (Col.  1568.)  Par.  1610.  f. 

As  the  Church  had  been  formed  under  the  Eoman  empire,  it  retained 
many  Roman  usages.  Its  services  were  in  Latin,  though  preaching  was  al- 
ways in  the  language  of  the  people.  The  British  Church  protested  against 
the  peculiarities  introduced  by  the  Eoman  clergy.  They  defended  their  own 
practice  of  shaving  only  the  front  part  of  the  head,  in  opposition  to  the  Eo- 
man tonsure,  by  appealing  to  the  example  of  Paul  (tonsura  Pauli).  Columba, 
when  contending  with  Gregory  the  Great,  defended  a  mode  of  reckoning 
Easter  which  was  different  from  that  used  at  Eome.  (a)  Charles  the  Great 
introduced  the  Gregorian  liturgy  into  the  new  churches  formed  in  the  em- 
pire, and  invited  singers  from  Eome,  to  whom  the  sacred  music  of  the  Ger- 
mans seemed  like  the  howlings  of  wild  beasts.  The  organ,  however,  was 
much  improved  in  Germany.  (5)  The  solemn  pomp  of  such  a  worship  was  the 
most  impressive  way  of  addressing  the  robust  feelings  of  an  uneducated  people. 
The  propensity  of  the  age  for  magical  arts  was  gratified  and  strengthened  by 
the  numerous  miracles  performed  by  dead  and  living  saints,  the  various  ac- 
counts of  which  originated  more  frequently  in  the  fancies  of  the  people  than 
in  the  cunning  policy  of  the  priests.  A  new  festival  called  the  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  was  introduced,  and  was  celebrated  on  the  fifteenth  of 
August,  (c)  An  appearance  of  the  archangel  Michael  was,  after  Gregory's 
time,  celebrated  in  Eome,  but  the  decided  preference  shown  for  this  festival 
by  the  Germanic  churches  was  owing  to  the  chivalrous  character  usually  as- 
cribed to  this  celestial  prince,  (d)  In  France  St.  Martin  was  honored  as  a  Saviour 
and  an  Aesculapius,  until  the  writings  ascribed  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite 
were  sent  to  Pipin,  and  revived  the  memory  of  a  Dionysius  who  had  been 
mentioned  as  a  bishop  of  Paris  among  the  martyrs  in  the  time  of  Decius.  As 
this  latter  Dionysius  was  confounded  with  him  who  was  contemporary  with 
Paul,  St.  Denys  became  henceforth  the  war-cry  of  France,  (e)  The  Spaniards 

a)  Gregor.  M.  1.  IX.  Ep.  127.  comp.  JBeda,  H.  ecc.  Ill,  4. 

Z>)  Annal.  Metens.  ad.  a.  757.  Joan.  VIII.  Ep.  a.  872.  ad  Annonem.  (Mansi  Th.  XVII.  p.  245.) 

c)  Desire,  doubt,  and  final  confidence :  Epiph.  haer.  78. 11.  Gelasii  Decret.  (Gratlan  :  P.  I.  D. 
XV.  c.  3.  §  55.)  Gregor.  Tur.  de  gloria  Martyr.  I,  4. 

a)  Ilaeberlin,  Selecta  de  Mich.  Archangelo.  Hlmst.  1758.  4. 

e)  Both  saints  are  already  confounded  in :  Acta  Dionysii  (beginning  of  the  9th  cent  Acta  SS.  m. 
Jet.  Th.  IV.  p.  79288.)  and  Hilduini  (abbot  of  St  Denys  about  824.)  Vita  et  passio  Dionys.  (Areopa- 
gitica,  ed.  M.  Galenus,  Col.  1563.) 

12 


178     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER.  IL  GERMANIC  CHURCH.  A  D.  312-SOO. 

made  a  knightly  saint  of  the  elder  James,  who,  after  his  body  had  been  found 
at  Compostella  (791-842),  was  extolled  as  the  apostle  of  Spain,  and  the  patron 
of  its  armies  against  the  Saracens.  The  surest  proof  of  the  power  and  sanc- 
tity of  these  patron  saints  was  victory.  The  Frankish  empire  became  slightly 
involved  in  the  controversy  respecting  images.  The  clear  judgment  of  Charles 
the  Great  soon  decided  against  all  image-worship,  and  a  treatise,  published 
under  his  own  name,  (./*)  set  forth  in  opposition  to  the  decrees  of  the  second 
synod  of  Nicaea  that  God  could  be  worshipped  only  in  spirit.  The  same 
view  was  expressed  at  the  Synod  of  Frankfort  (794)  and  of  Paris  (825)  with 
an  open  censure  of  Adrian's  treatise  in  favor  of  image-worship.  But  as  this 
opposition  did  not  extend  to  the  destruction  of  the  images,  a  hope  was  enter- 
tained and  expressed  in  these  acts  that  a  reconciliation  might  yet  be  effected 
between  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches,  (g)  The  popes  found  it  convenient 
to  treat  this  heresy  among  the  Franks  more  mildly  than  the  same  sentiments 
among  the  Greeks. 


CHAP.    IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL   SCIENCE. 

§  1G7.    Preservation  of  Literature. 

Every  thing  in  the  primitive  church  had  a  primary  reference  to  some  type 
in  the  Old  Testament.  The  Gothic  version  of  the  Bible  does  not  seem  to  have 
found  its  way  into  other  German  tribes,  but  fragments  of  translations  of  dif- 
ferent books  of  the  Bible  existed  in  several  German  languages,  and  even  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon.  Remnants  of  Roman  literature  were  preserved  among  the 
clergy  as  a  kind  of  literary  acquisition  even  to  the  age  of  Augustine,  but  the 
classic  authors  were  enjoyed  only  by  stealth.  In  the  stormy  period  of  the 
popular  migrations,  literary  education  was  continued  in  Spain  and  in  the 
British  islands.  In  the  former  country  there  was  a  literary  rivalry  between 
the  Catholics  and  the  Western  Goths,  who  had  now  become  interested  in  the 
study  of  Grecian  learning.  Among  these  Goths,  Isidore,  Archbishop  of 
Hispalis  (Seville,  595—636),  was  particularly  influential  in  behalf  of  the  politi- 
cal power  of  the  Church,  a  moderate  monastic  life,  and  Christian  kindness 
toward  the  Jews,  and  was  an  eminent  example  of  that  ecclesiastical  learning 
which  was  not  only  mistress  of  all  secular  knowledge,  but,  by  collecting  the 
works  of  ancient  authors,  secured  the  inheritance  of  antiquity,  (a)  The  pre- 
dominance of  the  Roman  element  renders  it  difficult  to  trace  the  process 
by  which  a  transition  was  made  to  that  which  was  more  decidedly  Germanic. 
In  the  Islands  a  degree  of  learning  was  maintained  in  consequence  of  the 
rivalry  between  the  British  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  churches,  and  the  intimate 

/)  Libri  Carolini,  a.  790.  ed.  Eli.  PhUi.  1549.  Heumann,  Han.  1731.  (Goldast.  Imper.  Deer.  p.  67.) 
fif)  Cone.  Franco/,  can.  2.  (Hanoi  Th.  XIII.  p.  909.)    Cone.  Paris,  ad  Ludov.  (Ib.  Th.  XIV. 
p.  415s.)    [Landon,  p.  252s.  &  461s.] 

a)  Eccles.  Literature,  Liturgy,  Explanations  of  laws  and  treatises,  General  history,  history  of  Ger- 
manic nations  and  etymological  encyclopedia.  Opp.  ed.  J.  du  Breul,  Par.  1601.  f.  F.  Grial,  Matrit  1778. 
2  Th.  f.  F.  Arevalus,  Eom.  1797ss.  7  Th.  4.  Comp.  Sravlionis  Praenotatio  librorum  S.  Isidori  In 
Oudin,  Commtr.  de  Scrr.  eec.  Th.  I.  p.  1584. 


CHAP.  IY.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  16T.  BEDE.    §  168.  ALCUIN.  179 

connection  which  the  latter  kept  up  with  Rome.  Theodore,  a  native  of  Tar- 
sus, and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (668-90),  diffused  in  England  a  knowledge 
of  the  Greek  language  and  literature.  From  this  school  proceeded  the  Vene- 
rable Bede,  a  monk  of  Yarrow,  who  was  honored  as  the  representative  of  all 
the  knowledge  possessed  in  his  time,  and  was  a  faithful  teacher  as  well  as 
learner  to  the  last  moment  of  his  life  (735).  (5) 

§  168.    Scientific  Education  under  ike  Carolingians. 

C.  H.  van  fferwerden,  de  iis,  quae  a  Car.  M.  turn  ad  propag.  rel.  chr.  turn  ad  emendandam  ejus- 
dem  docendi  rationem  acta  sunt  L.  B.  1825.  4.  F.  Lorente,  Alcuins  Lebon.  Hal.  1829.  J.  0.  F.  Baehr, 
Gesch.  d.  rom.  Literaturim  karoling.  Zeitalter.  Carlsr.  1840. 

In  the  Frankish  Church  some  interest  was  created  by  Boniface  in  the  lite- 
rature of  his  native  land,  and  he  appears  to  have  taken  pains  to  improve  the 
jargon  in  which  the  Latin  baptismal  formula  was  uttered  by  the  ignorant  Ba- 
varian priests.  But  even  he  regarded  the  belief  in  the  antipodes  as  a 
heresy,  (a)  Charles  the  Great  conversed  in  Latin,  understood  the  Greek,  and 
in  the  circle  of  his  learned  friends  laid  aside  his  crown ;  but  his  hand  was 
more  accustomed  to  the  sword,  and  began  to  form  written  characters  late  in 
life  with  extreme  difficulty.  Even  the  tales  and  heroic  songs  then  current 
among  the  people,  but  which  being  neglected  by  the  Church  were  passing 
into  oblivion,  he  vainly  attempted  to  preserve.  His  own  education  had  been 
derived  from  Italy,  and  the  few  men  of  learning  to  whom  he  could  intrust 
his  plan  of  popular  education  were  either  from  the  same  country  or  from  Eng- 
land. Among  these  was  Alcuin,  (5)  at  an  earlier  period  a  canon  and  a  su- 
perintendent of  the  convent-school  of  York  and  an  abbot  at  Tours  (d.  804), 
a  pious,  intelligent,  and  active  man,  but  possessed  of  only  ordinary  natural 
talents.  He  conducted  a  school  in  the  palace  itself  (schola  palatina),  and  by 
its  means  established  other  schools  of  learning  for  the  seven  liberal  arts  (tri- 
vium  and  quadrivium)  in  the  cathedrals  and  convents  throughout  the  em- 
pire, (c)  Popular  schools  were  also  founded  in  his  own  diocese  by  Theodulf, 
Bishop  of  Orleans  (d.  821).  A  collection  of  sermons  selected  from  the  writ- 
ings of  the  fathers  was  formed  under  the  direction  of  the  emperor  by  Paul 
the  Deacon  for  an  example  to  the  clergy  rather  than  for  ordinary  reading,  (d) 
But  all  this  literary  improvement  was  not  a  direct  growth  of  the  popular  life, 
but  a  foreign  importation.  Hence  even  the  writings  of  the  first  men  of  the 
age  seldom  exhibit  the  fresh  living  spirit  of  the  people.  On  the  other  hand 
their  prose  and  verse  are  written  in  an  unnatural,  clumsy  style,  indicating 
that  the  whole  was  only  a  remnant  of  a  decayed  civilization,  except  where  it 
immediately  reflected  the  purely  practical  life  and  struggles  of  society  in  let- 

V)  Commentary,  Homilies,  Letters,  Histories,  Grammar,  Astronomy.  Opp.  Bas.  8  Th.  £  Col  1688. 
4  Th.  f.  ed.  Giles,  Lond.  1843.  5  Th.  [His  eccl.  Hist  &  the  Sax.  Chron.  are  transL  by  Giles.  Lond. 
1843. 12.]  Cutberti  Vita  Bedae  Yen.  (prefixed  to  Opp.)  H.  Gehle,  de  Bedae  V.  vita  et  scriptis.  Lugd. 
B.  1839. 

a)  Bonif.  Ep.  62.    (Wurdtw.  p.  454s.)— Ep.  82.  (76.  p.  288s.) 

V)  Commentary,  Homilies,  dogm.,  moral  phil.,  &  astronom.  treatises,  lives  of  the  saints,  poems,  & 
eep.  282  epistles.  Opp.  ed.  Frobenius,  Katisb.  1776s.  2  Th.  f. 

c)  Comp.  Val.  Schmidt,  in  notes  to  Petri  Alfonsi  DiscipL  clerfcalis.  Ber.  1S27.  4.  p.  109sa. 

d)  Homiliarinm.  Spir.  14S2.  Bas.  1493.  £  &  often. 


1 80     ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER.  II.  GERMANIC  CHURCH.  A.  D.  312-SW. 

ters  of  business  and  in  laws.  Such  foreign  ungraceful  forms  in  which  the 
newly  awakened  spirit  attempted  to  clothe  itself,  seemed  like  the  tattereo 
garments  of  the  European  on  the  stately  son  of  the  forest. 

§  169.  Adoptionists. 

I.  mipandi  Ep.  ad  Fidelem.  a.  785.  Seati  etEiheril  adv.  Elip.  L  II.  (GaUand.  Th.  XIII.)  At 
cuinus :  adv.  Elip.  1.  L  Ep.  ad  Felicem  &  adv.  FeL  L  VIL  (principally  in  Froben.}— 

II.  Fr.  Walch,  Hist  Adoptianor.  Goett  1755.  Frobenii  Da.  dehaer.  Elip.  et  Felic.  (Opp.  Alcuin 
Th.  L  p.  923.) 

Elipandus,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  Felix,  Bishop  of  Urgel,  carried  out 
the  Nestorian  doctrine  to  its  extreme  results,  and  maintained  that  Christ  was 
the  Son  of  God  in  his  human  nature,  only  by  adoption,  and  consequently 
that  there  could  be  no  proper  union  of  his  divine  and  human  attributes. 
Though  this  Adoptionism  was  condemned  at  the  Synod  of  Frankfort  (794)  it 
exalted  itself  against  the  authority  of  the  Church  ;  but  at  the  Synod  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  (799)  Felix,  whose  diocese  was  in  the  Spanish  March,  and  there- 
fore subject  to  Charles  the  Great,  was  persuaded  "by  Alcuin  to  recant  his 
opinions.  Although  this  retraction  was  insincere,  or  at  least  not  adhered  to, 
and  Elipandus,  who  lived  under  the  protection  of  the  Saracens,  was  especially 
violent  in  his  opposition,  the  controversy  was  too  little  consonant  with  the 
spirit  of  the  times  to  survive  its  original  authors. 


MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

FEOM  CHARLES  TO  INNOCENT  III. 


§  170.     General  View  and  Authorities. 

I.  §  147  &  §  148.  1)  Canisii  Lectiones  antiquao  (Ingolst.  1601.)  Ed.  Basnage,  Ante.  1725.  4  v.  t 
D'Achery,  vett.  Scrr.  Spicilegium.  Par.  (1653)  Ed.  de  la  Barre,  172&  8  v.  £  Baluzii  Miscellanea. 
(Par.  1678.)  Ed.  Mansi  Luc.  1761. 4  Th.  f.  MaUllon,  vett  Analecta.  Par.  1723.  t  Martene  et  Durcmd  • 
Thes.  novus  Anecdotor.  Par.  1717.  5  v.  f  &  vett  Scrr.  et  Monum.  Col.  ampliss.  Par.  1724ss.  9  v.  f. 
Pete,  Thes.  Anecdotor.  Aug.  Vind.  1721.  6  v.  f. — Eegesta  regum  atque  Impp.  Eom.  Orig.  Docc.  of  the 
Eoman  Emperors  from  911  to  1813  in  extracts,  with  References,  by  Boehmer.  Frkf.  1831.  4.  Boeh- 
mer,  showing  the  imperial  laws  from  900  to  1400.  Frkf.  1832.  4—2)  Annales  Fuldenses  by  contem- 
poraries 838-901.  (Perte  Th.  I.  p.  361.)  Bertiniani  835-882  by  Prudentius  of  Troyes  &  Hincmar 
of  Rheims.  (Perte  Th.  I,  p.  419.)  Regino,  Abbot  of  Pruem,  d.  915,  Chronicon,  documentary  870-907. 
cont  till  967.  (Pertz  Th.  L  p.  537.)  Flodoard,  canon  at  Rheims,  d.  966,  Annales,  919-66.  (Perte  Tb. 
V.  p.  363.)  Liudprand,  Bp.  of  Cremona,  d.  972,  Antapodosis  1.  VI.  &  de  rebus  gestis  Otton  M.  (Pertz 
Th.  V.  p.  264.)  WiducMnd,  monk  of  Corvey,  d.  about  1000,  Annales  de  reb.  Saxonum  gestis.  (  Wei- 
bom.  Th.  I.  p.  628.  comp.  Leibnit.  Th.  I.  p.  208.)  Thietmar,  Bp.  of  Merseburg,  d.  1018.  Chronicon, 
hist  of  the  Sax.  Empp.  (ed.  J.  A.  Wagner,  Nor.  1807.  4.  Lappenberg  in  Perte  Th.  V.  p.  723.)  Her- 
mannus  Contractws,  monk  of  Reichenau,  d.  1054,  Chron.  from  Christ,  but  esp.  1000-54,  cont  \>yBer- 
tholdiis  of  Reichenau  till  1080,  extracts  &  continuation  by  Bernoldus  of  S.  Blaise  till  1100.  (Perte 
Th.  VII,  67.  264.)  Lanibertus  Schafnaburgensis,  a  monk  of  Hersfeld,  de  reb.  gestis  Germ.  1039-77. 
Perte  Th.  VIL  p.  134.)  Marianus  Scotus,  a  monk  of  Cologne,  Fulda  &  Mentz,  d.  1086,  Chronic,  till 
1082,  cont  by  Abbot  Dodechinus  till  1200.  (Perte  Th.  VII.  p.  481.)  Sigebertu*  Gemblacensis,  d. 
1112,  cont  by  ffieronymi  Chronicon,  381-1111.  (PerteTh.  VIII.  p.  268.)  Otto  Frisingens.  d.  1158 
Chron.  rerum  ab  initio  mundi  ad  ann.  1146  gestar.  1.  VIII.  cont.  by  Otto  de  S.  Blasio  till  1209. 
Ussermann  Th.  II.  p.  449.)  Chronicon  Urspergense,  till  1126  by  a  monk  of  Bamberg,  cont  by  Bur- 
chard  &  Conrad  of  Lichtenau,  Abbots  of  Ursperg,  till  1229.  (Argentor.  587.  609.  f.)  Chronica  regia, 
s.  £  Pantaleonis  by  monks  of  the  convent  of  S.  Pantaleon  at  Cologne,  1000, 1106,  &  1162.  (Eccard 
Th.  I.  p.  683.)  cont  by  Godefridtts,  a  monk  of  the  same  place  till  1237.  (Freher  Th.  I.  p.  335.— 
3)  Adamus  Bremensis,  after  1067  a  canon  of  Bremen,  Gesta  Hammenburgensis  Ecc.  Pontificum,  till 
1076.  (Ed.  Lappenberg  in  Perte  Th.  IX.  p:  267.  Uebers.  m.  Anm.  v.  Carsten  Miesegaes.  Brm.  1825.) 
Odericus  Vitalis,  a  monk  of  St  Evroul,  d.  after  1142.  Hist  ecc.  L  XIII.  till  1142.)  [The  Eccles. 
Hist  of  Engl.  by  Od.  Vit  has  been  transl.  and  publ.  by  Bohn.  Lond.  1854.]  2>u  Cheme,  Scriptt 
Norraanu.  Par.  1619.  f.  p.  819.  According  to  the  more  correct  French  text  by  Diibots,  Par.  1825ss. 
4  vols.)  4)  Continuators  of  Theophanes :  Joannes  Skylitea  811-1087  &  1081.  Jos.  Genesiits  818-67, 
Leo  Diaconus  till  975,  Simeon  Logotheta  till  967,  Leo  Orammatious  till  1018,  Geo.  Cedrenua  till  1057. 
[Mich.  AttaHota,  from  1056  to  1078.]  Jo.  Zonaras  till  1118,  Nicetaa  Acominatus  till  1206,  Geo.  Acro- 
polita  till  1261.  (Hist  Byzant  Scrr.  Par.  1645ss.  42  Th.  f.  Corpus  Scrr.  Hist  Byzant  Bonn.  1828ss.)— 
II.  p.  §  147. 

The  plans  which  Charles  the  Great  had  begun  to  execute  with  so  much 
violence  and  hope  were  apparently  quite  abandoned  by  his  successors.    But 


1 82  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

the  Church,  though  externally  shaken,  secretly  nourished  its  higher  life  and 
imparted  Koman  civilization  to  Germanic  energy  and  profundity.  Accord- 
ingly in  the  tenth  century  when  both  the  hierarchy  and  the  feudal  monarchy 
became  strong,  and  when  men  no  longer  relied  upon  mere  physical  force,  but 
contended  with  a  youthful  and  romantic  enthusiasm  for  honor,  love,  and 
faith,  the  church  naturally  became  the  supreme  power  of  the  age,  because  it 
was  the  educator  of  the  people,  and  held  in  its  hands  all  the  treasures  of  spi- 
ritual grace  for  earth  and  heaven.  Whenever  it  entered  the  lists  against  mere 
brute  force  it  was  of  course  defeated,  but  it  always  held  the  first  place  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people.  Under  these  circumstances  the  power  of  the  pope  so 
much  increased  that  he  was  looked  upon  as  the  head  of  the  Church,  and  the 
representative  of  its  spiritual  power,  in  contrast  with  the  imperial  govern- 
ment. Every  pope  who  understood  his  position  must  have  felt  that  he  was 
the  protector  of  political  freedom  and  the  deliverer  of  all  who  were  op- 
pressed. The  Germanic  people  became  divided  into  different  nations,  and 
indeed  every  estate,  every  city,  and  every  corporation  endeavored  to  become 
independent.  But  the  common  connection  of  all  nations  and  orders  with  the 
papacy  united  them  together  as  one  great  Christian  family,  in  whose  general 
enterprises  all  distinctions  were  forgotten  and  national  peculiarities  were  dis- 
regarded. The  prominent  thing,  therefore,  in  the  history  of  this  period,  is  the 
development  of  the  papacy  until  its  influence  extends  to  every  thing  else,  and 
around  it  are  grouped  all  the  ecclesiastical  relations  of  the  "Western  world. 
The  north-eastern  part  of  Europe  was  now  generally  converted  to  Christian- 
ity. In  the  East,  the  great  conflict  with  the  West  between  the  hosts  of  Islam 
and  those  of  the  Cross  was  just  enkindled,  but  the  Oriental  Church  was  only 
passively  involved  in  it,  and  the  only  reason  we  recollect  her  sluggish  exist- 
ence was  her  dependence  upon  more  active  agents. — Almost  every  generation 
of  this  period  is  represented  by  its  own  chroniclers,  who  wrote  a  history  of 
the  world  from  a  position  more  or  less  of  an  ecclesiastical  character.  Many 
of  them  commence  with  the  creation  of  man,  or  at  least  with  the  birth  of 
Christ ;  but  the  ages  preceding  their  own  were  described  by  writers  like  them- 
selves, and  every  chronicle  and  every  section  of  it  is  an  original  authority 
only  where  it  contains  some  earlier  documents,  or  records  some  contempora- 
neous event.  Few  of  them  were  written  by  a  single  individual,  but  most  of 
them  were  the  common  property  of  a  whole  convent,  on  which  several  gene- 
rations were  employed  as  original  authors  or  revisers.  Those  most  worthy 
of  our  notice  are :  lAudprand,  who  gives  a  dark  coloring  even  to  dark  pas- 
sages of  history,  and  although  his  bitterest  expressions  are  no  calumnies,  he  is 
sometimes  not  very  exact,  and  with  reference  to  Italian  affairs  he  displays  too 
much  passion,  (a)  The  German  history  of  Lambert  of  Hers/eld  is  just  such 
a  picture  of  society  as  might  be  expected  from  a  pious  monk  who  had 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  sepulchre,  and  looked  out  upon  the  world  and 
his  nation  from  the  small  stained  window  of  his  cell.  Siglert  of  Gemblours, 
though  a  monk  and  enthusiastic  for  ecclesiastical  sanctity,  represents  the  em- 
peror's cause  against  the  pope,  and  indicates  the  approach  of  a  time  when 

a)  Martini,  Denkschr.  d.  Akad.  z.  Munchen.  1809.  Hist  Classe.  p.  3as.  R.  A.  Eoepke,  de  vita  el 
ecriptis  Liudp.  Ber.  1842. 


CHAP.  I.  PAPACY.  §  172.  DONATION  OF  CONSTANTINE.        183 

finch  conflicts  of  piety  and  patriotism  were  common.  (&)  Otho  of  Freisingen, 
the  uncle  and  the  historian  of  the  emperor  Frederic,  in  the  spirit  of  an  eccle- 
siastical prince,  familiar  with  the  world  in  its  highest  stations,  and  mediating 
between  the  sword  and  the  crosier,  wrote  a  history  of  the  world  and  of  his 
times,  as  if  it  were  a  tragedy  ending  with  the  final  judgment.  Adam  of 
Bremen,  living  at  the  centre  of  the  great  northern  bishopric  over  which  he 
presided,  with  considerable  historical  skill  relates  the  history  of  the  Northern 
Church  at  its  establishment,  according  to  original  records,  traditions,  and  per- 
sonal recollections,  (c)  If  in  these  contemporary  writers  the  sentiments  and 
superstition  of  the  age  is  clearly  reflected,  we  have  in  the  Byzantine  histo- 
rians a  more  elegant  and  learned  picture  of  their  own  court,  and  some  occa- 
sional notices  of  the  Western  Barbarians,  like  faint  vistas  of  another  age. 


CHAP.  I.— GENERAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PAPACY. 

I.  Anastasius  (§  130.)  MarUnus  Polonus  (d.  1278),  Chronicon.  Col.  1616.  f.— II.  G.  Hofler,  d. 
deutschen  Papste.  Eegensb.  1S39.  2d  part 

§  171.     General  View. 

Until  the  time  of  Gregory,  the  papacy  contended  for  dominion  over  the 
Church,  not  so  much  because  the  popes  themselves  were  ambitious  to  acquire 
it,  as  because  the  necessities  of  the  times  and  of  those  who  understood  them 
compelled  them  to  do  so.  The  vicegerent  of  God  on  earth,  in  the  midst  of 
the  distractions  which  took  place  in  Italy,  often  had  not  where  he  could 
securely  lay  his  head ;  and  even  when,  the  party  which  sustained  him  was 
victorious,  his  office  as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  was  little  more  than  a  good 
benefice.  But  after  Gregory's  time,  the  struggle  for  the  freedom  and  ascend- 
ency of  the  Church  was  in  many  respects  changed.  The  power  of  the 
Church  was  then  established  on  the  broad  basis  of  a  territorial  possession, 
and  by  that  very  process  it  had  entered  the  territory  and  intruded  upon  the 
province  of  the  state.  Hence  the  struggle  between  the  imperial  and  the 
papal  power  now  became  inevitable,  and  could  not  be  brought  to  an  issue 
without  a  sacrifice.  From  its  more  perfect  power  over  the  higher  nature  of 
man,  the  papacy  was  triumphant,  but  the  Church  gained  nothing  by  the  vic- 
tory, the  vital  interests  of  the  state  were  seriously  injured,  and  accordingly 
the  conflict  between  the  two  was  not  terminated. 

§  172.    Donation  of  Constantine  in  the  Ninth  Century. 
Although  the  pope  was*the  emperor's  vassal,  and  chosen  under  the  impe- 
rial dictation,  (a)  he  was  nevertheless  honored  by  each  emperor  as  a  spiritual 

1)  S.  HirscTi,  de  Sig.  Gernb.  vita  et  scriptis.  Ber.  1841. 

c)  Jac.  Asmu88en,de  fontibus  Adami  Brem.  Kilon.  1884.  4.  Lapperiburg  in  Pertz  Archiv.  vcl 
VI.  P.  5s. 

a)  E.  g.  Vita  Lud.  Pii  per  Astronomum  c.  25s.  (Pertz  Th.  II.  p.  619s.)  Leo  IV.  Lothario.  (Gra- 
tian :  P.  I.  Dist  X.  c.  9.)  The  epuriousness  of  the  constitution  in  which  Louis  the  Pious  restores 
the  right  of  suffrage  to  the  Eomans  (817) :  F.  Walch,  Censura  diplomatis,  quod  Lud.  Pius  Paschali 
concessisse  fertur.  Lps.  1749.  (Pottii  Sylloge,  Th.  VI.  p.  278.)  Marino  Marini,  nuovo  esame  dell'au- 
.enticita  de  diplomi  di  Lud.  P.,  Ottone  I.  e.  Arrigo  II.  Kom.  1822. 


184  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

father,  from  whose  hand  the  crown  was  received.  But  during  the  reign  oi 
the  weak-minded  Lonis  the  Pious,  and  the  contentions  of  his  sons  for  the 
throne,  the  popes  gradually  withdrew  from  under  the  authority  of  the  empe- 
rors, and  the  bestowal  of  the  crown  appeared  rather  as  an  act  of  special 
favor.  Gregory  IV.,  however  (827-44),  gave  such  offence  by  his  interfer- 
ence in  these  disputes,  that  the  Frankish  bishops  threatened  to  depose 
him.  (&)  As  the  recollection  that  the  secular  power  of  the  pope  was  the  gift 
of  the  German  princes  became  rather  inconvenient,  the  story  was  started 
that  Constantine  the  Great  had  given  Rome  and  Italy  to  Pope  Sylvester,  and 
that  this  was  the  reason  that  the  imperial  capital  had  been  removed  to  Con- 
stantinople. The  political  power  of  the  pope  had  unquestionably  been  occa- 
sioned by  that  removal,  and  by  merely  substituting  a  direct  intention  of  the 
emperor  for  what  was  the  gradual  result  of  circumstances,  the  story  acquired 
considerable  plausibility,  and  finally  was  confirmed  by  the  fortunate  discov- 
ery of  what  claimed  to  be  the  original  deed  of  gift  by  Constantine.  (c)  All 
this,  however,  did  not  prevent  the  emperor  who  appointed  the  pope  and  the 
bishops,  from  prescribing  laws  for  the  Church,  and  governing  it  according  to 
his  own  views  rather  than  theirs,  whenever  the  empire  was  free  from  inter- 
nal distractions.  Even  the  relaxation  of  political  power  which  took  place 
while  the  Carolingian  princes  contended  with  each  other,  was  the  occasion  of 
licentiousness  rather  than  of  liberty  among  the  clergy,  and  exposed  them  to 
the  oppression  of  their  secular  masters. 

§  173.     Pseudo-Isidore. 

Constant,  de  antiq.  cann.  Coll.  (Epp.  Pontif.  Eom.  p.  LVI.  §  10.)  Ballerini  (Opp.  Leon.  Th.  IIL 
p.  CCXVss.)  JSlasci  Com.  de  Col.  cann.  Isid.  Merc.  Neap.  1760.  4.  (Gallandii  By  11.  Mog.  1790.  Th. 
II.  p.  I.)  J.  A.  Theiner,  de  P.  Isid.  cann.  Col.  Vrat  1827.  F.  II.  Enust,  de  fontlb.  et  consilio  pseu- 
doisidorianae.  Col.  Goett  1S32.  4. 

The  collection  bearing  the  name  of  Isidore  came  to  light  at  intervals, 
much  mutilated,  and  besides  some  later  portions  with  nearly  one  hundred 
spurious  decretals  professing  to  have  been  put  forth  by  different  popes  from 
the  time  of  Clement  I.  (91)  to  that  of  Damasus  I.  (384).  (a)  In  these  enact- 
ments is  presented  a  legal  condition,  hi  which  the  clergy  were  entirely  dis- 
connected with  the  state,  and  by  the  dissolution  of  the  metropolitan  and 
synodal  courts,  the  supreme  legislative,  supervisory  and  judicial  powers  be- 
came united  in  the  pope.  The  moral  influence  and  strict  discipline  of  the 
clergy  were  represented  as  dependent  upon  their  complete  separation  from 
the  state.  Many  irrelevant  and  trivial  matters  aje  taken  from  the  literature 
of  former  times  and  mingled  with  the  body  of  the  work.  It  professes  in  its 
preface,  and  from  its  singleness  of  aim  it  would  seem  really  to  be,  the  work 

Z>)  Paschasius  ex  vita  Walae.  (Pertz  Th.  IL  p.  562.) 

c)  Edictum  Dom.  Constantini  in  Pseudo-Isidore,  and  in  the  extracts  of  Gratian :  Disk  XCVI.  c. 
13.  The  first  appeal  to  it  is  in  Hincmar,  Epp.  Ill,  18.  In  the  missives  of  Hadrian  to  Charles  the 
Great  (Codex  Carol.  Ep.  49.)  is  the  first  germ.  Munch,  u.  d.  Schenk.  Const  (Enlarged  Hist  Schr. 
Ludw.  1828.  vol.  IL) 

a)  An  imperfect  edition  by  Merlin :  Tomus  primus  quatuor  conciliorum,  etc.  Ysidoro  auctore. 
Par.  1524.  f.  (Col.  1530.  Par.  1535.)  Contributions  to  a  crit  edit  by  Camus  and  Koch  in :  Notices  et 
extraits  des  manuscrits  de  la  bibl.  nationale.  Th.  YI.  p.  286.  Th.  VII.  P.  II.  p.  178ss. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  173.  PSEUDO-ISIDOEE.  185 

of  an  individual  who  is  called  Isidorus  (Peccator,  Mercator).  Most  of  the 
spurious  decretals  must  have  "been  in  existence  when  Benedict  Levita  compiled 
his  book  of  laws  (845),  and  though  it  may  be  doubtful  whether  they  were 
quoted  in  the  Synod  of  Paris  (829),  they  were  certainly  referred  to  in  the 
Synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (836).  Nicholas  I.,  in  the  year  864,  first  used  a 
certain  collection  unknown  to  him  only  the  year  before,  and  it  may  be  that 
many  things  were  afterwards  added.  It  is  difficult  to  form  any  definite 
opinion  respecting  the  author,  as  many  things  indicate  that  he  was  a  Eoman, 
and  still  more  that  he  was  an  eastern  Frank.  (5)  The  skill  with  which  it  was 
composed  was  not  greater  than  was  practicable  and  even  necessary  for  that  age. 
Some  opponents  of  the  papacy  since  the  fourteenth  century  have  suspected 
the  deception,  and  Protestants  have  clearly  proved  it  by  pointing  out  refer- 
ences to  the  Codex  Dionysii,  a  constant  use  of  the  barbarous  Latinity  of  the 
ninth  century,  citations  of  laws  of  a  later  date,  and  numerous  anachronisms,  (c) 
After  a  brief  contest,  the  advocates  of  the  papacy  merely  attempted  to  show 
that  such  a  deception  was  not  criminal  or  of  much  consequence,  (d)  And  it 
must  be  conceded  that  the  spurious  decretals  contain  very  little  which  had  not 
been  actually  asserted  by  some  pope  at  one  time  or  another.  But  that  which  had 
been  only  lately  conceded  or  claimed  under  peculiarly  favorable  circum- 
stances, and  with  many  conditions  and  protests,  was  here  announced  under 
the  sacred  authority  of  Christian  antiquity  as  an  undoubted,  generally  con- 
ceded, and  divine  right.  A  forged  document  is  indeed  no  very  good  founda- 
tion on  which  to  build  a  claim  for  universal  dominion,  but  as  Isidore  only 
expressed  in  a  decisive  manner  what  was  the  general  object  of  effort  during 
that  age,  he  gave  a  definite  direction  to  the  fluctuating  views  of  right  which 
then  prevailed,  and  filled  even  the  minds  of  the  popes  and  clergy  with  the 
moral  power  of  a  faith  in  their  own  right  to  what  was  claimed.  Men  are 
much  more  inclined  to  judge  of  rights  from  facts  than  from  theories,  and 
hence  this  fiction  respecting  former  times  certainly  anticipated  a  future  real- 
ity, and  gave  considerable  support  to  the  pretensions  of  the  priesthood.  The 
object  of  it  was  to  promote  the  independence  of  the  Church,  which  the 
same  author,  or  some  contemporary  whose  sympathies  were  remarkably 
similar  to  his,  endeavored  to  sustain  in  an  earlier  plan,  by  increasing  the  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  sustaining  charges  against  bishops,  and  by  allowing  them 
to  be  tried  only  in  the  provincial  synods,  (e)  It  was  thought,  however,  that 
this  could  be  secured  against  the  threatening  and  overwhelming  power  of  the 
emperor  in  no  other  way  than  by  uniting  the  whole  Church  under  one 

*          : 

&)  Leo  IV.  a.  850.  ad  Episcc.  Britan.  (Gratian :  P.  I.  Dist.  XX.  c.  1.) 

c)  Centur.  Magdeburg.  Th.  II.  c.  7.  Th.  III.  c.  7.  (Turrianus,  adv.  Magd.  Cent  pro  cann.  app.  et 
jpp.  decretalibus  Pontt.  app.  Par.  1573.  4.)    Dav.  Blcndd,  Pseudo-Isid.  et  Turr.  vapulantes.  Gen. 
.628.  4. 

d)  Walter,  KRecht  8  ed.  Bonn.  1839.  p.  155ss.    Mohler,  aus  u.  fiber  P.  Isid.  (Tub.  Quartalschr. 
1829.  H.  3. 1832.  H.  1.  and  miscell.  writings,  vol.  I.)    Only  Harcheltl  has  undertaken  still  to  question 
the  spuriousness  of  the  Decretals.  (Saggio  crit  sopra  la  storia  di  Fleuri.  Eom.  1781.) 

e)  Capitula,  Angilramni :  Mansi  Th.  XII.  p.  904ss.    According  to  some  Codd.  these  were  a 
collection  of  785  laws  respecting  legal  proceedings  against  bishops  presented  by  Angilram,  Bp.  of  Metz 
and  Arch-chaplain  to  Charles  the  Great,  to  Pope  Adrian,  but,  according  to  others  presented  by  Adrian  to 
Angilram.    For  its  authenticity :  Wasserscldeben,  Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  falschen  Decretal  BrsL  1844. 
Against  it:  Rettberg,  KGesch.  DeutschL  vol.  I.  p.  501.  646ss. 


186  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  III.    A.  D.  800-12U 

earthly  head.  It  is  hardly  possible  that  he  who  thus  attempted  to  deceive  the 
whole  Church  and  the  world  had  in  view  any  direct  personal  advantage 
which  he  expected  to  derive  from  it.  * 

§  174.     The  Female  Pope  Joanna. 

In  the  chronicles  composed  near  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  it  is  recorded  that  between  Leo  lY.  (d.  July  17,  855)  who  hoped  to 
free  himself  from  the  influence  of  France  by  another  connection  with  the 
Greek  empire,  and  Benedict  ///.,  a  disguised  female  who  had  been  highly 
educated  at  Athens,  was  elevated  to  the  apostolic  chair  under  the  name  of 
John  VIII.  (Anglicus),  and  met  with  a  tragical  end  while  paying  the  penalty 
of  her  sex.  (a)  It  was  on  this  account  that  John  XX.  (1276)  assumed  the 
appellation  of  John  XXI.,  and  this  Joanna  Papissa  retained  her  place  on 
the  list  of  the  successors  of  St.  Peter.  But  the  silence  of  all  antiquity  with 
respect  to  the  matter,  awakened  doubts  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  when 
proofs  were  brought  forward  that  Benedict  apparently  succeeded  Leo  imme- 
diately in  the  papal  chair,  (5)  with  only  a  contest  with  an  antipope  named  Anas- 
tasius,  (e)  a  Roman  presbyter  who  had  before  been  excommunicated  by  Leo, 
and  when  the  unlucky  affair  was  at  least  boldly  denied  by  the  popes  of  the  elev- 
enth century,  (d)  even  the  Protestants  abandoned  the  account,  (e)  It  does  not 
wear  the  appearance  of  a  calumnious  story,  or  of  a  satirical  allegory,  but  rather 
of  one  of  those  popular  tales  in  which  the  highest  power  of  the  age  was 
treated  with  innocent  poetic  raillery,  and  after  a  German  style,  a  deep  sor- 
row was  concealed  under  a  playful  semblance.  It  is,  however,  possible  that 
a  Church  which  has  often  made  realities  out  of  what  never  existed,  may  also 
possess  magic  power  enough  to  annihilate  what  has  really  taken  place,  when- 
ever the  knowledge  of  it  may  have  seemed  injurious  to  the  still  tottering 
papacy.  (/) 

a)  Stephanus  de  Borbone  (1225  in  Lyons)  L.  de  VIL  donis  8p.  8.  (Blascu*  de  Coll.  cann.  Isid. 
c.  16.  §  11.  n.  2.)  Martini  Pol.  Chronic,  (comp.  Muratori  ad  Anastas.  p.  247.)  The  passage  relating 
to  the  subject  is  interpolated  out  of  Martinus  in  a  few  manuscripts  of  Anastasius.  The  mention  of 
the  papal  mother  in  the  editio  princeps  of  Sigebert  Gemblac.  ad  a.  855  is  wanting  in-  the  MSS. 
hitherto  known.  (Pert*  Th.  VIII.  840.  470.) 

1)  1)  Hincmari  Ep.  26.  ad  Nic.  I.  a.  867.  (Opp.  ed.  Sirmond.  Th.  II.  p.  298.)  according  to  which 
his  messenger  received  the  news  of  the  death  of  Leo  while  on  his  way  to  Rome,  and  when  he  arrived 
at  Rome  his  petition  was  granted  by  Benedict  2)  A  diploma  of  the  monastery  of  Corbey  (Mdbil- 
lon,  de  re  diplom.  p.  436.) ;  and  3)  A  Roman  denarius  (Kbhler's  Munzbelust  vol.  XX.  p.  805.)  have 
each  the  name  of  Benedict  in  connection  with  that  of  Lothaire.  The  Emperor  Lothaire  died  Sept 
28,  855. 

c)  Jaffe,  Regesta  p.  235s.    Uincmari  Annal.  (Pertz,  vol.  I.  p.  477ss.) 

d)  Leo  IX.  ad  Michael.  Constant  Patriarch,  a.  1054.  (Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  649.)  c.  23. 

e)  Mondel,  Joanna  Papissa.  Amst  1657.     G.  O.  Leibnitii  flores  sparsi  in  tumulum  Papissae. 
(Bibl.  hist  Goett  1758.  Th.  I.  p.  297ss.)  Gabler,  kirchl.  theoL  Schriften.  vol.  I.  IT.  29.—  W.  Smete,  d. 
Muhrchen  v.  d.  P.  Joh.  Colin.  1829. 

/)  Spanhemii  Ds.  de  Jo.  P.  (Opp.  Th.  II.  p.  577ss.)  Luden,  Gesch.  d.  tentschen  Volkes.  1831. 
vol.  VI.  p.  512.  N.  C.  Ki&t,  d.  Papstin  Joh.  from  the  Dutch.  (Nederl.  Archicf  voor  kerk.  Geschied- 
enis  III,  1.  V,  461.)  revised  by  L.  Trots.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1844.  part  2.) 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  175.  NICHOLAS  I.    HADRIAN  II.    JOHN  VIII.  187 

f 

§  175.  Nicholas  I.  858-867,  Hadrian  II.  867-872,  and  John  VIII.  872-882. 

Ifansi  Th.  XV.  p.  144ss.  Kegino  ad  ann.  858ss.  Hincmar  de  divortio  Illotharii  et  Teutbergae. 
(Opp.  ed.  Sirmond.  Th.  I.  p.  557ss.)— Kami  Th.  XV.  p.  SOGss.  Th.  XVI.  p.  5TOss.  Ilinc.  Remt 
Opnsc.  55  capitulor.  adv.  Hincm.  Laudunens.  (Opp.  Th.  II.  p.  377ss.) 

Nicholas  /.,  a  defender  of  the  people,  was  gentle  toward  good  men,  but  like  an 
avenging  Elijah  toward  those  who  were  evil.  He  formed  but  never  quite  accom- 
plished the  design  of  surrounding  himself  with  a  council  of  intelligent  bishops 
out  of  all  nations.  But  perceiving  the  favorable  disposition  of  the  age,  he  raised 
the  privileges  of  the  apostolic  see  so  that  they  became  a  protection  for  the  whole 
Church,  and  under  the  sanction  of  public  opinion  a  weapon  against  all  kinds 
of  violence.  In  opposition  to  a  lascivious  king  and  a  large  number  of  servile 
bishops,  he  appeared  as  the  avenger  of  oppressed  innocence,  and  as  a  defender 
of  episcopal  rights  against  an  imperious  and  powerful  archbishop.  King 
Lothaire  II.  was  obliged  to  humble  himself,  since  the  hostile  princes  of  his 
own  family  stood  ready  to  execute  the  papal  threats,  and  the  Frankish  bish- 
ops did  not  object  to  have  the  spurious  decretals  applied  for  the  first  time 
against  Hincmar  of  Rheims,  for  they  thought  it  better  to  obey  a  distant  pope 
than  a  threatening  metropolitan  at  home.  It  was,  however,  still  believed 
even  at  Eome,  that  a  papal  decision  might  very  easily  be  annulled  by  a 
Frankish  synod,  (a)  But  when,  with  no  such  advantage  of  political  circum- 
stances, Hadrian  II.,  after  the  death  of  Lothaire  (869),  defended  the  rights 
of  the  lawful  heir  to  the  throne  against  Charles  the  Bald  and  Louis  the  Ger- 
man, and  endeavored  to  protect  Hincmar  of  Laon,  a  deposed  bishop  who  had 
also  been  persecuted  by  the  king,  from  the  rage  of  his  uncle,  Hincmar  of 
Rheims,  the  latter  gave  him  to  understand  that  in  France  a  wide  distinction 
was  made  between  spiritual  and  secular  power ;  that  great  disturbances  of 
public  tranquillity  had  been  created  by  the  pope,  and  that  the  bishops  of 
former  times  had  independent  privileges.  The  pope  therefore  found  it  need- 
ful to  assuage  the  wounded  feelings  of  the  Frankish  nation  by  some  conces- 
sions, and  expressions  of  a  holy  love  which  he  declared  had  always  remained 
constant  in  spite  of  some  epistles  that  might  have  seemed  severe  because 
written  under  the  pressure  of  great  infirmity,  or  forged  in  his  name.  (5) 
John  VIII.  bestowed  (775)  the  imperial  crown  upon  Charles  the  Bald  in  com- 
pliance with  what  he  declared  to  be  a  divine  revelation  to  his  predecessor 
Nicholas,  in  spite  of  the  superior  hereditary  claims  of  the  German  kingdom, 
and  sustained  the  cause  of  that  prince  by  every  spiritual  menace  in  his  power. 
It  was  then  solemnly  announced  that  this  bestowal  of  the  imperial  dignity 
was  in  consequence  of  the  intercessions  of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul, 
through  their  vicegerent  on  earth.  It  corresponded  with  the  political  viewa 
of  the  emperor  to  compel  the  French  bishops  to  acknowledge  Ansegisus, 
Archbishop  of  Sens,  as  the  primate  and  papal  vicar  for  Gaul  and  Germany ; 
but  under  the  counsel  of  Hincmar  they  persisted  in  obeying  the  holy  father 
only  as  far  as  was  consistent  with  the  rights  of  all  the  metropolitans,  and  with 


a)  Anastas.  ad  Adonem  Vienn.  (Mansi  Th.  XV.  p.  453.)— .K  JRosateusc7ier,  do  Kothado  Episc. 
iSuessionensi.     Marb.  1845.  2  Pgg. 

Z>)  Hincm.  ad  Hadr.  (Opp.  Th.  II.  p.  689.)    ffadr.  ad  Carol.  Calv.  (Mansi  Th.  XV.  p.  857.) 


188  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  IIL    A.  D.  800-1216. 

the  laws  of  the  Church,  (c)  He  gave  his  consent  to  the  decrees  of  the  Sy- 
lod  of  Itavenna  (877),  in  which  the  papal  approbation  was  declared  indis- 
pensable to  the  investiture  of  the  metropolitans,  the  bishops  were  made  inde- 
pendent of  all  censures  and  claims  on  the  part  of  the  civil  powers,  and  the 
guardianship  of  widows  and  orphans  was  committed  to  their  hands ;  (d)  but 
the  papal  letters  which  interfered  with  the  independence  of  the  empire  and 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  over  their  clergy,  he  pronounced  through 
Hincmar  to  be  spurious,  (e)  The  pope  fell  finally  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin.  (/) 
He  continued  to  the  last  inflexibly  convinced  of  the  imprescriptible  rights  of 
his  see,  and  of  his  position  as  a  servant  of  God,  contending  against  the  pow- 
ers and  princes  of  the  world  (Eph.  vi.  12).  Sorely  pressed  by  the  Saracens 
in  Lower  Italy,  and  wearied  by  the  municipal  and  German  factions  in  Kome, 
he  defended  himself  with  extreme  difficulty,  and  sometimes  not  without 
treachery. 

§  176.    Formosus,  891-896,  and  Stephen  VI.  897. 

Auxilii  1.  II.  de  ordinationibus  Formost  (Bibl.  PP.  Lugd.  Tb.  XVIL  p.  Iss.)  and  Dial  super  causa 
et  neg.  Form.  (Mabill.  Anal,  ed,  2.  p.  2Sss.)    Jfansi  Tfa.  XVIII.  p.  99ss.  221ss.    Liudprand  I,  S. 

When  Charles  the  Fat  was  deposed  by  the  German  people  on  account  of 
his  incapacity  (887),  and  when,  soon  after,  the  male  line  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  had  become  extinct  in  France,  Germany  and  France  became  distinct 
kingdoms.  Both  nations  were  rent  into  factions  by  the  contentions  of  the 
sons-in-law  and  the  illegitimate  children  of  the  old  royal  family.  Italy  strug- 
gled for  its  independence  even  with  itself.  The  popes,  it  is  true,  were  free 
from  foreign  masters,  but  they  were  often  obliged  to  make  concessions  in  the 
party  contests  of  the  Romans  and  of  the  Italian  nobles.  Guido,  Duke  of 
Spoleto,  and  Berengar,  Duke  of  Friuli,  contended  with  each  other  for  the 
crown  of  Italy,  and  placed  their  favorites  in  the  papal  chair  according  as 
they  were  severally  successful.  Formosus,  after  a  life  of  great  vicissitude, 
was  elevated  to  the  apostolic  throne,  and  though  he  was  compelled  to  place 
the  imperial  crown  upon  the  head  of  Lambert,  the  son  of  Guido,  he  imme- 
diately .summoned  the  German  Arnulf  to  Rome  to  free  Italy  from  the 
tyranny  of  that  prince.  Arnulf  was  then  crowned,  and  the  Romans  were 
made  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  him,  with  the  understanding  that  their 
duties  to  the  pope  were  in  no  respect  to  be  affected  by  such  an  act.  His  suc- 
cessor, Stephen  VI.,  went  over  again  to  the  party  of  Guido,  and  having  dis- 
interred the  body  of  Formosus,  subjected  it  to  the  mockery  of  a  judicial 
trial.  Enraged  at  these  proceedings,  the  opposite  party  had  him  soon  after 
strangled  in  prison. 

c)  Cone.  Pontigoneuse  a.  8T6.    ffincm.  Tr.  ad  Episcc.  de  jure  Metropol.  (Opp.  Tb,  IL  p.  719.) 
Sincm.  Annal.  (Pertz  Th.  I.  p.  499ss.) 

d)  Mansi  Th.  XVIL  p.  837. 

0  De  Presbyteris  diffiunatis  ad  Jo.  P.    (ffincm.  Opp.  Th.  II.  p.  768s.) 
/)  Annal.  Fuldens.  (PertsTh.  I.  p.  398.) 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  ITT.  SERGIUS  III.    JOHN  XL  189 

§  177.    Pornocracy.    904-962. 

I.  The  principal  authority  is  Liudprand,  but  when  he  writes  of  great  outrages,  ho  must  be  com- 
pared with  other  chroniclers,  especially  Flodoardi  Chron.  and  his  Fragm.  de  Pontiff.  Eom.  (Ma  • 
UUon,  Acta  SS.  O.  Ben.  8.  IIL  P.  II.)    Jaffe,  Kegesta  p.  80T-322. 

II.  Loscher,  Hist  des  rom.  Hurenregimenta.  Lpz.  1TOT.  4.  (2.  A.  Hist  der  mittlern  Zeiten  als  ein 
Licht  aus  der  Finsterniss.  1T25.  4.) 

While  Italy  bled  under  the  feuds  of  the  nobility,  the  Tuscan  party  obtained 
the  victory  at  Rome,  and  made  their  tool,  ./Sergius  III.,  pope  (904-911).  At 
the  head  of  this  faction  stood  Alberic,  Marquis  of  Tuscany,  with  his  paramour 
Theodora,  a  widow  of  a  noble  family,  and  her  daughter  Maria  (Marozia). 
These  last  were  exceedingly  beautiful,  crafty  and  bold  Roman  women,  whose 
love  of  power  and  of  voluptuousness  were  so  subservient  to  each  other  that 
it  was  hard  to  tell  which  was  the  strongest  passion.  For  half  a  century 
their  favorites,  sons  and  grandsons,  occupied  the  apostolic  chair.  Maria  made 
no  secret  of  the  parentage  of  her  children,  acknowledging  that  her  husband 
Alberic  was  the  father  of  Alberic,  and  Pope  Sergius  of  John.  On  the 
death  of  Sergius,  the  Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  John  X.  (914-28),  by  the  crimi- 
nal favor  of  Theodora,  became  the  successor  of  St.  Peter.  By  him  the 
strength  of  Italy  was  united  against  the  Saracens,  who  for  forty  years  had 
maintained  a  settlement  on  the  borders  of  the  States  of  the  Church.  At  the 
head  of  a  Greek  and  Roman  imperial  army,  he  destroyed  their  citadel  (916) 
on  the  Carigliano  (Liris).  After  the  death  of  Theodora,  the  pope,  with  the 
aid  of  his  brother  Peter,  endeavored  to  make  himself  independent.  Maria 
had  the  Pope's  brother  killed  before  his  eyes,  and  then  caused  him  to  be 
smothered  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo  (928).  Her  son,  John  XL,  ascended 
the  papal  throne  as  though  it  were  an  inheritance  from  his  father.  She  now 
married  Hugh,  Count  of  Provence,  who  was  regarded  as  the  real  king  of 
Italy.  But  her  secular  son  Alberic,  in  a  nocturnal  insurrection  of  the  Ro- 
mans, expelled  his  stepfather,  and  as  a  senator  (932-954)  exercised  supreme 
power  in  Rome.  Under  his  administration  the  popes  possessed  nothing  but  a 
spiritual  jurisdiction.  His  son  Octaman,  after  the  death  of  Agapetus  (956), 
seized  not  only  his  father's  power,  but  the  episcopal  office,  and  was  the  first 
among  the  popes  who  assumed  an  ecclesiastical  name  on  attaining  the  papal 
throne.  As  John  XII.  (955-63),  he  hoped  to  disconnect  the  excesses  of  his 
secular  life  from  his  ecclesiastical  name  and  office. 

§  178.     The  Popes  under  the  Othos. 

During  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  Germany  became  conscious  of  its  power. 
Otho  L  seized  upon  the  first  favorable  opportunity  for  renewing  the  German 
dominion  in  Italy,  (a)  Since  that  time  Germany  and  Italy  have  contrived  to 
exert  a  disastrous  influence  upon  each  other.  The  German  king  was  invited 
by  John  XII.  himself  to  deliver  the  mother  of  churches  from  the  violence 
of  Berengar  II.,  the  new  king  of  Italy,  and  when  victorious,  he  was  crowned 
by  the  pope  at  Rome  (962),  on  his  taking  a  solemn  oath  that  he  would  pre- 
serve inviolate  the  person  of  the  pope,  and  all  property  belonging  to  the 

a)  W.  Donniges,  Jahrbucher  d.  Deutschen  Keichs  unter  Otto  f.  Berl.  1839. 


190  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  IJISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

Eoman  Church,  and  undertake  nothing  in  Rome  without  the  advice  of  the 
pope.  The  pope  and  all  the  notahles  of  the  city,  on  the  other  hand,  swore 
on  the  precious  body  of  St.  Peter  that  they  would  henceforth  abandon  the 
cause  of  Berengar  for  ever.  (5)  But  Italy  could  at  that  time  neither  dispense 
with  nor  endure  the  Germans.  John  soon  formed  an  alliance  with  Berengar 
to  drive  them  from  the  country.  Otho  hastened  back  and  had  the  pope 
cited  before  a  Synod  at  Rvme  (968),  which  convicted  him  of  murder,  blas- 
phemy, and  all  kinds  of  lewdness,  deposed  him,  and  elected  Leo  VIII.  in  his 
stead.  The  Romans  then  swore  to  the  emperor  that  no  pope  should  be  cho- 
sen or  consecrated  without  his  consent,  (c)  On  the  emperor's  departure, 
John  returned  and  took  a  most  cruel  vengeance  on  his  enemies,  but  he  was 
soon  after  found  dead  in  an  adulterous  bed,  slain  as  was  generally  believed 
by  the  devil.  The  succeeding  popes  were  nominated  and  with  great  difficulty 
'sustained  by  the  emperor,  against  the  hatred  of  the  people  and  the  deceitful 
policy  of  the  Tuscan  party.  After  Otho's  death  (978),  Orescentius,  a  grand- 
son of  Theodora,  under  the  character  of  a  Consul,  armed  the  Roman  people 
against  the  foreign  tyranny.  "Whenever  the  emperors  had  an  army  in  Italy, 
the  popes  were  entirely  subservient  to  their  will,  but  at  other  times  they 
were  the  creatures  of  the  Roman  consul  and  people.  Otho  ///.,  intending 
to  transfer  the  imperial  residence  to  Rome,  caused  his  young  nephew  Bruno 
to  be  proclaimed  pope,  under  the  name  of  Gregory  V.  (996),  (d)  subdued  the 
fortress  of  St.  Angelo,  and  had  Crescentius  beheaded,  and  a  rival  pope  muti- 
lated (998).  Arnulf,  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  and  a  natural  brother  of  the 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  had  surrendered  Rheims  to  this  relative,  and  had  after- 
wards fallen  into  the  hands  of  Hugh  Capet,  his  enraged  king.  He  refused  to 
acknowledge  any  one  but  the  pope  as  his  judge.  But  a  national  synod  at 
Rheims  (991)  compelled  him  to  resign  his  office,  and  placed  Gerbert  in  his 
chair,  (e)  The  pope  issued  sentence  of  excommunication  against  all  who 
acknowledged  the  validity  of  the  acts  of  that  syn6d.  In  vain  did  Gerbert 
remind  the  people  that  it  was  not  his  own  interest,  but  the  welfare  of  the 
general  Church,  which  was  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  caprice  of  an  individual ; 
he  was  shunned  as  an  excommunicated  man  by  all  the  inhabitants  of  Rheims, 
and  finally  (995)  he  accepted  the  invitation  of  the  emperor  to  become  the  impe- 
rial tutor.  The  new  French  kingdom  sought  reconciliation  with  the  pope. 
Arnulf  was  reinstated  in  his  former  office  by  another  synod  held  at  Rheims 
(996),  and  even  Robert,  the  king,  submitted  to  a  decision  of  a  Roman  synod 
(998),  by  which  he  was  separated  from  his  wife  Bertha  on  account  of  a  spiritual 
relationship  and  a  natural  consanguinity  in  the  fourth  degree.  (/)  Soon  after, 
however,  on  the  premature  death  of  Gregory,  Otho  had  his  beloved  teacher 
elected  to  the  vacant  chair,  and  from  personal  regard,  while  proudly  denying 

I)  Gratian:  P.  I.  Dist  LXIIL  c.  33.    Liudp.  VI,  6. 

c)  Liudp.  VI,  6-11.  Perte  Th.  IV.  p.  29ss.  The  Const.  Leonis  VIII.  as  to  its  essential  matter  is 
trustworthy,  but  the  form  in  which  it  has  been  known  since  the  llth  cent  is  not  beyond  suspicion. 
It  may  be  found  in  Perts  Th.  IV.  IL  p.  167.  as  an  extract  in  Gratian  :  K  I.  Dist  LXIIL  c.  23.- 
C.  F.  ffertel,  de  Ottonis  M.  Ecclesiae  prospiciendi  conatu.  Magd.  1T36.  d)  Jaffe,  p.  339ss. 

e)  Gerbert's  account  of  the  transactions  in  Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  103ss. 

/)  Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  225.  Helgaldus  Floriac.  Vita  Eoberti  c.  IT.  (Bouquet  Th.  X.  p.  107.) 
The  view  entertained  in  the  next  century  may  be  found  in  Pet.  Damiani  1.  II.  Ep.  15. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §178.    SYLVESTEK  II.    §  1T9.    CLEMENT  II.  191 

the  validity  of  all  former  grants,  he  presented  to  St.  Peter  eight  counties  he- 
longing  to  the  States  of  the  Church  as  if  they  were  his  own.  (g)  Sylvester 
II.  (999-1003)  was  of  a  very  humble  origin,  and  in  early  life  had  been  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  papal  assumptions.  His  elevation  and  his  knowledge 
seemed  so  extraordinary,  that  the  reverence  of  the  Germans  and  the  aversion 
of  the  Eomans  produced  a  report  that  he  had  sold  his  soul  to  the  devil  as  the 
price  of  the  papacy.  But  in  the  midst  of  the  highest  youthful  aspirations 
the  emperor  suddenly  died  (1002),  and  the  power  of  his  favorite  pope  was 
broken.  (7i) 

§  179.     The  Papacy  until  the  Synod  of  Sutri. 

I.  Jajfe,  Eegesta  p.  351-364.     Glaber  Radulfus,  a  monk  of  Clugni  (about  1046),  Hist  sul  tem- 
poris.  (Du  Chesne  Th.  IV.  p.  1.)    Bonizo,  Bishop  of  Sutri  and  Piacenza,  d.  1089,  L.  ad  amic.  s.  do 
persecutione  Ecc.  (Oefelii  Scrr.  rer.  Boicar.  Th.  II.  p.  794.)    la  and  after  the  fifth  book  there  is  a 
history  of  the  Popes  from  Benedict  IX.  to  Greg.  VII.    Desiderius  (  Victor  III.')  de  miraculis  a  S. 
Benedicto  aliisque  Casinensib.  gestis  Diall.  (Bibl.  PP.  Lugd.  Th.  XVIII.  p.  853.)  Annales  Komani 
from  1046.  (Pertz  Th.  VII.  p.  468.) 

II.  Engelhardt,  Obss.  de  syn.  Sutriensi.  Erlang.  1834.  4.   Th.  Mittler,  de  schism,  in  Ecc.  Kom.  sub 
pontif.  Ben.  IX.  Tur.  1835.— Stensel,  Gesch.  Deutschl.  unter  d.  frank.  Kaisern.  Lpz.  1827. 

In  Rome  the  contest  was  still  continued  between  a  popular  party  and  the 
Count  of  Tusculum,  in  whose  family  the  papacy  had  become  hereditary  after  the 
time  of  Benedict  VIII.  (1012.)  Benedict  IX.  reached  the  sacred  chair  (1033) 
when  he  was  yet  a  boy,  disgraced  it  by  crimes  which  are  usually  impractica- 
ble at  such  a  youthful  period  of  life,  and  finally  was  driven  from  it  by  the 
people.  Sylvester  III.  was  put  in  his  place,  but  Benedict  was  soon  after 
brought  back  between  the  swords  of  his  party.  Convinced,  however,  that 
it  would  be  impossible  to  sustain  himself  against  the  popular  contempt,  the 
tiara  was  sold  to  Gregory  VI:  The  latter  regarded  the  disgrace  of  acquiring 
the  papal  crown  in  this  manner  as  a  necessary  sacrifice  for  the  deliverance 
of  the  Church.  Benedict,  however,  soon  repented  of  this  transaction,  and 
three  popes  shared  the  Church  between  themselves.  Henry  III.  now  came 
to  restore  the  imperial  power  in  Italy,  and  assembled,  in  the  very  midst  of 
his  army,  the  Synod  of  Sutri  (1046),  by  which  the  papal  chair  was  pro- 
nounced vacant.  Gregory  having  deposed  himself,  Suidger,  Bishop  of  Bam- 
berg,  a  serious  and  pious  German  belonging  to  the  imperial  retinue,  was  then 
saluted  as  Pope  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  under  the  name  of  Clement  II. 
From  the  hands  of  the  newly  elected  pope  the  German  king  received  the 
crown  of  the  Roman  Emperor,  and  was  made  the  Patricim  of  the  city, 
and  the  Romans  swore  once  more  that  no  pope  should  be  chosen  contrary  to 
his  will. 

§  180.     The  Popes  under  Hildebrand,  1048-1073. 

I.  Bonizo,  Desiderius,  and  Annales  Rom.  as  referred  to  in  the  preceding  section.  Leo  Ostien' 
sis,  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ostia,  1101,  Chron.  monasterii  Casinens.  (Muratori  Th.  IV.  p.  151.)  These- 
•were  thorough  admirers  of  Gregory.  Many  notices  may  be  found  in  the  epistles  of  the  Cardinal 
Bishop  of  Ostia,  Damiani,  d.  1072,  who  essentially  agreed  with  Hildebrand,  but  with  all  his  con- 


ff)  Ottonis  III.  Diploma.  (Baron,  ad  ann.  1191.  No.  57.)  comp.  Liudpr.  Hist  Otton.  c.  19. 
h)  Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  240ss.— C.  F.  Hock,  Gerbert  o.  Sylv.  II.  u.  s.  Jahrh.  Vienna.  1S37.    "Wil- 
man's  Jahrbucher  d.  Deutschen  Keichs  unter  Otto  III.  Berl.  1S40.    Ja/e,  Eegesta  p.  345ss. 


192  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  III.    A,  D.  800-1216. 

tracted  views  was  independently  opposed  to  what  he  called  the  holy  Satan  and  the  whole  papacy. 
Annales  Altahenses,  restored  by  W.  Giesebrecht.  Berl.  1841. 

II.  Joh.  Voigt,  Hildebr.  als.  Greg.  VII.  u.  s.  Zeltalter.  "Weim.  (1815.)  1846.     G.  Cassander,  d. 
Zeitalter  Hildebr.  fur  u.  gegen  ihn.  Darinst  1 842.— Hofler,  deutsche  Pupste.  2  Abth. 

The  popes  of  this  period  were  dependent  upon  the  emperor,  but  they 
were  generally  men  selected  for  that  station  on  abcount  of  their  ecclesiasti- 
cal character,  and  from  the  fact  that  as  general  bishops  of  the  empire,  hon- 
orably and  securely  residing  at  Rome,  they  had  attained  a  high  degree  of 
ecclesiastical  influence.  The  general  voice  of  the  people  demanded  of  them  the 
deliverance  of  the  Church  from  the  simony  and  the  licentiousness  of  the  clergy. 
The  bishoprics  were  regularly  and  sometimes  at  auction  set  up  for  sale,  and  the 
bishops  sought  remuneration  for  the  expense  of  their  purchase  from  the  sale  of 
the  inferior  offices.  The  whole  Church  had  become  venal.  What  had  been  ob- 
tained by  worldly  policy  was  administered  and  enjoyed  in  a  worldly  manner. 
The  power  of  Henry  III.  was  so  great  in  Italy,  that  Roman  messengers  were 
sent  to  him  demanding  that  he  would  bestow  on  them  some  one  for  a  pope. 
At  the  Diet  of  Worms,  Bruno,  Bishop  of  Toul,  a  cousin  of  the  emperor,  was 
elected  to  that  office,  and  under  the  name  of  Leo  IX.  (1048-54)  proved  him- 
self a  pious  man,  but  somewhat  dependent  upon  those  who  surrounded  him. 
A  Roman  monk,  whom  he  was  desirous  of  making  one  of  his  retinue,  re- 
fused all  connection  with  him  because  he  had  obtained  his  station  in  the 
Church  not  in  accordance  with  ecclesiastical  laws,  but  by  worldly  power.  In 
compliance  with  the  counsel  of  this  man,  the  pope  went  to  Rome  in  the 
character  of  a  pilgrim,  and  was  there  regularly  elected  by  the  clergy  and 
people  of  the  city.  The  monk  who  had  such  an  influence  over  him  was 
Hildebrand.  He  was  born  probably  at  Saona,  the  son  of  a  mechanic,  was 
educated  at  Clugni,  and  had  shared  the  exile  of  Gregory  VI.  in  Germany. 
Leo  sought  in  the  national  councils  of  France  and  Germany  to  re-establish 
discipline,  and  to  remove  all  those  priests  who  had  purchased  their  offices 
and  would  not  perform  penance  for  their  sin.  In  a  campaign  against  tho 
Normans  who  had  conquered  Apulia,  his  whole  army  was  finally  destroyed. 
But  when  the  imprisoned  vicegerent  of  Christ  beheld  tho  conquerors  at  his 
feet,  he  blessed  their  arms  and  confirmed  their  conquests,  (a)  When  Leo 
died,  Hildebrand,  then  a  subdeacon,  was  commissioned  by  the  Roman  people 
to  select  a  successor,  and  chose  Gebhard,  Bishop  of  Eichstadt,  Yictor  II. 
(1055-57).  (5)  This  man,  on  account  of  his  wisdom  and  wealth  as  well  as 
for  his  consanguinity  and  friendship  with  the  emperor,  was  the  most  power- 
ful bishop  in  the  empire.  The  principal  object  aimed  at  in  his  election,  was 
to  break  up  a  party  of  which  he  had  been  the  centre,  but  which  had  been 
opposed  to  the  papal  power  over  the  bishops,  and  to  enlist  his  great  personal 
influence  against  those  abuses  which  prevailed  beyond  the  Alps.  Against 
these,  Hildebrand,  when  Legate,  had  so  effectually  contended,  that  the  con- 
trition of  a  perjured  bishop  before  his  piercing  glance  was  regarded  as  a 
miraculous  influence  upon  the  conscience,  (c)  The  Emperor  Henry,  when 

a)  Wibertus,  Bruno's  Archdeacon  at  Toul,  Vita  Leon.  (Muratori  Th.  III.  P.  I.  p.  2T8.)    Bruno, 
Bishop  of  Segni,  about  1100,  Vita  Leon.  (7&.  P.  II.  p.  346.) 
V)  Vita  and  Epp.  in  Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  838. 
c)  According  to  Damiani  Baron,  ad  ann.  1055.  No.  1533. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  ISO.  NICHOLAS  II.    ALEXANDER  II.  193 

dying,  commended  his  son  to  the  protection  of  the  pope,  and  Victor  pro- 
mised that  the  empire  should  be  given  to  the  royal  child,  Henry  IV.  But  a 
new  power  had  recently  been  established  in  Italy,  by  the  marriage  of  God- 
frey of  Lorraine  with  Beatrice,  the  widow  of  the  Marquis  of  Tuscany.  God- 
frey's brother,  Stephen  IX.,  was  actuated  by  the  very  spirit  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. His  plan  of  establishing  a  national  empire  in  Italy,  by  investing  his 
brother  with  the  royal  dignity,  was  defeated  by  his  want  of  decision  or  his  early 
death  (Aug.  2,  1058.)  (d)  The  Roman  nobles,  with  a  party  of  the  clergy  op- 
posed to  the  Reformation,  placed  upon  the  throne  the  Bishop  of  Yeletri,  Bene- 
dict X.  Hildebrand,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  imperial  court,  then  procured 
the  election  of  Gebhard,  Archbishop  of  Florence,  Nicholas  II.  (1058-61.)  (e) 
The  duke  Godfrey  conducted  him  to  Rome,  and  Benedict  submitted.  At  a 
Roman  synod  (1059),  Nicholas  committed  almost  exclusively  to  the  college 
of  cardinals  the  power  of  choosing  the  pope,  in  order  that  the  papal  election 
might  not  be  disturbed  by  the  factious  interests  of  the  nobles,  or  the  storms 
of  popular  elections.  The  right  of  King  Henry  and  of  his  successors  (which, 
however,  he  would  have  obtained  personally  from  the  apostolic  see)  was 
made  the  subject  of  special  stipulation.  (/)  The  Roman  court  perceived  the 
advantage  of  an  alliance  with  the  Normans  in  opposition  to  the  Germans,  and 
it  agreed  with  the  piety  and  policy  of  Robert  Guiscard  to  have  his  conquests 
in  Lower  Italy  and  his  designs  upon  Sicily  pronounced  lawful  and  holy  by 
the  pope.  He  now  became,  accordingly,  the  vassal  and  protector  of  the  Ro- 
man Church,  (g)  By  his  assistance  the  offended  nobility,  and  especially  the 
faction  of  the  Count  of  Tusculum,  was  overthrown.  On  the  death  of  Nicholas, 
Hildebrand,  in  connection  with  the  cardinals,  made  choice  of  Anselm,  Bishop 
of  Lucca,  Alexander  II.  (1061-73).  The  imperial  court  regarded  the  alliance 
with  the  Normans  with  much  uneasiness,  and  therefore  induced  the  Lombardic 
bishops  to  proclaim  Cadolaus,  Bishop  of  Parma,  Honorius  II.,  as  pope,  whose 
previous  life  gave  sufficient  assurance  that  the  Church  would  be  protected  against 
simony  and  concubinage.  But  Godfrey  drew  his  sword,  and  the  Normans  were 
arrayed  in  defence  of  the  pope  chosen  by  Hildebrand,  and  when  Hanno, 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  carried  off  the  person  of  the  German  king,  then  in 
his  minority,  that  he  might  take  upon  himself  the  regency,  Honorius  was 
generally  abandoned.  The  work  of  reformation,  however,  produced  but 
little  result  in  the  Church  in  consequence  of  the  opposition  of  the  bishops, 
supported  by  the  king.  Henry  IV.  was  desirous  of  a  divorce  from  his  noble 
but  much-abused  wife.  The  Cardinal  Damiani,  at  a  synod  held  at  Mentz,  so 
frightened  the  bishops  when  they  seemed  disposed  to  favor  the  royal  request, 
that  they  dared  not  comply.  When  the  Saxons  sent  messengers  to  Rome  as 
to  a  divine  court,  to  complain  of  Henry  IV.  for  his  intolerable  oppression  of 
his  subjects,  and  for  exposing  to  sale  all  ecclesiastical  offices  to  raise  a  reve- 
nue for  the  support  of  soldiers  employed  against  his  people,  Alexander  sum- 
moned the  king  to  answer  the  charges  at  Rome.  Henry's  wrath  at  so  strange 

d)  Leo  Ostiens.  II,  lOOss. 

e)  Vita  and  Epp.  in  Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  867. 

/)  Statutum  de  electione  Papae.  Perts  Th.  IV.  2.  p.  176.    A  falsified  text  in  Gratian :  P.  L 
Dist.  XXIII.  c.  \.—K  Cuniiz  de  Nic.  II.  decreto.  Argent.  837.  4. 

g)  Both  feudal  oaths  are  to  be  seen  in  Baron,  ad  ann.  1059.  No.  70s. 

13 


194  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

a  proceeding  was  soon  after  allayed  by  the  sudden  news  of  Alexander's  death. 
It  was  then  that  Hildebrand  felt  that  the  time  had  come  in  which  he  might 
enter  upon  the  execution  of  the  plan  for  which  he  had  long  been  preparing, 
and  might  assume  the  dignity  of  an  independent  sovereign.  Even  at  the 
funeral  of  Alexander,  the  people  exclaimed,  "  Hildebrand  is  Pope,  St.  Peter 
has  elected  him !  " 

§  181.     Gregory  VII.  April  22,  1073— May  25, 1085. 

I.  1)  Gregorii  Registri  s.  Epp.  L  XI.    The  10th  book  la  wanting  in  all  the  eclitt  hitherto,  as  in 
Mansi  Tfi.  XX.  p.  60ss.    According  to  the  investigations  of  Giesebrecht  on  the  basis  of  the  Cod. 
Vaticanus  the  Eegistrum  is  not  the  official  record  of  Gregory's  writings,  but  the  first  seven  books  aro 
a  collection  which  a  contemporary  formed  from  them  corresponding  to  tho  seven  first  years  of  hia 
public  administration.    The  8th  book,  which  was  not  until  a  later  period  divided  according  to  tho 
years  of  his  reign,  contains  all  his  other  writings  afterwards  found,  compiled  without  a  strict  regard 
to  their  chronological  order.    Thus,  Jafft,  Regesta  p.  402-443.    Acts  of  council  &  orig.  docc. :  Mansi 
Th.  XX,  p.  402ss.  and  in  Vldarici  Babenberg.  Codex  Epist  collected  about  1126.  (Eccard.  Th.  II. 
p.  1.)     2)  Panegyrists:  Bonizo  and  others  referred  to  at  the  head  of  §  179s.    Paulus  Bernriders- 
sis,  canon  at  Ratisbon,  about  1130,  de  Vita  Greg.  (Muratori  Th.  III.  P.  I.  p.  817.)    Bruno,  a  Saxon 
clergyman,  Hist  belli  Saxon.  1073-81.  (Freher.  Th.  I.  p.  171.)  The  biographies  o{  Pandulph  of  Pitta, 
and  Nicolas  of  Aragon,  for  the  sake  of  the  original  authorities  preserved  in  them.  {Muratori  Th. 
III.  P.  I.  p.  304)    8)  Opponents :  Benno,  a  Cardinal  of  the  party  of  Clement  III.  the  Antipope,  de 
vita  et  gestis  Hildebr.  1.  II.    Otberi,  Bishop  of  Liege,  de  vita  et  obitu  Henr.  IV.  (Both  are  in  Gol- 
dastVs  Apologia  pro  Henr.  IV.  Han.  1611.  4.)     Concerning  fragments  of  another  adverse  writer: 
Pertz  Archiv.  vol.  V.  p.  85.    Among  the  Panegyrists  the  praise  is  unqualified,  but  although  Paul  of 
Bernr.  writes  as  an  independent  man,  and  Bruno  passionately  when  in  opposition  to  tho  emperor, 
they  express  the  sentiment  of  a  whole  nation.    On  the  same  side  are  also  found  some  impartial 
chroniclers,  as  Lambert,  Marianus  Scotus,  Otto  of  Freysingen,  and,  respecting  the  character  of  Greg- 
ory, even  Sigbert.    On  the  other  hand,  Benno's  work  is  nothing  but  a  lampoon  full  of  contradictions. 

II.  Gaab,  Apol.  Greg.  Tub.  1792.    Voigt  and  Cassander  referred  to  at  the  head  of  §  180.    A.  de 
Vidaillan,  Vie  de  Gregoire  VII.  Par.  1837,  2  Th.    J.  W.  Bowden,  Life  of  Gregory  VII.  Lond.  1840. 
2  Th.— Soltl,  Heinrich  IV.  Munich.  1S23.     Verenet,  de  commutntione,  quam  subiit  hierarchia  Roui. 
auctore  Greg.  Traj.  ad  Rh.  1832.    [J.  Stephens,  Hildebrand,  or  Greg.  VII.  (in  Ed.  Review,  Jan.  1845. 
and  Eclectic  Mag.  June,  1845).] 

That  he  might  not  be  embarrassed  with  an  antipope,  Gregory  VII.  asked 
the  consent  of  the  king  to  his  assumption  of  the  tiara.  Henry  IV.,  deceived 
by  the  humility  and  frankness  exhibited  in  his  letter,  readily  granted  what 
it  would  have  been  difficult  to  withhold.  No  doubt  Gregory  secretly  desired  the 
possession  of  the  papal  crown,  but  the  same  feeling  which  even  at  a  later  period, 
in  the  midst  of  a  stormy  activity,  made  him  sometimes  tired  of  the  hostility 
of  the  world,  and  long  for  retirement,  for  he  was  a  sickly  man,  now  made 
him  shrink  from  the  struggle  in  which  he  foresaw  he  must  engage  in  opposition 
to  the  clergy,  the  bishops,  and  even  the  king,  if  he  would  radically  heal  the 
maladies  of  the  Church.  The  marriages  of  the  clergy,  contracted  with  a 
consciousness  of  guilt,  and  generally  of  a  dissolute  character,  were  the  most 
universal  cause  of  their  corruption.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  that  mar- 
riage should  be  freely  conceded  to  them,  or  be  rendered  utterly  impracti- 
cable. At  a  synod  held  at  Kome  (1074),  Gregory  re-established  the  ancient 
law  of  celibacy.  The  largest  portion  of  the  inferior  clergy  in  Lombardy  and 
beyond  the  Alps  were  indignant  at  this.  It  was,  however,  only  by  renounc- 
ing the  delights  and  cares  of  domestic  life  that  the  clergy  could  secure  tfro 
independence  of  the  Church,  and  yet  retain  possession  of  her  vast  estates. 
By  exciting  the  common  people  against  all  married  priests,  the  papal  law  pre- 
vailed in  spite  of  their  desperate  opposition.  A  second  Roman  synod  (1075 


CHAP.  I.  PAPACY.  §  181.  GEEGORY  VII.  195 

pronounced  the  decisive  sentence  by  which  all  simony  was  condemned,  and 
the  freedom  of  the  Church  was  declared,  since  every  one  was  laid  under  ex- 
communication who  should  give  or  receive  an  ecclesiastical  office  from  the 
hands  of  a  layman.  The  kings,  in  opposition  to  this,  defended  a  long  estab- 
lished prerogative  which  was  a  powerful  support  to  their  thrones.  In  the 
mind  of  Gregory  the  idea  of  a  universal  theocracy  had  become  ascendant,  in 
which  a  vicar  of  God  in  times  of  brute  violence  (faustrecht)  might  stand 
between  princes  and  their  people,  enforcing  the  law  of  divine  right  by  his 
spiritual  power,  and  able  either  to  humble  the  people  or  to  depose  princes. 
As  the  cause  of  the  papacy  was  then  believed  to  be  identical  with  that  of 
general  reformation,  and  all  felt  the  necessity  of  a  supreme  moral  power 
when  such  lawless  violence  prevailed,  and  of  a  legitimate  dominion  of  the 
spiritual  over  the  merely  physical  nature,  of  which  the  state  was  regarded 
as  the  representative,  the  best  portion  of  society  were  favorable  to  this  view. 
Many,  however,  saw  the  necessary  result  of  intrusting  such  unlimited  power 
to  the  hand  of  a  man.  (a)  Gregory  never  lost  an  opportunity  as  a  feudal 
lord  paramount,  and  as  an  umpire  or  lawgiver,  to  assert  with  greater  or  less 
success  his  office  of  a  divine  vicar  among  the  nations  of  Europe,  His  princi- 
ples he  openly  and  boldly  avowed,  (&)  however  careful  and  reserved  he 
might  be  in  expressing  opinions  of  particular  persons ;  but  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  purposes  he  never  hesitated,  if  necessary,  to  make  use  of  the 
most  terrible  measures.  He  gathered  around  himself  men  of  vigorous  and 
elevated  minds,  whom  he  raised  often  against  their  own  wills  from  monastic 
concealment  to  the  highest  dignities.  Beatrice  and  her  daughter  Matilda, 
Countess  of  Tuscany,  always  participated  in  his  most  secret  counsels.  The 
suspicions  which  some  attempted  to  throw  upon  his  relations  to  the  former 
lady,  were  too  convenient  for  the  purposes  of  the  thousands  whose  inclina- 
tions he  opposed,  to  acquire  any  high  degree  of  probability  when  opposed  to 
the  uniform  character  of  the  parties,  (c)  More  credible  evidences  show  that 
the  relation  was  that  of  an  earnest  father  to  his  spiritual  daughter,  who  did 
homage  to  his  lofty  spirit,  and  was  delighted  when  he  intrusted  to  her  his 
cares,  and  allowed  her  to  assist  him  with  her  wealth  and  power,  Gregory 
was  indeed  hated  by  the  clergy  and  the  principal  men  of  Italy,  but  on 
Christmas  night  in  the  year  10Y4,  the  people  delivered  him  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  youth  among  the  nobility,  who  had  formed  a  conspiracy  and  threat- 
ened his  life.  His  opinion  that  Spain  by  an  ancient  legal  title  belonged  to 
St.  Peter,  and  that  Hungary  had  formerly  been  given  to  St.  Peter  by  one  of 
its  kings,  just  as  Saxony  was  said  to  have  been  given  by  the  Emperor  Charles, 
remained  only  as  an  idea  founded  upon  a  legendary  tradition  to  be  taken  up 
by  any  one  who  might  afterwards  have  the  power  to  act  upon  the  sug- 


d)  Apologia  pro  HenT.  IV.  1093,  written  probably  by  Waltram,  Bishop  of  Naumburg,  and  a  Tract 
de  investitura  Episcc.  by  the  same.  Besides  other  Apologists  in  Goldast  Theodorici.  Ep.  ad 
Greg.  a.  1080.  (Martene  Thesaur.  nov.  Anecdot  Th.  I.  p.  214ss.)  For  Gregor. :  Bernold*  Constant. 
Apologet  pro  decretis  Greg.  (Mansi  Th.  XX.  p.  404)  Letters  and  Pamphlets :  Ussermann  Th.  IL 
p.  183.  Anselmus,  Bp.  of  Lucca,  contra  Guibertum  Antipapam  1.  II.  a.  1084.  (BibL  PP.  Lugd.  Th, 
XVIIL  p.  602.)  Others  in  Grelser,  Apol.  pro  Greg.  (Opp.  TL  VI.) 

&)  Still  as  a  collection  by  another  hand,  comp.  Dictatus  Gregorti  VII.  (L.  II,  Ep.  55.  Mansi  Th, 
XX.  p,  ICSs.)  c)  Lambert  Schajn.  Ad  ann.  1076. 


1%  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    TEE.  III.    A,  D.  800-1216. 

gestion.  (d)  If  he  sometimes  made  concessions  when  great  power  and  tal 
ents  were  arrayed  against  him,  as  when  Philip  of  France,  and  still  more, 
when  William  the  Conqueror  of  England  resisted  his  measures,  it  was  be- 
cause his  extraordinary  knowledge  of  political  affairs  enabled  him  to  judge 
how  far  he  might  venture,  and  made  him  see  the  necessity  of  using  worldly 
means  in  worldly  transactions.  But  even  when  yielding  to  necessity,  he 
openly  avowed,  that  just  as  God  had  patience  with  the  wickedness  of  man, 
he  endured  injustice  only  for  the  present  in  the  hope  of  a  future  meliora- 
tion, (e)  The  impetuous  instability  of  the  youthful  Henry  IV.,  who  had  been 
invested  with  the  purple  even  from  his  birth,  had  been  educated  without  disci- 
pline, and  lived  ever  afterwards  without  affection,  presented  a  fair  mark  for  his 
terrible  and  cool  precision.  In  opposition  to  this  prince,  Gregory  went  forward 
reforming  the  Church  and  exalting  the  papacy,  and  finally  he  beheld  the 
highest  of  all  earthly  powers  humbled  before  it.  When  the  trade  in  eccle- 
siastical offices  was  persisted  in  at  court,  and  those  counsellors  who  had  been 
excommunicated  on  this  account  were  reinstated ;  when  Henry's  paramours 
went  about  adorned  with  jewels  taken  from  the  sacred  vessels,  and  the  Sax- 
ons endured  the  most  horrible  oppression,  the  pope  demanded  that  the  king 
should  answer  for  these  things  at  Eome,  and  threatened  him  with  excommu- 
nication on  his  disobedience.  At  a  synod  held  at  Worms  (Jan.  24,  1076), 
the  king  had  the  pope  deposed  as  a  tyrant  who  had  laid  unhallowed  hands 
upon  the  Lord's  anointed.  Gregory  replied  by  hurling  against  him  an  anath- 
ema which  absolved  all  Christians  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to  him.  By 
his  violent  proceedings  Henry  had  already  fallen  out  with  the  princes  of  his 
court,  so  that  they  hated  him  more  than  they  valued  the  independence  of  the 
empire.  They  therefore  resolved,  at  an  assembly  held  at  Tribur  (Oct.  1076), 
that  if  the  ban  of  excommunication  were  not  removed  from  Henry  within  a 
year,  he  should  forfeit  his  throne.  "With  a  broken  spirit  the  monarch  ob- 
tained absolution  (Jan.  28,  1077),  after  he  had  brought  disgrace  upon  himself 
and  his  kingdom  at  Oanossa.  Finally  he  seized  those  weapons  which  had 
long  been  offered  him  by  the  nobles  of  Lombardy.  Again  the  sentence  of 
excommunication  and  deposition  was  issued  against  him,  a  rival  pope  and  a 
rival  king  were  set  up,  and  Italy  and  Germany  were  filled  with  blood. 
Gregory  had  predicted  that  in  that  year  a  false  king  should  die,  (/)  and  ac- 
cordingly Kudolph  of  Swabia,  whom  he  had  himself  made  king,  died  (1080). 
Henry  besieged  and  took  Kome  (1084),  but  the  pope  in  his  castle  of  St. 
Angelo  would  even  then  accept  of  nothing  but  the  unconditional  submis- 
sion of  the  king,  and  was  liberated  by  Robert  Guiscard.  But  the  Romanic 
nations  commended  the  king's  cause,  (g}  and  the  Romans  were  tired  of  the 
evils  which  the  implacable  spirit  of  the  pope  brought  upon  them.  Gregory 
withdrew  himself  from  them  with  his  Normans,  and  died  at  Salerno,  with  the  feel- 
ings of  a  martyr,  though  binding  and  loosing  his  fellow-men  even  in  death.  (7i) 


d)  Registr.  IY,  28.  II,  13.  YIH,  23.    Desgl.  Corsica  Y,  4. 

e)  E.  g.  the  enfeoffment  of  Guiscard  in  Mansi  Th.  XX.  p.  314 

/)  Sigb.  Gembl.  ad  ann.  1080.    Bonizo's  attempt  to  justify  this  proceeding  is  therefore  about  as 
absurd  as  Benno's  accusation  of  witchcraft,    g)  Registr.  VII,  3. 

h)  The  falsehood  which  from  fear  of  the  power  of  the  deceased  pope  was  invented,  may  be  found  ii 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  182.  VICTOR  III,    UEBAN  II.  197 

§  182.     Gregory's  Successors,  1085-1099. 

Victor  III.  1085-87.  Mansi  Th.  XX.  p.  630ss.  Leo  Ostiens.  see  at  the  head  of  §  180.  Biogr.  by 
Pandulphus  Pisan.  and  Bernard.  Guidon,  written  during  the  13th  cent  in  Muratori  Th.  III.  P. 
L  p.  351.—  Urban  II.  1088-99.  Mansi  Th.  XX.  p.  642ss.  Jaffe,  p.  448ss.  Pandulph.  and  Ber- 
nard, in  Muratori  1.  c.  After  and  along  with  the  sources :  Ruinart  in  Mdbillon  et  Ruin.  Opp. 
posth.  Par.  1724.  4.  Among  the  chroniclers,  especially  Leo  Ostiens,  &  JBernold,  monk  of  S.  Bla- 
Bio.  Chron.  1055-1100.  (Perta  Th.  VIL  p.  385.) 

Gregory's  principles  were  deeply  impressed  upon  the  age  in  which  ho 
lived,  and  the  clergy  began  to  understand  the  advantages  they  acquired  by 
sacrificing  their  domestic  enjoyments.  Those  who  had  been  selected  by 
Gregory  as  worthy  to  become  his  successors  were  one  after  another  raised  to 
the  apostolic  chair.  Desiderius,  the  Abbot  of  Montecassino,  Victor  III., 
resolutely  refused  to  leave  the  retirement  of  his  convent,  and  thereby  seri- 
ously impaired  his  influence,  but  he  rigidly  followed  out  the  course  on  which 
his  illustrious  friend  had  entered.  On  his  premature  death,  OtJio,  who  out 
of  disgust  with  the  world  had  resigned  his  canonicate  at  Rheims  and  betaken 
himself  to  Clugni,  where  he  had  been  noticed  by  Gregory  and  made  Bishop 
of  Ostia,  and  afterwards  as  Legate  had  been  the  prisoner  and  the  mortal 
enemy  of  Henry,  became  pope  under  the  name  of  Urban  II.  When  Gre- 
gory was  dead,  the  emperor,  who  had  now  attained  maturity  in  the  midst  of 
the  storms  through  which  he  had  passed,  with  his  pope  Clement  III.  exer- 
cised sovereignty  over  Upper  and  Central  Italy.  Renouncing  her  widowhood 
that  she  might  promote  the  interests  of  the  Romish  Church,  Matilda,  by  her 
apparent  marriage  with  Welf,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  gave  for  a  brief  period  a 
military  leader  to  the  papal  party.  The  conduct  of  the  emperor  was  far 
more  effectual  than  were  all  the  solicitations  of  the  pope  to  drive  his  son 
Conrad  into  acts  of  treason  (1093).  Urban,  at  the  great  Council  of  Cler- 
mont  (1095),  excommunicated  Philip  of  France  for  his  adulterous  connec- 
tion with  the  Countess  Bertrade,  and  forbade  all  persons  invested  with 
ecclesiastical  offices  taking  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  a  layman.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  crusades,  the  pope  not  only  obtained  an  enthusiastic  army 
for  the  execution  of  his  plans,  but  his  moral  influence  was  so  much  in- 
creased that  he  became  the  head  of  all  the  popular  movements  of  the  West- 
ern world.  Philip  was  compelled  to  give  up  his  paramour,  and  Henry  and 
his  pope  lost  all  power  in  Italy.  Urban,  however,  purchased  nothing  but  the 
precious  friendship  of  the  Normans,  and  preserved  nothing  but  the  shadow 
of  his  ecclesiastical  claims  in  the  appointment  of  Count  Roger  and  his  suc- 
cessors to  be  the  perpetual  legates  of  the  pope  in  Sicily  (Monarchia  Siciliae).* 


Sigb.  Gembl.  ann.  1085.  The  truth  may  be  seen  in  Paul.  Sernrid.  c.  lOSss.  Eespecting  Gregory's 
canonization  and  the  opposition  made  to  it  by  the  courts :  L'avocat  du  Diable,  ou  memoires  sur  la 
vie  et  sur  la  16gende  du  P.  Greg.  YII.  1743.  3  Th. 

*  Mansi  Th.  XX.  p.  659.  Gaufredi  Malaterra  Hist.  Sicula  IV,  29.  (Muratori  Th.  Y.  p.  601.) 
Z.  E.  Du  Pwi,  Defence  de  la  monarchic  de  Sicile  centre  les  entreprises  de  la  Cour  de  Kome.  Amst 
1716.  4. 


198  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  III.    A,  D.  800-1216. 

§  183.     The  Crusades.     Conquest  of  Jerusalem. 

I.  Collections:  J.  Bongars,  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos.  Hanc-v.  1611.  2  Th.  I  Schiller,  hist  Meuioii 
aoth.  1.  voL  1-8.  J.  Michaud,  Bibliotheque  des  Croisadea  Par.  1880.  4  Th. 

H.  F.  Wilken,  Gesch.  d.  Kreuzz.  Lpz.  1807-S2.  7  vols.  Michaud,  Hist  des  Croisades,  Par.  1812. 
cd.  6. 1840S8.  6  vote.  [Midland's  H.  of  the  Crusades,  transl.  by  Wm.  liobnon,  Lond.  1852.  3  vols.  12.] 
n,  v.  Sybel,  Gesch.  d.  ersten  Kieuzz.  Duss.  1841.  [T.  Keighttey,  The  Crusaders,  Lond.  1852. 12.  C. 
Mill,  H.  of  the  Crusades.  Philad.  1845.  G.  P.  R.  James,  Chivalry  and  the  Crusades.  New  York. 
1827.  Eclectic  Mag.  April,  1845.] 

The  attraction  toward  the  Holy  Land  which  had  formerly  prevailed  in 
the  Church  had  never  been  interrupted,  but  in  consequence  of  the  ardent 
and  sensuous  devotion  which  was'  almost  universal  in  the  eleventh  century, 
it  then  became  especially  powerful.  German  bishops  with  their  soldiers 
heroically  defended  themselves  against  a  sudden  attack  of  the  Saracens  which 
took  place  on  Easter,  1065.  (a)  Even  before  this  (999),  Sylvester  //.,  in  the 
name  of  the  desolate  Holy  City,  had  called  upon  the  general  Church  for  aid. 
Gregory  (1074)  once  entertained  serious  thoughts  of  becoming  leader  of  a  host 
for  the  liberation  of  the  Christian  portion  of  the  East.  (Z>)  "When  the  Selju- 
Jkian  Turks  had  established  their  empire  in  Asia  Minor,  and  had  conquered 
Syria  (after  1073),  the  pilgrims  and  Christians  in  Palestine  made  bitter  com- 
plaints of  their  intolerable  ill-treatment  there.  The  hermit  Peter  of  Amiens 
made  known  the  prayers  of  the  oriental  Christians,  and  announced  an  imme- 
diate commission  from  Christ  for  their  deliverance.  Urban  II.,  at  a  general 
assembly  of  the  Church  at  Clermont  (1095),  earnestly  exhorted  all  to  enter 
upon  this  holy  war  under  a  leader  who  never  wanted  provisions,  and  on 
whose  side  victory  was  certain,  the  reward  was  eternal,  and  death  was  mar- 
tyrdom. All  the  people  shouted,  "  God  wills  it ! "  (c)  A  hundred  thousand 
men,  chiefly  Frenchmen,  in  the  first  moments  of  exhilaration  took  upon 
themselves  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  by  which  Christians  were  to  be  known  as 
true  disciples.  Secular  embarrassments  and  passions,  romantic  pleasures  and 
superstitious  hopes,  doubtless  had  much  to  do  in  this,  and  yet  it  must  be  con- 
ceded that  the  spirit  which  animated  these  masses  for  two  hundred  years 
was  something  superior  to  that  of  this  world.  But  it  was  not  for  a  holy 
sepulchre  alone  that  these  expeditions  were  undertaken.  They  had  also  in 
view  the  honor  of  the  Christian  name,  the  triumph  of  oppressed  Christianity 
in  the  East,  and  the  dominion  of  Europe  over  Asia.  An  undisciplined  host 
which  followed  the  hermit's  ass,  was  reduced  to  half  its  original  number  in 
passing  through  Bulgaria,  and  finally  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  Turks. 
When  the  more  disciplined  army  of  the  crusaders  reached  the  plain  of 
Nicaea,  they  found  a  high  pyramid  formed  of  the  bones  of  their  predecessors. 
At  Edessa,  which  voluntarily  surrendered  to  Baldwin,  and  at  Nicaea  and 
Antioch,  which  were  soon  conquered,  the  pilgrim  princes  erected  principali- 
ties for  themselves.  After  indescribable  sufferings,  Jerusalem  was  stormed 
on  the  fifteenth  of  July,  1099,  and  through  blood  and  flames  the  army 
marched  singing  holy  songs  to  the  Church  of  the  Resurrection.  Godfrey  of 

a)  Lambert.  Schafn.  ad.  ann.  1065. 

6)  Sylvestri  Ep.  ad.  univ.  Ecc.  (Bouquet  Th.  X.  p.  426s.)  Gregor.  ad  Henr.  R.  (Manri  Th 
XX.  p.  150.) 

c)  Mansi  Th.  XX.  p.  821ss.    Bongars  Th.  I.  p.  86.  31.  S82ss. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  134.  PASCAL  II.    HENRY  V.  199 

Bouillon  was  proclaimed  the  first  king  of  Jerusalem,  although  the  piety  of 
his  heroic  spirit  refused  to  wear  a  royal  crown  where  the  Son  of  God  had 
worn  a  crown  of  thorns. 

§  184.     Pascal  IL,  1099-1118. 

Letters  and  public  documents  in  Man-si  Th.  XX.  p.  977.  dispersed  in  Uldarici  Cod.  epistolaris. 
Life  by  Pandulphus  and  the  Cardinal  of  Aragon,  with  original  documents,  may  be  found  in  Mu> 
ratori  Th.  III.  P.  I.  p.  854  and  360.—^.  Gervais,  polit  Hist.  Deutschl.  unter  Hefa.  V.  and  Lothar. 
II.  Lpz.  1841.  2  Th. 

Pascal,  whom  Gregory  had  taken  from  the  monastery  of  Clugni  and 
made  a  cardinal,  possessed  the  fiery  spirit  without  the  firmness,  and  the  zeal 
for  the  hierarchy  without  the  knowledge  of  its  proper  limits,  which  had  heen 
displayed  by  his  patron.  Philip  of  France,  who  had  again  been  excommu- 
nicated on  account  of  his  illicit  connection,  received  absolution  on  his  taking 
an  oath  that  he  would  renounce  Bertrade  (1104).  But  when  this  oath  was 
violated  the  pope  took  no  notice  of  the  perjury.  A  violent  contest  sprung 
up  between  Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  behalf  of  the  pope,  and 
Henry  I.  of  England,  in  which  the  latter  contended  for  his  crown  and  tho 
former  for  his  life.  It  was  finally  compromised  (1106)  by  the  king's  renun- 
ciation of  the  right  of  investiture  with  respect  to  bishops,  though  he  retained 
the  power  of  exacting  from  them  the  oath  of  allegiance.  («)  Henry  IV. 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  who  had  rebelled  against  Mm,  but  died  (1106) 
under  a  sentence  of  excommunication  which  reached  even  his  lifeless 
corpse.  But  Henry  V.  had  no  sooner  become  settled  in  his  throne,  than  he 
laid  claim  to  the  ancient  royal  prerogative  of  investing  bishops  with  the  ring 
and  crosier,  and  to  support  his  claim  he  crossed  the  Alps  with  a  powerful 
army  (1110).  In  this  extremity,  the  pope  thought  of  purchasing  the  free- 
dom of  the  Church  by  the  sacrifice  of  its  secular  power,  and  accordingly  he 
proposed  to  restore  to  the  king  the  imperial  fiefs  belonging  to  the  bishops,  on 
condition  that  the  episcopal  elections  might  be  free  from  the  royal  interfer- 
ence. But  the  bishops  and  the  princes  were  terrified  at  the  idea  of  a  con- 
tract by  which  the  power  of  the  Church  would  have  been  temporarily  anni- 
hilated, and  that  of  the  king  would  have  been  rendered  overwhelming.  (J) 
The  execution  of  such  a  compact  would  have  been  practicable  only  by  a 
complete  revolution.  On  the  other  hand,  Henry  had  the  pope  imprisoned, 
and  compelled  him  by  threats  to  place  the  imperial  crown  upon  his  head, 
solemnly  to  acknowledge  the  king's  right  of.  investiture,  and  to  promise 
never  to  issue  against  him  a  sentence  of  excommunication,  (c}  The  pope,  how- 
ever, could  not  act  as  a  private  person  in  this  matter,  since  he  stood  as  the 
representative  of  a  particular  system  of  things.  Pascal  was  therefore 
obliged  to  listen  to  the  most  bitter  reproaches  for  his  treasonable  conduct 
toward  the  Church,  and  at  a  synod  held  at  the  Lateran  (1112),  to  retract  all 
that  he  had  done.  On  his  refusal  to  excommunicate  the  emperor,  the  sen- 


a)  Letters  of  Anselm,  his  Life  by  his  confessor  Eadmer,  and  his  Historia  novorum  1.  VL  are  IB 
Anselmi  Opp,  Par.  1721.  2  Th.  f.    P.  R.  ffaese,  Ans.  v.  C.  Leipz.  1843.  Th.  I. 
1)  Pertz  Th.  IV.  p.  68ss.    Card.  Aragon.  Yita  Pasch.  (Muratori  p.  360.) 
c)  Pert*  Th.  IV.  p.  71ss. 


200  MEDIAEVAL  CHUKCfl  HISTORY.    PEE.  IlL    A.  D.  800-1216. 

tence  was  pronounced  by  his  legates,  (d)  "While  Gregory  was  yet  alive,  Ma 
tilda,  for  the  good  of  her  soul,  had  bequeathed  to  him  all  her  possessions  ic 
trust  for  the  Romish  Church,  (e)  At  her  death  (1115)  new  materials  were 
added  to  the  controversy,  since  the  emperor  claimed  her  estates  as  an  impe- 
rial fief,  and  on  the  ground  that  he  was  properly  her  heir  at  law,  while  tho 
pope  claimed  them  as  the  inheritance  of  St.  Peter.  The  people  now  began 
to  perceive  that  the  papal  ban  was  launched  against  the  emperor  for  his  de- 
fence of  the  rights  of  the  empire.  Henry  V.  took  violent  possession  of  the 
forfeited  fief,  and  drove  the  pope  from  Rome.  The  pontiff,  however,  was 
restored  to  the  city  by  the  Normans,  and  died  while  making  active  prepara- 
tions for  war. 

§  185.     Calixtus  II.  1119-24.     Concordat  of  Worms. 

The  cause  of  the  emperor  in  Rome  was  sustained  principally  by  the  pow- 
erful family  of  the  Frangipani.  Gelasius  II.,  whom  the  cardinals  elected, 
was  suddenly  attacked  by  persons  belonging  to  that  family,  cruelly  abused, 
and  obliged  to  fly  to  the  friendly  territory  of  France,  where,  after  a 
brief  victory,  he  died  as  early  as  1119.  (a)  By  his  advice,  Guido,  Arch- 
bishop of  Vienna,  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Burgundy,  was  chosen  to  be  his 
successor  under  the  name  of  Calixtus  II.  (I)  At  a  synod  held  at  Rheims 
this  pontiff  renewed  the  sentence  of  excommunication  against  the  emperor, 
whom  he  called  a  second  Judas.  The  imperial  party  in  Rome  had  made 
choice  of  Burdinus,  Archbishop  of  Braga,  Gregory  VIII.,  who  was  over- 
powered by  the  Normans,  was  cruelly  mocked  by  the  Roman  populace,  and 
finally  died  in  the  papal  dungeon,  (c)  Adalbert,  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  for- 
merly the  imperial  counsellor,  and  by  whose  advice  all  the  violent  and  irregu- 
lar proceedings  against  the  pope  had  been  conducted,  was  now  seized  by  the 
hierarchical  spirit,  and  sought  to  renew  the  civil  war  in  Germany.  But  the 
people,  tired  of  the  evils  which  had  been  produced  in  the  empire  during  a 
period  of  fifty  years'  dissension  among  its  rulers,  were  importunate  in  their 
demands  for  peace.  Finally  a  Concordat  was  agreed  upon  at  an  imperial 
Diet  at  Worms  (1122),  on  conditions  similar  to  those  previously  acknow- 
ledged in  France  and  England.  This  was  afterwards  confirmed  at  the  first 
general  council  in  the  Lateran  (1123).  "The  emperor  surrenders  to  God, 
to  St.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  to  the  Catholic  Church,  all  right  of  investiture  by 
ring  and  crosier.  He  grants  that  elections  and  ordinations  in  all  churches 
shall  take  place  freely  in  accordance  with  ecclesiastical  laws.  The  pope 
agrees  that  the  election  of  German  prelates  shall  be  performed  in  the  presence 
of  the  emperor,  provided  it  is  without  violence  or  simony.  In  case  any  elec- 
tion is  disputed,  the  emperor  shah1  render  assistance  to  the  legal  party  with 

d)  Baron,  ad.  ann.  1111.    Acts  of  Synod,  Mansi  Tb.  XXI.  p.  49ss.    Planck,  Acta  inter  Henr. 
V.  et  Pasch.  II.  Gott.  1785. 

e)  The  conveyance  of  the  allodial  estate  by  -will  is  certain,  but  the  original  document  (Muraton 
Th.  V.  p.  884.)  of  1102,  by  which  a  legal  gift  was  attempted  to  be  conveyed  inter  vivos  is  doubtful 
TiraboscM,  Memorie  Modenese.  Th.  I.  p.  140ss.    Leo,  Italien  vol.  I.  p.  477ss. 

a)  Pandulphi  Pisani  Vita  Gelas.  (Murat.  Th.  IIL  P.  L  p.  86788.) 
1)  Ja/e,  p.  52788.  Biographies  in  Muratori  Tb.  IIL  P.  L  p.  41Sss. 
c)  Baluzius,  Vita  Burdini.  (Miscell.  Par.  1680.  L  III.  p.  471ss.) 


CHAP.  I.  PAPACY.  §  186.  AENOLD  OP  BEESCIA.  20 1 

the  advice  of  the  archbishop  and  the  bishops.  The  person  elected  is  invest- 
ed with  the  imperial  fiefs  by  the  royal  sceptre  pledged  for  the  execution  of 
every  thing  required  by  law.  "Whoever  is  consecrated  shall  also  receive  in 
like  manner  his  investitures  from  other  parts  of  the  empire  within  sis 
months."  (d)  Although  in  this  proceeding  the  pope  had  barely  saved  appear- 
ances, and  not  the  reality  of  his  cause,  and  the  strict  hierarchical  party  com- 
plained loudly  of  the  concessions  made,  so  overwhelming  was  the  authority 
of  the  papacy,  that  the  influence  which  the  emperor  had  hitherto  exercised 
in  the  elections  was  gradually  transferred  to  the  pope,  in  spite  of  the  laws  by 
which  their  freedom  was  guaranteed. 

§  186.    Arnold  of  Brescia  and  Bernard  of  Clairvaux. 

J .  D.  Koler,  de  Am.  Brixiensi.  Goett  1T42.  4.    K.  Beck,  Arnold  v.  Br.  (Basl.  Wisa.  Zeitsch.  1824 
H.  2.)    H.  Franke,  Arnold  v.  Br.  u.  s.  Zeit  Zurich.  1825.    Eespecting  Bernard,  see  §  207. 

The  Franconian  imperial  house  became  extinct  on  the  death  of  Henry  V. 
(1125),  and  a  king  chosen  by  suffrages  had  to  purchase  his  new  sovereignty 
from  the  states  of  the  empire  and  from  the  pope.  Lotnaire  II.  having  been 
chosen,  received  the  allodial  estates  of  the  Countess  Matilda  from  the  hands 
of  Innocent  II.  (1130-43),'because  she  had  been  the  pope's  vassal,  (a)  The  elec- 
tion of  bishops  was  no  longer  restrained  by  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  and 
the  decisive  question  now  began  to  be  agitated  whether  the  investiture  of 
bishops  should  take  place  before  or  after  their  consecration.  (5)  During  the 
struggles  between  the  imperial  and  papal  governments  a  new  power  had 
sprung  up,  first  in  the  episcopal  cities  of  Lombardy,  from  the  remnants  of  the 
Eoman  municipal  constitution.  In  this  was  presented  an  omen  of  a  new  period, 
in  which  independent  cities  were  to  enjoy  their  liberties,  and  constitute  a  third 
estate  in  opposition  to  the  pretensions  of  the  secular  and  spiritual  nobility,  (c) 
Arnold  of  Brescia  embraced  the  extreme  views  connected  with  this  tendency, 
and  regarded  the  condition  of  the  apostolic  Church  as  a  law  for  all  pe- 
riods of  the  world.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Abelard,  had  been  a  clergyman  in  his 
native  city,  was  rigid  and  abstemious  in  his  rules  of  conduct,  and  taught  that 
the  clergy  ought  to  possess  no  worldly  property,  and  that  such  possessions 
were  the  cause  of  all  the  abuses  in  the  Church.  The  second  Council  of  Lat- 
eran  (1139)  imposed  silence  upon  this  most  dangerous  heretic,  and  by  papal 
influence  he  was  driven  from  Italy,  France,  and  Zurich,  until  in  the  city  of 
Rome  itself  he  attained  supreme  power.  For,  falling  in  with  his  views,  the 
Romans  (after  1143)  confined  the  pope  to  the  exercise  of  ecclesiastical  gov- 
ernment, and  to  the  possession  of  tithes  and  voluntary  offerings,  appointed  a 
Senate,  and  wrote  to  the  German  king  to  come  and  re-establish  the  capital 
of  his  dominions  according  to  ancient  imperial  laws,  within  the  walls  of  the 

d)  Pertz  Th.  IV.  p.  75s.    Mansi  Th.  XXI.  p.  237s.    Acts  of  the  Lateran  Synod.  Ib.  p.  281ss.— 
J.  G.  Hoffmann,  Ds.  ad  Concordat.  Henr.  et  Calixti.  Vit  1739.  4 

a)  Mansi  Th.  XXI.  p.  392. 

b)  OlenscUlager,  Erleutr.  der  guld.  Bulle.  Frkf.  1766.  4  Cartularies,  p.  19.  Gesta  Archiep.  Trevir. 
in  Eccard  Th.  II.  p.  2197.    Radevici  de  gest  Frider.  1, 10. 

c)  Leo  in  his  treatises  on  Italy,  summarily  in  the  Gesch.  d.  MA.  vol.  I.  p.  54Sss.    Jlullmann,  das 
Stadtcwesen  des  MA.  Bonn.  1827.  2  vols.    Jager,  u.  d.  rel.  Bewegg.  in  d.  schwab.  Stadten  u.  derea 
tusaminenh.  m.  d.  ideen  Arnolds.  (Klaiber's  Stud.  d.  Geistl.  Wurt  vol.  IV.  H.  1.) 


202  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTOET.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

eternal  city,  (d)  Lucius  II.  (1144)  led  an  army  against  the  people,  and  while 
his  troops  were  storming  the  capital,  he  was  killed  by  a  paving-stone  (1145). 
Eugenius  III.  fled  to  the  quiet  convent  of  his  preceptor  St.  Bernard,  hy 
whose  counsel  he  was  directed  in  the  government  of  the  Church,  (e)  Roger, 
King  of  the  Normans,  having  brought  him  back  to  Italy,  Bernard  wrote  for 
his  illustrious  pupil  the  "  Contemplations  on  the  Papacy."  (/)  In  this  work 
the  author  regards  the  papacy  in  its  ideal  glory,  as  an  office  appointed  by 
God  for  maintaining  justice  and  concord  among  the  people ;  ho  examines  the 
difficult  duties  which  such  an  office  involves  in  relation  to  human  infirmity, 
and  predicts  that  its  worldly  arrogance  will  bring  it  to  an  unhappy  end.  No 
efforts,  however,  could  give  peace  to  Rome,  where  struggles  for  ascendency 
continually  alternated  with  efforts  at  accommodation  with  the  popular  party. 
An  English  mendicant  boy  who  had  been  promoted  from  one  ecclesiastical 
station  to  another,  until  he  had  become  Bishop  of  Albano,  succeeded  Euge- 
nius under  the  name  of  Hadrian  IV.  (1154).  (g)  He  prohibited  all  public  wor- 
ship in  Rome,  until  the  senate  from  jealousy  abandoned  Arnold  of  Brescia. 
The  latter  soon  after  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  emperor  Frederic,  who  sacri- 
ficed him  either  from  a  professed  regard  to  the  pope,  or  from  a  real  hatred 
to  republican  liberty.  He  was  finally  hung  art  Rome  (1155),  his  body  was 
burned,  and  his  ashes  were  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  (A) 

187.     The  Crusade  of  St.  Bernard. 

Palestine  had  now  become  a  European  colony,  receiving  continual  acces- 
sions of  people  from  the  migrations  of  discontented  persons  hoping  to  im- 
prove their  condition  by  the  change.  The  relations  and  parties  which  existed 
in  Europe  were  therefore  repeated  there  in  an  exaggerated  form.  Accord- 
ingly we  find  there  a  feudal  sovereignty,  in  which  the  king  was  the  chief  and 
simply  the  first  baron  of  the  realm.  He  was  also  in  perpetual  conflict  with 
the  hierarchy,  whose  chief  was  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  and  who  attempt- 
ed to  re-enact  the  part  of  the  pope,  so  far  as  his  relations  to  the  king  were 
concerned.  Between  these  two  personages  sprung  up  independent  municipal 
associations,  and  companies  of  spiritual  knights.  («)  The  Greek  emperor  was 
always  suspected  and  secretly  hated,  and  the  native  Christians  were  regarded 
as  aliens  and  proper  objects  of  oppression.  The  Mohammedans  fought  under 
the  conviction  that  it  was  for  religion,  honor  and  dominion.  The  Norman 
kingdom  of  Edessa  had  been  overthrown  (1144),  and  it  was  evident  that 
deliverance  could  be  expected  only  by  new  levies  from  the  West.  Bernard, 
the  great  saint  of  that  age,  assumed  the  direction  of  this  enterprise,  promis- 
ing, as  the  messenger  of  God,  a  certain  victory.  Eitgenius  went  so  far  as  to 

<0  Martene  ampl.  Col.  Th.  II.  p.  893s.    Otto  Fris.  de  reb.  gest  Frid.  I,  28. 

e)  Jaffe  p.  617ss. 

/)  De  Consideratione  1.  V.  (Bemardi  Opp.  Yen.  Th.  II.)    C.  F.  Schneider,  Ber.  1851. 

g)  R.  Rdby,  Adrian  IV.  Lend.  1849. 

K)  Geroh,  Provost  of  Eeichersperg,  de  invcstigatione  Antichrist!.  (Gretseri  Col.  Scrr.  adv.  Wai 
dens.  Prolegg.  c.  4.) 

a)  The  laws  enacted  there  are  lost,  but  they  may  be  inferred  from  the  code  which  Ccnnt  Jean 
iFIbelin  established  in  Cyprus :  Assises  et  bons  usages  dou  royaume  de  Jerusalem,  etc.  p.  Thaumat 
tie  Thaumasilre.  Par.  1690. 


CHAP.  I.  PAPACY.  §  133.  FREDERIC  I.  HADEIAN  IV.        203 

sacrifice  the  rights  of  creditors  and  feudal  lords,  that  he  might  promote  tho 
interests  of  this  crusade.  (5)  Louis  VII.  of  France  took  up  the  cross,  that  he 
might  atone  for  his  crime  of  hurning  a  church  filled  with  human  heings,  and 
Conrad  of  Germany  was  hurried  into  the  same  act  against  his  inclinations 
by  the  power  of  Bernard's  eloquence.  Each  of  these  princes  led  across  the 
Hellespont  an  army  of  70,000  men  (114V).  Most  of  these  perished  in  conse- 
quence of  the  deceitful  policy  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  opposition  of  the  ele- 
ments, so  that  the  princes  returned  with  only  the  fragments  of  their 
armies,  (c)  Bernard  defended  his  veracity  by  appealing  to  the  inscrutable 
nature  of  the  divine  counsels,  and  by  complaining  of  the  crusaders  them- 
selves,' whose  crimes  had  rendered  them  unworthy  of  victory.  The  more 
pious  portion  of  his  contemporaries  were  consoled  with  the  reflection,  that  if 
the  undertaking  had  been  injurious  to  their  temporal  interest,  it  had  certainly 
promoted  the  welfare  of  their  souls,  (d) 

§  188.    Frederic  /.,  JBarbarossa,  1152-1190. 

I.  Constttutiones  in  Perte  P.  IV.  p.  89-185.    Otto  Frising.  de  gestis  Friderici  1.  II.  till  1158,  con 
tinned  by  Radevicus  till  1160.  (Muratori  Th.  VI.  p.  629.)    Godofredi  Vtterliensis  Pantheon  till 
1186.  (Pistorius  Th.  II.  p.  8.)    Guntheri  Ligurinus  near  the  end  of  the  12th  cent.  ed.  Dumge, 
Heidelb.  1812.    The  Italian  Chroniclers  and  others  in  Muratori  Th.  VI.    The  contemporary  popes, 
and  original  documents  in  Mansi  Th.  XXIs.     Jaffe,  p.  658-854    Biographies  in  Muratori  Th. 
III.  p.  Is.    Jaffe,  p.  658-854. 

II.  Kortum,  Fr.  I.  Aar.  1818.    J.  Voigt,  Gesch.  d.  Lombarden-Bundes  u.  s.  Kampfes.  mit  Fr. 
Konigsb.  1818.    F.  v.  Haunter,  Gesch.  d.  Hohenst  Lpz.  (1828)  1841s.  vol.  II.    King,  Fr.  I.  im. 
Kampfe  gegen  Alex.  III.  Stuttg.  1835.    H.  lieuter,  Gesch.  Alex.  IIL  u.  d.  Kirche  seiner  Zeit  Berl. 
1845.  vol.  I.     W.  Zimmerman,  die  Hohenst  o.  Kampf.  d.  Monarchic  gegen  Papst  und  republ.  Freih. 
Stuttg.  1S38.  2  vols. 

The  heroic  race  of  the  HoJienstaufens  almost  succeeded  in  realizing  the 
idea  of  the  empire.  Frederic  Z,  already  renowned  for  his  heroic  exploits  in 
the  East  and  in  the  "West,  ascended  the  throne  with  a  determination  to  re- 
establish, in  spite  of  all  opposition,  the  ancient  power  of  the  emperor  Charles 
on  both  sides  of  the  Alps.  He  well  knew,  however,  that  the  pope  could  be 
of  immense  service  to  him  in  the  attainment  of  his  universal  dominion,  (a) 
He  therefore  gave  Hadrian  assurances  of  his  friendship  when  he  entered  upon 
his  Eoman  expedition  (1155),  and  although  some  violations  of  good  faith 
then  took  place,  they  were  easily  overlooked  when  both  parties  were  inclined 
to  peace.  But  the  Koman  people  received  iron  instead  of  gold.  First,  Ha- 
drian's one-sided  treaty  with  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  then  an  occa- 
sional hint  from  him  that  the  emperor  held  the  empire  as  a  feudal  tenure 
from  the  pope,  (5)  raised  the  indignation  of  the  German  nation.  Under  their 
powerful  leader  this  people  had  been  awakened  to  a  recollection  of  their 
ancient  independence.  The  emperor  indulged  the  hope  of  putting  an  end  to 
the  subjection  paid  to  a  foreign  bishop,  and  of  forming  a  great  national  Ger- 
man Church,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Treves,  to  whom 


I)  Eugen.  Ep.  ad  Ludov.  (Mansi  Th.  XXI.  p. 

c)  Otto  Fris.  de  gest.  Frid.  I,  85ss.    Odo  de  Deogilo,  de  profectione  Lud.  in  Or.  (Chiflet,  Bet* 
nardi  illustre  genus.  Divione.  1660.  4.)  Wil  Tyr.  XVI,  18ss. 

d)  Bern,  de  consider.  II,  1.     Otto  Prising.  1.  c.  I,  60. 
a)  Joan.  Sarisber.  ep.  59.      Z>)  Mansi  Th.  XX.  p.  790. 


204  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

it  was  not  altogether  without  significance  that  our  Lord  bequeathed  his  seam- 
less coat,  and  Peter  his  staff.  This  plan,  however,  failed  of  accomplishment 
on  account  of  the  jealousy  which  prevailed  among  the  German  princes,  and  the 
contest  with  Italy,  (c)  The  empero?  went  once  more  across  the  Alps  (1158) 
with  a  larger  army  than  before,  reduced  Milan  to  submission,  and  at  the  Diet 
of  the  Eoncalian  plains  had  his  imperial  rights  explained  out  of  the  Koman 
Code  by  the  renowned  doctors  of  civil  law  in  Bologna.  According  to  these, 
his  authority  was  that  of  an  unlimited  monarchy,  such  as  was  utterly  for- 
eign to  the  usages  of  the  German  people.  But  the  power  of  science  of  which 
the  Italians  were  at  that  time  proud,  was  by  this  decision  added  to  that  of 
the  imperial  arms,  (d)  The  bishops  as  well  as  the  towns  were  referred  to 
long  forgotten  feudal  obligations,  and  when  the  hierarchy  beheld  its  rights 
violated,  it  began  to  grasp  after  its  spiritual  powers,  when  Hadrian  died 
(1159).  The  hierarchical  party  elected  in  his  stead  Alexander  ///.,  while  a 
few  cardinals  in  the  imperial  interest  chose  Victor  III.  Alexander,  whose 
cause  was  triumphant  on  account  of  its  connection  with  that  of  popular  free- 
dom. A  few  cities  of  Upper  Italy  had  sworn  together  (1164)  that  they 
would  rather  suffer  destruction  than  any  longer  endure  the  oppressions 
which  the  imperial  deputies  had  arbitrarily  inflicted  upon  them.  This  League 
of  Yerona  was  soon  after  gradually  extended  till  it  became  the  great  Lorn- 
lardic  League,  at  the  head  of  which  the  pope  appeared  as  the  supreme  dema- 
gogue. A  terrible  war  was  now  kindled,  in  which  one  party  contended  for 
freedom  and  the  other  against  rebels.  Abandoned  by  the  army  of  the 
Guelphs,  the  emperor  was  defeated  at  Legnano  (May  29, 1176),  but  even 
when  defeated  and  excommunicated  he  was  still  an  object  of  terror.  Ho 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship  with  Alexander  at  Venice  (Aug. 
1, 1177),  in  which  he  renounced  the  rival  pope,  and  entered  into  a  truce  of 
fifteen  years  with  the  King  of  the  Sicilies,  and  another  of  six  years  with  the 
Lombards.  This  last,  after  the  death  of  Alexander  (1181),  was  exchanged 
for  the  peace  of  Constance  (1183).  (e)  The  basis  of  the  treaty  of  peace  with 
the  hierarchy  was  the  Concordat  of  Worms,  while  that  of  the  peace  with 
the  cities  was  the  condition  of  Italy  before  the  second  Koman  expedition. 
The  cities  were,  as  republics,  to  be  equal  in  rank  with  the  great  vassals  of 
the  crown,  and  the  estates  of  the  Countess  Matilda  were  to  remain  in  the 
possession  of  the  emperor  for  fifteen  years,  when  they  were  to  be  disposed 
of  by  a  decision  of  arbitrators.  The  emperor  then  took  signal  vengeance 
upon  the  Guelphic  family,  and  thereby  established  his  supremacy  in  Germa- 
ny. By  the  marriage  of  his  son  Henry  with  Constantia,  the  heiress  of  the 
two  Sicilies  (1186),  he  also  acquired  for  his  house  a  prospect  of  possessing 
the  whole  of  Italy. 


c)  Comp.  J.  Ficker,  Reinald  v.  Dassel,  Reichskanzler  u.  Erzh,  v.  Koln.  Koln.  1850. 

d)  Savigny,  Gesch.  des  rom.  Rechts  im  Mittelalter.  Heidelb.  1815ss.  vol.  IV.  p.  151« 

e)  Conventus  Venetus :  Pertz  Th.  IV.  p.  151ss.    Pax-Constantiae :  Ib.  p.  175ss. 


CHAP.  I.  PAPACY.  §  189.  BECKET.  205 

.  §  189.     Thomas  Becket. 

I.  Thorn.  Seek.  Epp.  1  VI.  ed.  Ch.  Lupus,  Brux.  1682.  4.    S.  Thorn.  Cant.  Opp.  (Patres  Ecc- 
Angl.  ed.  Giles,  Oxon.  1845ss  vols.  I.-YIII.    Biographies  by  four  of  his  followers :  Johannes  Saris- 
ber.  Wilh.  Stephauides,  Alanus  and  Herbert  de  Bosham,  by  the  command  of  Greg.  IX.  collected 
in  the  Quadrilogus  de  vita  S.  Thomae,  frequently  published,  especially  in  Lupus' edition  of  the  Letters. 

II.  Hist  de  demele  de  Henri  II.  avec  Becket.  Amst.  1756.    Bataille,  vie  politique  et  civile  de 
Th.  Beck.  Par.  1842.    Herbert  de  Boseham,  Vita  S.  Thorn.  (Patres  Ecc.  Angl.  vol.  VIII.)    Brischar, 
Th.  Beck.  (Tub.  Qurt.  1852.  H.  \.*)—TIderry,  Hist,  de  la  conquete  de  1'Angl.  par  les  Normands.  Par. 
1825.  vol.  II.    p.  376S3.    [transl.  into  Engl.  by  Wm.  JTaslitt,  with  an  App.  Lond.  1847.  2  vols.  8.] 
Reuter,  Alexander  III.  vol.  I.  p.  2S8ss.     [J".^4.  Giles,  Life  and  Letters  of  Th.  a  Becket,  by  contem- 
porary historians.  Lond.  1846.  2  vols.  8.  Eclectic  Mag.  June,  1846.] 

During  the  reigns  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  son,  the  English 
clergy  had  been  kept  in  the  most  rigorous  subjection.  But  in  the  midst  of 
the  party  struggles  which  took  place  under  the  feeble  government  of  Ste- 
phen (1135-54),  they  broke  loose  from  the  State  and  established  their  free- 
dom by  connecting  themselves  intimately  with  the  Koman  court,  as  the  only 
tribunal  of  ultimate  appeal  in  all  legal  matters  in  which  they  were  concerned. 
Henry  II.  demanded  that  the  rights  of  the  crown  over  the  clergy  should  be 
restored,  and  caused  an  edict  to  be  passed  at  the  Diet  of  Clarendon  (1164), 
which  declared,  "  The  election  of  prelates  shall  take  place  in  the  royal  chapel 
with  the  consent  of  the  king.  In  all  civil  matters,  and  in  cases  of  dispute 
with  laymen,  the  clergy  shall  be  amenable  to  the  royal  court.  Without  the 
consent  of  the  king,  no  cause  can  be  carried  to  any  foreign  jurisdiction,  no 
clergyman  shall  leave  the  kingdom,  and  no  person  belonging  to  the  royal 
council  shall  be  excommunicated."*  For  the  accomplishment  of  his  plan 
the  king  had  appointed  his  Chancellor,  Thomas  Becket,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury (1162).  But  Becket  was  no  sooner  made  the  head  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  than  he  became  possessed  of  the  spirit  of  his  station.  Ho  laid  aside 
all  worldly  pomp,  and  put  on  the  simple  habit  of  a  monk.  He  publicly  per- 
formed penance  for  giving  his  assent  to  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and 
received  from  Alexander  III.  absolution  from  the  oath  he  had  taken  with 
respect  to  them.  JEe  was  now  obliged  to  fly  before  the  king's  wrath,  which 
fell  upon  his  innocent  kindred,  and  spared  not  even  the  child  in  the  cradle. 
Sustained  by  the  power  of  the  pope,  he  maintained  his  cause,  while  in  France, 
by  spiritual  weapons,  until  he  compelled  his  king  to  enter  into  a  compromise 
by  which  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  diocese.  He  had  no  sooner  done 
this  than  he  issued  sentence  of  excommunication  against  all  who  adhered  to 
the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon.  A  careless  expression  used  by  the  king  was 
seized  upon  by  his  knights,  and  unfortunately  carried  into  speedy  execution, 
and  on  the  29th  of  December,  1170,  the  archbishop  was  slain  at  the  very 
foot  of  the  altar.  Alexander  canonized  this  bold  martyr  for  his  ecclesiastical 
independence,  and  the  king  was  generally  looked  upon  by  the  people  as 
guilty  of  the  murder.  As  the  opinions  of  the  people  were  of  great  impor- 
tance to  Henry  in  his  contests  with  his  rebellious  son,  he  purchased  absolution 
from  Eome  by  conceding  to  it  the  freedom  of  its  judicial  proceedings.  He 
also  became  reconciled  to  his  people  by  performing  an  humble  penance  at  the 

*  Mansi  Th.  XXI.  p.  1187.  1194ss.    [London's  Manual  of  Councils,  p.  132ss.    Chiirton's  Early 
Engl.  Church,  chap.  18.     Wilkins,  Cone.  vol.  I.  p.  435.] 


206  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTOEY.  PER.  III.    A.  D.  800-1218. 

grave  of  his  dqadly  enemy  (1174).    After  this  the  papal  legates  exercised 
complete  control  over  the  Church  and  the  revenues  of  England. 

§  190.     The  Crusade  against  Salaheddin. 

1)  Tageno,  Decanus  Ecc.  Patav.  Descr.  expeditionis  Asiat  Frlderici.  (Freher  Th.  I.  p.  403.) 
Amberti,  Cleric!  Austriaci,  Hist  de  exped.  Frid.  ed.  J.  Dobrowsky,  Prag.  162T.  2)  Galfridi  dt 
Vino  Salvo  Itinerarium  Richardl  (Bongars.  Th.  I.  p.  1150.  but  better,  Gale,  Scrr.  Hist  Angl.  vol. 
II.  p.  247.)  Rigordi  GoVii  (royal  physician)  Ann.  de  reb.  a  PhiL  Aug.  gestis.  (Du  Cliesne  Th,  V. 
p.  1.)  [G.  P.  Ji.  James,  Hist  of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion.  Lond.  1842.  and  Phllad.  1845.  2  vols.  8.  T. 
Keightley,  C.  Mills,  and  J.  Micfutud,  as  referred  to  in  §  isa  Chronicles  of  the  Crusaders  (in  Bobn's 
Ant  Lib.)  Lond.  184&] 

Salaheddin  united  under  his  sword  Anterior  Asia  and  Egypt.  Jerusalem 
submitted  to  him  after  a  sanguinary  battle  (Oct.  3,  1187).  Overwhelmed 
with  the  news,  Europe  heard  the  call  of  Gregory  VIII.  for  a  new  crusade, 
to  prepare  for  which  all  who  remained  at  home,  even  the  Church,  were 
required  to  contribute  Salaheddin's  Tithe.  Even  Frederic  I.  did  not  consider 
himself  too  old  to  resume  the  heroic  life  of  his  youth.  He  broke  his  way 
through  the  Grecian  empire  and  Asia  Minor,  and  was  finally  drowned  in  the 
Calycadnus,  near  Seleucia  (1190).  His  son  and  the  strength  of  his  host  fell 
before  the  plague.  The  same  summer,  the  kings  of  France  and  England, 
through  the  mediation  of  the  Church,  came  to  an  adjustment-  of  their  differ- 
ences, and  transported  their  armies  by  sea  to  Palestine.  Richard  the  Lion- 
hearted,  on  his  way  thither,  recovered  Cyprus  from  the  hands  of  a  Grecian 
rebel,  and  invested  his  knights  with  the  fiefs  of  nearly  half  the  island. 
Akron  also  soon  fell  before  them.  But  in  vain  were  prodigies  of  valor  per- 
formed, since  every  advantage  was  rendered  useless  by  the  mutual  jealousies 
of  the  different  sovereigns  and  nations.  After  a  few  months  Philip  Augus- 
tus was  taken  sick,  returned  to  France,  and  equipped  himself  against  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  English  king.  Richard,  forsaken  by  all,  and  threatened  at 
home,  concluded  with  his  noble  enemy  a  three  years'  truce,  which  secured 
the  coast  as  a  Christian  territory,  and  operied  Jerusalem  to  the  visits  of  the 
pilgrims.  On  his  return  home  the  Lion-heart  was  imprisoned  in  Austria, 
and  sold  to  the  emperor,  from  whom  he  was  purchased  by  his  own  people. 
The  pope  proved  at  least  his  good  will  by  asserting  the  Christian  law  of  na- 
tions in  behalf  of  a  crusader.* 

§191.    Henry  VI.     Celestine  III.     (1191-1198.) 

Perte  Th.  IV.  p.  186ss.    Jaffe  p.  SSGss.— Raumtr,  Hohenst  voL  IL  p.  523ss.    O.  Abel,  K.  Phil 
ipp  d.  Hohenst  BrL  1882.  p.  ISss. 

Henry  VI.  was  on  an  expedition  through  Italy  to  take  possession  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  which  had  fallen  to  him  by  inheritance  (1189),  when  he  received 
from  the  East  the  news  of  his  father's  death.  He  immediately  purchased  an 
imperial  coronation  from  the  Romans,  by  abandoning  the  faithful  city  of 
Tusculum.  The  Sicilians,  dreading  a  foreign  government,  had  elevated  to 
the  throne  Count  Tancred,  a  natural  son  of  their  extinct  royal  family,  whom 
the  pope  hastened  to  invest  as  his  vassal.  But  after  Tancred's  death  (1194). 

*  Huron,  ad  ann.  1193.  No.  2ss.  Matth.  Paris  ad  ann.  1195. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  191.  CELESTINE  IIL    §  192.  INNOCENT  III.  207 

the  Two  Sicilies  submitted  themselves  to  Henry.  This  prince  possessed  the 
powerful  talents  for  government,  hut  not  the  chivalrous  spirit  of  his  father, 
and  utterly  regardless  of  the  means  which  he  used,  he  now  held  Italy  and 
the  pope  under  the  most  galling  slavery.  He  now  made  preparations  to  ren- 
der the  crown  of  the  German  empire  hereditary  in  his  family,  to  engage  in 
another  crusade,  and  to  conquer  the  Grecian  empire.  Pious  prophecies 
hailed  him  as  the  servant  of  the  Lord  to  chastise  the  Church  and  to  punish 
the  nations,  (a)  Celestine  ///.,  the  aged  pope  who  had  placed  the  crown 
upon  his  head,  without  venturing  upon  any  decisive  step,  merely  admonished 
him  that  it  would  profit  no  one  to  gain  the  whole  world  to  the  injury  of  his 
own  soul.  (5)  The  youthful  emperor  beheld  a  vast  German  empire  extended 
before  him,  when  a  superior  power  suddenly  interposed,  and  he  died  at  Mes- 
sina (Sept.  28,  1197),  leaving  Frederic  II.,  a  child  of  but  three  years  of  age, 
in  the  midst  of  his  enemies. 

§  192.    Innocent  IIL     Jan.  8,  1198.— July  16,  1216. 

I.  Epistolar.  Innoc.  1.  XIX.  (1.  2.  in  parts  5. 10-16.  vols.  in  Epp.  Inn.  ed.  Baluzius,  Par.  2  Th.  f. 
3.  5-9th  vol.  in  Diplomats  etc.  ad  res  Francicas  spectantia  edd.  feudrixde  Brequigny  etla  Porte  du 
Tlieil.  Par.  1791.  2  Th.)  Hegistrum  Inn.  III.  super  negotio  Eom.  Imp.  (Baluz.  Th.  I.  p.  687.)    J.  F. 
Boehmer,  Eegesta  Imp.  new  ed.  Stuttg.  1849.  4.  p.  289ss. — Gesta  Inn.  III.  by  a  contemporary.  (Bre- 
quigny Th.  L)  liichardi  de  &  Germano  Chronic,  ad  a.  1189-1243.  (Muratori  Th.  VII.  p.  963.)  The 
unfavorable  side  in  Matihaeus  Paris,  Hist  major.  [Matt.  Paris,  Chronicle,  &c.  transl.  by  Giles. 
Lond.  1848. 12.] 

II.  F.  Hurter,  Gesch.  Innoc.  III.  u.  seiner  Zeitgenossen.  Hamb.  1834-42.  4  vols.  (1845s.  3  eel.) 
[AWe  Jorry's  Hist,  of  Innocent  III.  (in  French)  is  announced  in  Paris.  1853.  Bohringer,  Church  of 
Christ  and  its  witnesses,  in  a  new  vol.  publ.  in  Lps.  1854.  is  a  life  of  Innoc.  IIL] 

Cardinal  Lo  Chair  e,  of  the  noble  Eoman  house  of  Conti  which  possessed 
landed  estates  in  Anagni  and  Segni,  educated  in  Rome,  Paris,  and  Bologna, 
and  eminent  not  only  as  a  theologian  but  as  a  jurist,  was  raised  to  the  papal 
chair  in  the  full  vigor  of  early  manhood  under  the  name  of  Innocent  III. 
The  grand  objects  to  which  this  richly  endowed  sacerdotal  prince  devoted  his 
thoughts  were  the  fortification  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  the  deliverance 
of  Italy  from  the  dominion  of  foreign  princes,  the  separation  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  from  all  connection  with  the  German  empire,  the  liberation  of  the 
Oriental  Church,  the  exercise  of  a  guardianship  over  the  confederacy  of  the 
States,  the  extermination  of  heretics  from  the  Church,  and  the  promotion  of 
ecclesiastical  discipline.  Immediately  after  his  consecration  he  exacted  an 
oath  of  allegiance  from  the  imperial  prefect  of  the  city,  accustomed  the  no- 
bility and  people  of  Borne  to  obedience,  although  he  found  them  often 
deficient  in  this  respect,  took  the  Lombardic  League  under  his  protection,  and 
established  a  similar  confederacy  of  cities  in  Tuscany,  by  the  aid  of  which  he 
expelled  the  German  governor  whom  Henry  had  made  ruler  of  the  territories 
belonging  to  the  Church.  Even  before  his  baptism  Henry's  son  was  acknowl- 
edged as  his  father's  successor  in  the  empire.  But  Innocent  was  afraid  to 
see  so  many  crowns  united  upon  a  single  head,  and  the  princes  of  the  empire 
thought  the  crown  of  Charles  was  too  great  and  heavy  for  the  head  of  a 
child.  Having  renounced  all  the  prerogatives  of  the  Sicilian  monarchy, 

a)  Interpretatio  praeclara  Abbatis  Joachim  in  Hieremiam.  Yen.  1525.  Comp.  Abel,  Philipp. 
p.  812.  1)  Jaffe,  p.  900. 


208  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.     PER.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

Frederic  II.  was  invested  by  Innocent  with  the  feudal  sovereignty  of  the 
Sicilies.  So  highly  was  the  power  and  uprightness  of  the  pope  esteemed 
that  Constantia  on  her  death-bed  intrusted  to  him  the  guardianship  of  her 
orphan  child  (Nov.  27,  1198).  He  governed  the  Two  Sicilies  with  firmness 
and  energy,  so  far  at  least  as  was  possible  under  the  difficulties  of  his  situa- 
tion, and  in  face  of  the  opposition  of  the  German  and  Sicilian  nobles.  Italy 
was  distracted  by  various  factions,  all  of  which,  however,  attached  them- 
selves to  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  great  parties,  in  favor  of  the  Church 
or  of  the  empire,  afterwards  called  Guelphs  and  GJiibellines.  Innocent  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  reconciliation  of  these  parties,  without  which  the 
freedom  of  Italy  could  never  be  secured,  by  taking  Frederic  II.  the  natural 
head  of  the  Ghibellines  under  his  protection.  Under  his  guardianship  that 
prince  received  a  liberal  and  brilliant  education.  But  the  deliverance  of 
Italy  was  an  event  as  yet  far  distant  and  beyond  the  power  of  the  papacy. 
In  Germany,  when  Philip  of  Sudbia  perceived  that  the  crown  could  not  be 
obtained  for  his  nephew  he  resolved  to  acquire  it  for  himself.  The  party  of 
the  Guelphs,  on  the  other  hand,  chose  Otho  IV.,  a  son  of  Henry  the  Lion. 
Both  rival  kings  appealed  to  Innocent,  who  declared  that  it  was  the  business 
of  the  pope  to  decide  in  all  cases  of  contested  elections.  With  every  appear- 
ance of  the  utmost  impartiality,  and  after  a  long  and  cautious  delay,  he  decided 
against  the  Hohenstaufen  (1201),  but  when  victory  seemed  to  decide  in  favor  of 
that  prince  he  hesitated  not  to  negotiate  with  him.  (a)  Philip,  however,  was 
soon  after  assassinated  (1208)  by  Otho  of  Wittelsbach,  one  of  his  offended  vassals. 
This  base  deed  was  detested  by  Innocent,  Otho,  and  all  Germany.  Otho  was 
then  crowned  at  Rome  (1209) ;  not,  however,  till  he  had  given  security  for 
the  freedom  of  ecclesiastical  elections,  the  toleration  of  appeals  to  Rome, 
and  the  legality  of  all  the  claims  which  the  Church  had  instituted  for  pro- 
perty against  the  empire.  (5)  But  when  he  afterwards  adhered  to  the  impe- 
rial oath,  in  which  he  had  sworn  that  he  would  demand  the  restoration  of  all 
fiefs  which  had  been  taken  from  the  empire,  the  whole  political  scheme  of  the 
pope  was  endangered.  Greatly  dissatisfied,  Innocent  refused  to  acknowledge 
him  any  farther.  Still  resolved  in  some  way  to  accomplish  his  purposes  he 
made  Frederic  II.  swear  that  when  he  should  attain  the  imperial  crown  he 
would  freely  confer  Sicily  upon  his  son.  This  oath  he  regarded  as  a  sufficient 
pretext  for  so  using  Frederic  as  to  allay  the  threatening  danger.  Armed  with 
the  pope's  gold  and  benediction,  the  Hohenstaufen  now  flew  across  the  Alps 
to  take  possession  of  his  father's  empire  (1212).  Even  with  the  blessing  of  the 
Church  Otho  seemed  forsaken  by  fortune,  and  every  one  hastened  to  con- 
nect himself  with  the  party  of  the  youthful  conqueror.  In  the  very  first 
year  of  his  reign  Innocent  proclaimed  a  crusade.  Germany  was  prevented 
by  the  civil  war  from  enlisting  in  this  service,  and  the  kings  of  France  and 
England  had  fulfilled  their  vows  by  their  achievements  in  the  last  crusade. 
But  Fulco  of  Neuilly  who  went  forth  preaching  repentance,  so  stirred  the 
hearts  of  the  French-people  that  the  nobility  of  France  placed  themselves  at 

o)  Wlchert,  de  Ottonis  IV.  et  Phil.  Suevi  certaminibus  atquo  Inn.  labore  in  sedandam  Begum  coa. 
tcntionem.  Eegiom.  1835.     0.  Abel,  Philipp.    See  §  135. 
Z>)  Registrum  Imp.  Ep.  7T.  186. 138. 1S9. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  192.  INNOCENT  III.    PHILIP  AUGUSTUS.  209 

the  head  of  the  undertaking,  and  the  Venetians  were  hired  to  transport  and 
sustain  the  army  by  a  naval  force.  The  doge,  Dandolo,  took  advantage  of 
the  embarrassments  experienced  in  the  payment  of  the  price  agreed  upon, 
and  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  and  anathemas  of  the  pope  he  employed 
the  army  of  the  cross  in  establishing  the  power  of  St.  Mark  in  Dalmatia. 
The  crusaders  were  then  involved  by  the  arts  of  a  fugitive  prince  in  the  wars 
of  the  Greek  imperial  palace.  In  the  course  of  these  contests  Constantinople 
was  taken  (April  12,  1204),  a  Latin  empire  was  formed  there,  and  Baldwin, 
Count  of  Flanders,  was  proclaimed  its  first  but  powerless  emperor.  Innocent 
condemned  the  whole  transaction  and  the  horrors  connected  with  it,  but  did 
not  scruple  to  derive  advantage  from  it,  and  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
was  appointed  by  him.  (c)  But  the  strong  point  thus  gained,  by  which  a 
land  passage  was  opened  to  Palestine,  ingulfed  all  the  resources  of  men  and 
treasure  which  had  been  prepared  for  the  undertaking.  "When  men  failed, 
however,  a  vast  host  of  children  took  the  field. — By  a  dexterous  use  of  the 
passions,  the  devotion,  the  dissensions,  the  interest,  or  the  despotism  of  the 
kings  of  Europe,  Innocent  contrived  to  exercise  supreme  control  over  them. 
Philip  Augustus  had  repudiated  his  wife  Ingeburge,  the  sister  of  the  Danish 
king,  Canute,  and  the  French  bishops  had  given  their  consent  to  his  second 
marriage.  Innocent  therefore  deprived  the  whole  kingdom  of  France  of 
every  ecclesiastical  privilege,  with  the  exception  of  the  baptism  of  children 
and  absolution  for  the  dying.  The  heart  of  the  king  was  deeply  wounded  by 
this  proceeding,  those  who  were  utterly  repugnant  to  each  other  were  required 
to  become  united,  and  those  who  truly  loved  were  to  be  torn  asunder.  But 
terrified  at  the  commotion  which  prevailed  among  his  people  he  was  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  the  inviolability  of  his  former  marriage  (1201).  (d) 
Peter  II.  of  Aragon  regarded  a  coronation  by  the  pope  of  so  great  impor- 
tance that  he  came  to  receive  the  crown  at  St.  Peter's  altar,  solemnly  prom- 
ising to  be  faithful,  and  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Roman  See  (1204).  SancJio  I.  of 
Portugal,  after  a  stubborn  denial  of  it,  finally  acknowledged  the  validity  of 
the  document  in  which  his  father  had  made  his  kingdom  tributary  to  St. 
Peter.  By  the  pope's  mediation  in  Hungary  the  royal  brothers  were  recon- 
ciled, and  the  king's  son  was  crowned  by  the  states.  A  disputed  election  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  was  submitted  to  his  decision  and  pro- 
nounced invalid.  This  afforded  him  an  opportunity  of  inducing  the  canons 
who  were  sent  to  him  to  choose  his  learned  friend.  Cardinal  Stephen  Lang- 
ton,  whom  he  immediately  consecrated  to  that  office  (1207).  King  John, 
a  despot  without  power  or  judgment,  refused  to  acknowledge  Langton, 
and  seized  upon  the  revenues  of  the  clergy.  Innocent  then  laid  all  Eng- 
land under  an  interdict,  and  excommunicated  the  king  (1209).  John  sought 
by  violence  to  compel  his  clergy  still  to  perform  the  services  of  religion, 


c)  Geoffroi  de  Ville-Hardouin,  Hist,  de  la  conqueste  de  Constant.  1198-1207.  [transl.  into  Engl. 
by  T.  Smith.  Lond.  1829.  8.]  (C.  du  Fresne,  Hist,  de  Tempire  de  Const,  sous  les  Emp.  franjois.  Ven- 
1729.  f.)  Hist  of  the  empire  by  Nicetas  Acominatus.  1118-1206.  ed.  Fabroti.  Par.  1647.  f. 

d)  I.  Rigordi  de  reb.  Phil.  Aug.  (Du  Chesne  Th.  V.  p.  36.)  Acta  Cone.  Divion.  et  Yienn.  (Mansi 
Tb.  XXII.  p.  708.)  Suessionens.  (/&.  p.  738.)— II.  J.  Schiito.  Phil.  A.  u.  Ingeborg.  Kiel.  1304.  Cape- 
figue,  Hist,  de  Phil.  A.  Brux.  1830.  Th.  IL  p.  144.  191ss. 

14 


210  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

and  to  maintain  the  wavering  fidelity  of  his  vassals.  But  when  he  had 
become  utterly  ruined  in  his  own  country,  he  was  deposed  by  Innocent, 
and  his  kingdom  was  bestowed  upon  Philip  of  France.  Rejoiced  at  such  an 
opportunity  the  latter  prepared  an  army  and  a  fleet  for  taking  possession  of 
his  new  kingdom.  John  then  humbled  himself  before  the  pope  and  con- 
sented to  receive  England  as  a  fief  from  the  Holy  See  (1213).  But  the  bish- 
ops and  barons,  finding  themselves  subjected  to  a  king  whom  they  abhorred, 
and  a  pope  who  punished  a  whole  people  for  the  sins  of  their  ruler,  called  to 
mind  their  ancient  privileges,  and  extorted  from  John  the  celebrated  Magna 
Charta  (June  15,  1215),  which  has  ever  since  been  the  fundamental  law  for 
the  legislative  power  of  an  aristocracy  sustained  by  the  people.  "When  John 
afterwards  violated  this  engagement  he  was  restrained  by  threats.  Innocent 
beheld  a  dependent  kingdom  wrested  from  his  grasp  by  a  people  who  were 
becoming  conscious  of  their  power.  In  vain  did  he  hurl  his  anathemas 
against  the  estates  and  their  charter ;  the  papal  power,  exalted  as  it  then 
was  in  its  authority,  had  now  found  an  antagonist  before  whom  it  was  des- 
tined to  fall.  (<?)  Just  as  he  was  on  the  threshold  of  great  events  and  yet 
conscious  of  his  approaching  end,  (/)  Innocent  collected  around  him  the 
representatives  of  Christendom  at  the  Fourth  Synod  of  Lateran  (1215),  to 
take  measures  for  the  reconquest  of  the  Holy  Land,  the  extermination  of 
heretics,  and  the  reformation-  of  the  Church.  A  general  Truce  of  God  was 
consecrated,  that  the  whole  power  of  the  European  nations  might  be  directed 
to  the  East.  The  most  terrible  measures  were  determined  upon  with  respect 
to  heretics.  Seventy  Canons  were  ratified  by  the  Council,  in  which  were 
specified  the  articles  of  the  Christian  faith,  and  the  most  important  rules  of 
law  and  discipline  in  a  modern  form,  but  in  their  ancient  severity.  The  pope 
is  represented  as  the  head  of  the  great  Christian  family  of  nations,  (g)  With 
the  powers  thus  conferred  Innocent  was  right  in  likening  himself  to  the  sun 
and  the  various  civil  governments  to  the  moon,  receiving  their  light  from  him 
as  from  a  feudal  lord.  (K)  He  who  had  often  described  in  the  darkest  colors 
the  miseries  of  the  human  race,  (i)  regarded  the  earth  as  worthy  of  his  care 
only  that  he  might  subject  it  to  the  law  of  God.  Feeling  that  he  had  be- 
come too  much  estranged  from  himself  by  the  press  of  public  duties,  and  the 
want  of  time  for  heavenly  contemplations,  he  longed  to  enjoy  the  privileges 
of  the  pastoral  office,  and  preached  as  often  as  possible.  His  discourses,  as 
well  as  his  judicial  decisions,  which  were  long  regarded  as  models  for  legal 
documents  of  that  kind,  were  highly  figurative  and  composed  in  the  style  of 
the  Old  Testament.  But  even  in  his  most  fanciful  and  subtle  allegories  there 
is  always  apparent  a  profound  earnestness  of  spirit,  with  great  gravity  of  ex- 
pression. With  his  analytical  mind  he  doubtless  sometimes  perverted  the 
cause  of  justice,  according  to  circumstances,  from  its  strict  course  of  recti- 


e)  Matth.  Par.  ad.  aim.  1205ss.  Original  documents  in :  Rymeri  Foedera  et  Acta  pubL  inter 
Reg.  Angliae  etal.  Princ.  aucta  et  em.  a  Clarice  et  Holbrooke,  Lond.  181 6ss.  voL  L  P.  L 

/)  Hurter,  vol.  IL  p.  633.    g)  Acta  in  Mansi  Th.  XXII.  p.  953-1084.  [Landon,  p.  293ss.l 

h)  Innoo.  1. 1.  Ep.  401.  Gesta.  c.  63. 

i)  De  miseria  humanae  condition^  s.  de  contemtu  mundi.  Opp.  (Sermons  &  ascetic  writings,  in* 
wmpleto.)  Col.  1575.  Yen.  15T8.  4. 


CHAP.  IL    ECCLES.  LAW.    §193.  CANON  LAW.  211 

tilde,  and  yet  lie  had  a  right  to  boast  that  even  his  intercepted  letters  would 
be  only  an  additional  evidence  of  his  perfect  integrity.  (&)  He  was  certainly 
covetous  of  wealth,  and  his  legates,  in  whom  he  confided  too  much,  (Z)  were 
still  more  so ;  but  no  presents  ever  turned  him  from  his  course.  His  style 
of  living  was  as  simple  as  that  of  Oincinnatus,  and  his  wealth  was  always 
subservient  to  his  purposes,  and  freely  used  in  behalf  of  the  crusades  and 
the  poor.  He  was  inflexible  in  his  friendships,  a  father  to  widows  and 
orphans,  and  when  acting  as  the  Vicar  of  the  Supreme  Prince  of  Peace,  he 
was  frequently  a  peacemaker  between  princes  and  their  subjects.  Misfor- 
tune never  subjected  him  to  those  severe  trials  in  which  great  characters 
are  proved,  but  he  availed  himself  of  fortunate  circumstances  with  all  the  skill 
of  an  ancient  Roman.  By  his  exertions  Home  became  once  more  the  head  of 
the  civilized  world ;  although  his  greatest  plans  were  unsuccessful,  or  contained 
the  germs  of  future  failure.  The  legend,  according  to  which  the  soul  of  this 
great  vicar  of  God  was  delivered  with  extreme  difficulty  from  the  claims  of 
hell,  (m)  merely  shows  that  no  mortal  can  possess  unlimited  power  without 
injury,  or  that  even  the  highest  are  amenable  to  a  master  in  heaven,  and  to 
public  opinion  upon  earth. 


CHAP,  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
§  193.     Gratian  and  Jiis  Predecessors. 

Ballerini  do  antiq.  canonum  Coll.  (Leon.  Opp.  Th.  III.  p.  289ss.)  Savigny,  Gesch.  d.  Koin. 
Rechts  im  MA.  vol.  II.  p.  273ss.— Anton.  Auguptini  de  emendatione  Grat  1.  II.  Tarracon.  1587. 
and  often.  J.  17.  Boehmer,  de  varia  Deer.  Grat.  fortuna,  (At  the  commencement  of  his  edit,  of  the 
C.  J.  Can.)  Sarti,  de  Claris  archigymnasii  Bononiens.  Professorib.  Bon.  1T69.  f.  Th.  I.  P.  I.  p.  247ss. 
Riegger,  de  Grat  (Opp.  Frib.  1773.)  and  de  Grat  Col,  methodo  et  mendis.  (Oblect  hist  et  jur.  Ulm. 
1776.)  Savigny  vol.  III.  p.  475ss. 

The  Capitularies  of  Charles  and  Louis  were  collected  in  summaries  and 
separate  pieces,  and  published  by  Ansegisus  (827)  in  four  books.  The  two 
first  relate  to  the  affairs  of  the  Church.  To  these  were  added  the  collection 
of  Benedictus  Lemta  (845),  in  which  were  embraced  not  only  the  Capitula- 
ries, but  the  statutes  derived  from  all  the  judicial  authorities  of  the  time,  (a) 
The  traditions  of  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  laws  and  the  work  of  Isidore 
formed  a  basis  from  that  time  forward,  to  which  the  compilers  only  added 
the  more  recent  laws  which  had  been  generally  received.  The  chronological 
order  was  not  required  in  a  systematic  arrangement,  and  was  also  abandoned 
for  want  of  a  knowledge  of  the  original  authorities.  Regino,  the  abbot  of 
Pruem  (d,  915),  gave  directions  from  older  authorities  respecting  the  visita- 
tion of  a  diocese,  and  quoted  the  legal  passages  on  that  subject.  (&)  Burchard^ 


k)  Boehmer,  Eegesta,  p.  290. 

1)  ffurter,  vol.  II.  p.  695,  perfectly  trustworthy  in  all  which  is  hostile  to  Innocent 

m)  Thomas  Cantimpratens.  Vita  Lutgardis  II,  7.  (Raynald  ad  ann.  1216.  No.  11.)  differently 
embellished  near  the  close  of -the  15th  cent  in  the  Compil.  chronologies.  (Pistor.  Th.  L  p.  1098.) 

a)  Anseg.  in  Perte  Tb.  IIL  p.  256.    Bened.  Lev.  ib.  Th.  IV,  2.  p.  17. 

&)  L.  II.  de  synodal,  causis  et  disciplinis  eccL  ed.  (Bolus.  Par.  1671.)  Wasserscldeben,  Lps.  1340. 
iintiqua  cann.  Col  qua  usus  est  Eegino  Prumiens.  e  cod.  Vat  ed,  A.  L,  Rioliter,  Ber,  1S44. 


2 1 2  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  IIL    A.  D.  800-1216. 

Bishop  of  Worms  (d.  1025),  and  /eo,  Bishop  of  Chartres  (d.  1115),  have  col 
lected  together  the  whole  stock  of  genuine  and  spurious  laws,  though  they 
have  arranged  them  in  a  very  arbitrary  manner,  (c)  But  when  the  Roman 
law  hegan  to  receive  much  academical  study,  Gratian,  of  the  convent  of  St. 
Felix  at  Bologna,  became  desirous  of  enlisting  a  similar  interest  in  behalf  of 
the  canon  law,  and  (about  1143)  (d)  wrote  his  Text  Book  and  Manual,  contain- 
ing a  system  of  ecclesiastical  law  on  an  historical  basis.  In  this  he  incorpo- 
rated all  the  laws  then  regarded  as  in  force,  deriving  his  materials  principally 
from  the  previous  collections,  which  he  sometimes  compared  with  the  origi- 
nal authorities,  and  even  condescended  to  borrow  some  of  the  most  liberal 
statutes  from  the  decrees  of  the  Greek  synods.  The  arrangement  of  the 
work  was  logical,  but  to  some  extent  dependent  upon  the  historical  matter, 
and  each  division  was  prefaced  by  legal  principles  generally  derived  from 
history,  and  connected  by  intermediate  clauses  composed  by  Gratian  himself. 
It  consisted  principally  of  historical  documents,  especially  laws  and  legal 
opinions  of  all  kinds  taken  from  ecclesiastical  and  secular  authorities,  and 
grouped  together  in  a  fragmentary  manner,  but  copied  with  verbal  correct- 
ness. Gratian  generally  adopted  the  historical  errors  of  his  predecessors,  and 
seldom  reconciles  the  older  with  the  more  recent  enactments.  Although 
this  work  never  received  the  papal  sanction,  it  possessed  so  high  a  character 
for  science  and  academic  convenience,  that  ever  since,  so  far  as  its  historical 
elements  are  concerned,  it  has  been  received  as  a  manual  of  canonical  law 
for  the  whole  Western  Church.  It  has  also  served  as  the  basis  on  which, 
with  the  exception  of  some  errors  which  historical  criticism  has  discovered, 
ecclesiastical  jurisprudence  has  been  principally  developed,  (e) 

§  194.     The  Church  and  tlie  State. 

Mondtag,  Gesch.  d.  deutschen  etaatsb.  Frelh.  o.  d.  Kechto  d.  gemeinen  Frelen,  d.  Adels  u.  d. 
Kirchen.  Bamb.  u.  Wurtzb.  1812.  HuUmann,  Gesch.  d.  Urspr.  d.  Stande  in  DeutschL  2  cd.  BerL 
1830.  voL  I.  SufferJieim,  Staatalebcn  d.  Clems  im  Mittelalt  BerL  1839.  vol.  I. 

The  process  commenced  during  the  migration  of  the  northern  nations 
was  completed  during  the  stormy  period  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 
This  was  the  process  by  which  the  German  republics  of  free  warriors  and 
landed  proprietors  became  merged  into  a  feudal  system  of  complicated  sov- 
ereignty and  dependence.  The  silent  power  of  the  Church  also  gave  its 
sanction  to  the  rights  of  man  while  claiming  those  of  the  Christian.  "When 
the  Eoman  empire  had  been  revived  in  the  German  nation  by  the  Othos,  the 
emperor  was  regarded  as  the  political  head  of  Christendom  in  the  West,  and 
the  holy  Roman  empire  as  a  divine  institution.  The  emperor  was  elected  by 
the  German  princes  and  bishops,  but  he  was  required  to  strengthen  the 


c)  JSurchardi  Decretor.  1.  XX.  Par.  1549.  and  often.— Ivo,  Pannormia,  1.  VIII.  ed.  Melch.  de 
Vosmediano,  Lov.  155T.     Greater  revisions  by  another  hand,  in  17  vols. :  Decretum  in  Opp.  ed. 
Fronto,  Par.  1647.  2  Th.  f.— Aug.  Theiner,  u.  Ivo's  vermeintl.  Decret.  Mentz.  1832.    The  opposite 
view  in  F.  Cf.  H.  WasserscMeben,  Beitr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  vorgratian.  KEechtsquellen.  Lpz.  1839. 

d)  Concordia  discordantium  canonum,  1.  III.    Even  in  1180  it  is  cited  as :  "in  Decrctis,"  and 
later  generally  as  the  "  Decretum."    Printed  as  the  First  Part  of  the  Corpus  J.  canonici. 

«)  Guido  Pancirolus,  de  clavis  leg.  interpretib.  Ill,  6.  Lps.  1721.  4.    Savtgny,  vol.  III.  p,  519si 


CHAP.  II.    ECCLES.  LAW.    §194.  STATE  &  CHURCH.  213 

power  of  the  empire  in  Italy,  and  to  obtain  possession  of  the  imperial  crown 
which  the  popes  seldom  conferred  without  requiring  entangling  oaths  and  a 
aubtle  confession  of  faith,  (a)  But  while  the  imperial  power  was  destroyed 
in  Italy,  and  every  effort  to  secure  it  as  an  hereditary  possession  was  frus- 
trated, the  great  vassals  became  firmly  established  as  princes  of  the  empire, 
and  their  fiefs  became  hereditary.  As  long  as  the  election,  or  at  least 
the  investiture  of  the  bishops  depended  upon  the  emperor,  they  were 
his  natural  allies  in  opposition  to  the  secular  princes.  The  result  was, 
that  in  all  those  towns  in  which  episcopal  sees  existed,  the  imperial  favor 
to  them  was  so  great  that  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  was  superseded 
by  them,  and  episcopal  immunities  (corpora  sancta)  sprung  up.  Some  of 
the  bishops  were  even  invested  with  dukedoms.  In  other  parts  of  Germany 
the  bishops  were  gradually  deprived  of  their  political  influence,  and  some 
even  became  dependent  upon  the  higher  crown  vassals.  Eight  struggled 
every  where  with  might,  and  the  royal  power  with  the  great  vassals. 
The  Church  often  found  opportunity  to  mingle  in  these  struggles,  and  some- 
times it  was  compelled  to  do  so,  but  not  unfrequently  the  confusion  was  in 
this  way  only  increased.  In  particular  instances  it  was  repeatedly  overpow- 
ered, or  compelled  to  resort '  to  begging,  in  which  it  sometimes  persevered 
with  an  Indian's  obstinacy.  (5)  Finally,  by  collecting  together  all  its  strength 
in  the  single  phalanx  of  the  papacy,  it  became  so  completely  victorious  that 
it  threatened  to  absorb  all  the  prerogatives  of  the  state.  And  yet  the  old 
legal  principle  (§  122),  that  God  has  divided  all  power  on  earth  between  the 
emperor  and  the  pope,  was  received  according  to  its  German  construction, 
consistently  with  the  later  doctrine,  that  the  emperor  carried  the  secular 
sword  as  a  feudal  investiture  from  the  pope.  It  was  even  conceded  that 
the  civil  power  might  be  peculiar  in  its  nature,  and  the  world  might  be  com- 
mitted to  the  government  of  princes,  (c)  and  that  the  pope,  by  virtue  of  the 
sacerdotal  and  royal  prerogatives  which  he  had  received  from  Christ,  should 
only  interfere  when  they  exceeded  their  just  powers.  Against  the  scandals 
of  which  the  princes  in  those  rude  times  were  not  unfrequently  guilty,  the 
provincial  bishops  were  generally  unable  to  oppose  any  effectual  resistance. 
Those,  therefore,  who  acknowledged  no  law  superior  to  themselves,  the  pope 
summoned  in  the  name  of  God  to  answer  at  his  bar.  The  temporal  inherit- 
ance of  St.  Peter  was  regarded  as  indispensable  to  the  personal  independence 
of  the  pope,  but  it  involved  him  in  all  the  Italian  convulsions,  and  was  only 
a  precarious  possession  in  opposition  to  the  claims  of  the  emperor,  the  great 
lords,  and  the  municipalities.  The  Romans,  themselves  straitened  between 
the  pope  and  the  emperor,  never  possessed  any  thing  but  a  mere  caricature 
of  freedom. 

a)  E.  G.  Perte  Th.  IV.  p.  188. 

V)  Comp.  Rawner,  Hohenstauf.  vol.  VI.  p.  167.  with  EoMen  Indlen.  vol.  I.  p.  285. 

c)The  old  view:  Sachsenspiegel,  vol.  L  art  I.  The  new:  Schwabenspiegel,  Einleit  (Frkt 
1566.  f.)  P.  II.  cocqp.  Honor.  Ill,  in  Raumer  vol.  VI.  p.  60.  Grimm,  Bridantes  Bescheidenh.  Gdtt 
1834  p.  LVIL 


214  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

§  195.    Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Papacy. 

The  general  belief  that  the  bishopric  of  the  pope  was  universal,  fre- 
quently gave  a  show  of  justice  to  the  efforts  that  on  every  opportunity  were 
made  to  extend  his  power.  Since  the  time  of  Gregory,  the  episcopal  power 
was  also  regarded  as  springing  wholly  from  the  papal.  It  was,  however, 
thought  that,  like  the  emperor  in  the  civil  department,  the  pope  should  not 
suspend  the  exercise  of  the  subordinate  ecclesiastical  powers,  but  rather  pro- 
tect each  of  them  in  their  peculiar  duties,  and  the  pope  was  reminded  by  St. 
Bernard  that  the  papal  was  not  the  only  power  which  had  been  instituted 
by  the  apostles.  The  bishops  especially  looked  upon  their  pastoral  office  in 
their  own  dioceses  as  absolutely  inviolable,  and  they  simply  regarded  abso- 
lution as  especially  efficacious  when  obtained  from  Rome,  (a)  In  important 
cases  dispensations  were  with  increasing  eagerness  sought  for  from  Rome, 
and  in  all  judicial  causes  in  the  Church  the  Roman  Curia  was  looked  upon  as 
the  court  of  ultimate  appeal.  The  office  of  supreme  judge,  in  which  he  was 
responsible  only  to  God,  and  the  general  reputation  which  he  had  obtained 
of  being  the  most  perfect  depositary  of  the  pure  faith,  produced  in  some 
instances  a  belief  that  the  pope  was  infallible.  (Luke  22,  32  was  appealed 
to.)  This  view,  however,  was  never  entertained  without  limitations,  or  ad- 
vanced without  opposition.  The  popes  always  acknowledged  the  articles  of 
faith  and  the  established  laws  of  the  Church  as  the  guide  and  limit  of  their 
powers.  They  were  far  from  appealing  to  their  own  arbitrary  authority,  but 
they  looked  to  the  law  of  God,  or  what  was  generally  regarded  as  such,  for 
the  sole  rule  of  their  conduct.  (5)  The  Pallium  was  considered  indispensa- 
ble to  the  performance  of  the  archiepiscopal  functions,  and  Gregory  based 
upon  this  a  demand  that  all  the  archbishops  should  swear  allegiance  to  him 
from  whom  it  was  received.  The  same  demand  was  gradually  made  of  all 
bishops  whenever  their  elections  were  confirmed  by  the  popes.  At  first  this 
confirmation  was  sought  only  when  an  election  was  disputed,  but  soon  after 
the  time  of  Gregory  it  was  considered  essential  to  all  elections,  and  supplied 
occasions  for  innumerable  interferences  in  the  business  of  the  dioceses.  Gre- 
gory himself  still  adhered  to  the  freedom  of  the  canonical  choice,  (c)  New 
dioceses  were  erected,  and  changes  in  the  relations  of  the  old  were  to  be 
made  only  with  the  consent  of  the  pope.  When  appointments  were  made 
to  other  benefices,  the  pope  interfered  only  in  particular  instances,  and  by 
way  of  recommendation,  although  such  recommendations  w6re  nearly  equiva- 
lent to  commands.  The  bishops  were  generally,  by  their  political  position, 
beyond  aH  danger  from  the  violence  of  the  popes,  who  had  a  right  to  exer- 
cise jurisdiction  over  them  only  in  cases  of  manifest  crime,  and  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  Synods.  But  as  a  membership  in  the  principal  councils 
depended  frequently  upon  the  papal  will,  very  few  of  them  ever  opposed  or 
thwarted  what  was  known  to  be  the  desire  of  the  pope,  and  most  of  them 

a)  Cone.  Salegunstad.  a  1022.  c.  18.  (Jifansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  398.)  Greg.  VII.  L  VI.  Ep.  4.  (75.  Th 
XX.  p.  260.)  Comp.  De  Ifarca,  de  Sacerd.  et  Imp.  IV,  8,  2. 

&)  Gratian :  P.  I.  Dist  XL.  c.  6.  and  P.  IL  Cans.  XXXII.  Quest.  7.  c.  18.  Innoc.  III.  de  consecr 
Pont  Serm.  3.  Comp.  Ease,  Streitschr.  H.  2.  p.  90ss. 

c)  Greg.  VII.  1.  V.  Ep.  11.  L  VI.  Ep.  14. 


CHAP.  II.    ECCLES.  LAW.    §  195.  PKIMACY.    §  196.  CARDINALS.  215 

were  assembled  only  to  receive  and  perform  it.  The  ascendency  of  the  pope 
above  councils  was  claimed  with  great  caution,  and  only  in  some  occasional 
instances.  His  authority  was  much  increased  by  the  pilgrimages  to  the  eter- 
nal city,  for  even  in  the  midst  of  her  ruins,  the  glory  of  the  ancient  and  the 
sacredness  of  the  modern  world  combined  with  her  wonderful  attractions  to 
render  it  a  place  of  concourse  for  the  people  and  princes  of  the  West.  The 
first  instance  of  the  canonization  of  a  person  at  a  distance  was  that  of 
Ulrich,  the  holy  Bishop  of  Augsburg  (993),  and  was  occasioned  by  peculiar 
external  circumstances.  In  the  twelfth  century,  this  privilege,  which  in 
itself  may  be  regarded  as  trifling,  but  became  important  on  account  of  the 
idea  from  which  it  sprung,  and  to  whose  realization  it  contributed,  (d)  was 
claimed  as  exclusively  belonging  to  the  pope.  A  papal  Coronation  is  no- 
where met  with  until  after  the  time  of  Nicolas  I.,  and  on  the  first  occasion 
of  the  kind  on  which  they  were  both  present,  the  emperor  led  the  animal  on 
which  the  pope  was  carried.  The  kissing  of  the  pope's  foot  sprung  from  an 
Italian  custom.  In  the  estimation  of  the  people  it  was  not  an  idle  display, 
but  very  significant  as  the  offering  of  pious  humility  to  Him  whom  the  pope 
represented.  By  means  of  Legates,  the  papal  power  became  almost  omni- 
present. The  rapacity  of  these  legates,  the  venality  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  and  the  illiberal  Italian  spirit  of  some  of  the  popes,  began  to  be  mat- 
ters of  public  complaint  and  derision.  But  as  a  general  thing,  the  affections 
of  the  people  were  still  firmly  attached  to  the  papacy,  and  the  blessings 
which  it  procured  in  the  unity,  freedom,  and  reformation  of  the  Church 
were  generally  acknowledged. 

§  196.     The  Cardinals. 

Thoniassini  vet  et  nov.  Ecc.  disc.  P.  I.  1.  II.  c.  113ss.  Buddeus  de  orig.  cardinalitiae  dign. 
Jena.  1693. 12.  Muratori,  de  Cardin.  institutione.  (Antiqq.  Ital.  med.  aevi.  vol.  IV.  p.  152.) 

In  the  primitive  Church  tha  cardinals  were  the  ordinary  spiritual  officers 
of  the  Church  (incardinati).  Even  after  the  tenth  century  they  were  the 
canons  of  a  cathedral.  But  in  the  Romish  sense  of  the  term  during  the 
eleventh  century,  the  cardinals  were  the  highest  spiritual  officers  (i.  e.,  the 
deacons  and  presbyters)  of  the  Church  in  Eome,  and  seven  suburbican  bishops 
whose  sees  were  then  for  the  most  part  much  reduced  in  size,  (a)  These  car- 
dinals, in  opposition  not  only  to  the  Koman  people  and  the  emperor,  but  gradu- 
ally even  to  the  other  clergy,  maintained  that  it  was  their  sole  prerogative  to  elect 
the  pope  (§  180).  Alexander  III.  ordained  (1179)  that  no  one  could  be  a  legally 
elected  pope  who  had  not  received  the  votes  of  two.  thirds  of  the  legally 
assembled  cardinals,  (b)  The  cardinals  were  generally  selected  by  the  pope 
from  among  the  Italians,  and  constituted  his  ecclesiastical  and  civil  council. 
Though  they  possessed  no  power  to  control  any  person  of  eminent  talents  in 

d)  Mansi  vol.  XIX.  p.  169ss.  MaUllon,  Acts  SS.  Ord.  Ben.  Saec.  V.  Praef.  N.  99.-Decr.  Greg. 
L  IIL  tit.  45.  c.  \.-Lambertini,  de  server.  Dei  canonizatlone  L  IV.  (Benedicti  XIV.  Opp.  Rom, 
1747.  vol.  I.-IV.  4.)  Heilmann,  Consecratio  Sanctorum  ad  airo&€(a(rfis  veterum  Rom.  efficta 
Hal.  1754.  4 

a)  Bunsen,  Hippol.  p.  152s. 

b)  Cone.  Later.  III.  c.  1.  (Mansi  vol.  XXII.  p.  217.)    [Landon,  p.  292.] 


216  MEDIAEVAL  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-121B. 

the  papal  chair,  their  influence  was  generally  sufficient  to  insure  a  certain 
uniformity  of  action  in  opposition  to  those  sudden  changes  which  individuals 
would  have  introduced.  In  consequence  of  their  rank  above  the  archbishops, 
the  pope  was  surrounded  with  a  courtly  splendor,  and  an  opportunity  was 
afforded  by  which  he  could  reward  great  services,  and  place  men  of  eminent 
talents  under  obligations  to  himself. 

§  197.     The  Bishops,  and  the  Bislwps*  Chapters. 

So  high  did  the  pope  stand  in  the  estimation  of  the  people,  that  the 
bishops  lost  nothing  in  dignity  by  their  subordination  to  him.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  was  by  his  assistance  that  they  were  generally  able  to  preserve  their 
independence  in  opposition  to  the  princes  of  the  various  countries  in  which 
they  lived.  There  were  a  few  great  bishoprics  whose  ChorbisJiops  had  from 
the  most  ancient  times  acted  as  the  bishops'  vicars  in  all  spiritual  affairs 
with  an  authority  which  was  uncertain  and  often  usurped  by  the  princes, 
but  never  dangerous  to  the  bishopric,  (a)  The  right  of  the  bishop  to  ap- 
point all  ecclesiastical  officers  in  his  diocese,  was  limited  by  the  right  of 
patronage,  which  even  a  layman  could  lawfully  acquire  by  founding  a 
church  or  a  prebend.  (5)  The  archbishops,  besides  the  power  of  presiding 
in  the  synods  of  their  own  dioceses,  merely  possessed  that  of  confirm- 
ing and  ordaining  the  bishops,  in  which,  however,  they  were  obliged  to  have 
the  concurrence  of  the  popes  or  their  legates.  They  generally  possessed 
very  extensive  dioceses,  and  on  account  of  their  rank  they  acquired  special 
political  privileges.  At  the  coronation  of  Otho  I.  the  three  Rhenish  arch- 
bishops for  the  first  time  took  precedence  of  all  the  officers  of  the  empire. 
Some  of  the  other  archbishops  acquired  a  kind  of  primacy  over  a  whole 
kingdom,  as  Adalbert  of  Bremen  (d.  1072),  a  man  of  a  brilliant  mind,  but 
consistent  only  in  his  vanity,  and  ready  to  sacrifice  the  whole  Church  to  the 
promotion  of  the  interests  of  his  see,  in  which  he  hoped  to  become  a  patriarch 
of  the  North,  (c)  In  such  instances,  however,  the  popes  always  hastened  to 
form  another  archbishopric  in  the  same  country  to  guard  against  the 
establishment  of  a  national  patriarchate.  In  many  dioceses,  when  their 
bishops  were  to  be  appointed,  the  nobility  and  people  of  the  archbishopric  con- 
tended with  the  king  and  neighboring  bishops  for  the  right  of  choice,  and  not 
unfrequentiy  those  who  were  appointed  by  the  latter  were  most  terribly  re- 
pulsed, (d)  After  a  gradual  attainment  of  their  exclusive  rights  in  this  matter, 
the  canons  obtained  by  their  prerogative  and  their  prospect  of  the  election,  a 
position  more  and  more  independent  of  the  bishop,  and  secured  to  them  by 
treaties.  The  canonical  life  was  generally  abandoned  during  the  tenth  century, 
but  some  zealous  popes  and  bishops  insisted  upon  its  re-establishment.  In  the 
midst  of  much  contention  two  classes  of  canons  were  then  formed  (canonici 
saeculares  and  regulares),  and  even  monks  became  possessors  of  some  chap- 
ters. The  canons  were  not  all  clergymen,  but  they  were  required  by  the 

a)  Balua.  Capital,  vol.  I.  p.  327s.  380s.  Against  Gfrorer :  W.  B.  Wenck,  d.  frank.  Keich.  nach  deir 
7ertr.  v.  Verdun.  Lpz.  1851.  Append.  8. 

&)  H.  L.  Lippert,  L.  v.  Patronat  Giess.  1829.    J.  Kaim,  KPatronat  Lps.  1845.  vol.  I. 
c)  Adam.  Brem.  1.  III.  comp.  Ja/e  p.  5T1.       d)  E.  g.  Lambert.  Schafn.  ad.  ann.  1066. 


CHAP.  IL    ECCLES.  LAW.    §  19T.  CHAPTEES.    §  198.  JUEISDICTION.  217 

synodal  regulations  to  have  at  least  a  subdeacon's  charge.  Any  vacancies 
which  occurred  in  the  Chapter  were  supplied  generally  by  a  vote  of  its  own 
members,  from  whose  number  its  various  officers  were  chosen.  A  dean  or 
prior,  sometimes  both,  presided  over  the  whole.  After  the  close  of  the 
eighth  century,  it  gradually  became  common  to  divide  the  large  dioceses  into 
archdeaconries,  and  these  again  into  rural  chapters.  The  archdeacons  were  the 
regular  and  sometimes  even  then  the  troublesome  deputies  of  the  bishops,  but 
they  were  not  regarded  as  indispensable  to  a  complete  chapter.  "When  the  ca- 
nons were  absent  for  a  long  period,  they  now  began  to  hire  vicars  to  officiate  in 
their  places,  and  to  mark  the  hours  by  singing.  The  livings  connected  with 
the  cathedrals  were  then  sufficient  to  become  objects  of  cupidity  to  the  no- 
bility, whose  still  increasing  importance  enabled  them  to  take  possession  of 
most  of  the  benefices.  Against  the  coteries  formed  by  a  petty  aristocracy, 
wealthy  proprietors,  patronizing  relatives,  and  provincial  prejudices,  the 
popes  endeavored  to  maintain  the  liberal  principles  of  Christianity,  which 
asserted  the  derivation  of  all  men  from  the  same  original  ancestry,  pro- 
nounced the  poor  blessed,  acknowledged  no  kindred  but  the  children  of  God, 
and  recognized  no  birthright  in  the  kingdom  of  God  but  that  which  is  ac- 
quired in  regeneration,  (e)  The  domestic  chaplains  employed  by  the  nobility 
easily  made  themselves  independent  of  the  bishops  by  a  servile  dependence 
upon  their  employers.  (/) 

§  198.    Ecclesiastical  Jurisdiction. 

Greg.  Deer.  II.  de  judiciis.    Mener,  Beitrage  z.  Gesch.  des  Ini[uisitionsproc.  Lpz.  1827.    St. 
Turcfc,  de  jurisdictionis  civ.  per  med.  aevum  cum  eccl.  conjunctae  orig.  et  progressu.  Monast  1832 

1.  The  clergy  could  be  tried  only  before  the  episcopal  tribunal.  The 
civil  authorities  were  utterly  unable  to  enforce  their  penal  code  in  opposition 
to  the  indulgence  or  partiality  of  this  court,  except  in  those  instances  in 
which  the  wounded  honor  of  the  Church  itself  required  the  surrender  of 
the  culprit.  The  highest  ecclesiastical  penalty  was  a  hopeless  banishment  to 
a  convent,  and  sometimes  a  walling  in  of  the  culprit.  2.  The  ecclesiastical 
court  also  claimed  jurisdiction  over  all  matters  more  or  less  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  Church,  or  with  religion  in  general,  such  as  marriages, 
wills,  oaths,  usury,  and  all  legal  causes  relating  to  the  crusades.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  confusion  of  moral  and  legal  subjects,  this  court  invaded  very 
considerably  the  sanctuary  of  the  family.  Ecclesiastical  laws  were  formed 
against  nearly  all  public  offences,  and  when  might  every  where  prevailed 
against  right,  were  powerful  enough  to  extort  respect  from  those  who  would 
have  despised  every  human  authority.  The  cause  of  humanity  and  of 
national  rights  formed  also  a  powerful  advocate  in  the  Church  by  means  of 
these  penal  courts.  3.  A  few  individuals  only  arrogated  to  themselves  the 
right  to*  interfere  in  every  municipal  cause  when  requested  by  one  of  the 


e)  Innoc.  III.  1.  VI.  Ep.  121.  IX.  180.  More  numerous  examples  can  be  found  in  the  next 
•>eriod,  o.  g.  Greg.  Deer.  III.  tit  5.  c.  37.  comp.  Seufert,  Gescb.  d.  deutsch.  Adels  in  d.  Domcapiteln. 
790.  ffurter,  Innoc.  vol.  III.  p.  236. 

/)  Agobard,  de  privileg.  et  jure  sacerdotum.  p.  128. 


218  MEDIAEVAL  CHTTECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

party,  or  when  the  offence  charged  was  of  a  moral  nature  (denunciatio  evan 
gelica).*  The  ancient  custom  of  the  synodal  courts  was  gradually  restrained 
by  the  introduction  of  the  Eoman  law. 

§  199.    Property  of  the  Church 

The  property  of  the  Church  was  continually  augmented  by  donations,  by 
bequests,  by  profitable  investments  and  loans  for  pawns  especially  to  cru- 
saders, by  royal  fiefs,  by  free  proprietors  giving  to  the  Church  feudal  lordship 
over  their  possessions  to  secure  them  against  oppression,  and  by  the  increased 
value  of  property.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  diminished  by  the  prodigality 
of  individual  prelates,  which  could  not  be  checked  till,  after  a  dear-bought 
experience,  laws  were  carefully  formed  against  all  pawning  or  alienation  of 
Church  property  \  by  the  claims  and  oppressions  of  Church  wardens,  by 
transference  of  fiefs  to  those  who  could  protect  them  and  become  their  liege 
lords,  by  expenses  for  the  support  of  legates  and  princes,  and  by  the  claims 
of  feudal  lords  upon  the  property  of  deceased  prelates,  and  upon  the  reve- 
nues of  vacant  Church  offices  (jus  spolii  et  regaliae).  This  spoliation  of  the 
Church  was  zealously  resisted  by  the  popes.  Otho  IV.  in  Germany  was  in- 
duced to  surrender  his  claims,  but  other  sovereigns  renounced  them  only 
in  particular  instances.  Even  the  patronage  (advocatia)  of  ecclesiastical 
foundations  which  had  been  originally  intended  for  legal  and  military  pro- 
tection, and  which  had  sometimes  originated  with  the  act  of  endowment,  or 
had  been  conferred  upon  a  powerful  neighbor,  was  frequently  perverted,  so 
as  to  be  an  instrument  of  oppression  and  robbery,  (a)  The  principal  por- 
tion of  the  Church  property  consisted  of  real  estate  and  tithes.  The  legal 
titles  by  which  the  former  was  held  were  of  various  kinds,  but  the 
latter  were  claimed  by  a  natural  law  propounded  by  God  himself,  al- 
though they  were  resisted  in  many  ways  when  fully  carried  out,  and 
were  in  collision  with  various  local  customs.  The  revenues  even  of  the 
pope,  in  accordance  with  peculiar  ancient  usages,  were  paid  in  articles 
of  natural  produce,  varying  in  different  places.  (5)  Surplice  fees  (jura 
stolae)  belonged  chiefly  to  the  lower  clergy,  but  were  only  voluntary 
offerings  of  the  people.  Salaries  from  the  state  were  indignantly  rejected 
by  the  Church  as  dangerous  to  its  independence  and  dignity,  (c)  The  clergy 
claimed  exemption  from  all  taxes  on  persons  or  property,  with  the  exception 
of  the  feudal  aids  and  voluntary  contributions  in  cases  of  extraordinary  state 
necessity.  A  regular  assessment  was  generally  unknown  in  the  feudal 
monarchies,  but  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century  the  Church  was  often  com- 
pelled to  contribute  for  special  objects,  and  in  the  free  cities  it  had  to  bear 
its  share  in  all  general  taxes.  Alexander  III.  proclaimed  the  great  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  Church,  which  was,  that  the  clergy  might  contribute 
of  their  own  free  will  when  they  perceived  the  utility  and  necessity  of  an 

*  Greg.  Deer,  II.  tit.  1.  c.  13.  comp.  Ravmer  vol.  VI.  p.  198s. 

a)  P.  Gallade,  de  advocatis  ecc.  Heidlb.  1768.  (A.  Schmidt,  Thes.  jur.  ecc.  vol.  V.)  Muratori 
de  advv.  ecc.  (Antiqq.  Ital  vol.  V.)  W.  T.  Kraut,  die  Vormundsch.  Gott  1835.  vol.  I. 

V)  Cencii  Camerarii  L.  censuum  Rom.  Ecc.  a  1192.    Comp.  Hurter.  Innoc.  vol.  III.  p.  121aa. 
c)  Diomedes  Cronica  di  Cypro,  according  to  Eanmer  vol.  VI.  p.  147. 


CHAP.  IIL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  200.  POPULAE  SPIRIT.    TEUCE  OF  GOD.       219 

assessment,  (d)  The  protection  which  the  bishops  received  from  the  popes 
against  the  demands  of  their  respective  kings,  gave  occasion  to  the  legal 
maxim,  that  the  Church  conld  never  be  taxed  without  the  papal  sanction,  (e) 
The  natural  right  of  the  clergy  to  inherit  property  was  finally  legalized  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  laity.  Every  Church  was  regarded  as  the  pro- 
per heir  of  all  ecclesiastics  who  died  intestate  in  connection  with  it.  There 
were  different  opinions  respecting  the  right  of  such  persons  to  bequeath  their 
possessions,  but  it  was  generally  c'onceded  that  they  might  freely  dispose  of 
all  which  had  not  been  ^acquired  from  ecclesiastical  revenues.  At  an  early 
period  the  attempt  was  frequently  made  to  bequeath  the  property  of  the 
Church  to  children,  (/)  by  which  it  would  soon  have  been  either  impover- 
ished, or  subjected  to  a  sacerdotal  caste.  This  was  afterwards  frustrated  by 
the  law  which  required  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy.  In  consequence  of  the 
munificent  donations  which  it  bestowed  upon  the  poor,  the  people  were  gene- 
rally pleased  to  see  the  Church  in  the  possession  of  the  greatest  wealth. 


CHAP.  III.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

§  200.      The  Religious  Spirit  of  the  People. 

This  was  a  period  in  which  violence,  power,  and  artifice  were  enlisted  in 
the  service  of  a  rude  sensuality.  But  a  profound  religious  spirit  ardently 
engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  everlasting  life,  was  no  less  prevalent  among  the 
people.  These  tendencies  were  sometimes  in  conflict  with  each  other,  and 
sometimes  they  were  reconciled  by  the  most  remarkable  compromises.  The 
hierarchy,  addressing  itself  to  the  religious  spirit,  but  in  a  manner  conformed 
to  the  age,  endeavored  to  establish  the  ascendency  of  the  law  and  of  an  ele- 
vated morality.  A  period  in  which  brute  force  (Faust-recht)  was  the  only 
law,  was  interrupted  by  one  in  which  the  Truce  of  God  was  sustained  by 
ecclesiastical  threatenings  and  miracles,  (a)  "Women  and  children,  defence- 
less persons,  and  every  thing  constructed  or  planted  for  purposes  of  peace, 
were  in  times  of  war  under  the  protection  of  the  Church.  (5)  It  offered  an 
asylum  to  all  who  were  persecuted,  without  inquiring  whether  they  were 
pursued  by  lawless  violence  or  justice.  Violent  persons  were  terrified  by. 
frightful  representations  of  a  present  God,  and  by  narratives  of  divine  judg- 
ments ;  and  when  those  who  possessed  great  power  became  penitent,  they 
were  compelled  to  undergo  the  most  severe  and  effective  penances.  The 
tenth  century  is  remarkable  for  having  been  the  most  degraded  of  all  these 
periods  for  its  reckless  struggles  and  general  rapacity.  A  vague  presentiment 
of  death,  a  remnant  of  the  pagan  notion  of  the  Twilight  of  the  gods,  (c)  passed 

d)  Cone.  Later.  III.  c.  19.  (Mansi  Th.  XXII.  p.  228.) 

e)  Cone.  Later.  IV.  c.  46.  (Mansi  Th.  XXII.  p.  1030.) 

/)  E.  g.  Bened.  VIII.  about  1014  in  Cone.  Ticinensi.  (Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  343.) 
a)  Treuga  Dei,  first  proclaimed  in  1041  in  Aquitania.    Gldber  Radulph.  V.  1.  (Bouquet  Th.  X, 
p.  59.)    Mansi  Th,  XIX.  p.  593.        Z>)  Jaffie,  p.  632. 
c)  Oomp.  Muspilli,  edit,  by  Schineller,  Munich.  1S32. 


220  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1218. 

through  the  youthful  nations, 'and  fixed  upon  the  close  of  the  first  millennium 
of  the  Christian  era  as  the  period  for  the  end  of  the  world,  (d)  But  new 
life  was  awakened  by  the  conflict  with  the  Saracens  in  Spain,  as  well  as 
by  their  heroic  example.  The  struggle  between  the  papacy  and  the  mon- 
archies of  that  period  contributed  also  to  the  same  result.  The  pleasures 
of  the  world  were  principally  enjoyed  by  the  nobility  and  clergy.  An 
independent  estate  of  burghers,  if  it  did  not  always  contend  for  public 
freedom  and  justice,  certainly  strove  to  obtain  special  liberties  and  preroga- 
tives for  themselves.  In  accordance  with  both  tlfle  tendencies  above  men- 
tioned, the  female  sex  was  regarded  with  extravagant  admiration,  or  as  frail 
and  dangerous.  The  peculiar  spirit  of  the  age  was  fully  developed  in  the 
crusades.  In  them  was  displayed  the  absolute  ascendency  of  the  imagination 
and  the  feelings.  Human  life  became  so  corrupted  that  it  degenerated  into 
a  coarse  sensual  existence,  or  an  ideal  struggle  for  something  beyond  human 
attainment.  All  the  peculiarities  of  the  European  nations  were  amalgamated 
with  each  other,  or  combined  with  the  fanciful  speculations  of  the  East.  The 
contracted  horizon  to  which  the  people  had  been  accustomed  became  much 
enlarged,  and  it  was  not  without  serious  injury  to  themselves  that  many 
walked  beneath  the  lofty  palm-trees,  (e)  This  sensuous  piety  required  and 
put  confidence  in  all  kinds  of  miracles.  The  sepulchres  of  the  East  were 
opened,  and  the  sacred  antiquity  of  the  Church  became  realized  once  more 
in  the  present,  by  means  of  peculiar  relics,  whose  genuineness  the  understand- 
ing would  no  more  think  of  proving  than  it  would  venture  to  suspect  the 
miracles  by  which  they  were  certified  to  the  faithful.  Many  vessels  and 
emblems,  gradually  or  accidentally  invested  with  a  sacred  character,  received 
at  that  time  a  place  in  the  primitive  ecclesiastical  usage  by  means  of  the 
legends,  or  became  connected  with  the  old  German  popular  traditions.  (/) 
Superstition  was  especially  congenial  with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  the  hier- 
archy made  it  subservient  to  their  purposes,  increasing  or  diminishing  it 
according  as  their  interests  prompted  them.  As  instances  of  the  latter,  may 
be  mentioned  their  opposition  to  the  ordeals  or  judgments  of  God,  especially 
by  duels,  (g)  While  God  was  brought  down  to  the  level  of  humanity,  men 
were  invested  with  the  attributes  of  God.  Ancient  saints  were  once  more 
discovered,  and  the  present  age  felt  competent  even  to  create  new  saints. 
The  ardent  feelings  of  the  people  prompted  them  to  pray  even  to  a  dog,  as  a 
martyr  and  a  patron  saint,  because  he  had  lost  his  life  in  behalf  of  his  master'* 
child.  (7i)  The  Mother  of  God,  however,  was  above  all  other  saints  the 
object  of  chivalrous  gallantry.  But  notwithstanding  the  profound  veneration 

d)  AUbo  Ablas  Floriac.  Apologet.  (Galland.  Bibl.  PP.  Th.  XIV.  p.  141.)    In  a  variety  of  ways 
in  deeds  of  gift  then  made.    Comp.  Lucke,  Einl.  in  d.  Offenb.  Job.  Bonn.  1832.  p.  514s. 

e)  Comp.  Placidus  Muth,  Disq.  in  blgamiam  Comit  de  Gleichen.  Erf.  1788.     TJiiUm,  Beschr.  d. 
Grabes  u.  d.  Gebeine  d.  Gr.  v.  GL  u.  seiner  beiden  Weiber.  Goth.  u.  Erf.  1836. 

/)  Comp.  G.  Gerb'eron,  Hist  de  la  robe  sans  couture  du  monast  d'Argenteull.  Par.  1677. 
J.  Marx,  Gesch.  d.  h.  Eocks.  Treves.  1844  J.  Gildemeister  u.  H.  v.  Sybel,  d.  h.  Eock  zu  Trier  u. 
d.  20  andern  h.  ungenahten  Eocke.  Dusseld.  (1844.)  3.  ed.  1845.-Der  ungenahte  grauo  Eock 
Christi.  Altdeutsches  Gedicht,  edit  by  F.  H.  v.  d.  Hagen,  Berlin.  1844. 

g)  Cone.  Valentinum  III.  a.  855.  c.  11. 12.  (Mansi  Th.  XV.  p.  9.)  Innoc.  JIT.  1.  XL  Ep.  46.  1 
XIV.  Ep.  138. 

K)  Steph.  do  Borbone,  in  Echard,  Scrr.  Praed.  vol.  L  p.  193. 


CHAP.  ILL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  201.  CLEKGY.    DUNSTAN.  .221 

in  which  the  Church  was  held,  the  exuberant  spirit  of  the  age  sometimes  ex- 
ceeded the  limits  of  its  own  due  reverence.  Accordingly  the  devil,  in  spite 
of  all  his  dismal  enchantments  and  temptations,  generally  appears  in  popular 
traditions  as  a  very  poor  and  simple  being.  The  wanton  spirit  of  the  trou- 
badours sometimes  ventured  to  treat  with  familiarity  the  sacred  person  of 
the  holy  Virgin  and  even  of  God  the  Father.  The  priests  themselves  in  an 
innocent  way  sometimes  made  parodies  of  the  holy  mysteries  and  offices  of 
the  Church  at  their  festivals  of  fools  and  asses,  (i) 

§  201.    Manners  of  the  Clergy. 

According  to  the  feudal  law  of  Germany  the  bishops  were  bound  to  ap- 
pear personally  with  their  quota  of  men  in  the  army  of  their  liege  lord.  On 
the  other  hand  they  were  carefully  reminded  by  the  popes  that  they  should 
devote  themselves  to  the  work  of  preaching,  and  to  the  carex  of  souls,  and 
that  the  Church  should  abstain  with  horror  from  the  shedding  of  blood  in  all 
its  forms.  («)  We  are  therefore  not  surprised  to  find  such  a  character  as  that 
of  Christian,  Bishop  of  Mentz,  the  heroic,  learned,  and  rapacious  general  of 
the  emperor  Frederic,  who  slew  his  enemies  with  a  club.  (Z>)  But  even  those 
bishops  who  were  more  spiritual  in  their  dispositions  were  sometimes  com- 
pelled to  become  leaders  of  armies,  and  as  soon  as  they  had  administered  the 
Holy  Sacrament  to  their  warriors  they  were  called  upon  also  to  prepare  them 
for  the  battle,  (c)  What  was  called  simony  was  in  some  instances  only  the  cus- 
tomary tribute  given  to  the  princes  and  to  the  popes  soon  after  the  time  of 
Gregory.  Even  the  better  portion  of  the  clergy  could  not  entirely  abstain 
from  this,  but  as  it  was  proscribed  by  the  Church  it  was  ensnaring  to  the 
conscience.  In  England,  Dunstan  (d.  about  990),  an  abbot  and  a  triple 
bishop,  versed  in  all  the  knowledge  prevalent  in  his  day,  so  powerful  that  he 
held  even  the  devil  in  his  tongs,  and  though  personally  devoted  to  his  own 
visions  in  worldly  matters,  so  politic  that  he  entirely  controlled  three  succes- 
sive kings,  and  broke  the  heart  of  another  who  presumed  to  resist  him, 
attempted  to  reform  the  voluptuous  lives  of  the  priesthood  by  putting  his 
monks  in  the  place  of  those  clergymen  who  would  not  give  up  their  wives,  (d) 
His  efforts,  however,  were  attended  by  no  very  lasting  results.  Damiani, 
who  with  Hildebrand  was  a  severe  censor  of  the  manners  of  his  age  and  even 
of  the  papacy,  and  who  desired  nothing  from  the  world  but  a  monastic  cell  in 
which  he  could  scourge  himself,  presents  in  his  writings  such  a  naked  and  yivid 
picture  of  the  excesses  of  the  clergy,  that  Alexander  II.  prohibited  the  peru- 
sal of  them  on  the  ground  of  their  injurious  influence  upon  the  morals  of  the 

i)  The  hierarchy  were  at  first  zealous  against  these  sports,  but  gradually  they  relaxed  in  their 
opposition,  and  at  a  later  period  attempted  to  improve  them.  Du  Fresne,  Glosa.  ad  Scrr.  med.  et 
inf.  Lat.  v.  Cervula.  Calendae.  Tiliot,  M6moires  pour  servir  a  1'histoire  de  la  fete  des  foux. 
Laus.  1751. 

a)  Damiani  1.  IV.  Ep.  9.  Gone.  Turon.  a.  1060.  c.  7. 

6)  Albert.  Stadens.  p.  291s.  (Schilteri  Scrr.  Argent.  1702.) 

c)  &  Vlrici  Yita  in  MaUllon  Acta  SS.  Saec.  IV.  p.  440. 

d)  Wilkins,  Cone.  Angl.  vol.  I.  p.  257ss.    G.  MalmesUr.  Gesta  Eeg.  Angl.  1.  II.  Vita  S.  Dunst 
p.  Britforth  ct  Osborn :  Acta  S3.  Maj.  vol.  IV.  p.  844.    Mabillon,  Ann.  Ord.  S.  Bened.  vol.  III.  p. 


222  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

readers,  (e)  Marriage  was  not  declared  unlawful  to  the  clergy  in  England 
and  Spain  until  the  twelfth  century,  and  in  the  Northern  kingdoms  till  some 
time  in  the  thirteenth.  Some  even  died  because  they  could  not  endure  this 
separation  from  their  wives  and  children.  But  although  Gregory  succeeded 
in  abolishing  marriage,  he  could  not  prevent  licentiousness  among  the  clergy. 
Before  his  time  this  had  prevailed  publicly,  but  in  a  less  offensive  form, 
whereas  after  his  enactments  it  was  practised  in  secret,  and  frequently  in  the 
most  unnatural  manner,  so  that  many  regarded  the  remedy  as  worse  than  tho 
evil.  The  clergy  partook  also  of  the  faults  peculiar  to  the  times,  and  were 
sometimes  involved  in  the  most  shameless  acts  of  violence.  (/)  But  such  in- 
dividual instances  of  irregularity  among  the  bishops,  or  of  criminality  among 
the  clergy,  which  were  generally  put  down  in  the  Church  after  the  influence 
of  Hildebrand  had  been  put  forth,  should  not  be  regarded  as  specimens  of  the 
general  character  of  that  period,  (g)  The  declamations  which  are  sometimes 
found  in  the  writings  of  that  day,  respecting  clerical  depravity,  in  many 
cases  proceeded  from  monastic  prejudices  or  secular  antipathies.  (7i)  The 
clergy  must  also  have  participated  in  the  virtues  of  that  period,  for  without 
these  their  increasing  influence  among  the  people  would  appear  incomprehen- 
sible. This  consciousness  of  control  over  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  and 
the  true  conception  which  they  possessed  of  what  a  clergyman  should  be, 
contributed  much  to  elevate  even  the  inferior  multitude  of  priests  above  their 
ordinary  position  and  made  them  share  in  the  common  spirit  of  their  order. 

§  202.     Church  Discipline.     Comp.  §  66.  182. 
&M.  Amort  de  origine,  progressu  ac  fructu  indulgentiar.  Aug.  Vlnd.  1T85.  t 

By  the  great  body  of  the  people,  the  act  of  binding  ancl  loosing  on  the 
part  of  the  priest  was  regarded  as  equivalent  to  an  admission  to  heaven,  or  an 
exclusion  from  it.  Even  death,  which  sunders  all  other  ties,  was  supposed  to 
bring  men  more  perfectly  under  this  influence.  Conscientious  clergymen  were 
often  distressed  in  the  exercise  of  a  power  which  extended  even  beyond  the 
grave,  and  eminent  theologians  arrayed  themselves  in  opposition  to  this 
error,  (a)  The  synodal  courts,  when  they  had  become  corrupt,  imposed  fines 
upon  offenders,  or  consented  that  the  ecclesiastical  penance  should  be  dis- 
charged by  the  payment  of  alms,  of  which  the  Church  was  to  be  the  dispen- 
ser. Penitential  books  were  formed  in  which  a  choice  of  penances  was  pro- 
posed, and  a  kind  of  price  current  was  kept  for  all  kinds  of  crime.  (5)  The 
popes  were  generally  supposed  to  possess  a  peculiar  power  of  absolving  from 
the  guilt  of  the  more  heinous  crimes,  and  they  made  use  of  this  public  con- 
fidence very  extensively  when  they  sold  complete  absolution,  professing  to 
devote  the  proceeds  to  the  relief  of  the  crusaders.  Particular  sanctuaries 

e)  Liber  Gomorrhianus.  Epp.  II,  6.  Opp.  den.  ed.  Gaetani,  Par.  1743.  Life  of  Dam.  by  his  pupil 
Jo.  Monachus  in  Opp.  and  Acta  S3.  Febr.  vol.  IIL  p.  406.— Vita  S.  Dam.  scr.  J.  Laderchio,  Rom. 
1702.  3  vols.  4. 

/)  E.  g.  Lambert.  Schqfn.  ad  a.  1063.      g)  E.  g.  ffurter,  Innoc.  vol.  IIL  p.  327ss. 

A)  With  respect  to  the  former,  see  Damian,  and  with  regard  to  the  latter,  the  songs  of  the  Trou- 
Dadours  and  Minnesingers. 

a)  Petrus  Lomb.  Bentt,  L.  IV.  Dist  18.    Z>)  Regino,  de  disc.  ecc.  II,  43Sas. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  202.  DISCIPLINE.    §  203.  WORSHIP.  223 

also  were  invested  with  the  privilege  of  bestowing  absolution  on  condition 
of  a  certain  period  of  penance,  to  all  who  should  visit  them,  either  on  some 
festival  or  at  any  time,  (c)  A  period  of  penance  which  might  ordinarily  ex- 
ceed the  limits  of  human  life  might  be  accomplished  in  a  brief  space  of  time 
by  means  of  the  two  kinds  of  absolution.  Persons  who  were  in  a  high 
degree  the  victims  of  remorse  were  required  to  build  a  church,  to  go  upon  a 
crusade,  or  to  enter  a  convent.  In  all  cases  when  services  were  performed, 
or  money  was  paid  to  obtain  such  a  pardon  for  sin,  a  cordial  repentance  and 
an  amendment  of  life  was  made  a  prerequisite  in  the  applicant.  Intelligent 
teachers,  however,  perceived  that  the  Church  was  placing  itself  in  a  position 
of  extreme  peril,  (d)  According  to  an  opinion  which  had  now  become  es- 
tablished, but  was  still  opposed  in  some  quarters,  a  mortal  sin  could  be  for- 
given only  in  the  confessional.  The  Church  required  that  at  least  once  in 
each  year  every  person  should  confess  all  the  sins  of  which  he  was  conscious,  (e) 
By  this  means  the  priests  became  possessed  of  all  the  hearts  and  secrets  of 
the  people.  The  interdict  which  had  been  on  several  occasions  attempted  in 
former  times,  but  had  been  always  regarded  as  an  arbitrary  exercise  of  an 
unchristian  power,  became, during  the  eleventh  century  a  legitimate  measure 
in  opposition  to  those  who  violated  solemn  treaties.  It  soon  after  became  a 
terrible  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  popes  by  which  a  nation  was  compelled 
to  atone  for  the  crimes  of  its  rulers,  or  was  armed  against  those  in  authority 
over  it.  "When  the  Church  possessed  a  powerful  influence  over  the  life  of 
every  one,  no  people  patiently  endured  a  protracted  discontinuance  of  eccle- 
siastical services,  and  frequently  they  did  not  hesitate  to  compel  their  clergy 
to  open  their  churches  for  public  worship.  Innocent  also  obtained  a  promise 
that  every  one  whom  he  should  excommunicate  should  be  subjected  in  like 
manner  to  the  ban  of  the  empire,  but  such  an  engagement  it  was  found  im- 
possible always  to  fulfil. 

§  203.    Public  Worship. 

Walafrid  Strata,  died  849,  de  exordiis  et  increm.  rer.  ecc.  Ivo,  died  1115,  Micrologus  de  ecc.  ob- 
servatt.  (Both  found  in  ffittorp.  see  §  166.)  J.  Beleth,  about  1182,  div.  officior.  brevis  explic.  ed. 
Corn.  Laurimann.  Antu.  1553.  (f.  Duranti,  died  1296,  Rationale  div.  officior.  1.  YIIL  Mog.  149T.  f. 
aud  often. 

The  Wessobrunnen  prayer,  a  monument  of  the  ancient  language  and  piety 
of  Germany,  contains  an  exalted  poetical  representation  of  the  antemundane 
existence  of  God,  and  an  humble  supplication  for  spiritual  blessings,  (a) 
But  the  sensuous  disposition  of  the  people  was  necessarily  predominant. 
In  consequence  of  the  sensuous  tendency  then  so  prevalent,  public  wor- 
ship appeared  to  be  little  else  than  a  worship  of  the  saints.  Preaching  was 
hardly  an  essential  part  of  the  service  on  public  festivals,  although  several 
synods  and  popes  endeavored  to  introduce  into  churches  only  those  who  were 
able  to  instruct  the  people,  and  the  popularity  of  those  preachers  who  dis- 
coursed in  an  affecting  style,  proved  that  the  multitude  were  susceptible  of 

c)  Comp.  Cone.  Lateran.  IV.  c.  62.    (Mansi  Th.  XXIL  p.  1050s.) 

d)  Abelardi  Ethica  c.  18.  35.    (Pesii  Anecd.  Th.  III.  P.  L  p.  666*3. 

e)  Cone.  Lateran.  IV.  c.  21.    (Mansi  Th.  XXII.  p.  lOOTss.) 

o)  According  to  the  extracts  by  Wackernasel  (BrL  1827.)  in  Rettberg,  vol.  II.  p.  818, 


224  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    TEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

benefit  from  the  Word  of  God.  (&)  The  use  of  the  Koman  Liturgy  was  re- 
quired in  all  the  churches  as  the  visible  bond  of  general  unity.  %  The  Gothic 
Liturgy,  although  it  was  protected  by  an  affectionate  people,  and  had  even 
passed  the  ordeal  of  fire,  was  gradually  suppressed  in  Spain  after  the  eleventh 
century,  (c)  The  Sabbath  was  especially  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary,  in  whose  honor  a  particular  service  was  composed  principally  by 
Damian  (Officium  S.  Virginis)  to  be  performed  in  the  convents.  When 
PascJiasius  Radbert,  a  monk  and  (844-851)  an  abbot  at  Corvey  (d.  about 
865),  maintained  that  the  virginity  of  Mary  was  unimpaired  even  by  the 
birth  of  the  Son  of  God,  the  learned  divines  of  his  day  shrunk  from  the 
position  as  containing  a  Docetic  sentiment,  (d)  That  every  thing  might  be 
removed  which  could  throw  the  slightest  suspicion  upon  the  virgin  purity  of 
the  Queen  of  heaven,  the  doctrine  was  finally  set  forth  according  to  which 
she  also  was  conceived  in  a  miraculous  manner,  and  some  canons  of  Lyons 
(about  1140)  solemnized  this  faith  by  instituting  the  festival  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception.  St.  Bernard,  however,  and  all  learned  theologians  of  that 
period  were  opposed  to  this  innovation,  (e)  In  popular  traditions  many 
pleasant  things  which  had  been  told  of  the  goddess  Freyja  were  transferred 
to  Mary.  (/)  A  festival  of  All  Souls  (Nov.  2)  for  the  deliverance  of  those 
who  were  confined  in  purgatory  was  also  established  by  the  monks  of  Olugny 
(1010),  who  obtained  a  hint  from  the  popular  tradition  asserting  that  the 
gate  of  purgatory  was  in  one  of  the  volcanoes  of  the  Lipari  islands.  (<y)  Some 
time  after  the  ninth  century  the  practice  extended  from  Eome  to  the  provinces, 
of  observing  St.  Gregory's  day,  as  a  festival  for  schoolboys,  derived  from  the 
old  Minervan  festival.  (K)  Among  the  sacred  usages  of  the  Church  the  Sa 
craments  gradually  became  remarkably  prominent,  and  the  representation  of 
them  as  the  signs  and  actual  communications  of  divine  grace,  as  well  as  their 
number  seven,  so  divided  as  to  sanctify  all  the  important  relations  of  human 
life,  were  especially  defended  and  established  by  Peter  Lombard  and 
Gratian.  (t)  The  baptism  of  infants  could  be  postponed  without  giving  of- 
fence. (&)  That  abuses  might  be  avoided,  those  children  who  had  not  been 
confirmed  were  (12th  century)  kept  back  from  participation  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  when  many  other  attempts  had  been  made  to  render  the  wasting 
of  the  least  particle  of  the  divine  blood  impossible,  the  laity  were  entirely 
debarred  from  participation  in  the  sacred  cup.  The  doctrine  of  the  presence 
of  the  entire  Christ  in  the  bread  was  defended,  and  the  powerful  influence  of 

Z>)  Cone.  Mogunt,  a.  847.  c.  2.  (Mansi  Th.  XIV.  p.  903.)    Cone.  Lateran.  IV.  c.  10s.  (75.  Th. 
XXII.  p.  998s.)    JacoU  a  Vitriaco  Hist  occid.  c.  6ss. 

c)  Roderico  Tolet.  de  reb.  Hisp.  VI,  26. 

d)  Katramni  L.  de  eo,  quod  Chr.  ex  Tirgine  natus  est  (ITAcliery,  Spicileg.  Th.  I.  p.  52.)    Fr. 
Walch,  H.  controv.  S.  IX.  de  partu  Virginia.  Goet  1753.  4. 

e)  Ant.  Gravois,  de  ortu  et  progressu  cultus  ac  festi  immaculati  conceptus  Dei  Genetricis.  Luc. 
1762.  4. 

f)  Grimm,  Deutsche  Mythol.  pp.  192,  417,  694.  XX. 

g)  JotsaZdi  Vita  S.  Odilon.  c.  14.  (MaUllon,  Acts  SS.  S.  VI.  P.  I.  p.  615.)  Sigeb.  Gembl.  ad  a.  993. 
70  A.  Weber,  Origo  festi  Gr.  Hlmst  1714.  4.    Mirus,  de  Gr.  M.  et  festo  Gr.  P.  II.  HlmsL  1768.  4, 
Mucke,  v.  Urspr.  d.  Gr.  Festes.  Guben,  1793. 
*)  Pet.  Lonib.  Sent  IV.  Dist  1-42. 
*)  fetri  de  Vineis,  1.  HL  Ep.  21.    Mttiger  Heinr.  d.  Lowe.  Aum.  63. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  203.  MAKEIAGE.    §  204.  MONASTIC  LIFE.        225 

tlie  priesthood  maintained  this  custom  of  withholding  the  cup  against  all  sub- 
sequent opposition.  (I)  The  solitary  mass  of  the  priest  was  at  first  decidedly 
reprehended,  (m)  In  the  tenth  century  adultery  continued  to  he  regarded  by 
the  popes  as  a  sufficient  ground  for  divorce,  but  the  ecclesiastical  view  of  the 
marriage  rite  was  completely  carried  out  when  it  was  soon  after  declared  ab- 
solutely inviolable,  and  Innocent  III.  insisted  upon  the  reunion  of  husband 
and  wife,  even  after  a  double  adultery  had  been  proved.  Human  frailty, 
however,  was  supplied  with  abundant  opportunities  for  sundering  this  bond 
by  means  of  the  prohibition  of  all  marriages  between  relatives,  even  of  the 
seventh  degree,  since  such  a  consanguinity  was  very  generally  proved  when 
it  was  desirable.  Innocent  limited  the  degrees  of  relationship  within  which 
marriage  was  invalid,  to  four,  and  in  fact  regarded  even  these  limits  as  pre- 
scribed only  by  human  and  natural  laws,  (n) 

§  204.    Monastic  Life. 

The  convents  were  regarded  in  the  ninth  century  as  the  hereditary  fiefs 
of  the  secular  lords,  under  whose  control  they  were  more  perfectly  wasted 
and  misgoverned,  than  by  the  irruptions  of  the  Normans,  (a)  But  the  ex- 
alted contempt  of  the  world  displayed  in  the  monastic  life  corresponded  with 
the  spirit  of  the  times.  Some  who  from  their  youth  had  never  become 
attached  to  the  enjoyments  of  the  world,  felt  the  need  of  such  a  pious  seclu- 
sion and  fellowship.  Others  felt  the  same  necessity  after  the  agitation  of  a 
sudden  conversion,  or  that  they  might  make  an  atonement  in  this  way  for  the 
sins  of  an  irregular  life.  Simultaneously,  therefore,  with  the  newly  awakened 
energies  of  the  people,  and  the  general  movement  of  multitudes  in  favor  of 
corporations,  a  series  of  successful  efforts  were  put  forth  to  attain  the  proper 
objects  of  the  convent  by  a  renewal  and  completion  of  the  Benedictine  rule. 
The  abbots,  sustained  by  papal  privileges  and  royal  fiefs,  were  favorable  to 
the  party  of  the  bishops  and  princes.  The  popular  element  of  the  Church, 
however,  was  especially  maintained  in  the  convents,  and  it  was  through  these 
that  Gregory  was  enabled  to  obtain  his  victory.  Monasticism,  though  fre- 
quently arrayed  in  opposition  to  particular  individuals  among  the  clergy,  was 
closely  allied  to  the  general  body ;  and  on  account  of  its  exemption  from  epis- 
copal supervision  it  was  generally  in  the  immediate  service  of  the  pope. 
After  the  tenth  century  it  was  regarded  as  a  peculiarly  spiritual  order  (ordo 
of  the  religiosi),  which,  however,  made  use  of  lay  brethren  (conversi),  to 
attend  to  their  secular  affairs.  In  this  way  the  larger  Benedictine  convents 
carried  on  within  themselves  all  the  mechanical  arts,  at  any  time  needed  in 
them,  especially  those  connected  with  masonry.  The  seclusion  necessary  for 
the  convent  was  sometimes  obtained  even  in  the  cities,  but  the  spot  best 

I)  J.  G.  de  Lith,  de  adoratione  panis  consecr.  et  interdictiono  calicis.  Suob.  1773.  Spittler,  Gesch. 
des  Kelchs  im  Abendm.  Lemgo.  1780. 

m)  Cone.  Mogunt.  a.  813.  c.  43. 

«)  Leo  VII.  Ep.  ad  Eberhard.  (Aventini  Annal.  Bojor.  IV,  23.)  Comp.  G.  W.  Bohmer,  u.  d.  Ehe- 
gesetze  im  Zeitalt.  Carls,  d.  Gr.  u.  seiner  nachst  Nachfolger.  Gott  1826.— Tnnoo.  III.  \.  I.  Ep.  143. 
IX.  Ep.  75.  XI.  Ep.  101.  Cone.  Later  an.  IV.  c.  50-52. 

a)  Episcopor.  Ep.  ad  Ludov.  a,  858.  c.  8.  (Walter  Th.  III.  p.  86.)  Cone.  Troslejan.  a   909.  c.  3 
Wanai  Th.  XVIII.  p.  270s.) 
15 


226  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOBY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

adapted  for  it  was  generally  found  in  some  beautiful  wilderness.  It  then  fre- 
quently became  the  central  point  for  all  the  business  of  the  surrounding 
region.  Sometimes  convents  were  erected  upon  soil  which  had  been  stained 
with  blood,  or  some  sentimental  legends  were  connected  with  their  gloomy 
walls.  (5)  The  uniform  of  the  cloister  which  was  at  first  nearly  the  same 
with  the  ordinary  dress  of  the  people,  was  gradually  changed,  until  it  became 
the  peculiar  habit  of  the  order.  The  enlargement  or  diminution  of  the  pro- 
perty of  convents  was  produced  by  the  same  causes  as  those  which  affected 
Church  property  in  general,  but  inheritance  from  the  monks  was  the  ordi- 
nary, and  the  cultivation  of  the  desert  soil  was  the  noblest  method  by  which 
wealth  was  acquired.  In  consequence  of  the  rigidity  of  their  rules  and  the 
sanctity  of  their  founders,  many  of  these  orders  rapidly  increased  in  numbers, 
and  became  soon  involved  in  the  Inconsistency  of  having  devoted  themselves 
to  poverty,  and  yet  being  in  the  enjoyment  of  immense  wealth.  Monks  and 
nuns  sometimes  resided  under  the  same  roof  (monasterium  duplex.)  The 
secret  sins  or  the  public  ofibnces  of  individuals  and  of  whole  convents,  aro 
only  occasionally  mentioned,  and  then  only  because  they  were  brought  before 
the  ecclesiastical  courts.  In  the  establishment  of  monasteries  the  Church 
allowed  the  various  dispositions  of  individuals  to  be  gratified,  and  only  pro- 
vided by  their  legislation  that  these  diversities  should  all  be  confined  within 
the  limits  required  by  the  general  objects  of  the  order.  And  when  the 
monastic  life  had  assumed  a  great  variety  of  individual  forms,  and  appeared 
to  have  taken  every  possible  shape,  Innocent  III.  prohibited  the  formation 
of  any  new  orders,  (c) 

§  205.     The  Congregation  of  Clugny. 

Bibllotheca  Cluniacensis,  in  qua  SS.  Patrum  Abbatum  Vitae,  miracula,  scripta  rec.  Paris.  1611  f. 
The  Ordo  dim.  -was  accurately  described  in  the  llth  cent  by  Bernard  who  belonged  to  it  (Vetua 
discipL  monast  ed.  Iferrgott,  Par.  1726.  4  p.  183.)  The  Antiquiorea  Consuett.  Clun.  1.  IIL  by  C7- 
rich,  one  of  the  order  1070,  has  preserved  a  good  representation  of  affairs  at  Hirsau.  (D'Achery,  Spi- 
cil.  vol  I.  p.  641.)— Bemonia  Vita.  (Mdbitton,  Acta  SS.  8.  V.  p.  66.)  Odonia  Vita  by  his  pupil  Jo- 
hannes. (/&.  p.  150.)  OdOonis  Vita  by  his  pupil  Jotsaldua,  (Ib.  8.  VI.  p.  507.)— S.  WUhelmi  Constt 
Hiersaugiens.  (Herrgott,  p.  375.) 

The  rule  of  Benedict  had  been  re-established  by  Berno^  one  of  the  family 
of  the  Burgundian  Counts,  in  two  of  the  monasteries  under  his  control. 
Being  invited  by  William,  Duke  of  Aquitania,  to  form  a  convent  after  the 
same  model,  he  founded  that  of  Clugny  (Cluniacum,  910),  and  placed  it 
under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  pope.  His  successor,  Odo  (927-41), 
who  had  been  a  monk  in  his  habits  even  before  taking  the  monastic  vow,  was 
well  acquainted  with  the  true  method  of  governing  the  minds  of  men.  A 
rule  of  discipline  was  formed  under  him,  which,  by  severe,  uninterrupted, 
mechanical  employments  of  a  religious  nature,  so  completely  destroyed  all 
individuality  of  feeling,  that  the  ecclesiastical  and  monastic  spirit  became 
exclusively  active  in  the  hearts  of  the  members.  Under  Odilo  (994-1048). 
who  has  been  called  the  Archangel  of  the  monks,  and  during  the  administra- 

V)  E.  g.  the  priory  of  the  deux  amoureua  at  Eouen.  see  Kelyot,  vol.  II.  p.  471. 
c)  Cone.  Lateran  IV.  c.  13.  (Mansl  Th.  XXIL  p.  1002s.) 


CHAP,  lit    EOCLES.  LIFE.    §205.  CLUGNY.    §  206.  GRAMMONT.  227 

tion  of  a  series  of  abbots,  whose  inflexible  good  sense  never  allowed  them  to 
act  inconsistently  with  their  monastic  sanctity,  most  of  the  convents  in 
France,  carried  away  with  the  universal  admiration,  or  compelled  by  their 
princes  or  protectors,  became  subject  to  the  rule  and  government  of  the  con- 
gregation of  Clugny.  This  gave  rise  to  a  Congregation  of  Benedictines, 
which  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  embraced  about  2000  convents, 
principally  in  France.  At  the  head  of  these  was  placed  the  Abbot  of  Clugny, 
always  chosen  by  the  monks  of  his  own  convent,  from  whose  ranks  also  he 
almost  invariably  selected  the  priors  of  all  the  convents  belonging  to  the 
congregation.  The  legislative  and  supervisory  powers  were  vested  in  a 
General  Chapter  which  assembled  annually  at  Clugny,  The  very  heart  of 
the  French  nation  was  in  the  hands  of  the  monks  of  Clugny,  until  about  the 
commencement  of  the  12th  century,  when  the  order  withdrew  from  public 
affairs  and  lived  upon  its  own  resources.  An  instance  of  a  reformation  in  the 
midst  of  extreme  disorder  was  exhibited  in  Germany,  when  the  congregation 
of  Hirsau  was  established  there  (1069)  by  the  Abbot  William  after  the  model 
of  that  of  Ciagny, 

§  206,    Mlmr  Orders  of  the  llth  Century, 

1.  In  the  wilderness  of  the  Apennine  mountains  were  established  two  or- 
ders of  monks,  originally  composed  of  hermits,  but  gradually  connected  with 
convents.  The  first  of  these  was  called  the  Order  of  Camaldoli,  and  was 
founded  (about  1018)  by  the  pious  zeal  of  Romuald,  one  of  the  family  of  the 
Duke  of  Ravenna.  The  seco'nd  was  called  the  Order  of  Vallombrosa,  and 
originated  (about  1038)  in  the  rigid  austerity  of  John  Gnalbert,  a  Florentine. 
The  members  of  these  orders  vowed  that  they  would  abstain  even  from  or- 
dinary intellectual  enjoyments,  and  from  all  conversation  with  their  fellow- 
men.  At  a  later  period,  however,  they  endeavored  to  reconcile  this  con- 
tempt of  the  world,  and  self-mortification,  with  the  enjoyment  of  the  vast 
possessions  acquired  by  the  orders,  (a)  2.  Stephen  of  Tigerno  was  unwilling  to 
be  regarded  either  as  a  monk  or  a  hermit,  and  acknowledged  no  rule  but  that 
of  the  gospel.  With  the  sanction  of  Gregory  (1073)  he  founded  an  order 
subsequently  called  by  the  name  of  Gframmont.  This  determined  to  relin- 
quish its  own  beloved  convent  rather  than  to  defend  a  just  claim  by  a  legal 
process,  and  even  sincerely  declined  the  honor  of  the  miracles  imputed  to  its 
illustrious  founder,  because  it  thought  such  a  reputation  would  be  prejudicial 
to  humility.  After  a  rapid  growth,  however,  it  was  powerfully  agitated  by 
disputes  between  its  monks  and  those  lay  brethren,  who,  according  to  the 
Rule,  had  the  charge  of  its  secular  affairs.  The  result  was  that  in  the  12th 
century  it  entirely  lost  its  independence.  (5)  8.  Bruno  of  Cologne^  the  rector 
of  the  cathedral  school  and  a  Chancellor  at  Rheims,  disgusted  with  the  dis- 

a)  Romualdi  Vita,  scr.  Damlani.  (Mdblll.  Acta  SS.  S.  VI.  P.  L  p.  247.)  Rate  in  Holsten.  Th. 
II.  p.  192.  Archang.  ffastivill,  Romualdina  s.  Camaldulensis  O.  Hist  Par.  1631. 12.— Gualberti 
Vita  (Mabill,  Acta  S3.  8.  VI.  P.  II.  p.  278.)  Bullarium  Vallumbrosanum,  s.  bullae  Pontificum,  qui 
etmdem  Ord.  privileges  decoranmt,  a  Fulgentio  Nardio.  Flor.  1729. 

&)  Vita  &  Stephani  by  Gerhard,  the  7th  prior  of  Grammont  (Martene,  ampliss.  Col.  Th.  VI.  p. 
1050.  MaMllon,  Ann.  Ord.  S.  Ben.  Th.  V.  p.  65.)  Hist  prolixior  Prior,  Grandimont  (Marten*  ik 
p.  125.) 


228  MEDIAEVAL  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  SOO-12N5. 

graceful  life  of  his  archbishop,  renounced  the  world.  There  is  a  melancholy 
tale  which  assigns  another  cause  for  this  act,  hut  it  was  not  known  until  the 
close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  (c)  He  erected  huts  for  himself  and  a  few 
companions  (1048)  in  the  wild  mountain  gorge  of  Chartreuse  near  Grenoble. 
He  was  induced  by  his  former  pupil,  Urban  II.,  to  visit  Rome  (1090),  but  he 
soon  became  weary  of  a  secular  life  in  that  city,  and  after  refusing  the  bish- 
opric of  Reggio,  he  founded  a  new  Carthusian  monastery  in  Calabria,  in 
which  he  ended  his  days  (1101).  The  order  was  not  organized  into  a  society 
until  1141  in  the  mother  convent.  For  a  long  time  the  Carthusians  perse- 
vered in  the  practice  of  an  abstinence  so  strict  that  they  rejected  all  gifts 
except  necessary  food  and  skins  for  parchments.  The  wealth  they  received 
at  a  later  period  was  expended  in  the  embellishment  of  churches,  (d) 
4.  When  France  was  visited  by  a  disorder  called  St.  Anthony's  fire,  the  order 
of  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  Anthony  was  founded  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  by 
Gaston,  &  wealthy  nobleman  of  Dauphine,  from  gratitude  for  the,  recovery 
of  his  son  (1095).  At  first  it  consisted  entirely  of  lay  brethren,  but  after- 
wards it  was  composed  of  canons  under  the  Rule  of  Augustine,  (e)  0.  Robert 
of  Arlrissel,  at  an  early  period  a  divine,  then  a  superintendent  of  a  diocese,  and 
subsequently  a  preacher  of  repentance  and  of  the  crusades,  was  the  founder 
of  the  Benedictine  Congregation  of  Fontevraud,  for  penitents,  especially  of 
the  female  sex  who  had  once  fallen  from  virtue.  For  this  class  of  persons 
he  seems  to  have  felt  a  peculiar  interest,  and  therefore  fell  under  the  re- 
proaches of  his  contemporaries.  In  compliment  to  the  Queen  of  Heaven  the 
supreme  direction  of  the  society  was  intrusted  to  female  hands.  (/) 

§  207.     The  Cistercians  and  St.  Bernard. 

1)  Eelatio  qualiter  incepit  Ordo  Cisterciensis.  (Auberti  Mirael  Chron.  Cist  Orel  Colon.  1641.  p. 
8ss.)  Henriquez,  Eegula,  Constitt  et  Privil.  Ord.  Cist  Ant  1680.  t.—Manrlque,  Ann.  Cist  Lugd. 
1642.  4  Th.  f.  Pierre  le  Nain,  Hist  de  1'Ordre  de  Citeaux.  Par.  1696ss.  9  Th.  2)  Bernardi  Opp. 
(Letters,  Discourses,  Poems,  ascetic  writings.),  ed.  NaUtton,  Par.  1667. 1690.  6  Th.  f.  1719.  2  Th.  t. 
Ven.  172«.  2  Th.  1  Par.  1839.  2  Th.  Med.  1851s.  8  vols.  4.  IHs  life  by  contemporaries :  GuUelmus, 
Abbot  of  S.  Thierry,  Gaufredus  and  Alanus  de  Insulia,  Monks  of  Clairvaux.  (MdbUlon  Th.  I.  and 
Vl.)-Neander,  d.  h.  Benin,  u.  s.  Zeitalt  Berl.  (1818.)  1848.  [Tr.  into  Engl.  by  Wrench,  Lond.  1845. 
12mo.]  J.  Ellendorf,  Bernh.  u.  d.  Hier.  1888.  2  vols.  Balialonne,  Hist  d.  8.  Bern.  Par.  1843.  2  Th. 

Robert,  who  had  been  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  by  his  mother  before  his 
birth,  became  dissatisfied  while  yet  an  abbot  with  the  comfortable  life  of  the 
wealthy  monks,  and  founded  a  convent  at  Citeaux,  under  regulations  requir- 
ing the  most  extreme  poverty  (1098).  In  the  order  which  sprung  from  this, 
the  most  rigid  abstemiousness  was  demanded,  all  splendor  in  churches  was 
condemned,  and  its  members  promised  absolutely  to  submit  to  the  bishop  of  « 
the  diocese,  as  well  as  to  abstain  from  all  the  ordinary  employments  of  life, 
not  excepting  even  the  charge  of  souls.  The  internal  affairs  of  the  society 
were  directed  only  by  the  law  of  love ;  (a)  the  position  of  the  Abbot  of 

c)  Launoii  de  vera  causa  secessus  S.  Brnnonis  in  eremum.  Par.  1646.  (Opp.  Th.  II.  P.  II.  p.  824.) 

d)  Mabill.A.rm.  Th.  V.  p.  202ss.  and  Acta  S3.  S.  VI.  P.  II.  Praef.  p.  37ss.  Legends  respecting  the 
life  of  Bruno  may  be  seen  in  Acta  SS.  Oct  Th.  III.  p.  491ss. 

<)  Acta  SS.  Jan.  Th.  II.  p.  160.— Kapp,  de  fratrib.  S.  Ant  Lps.  1787.  4. 
/)  MaUllon,  Ann.  Th.  V.  p.  814ss.  Acta  SS.  Febr.  Th.  IIL  p.  593ss. 
o)  Charta  Charitatis.  (Manrique  Th.  I.  p.  109ss.) 


CHAP.  II*.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  20T.  CISTEECIANS.    BERNARD.  229 

Citeaux  and  the  government  by  annual  General  Chapters,  were  all  modelled 
after  the  Constitution  of  Clugny,  although  the  abbots  of  the  four  oldest 
affiliated  convents  gradually  attained  equality  with  the  Abbot  of  Citeaux 
(1119).  The  black  dress  of  the  Benedictines  was  exchanged  for  a  white 
cowl.  By  the  extreme  veneration  which  the  Cistercians  acquired  among 
their  contemporaries,  who  regarded  them  as  perfect  representatives  of  apos- 
tolic simplicity,  and  by  the  splendor  of  St.  Bernard's  name,  this  new  order 
was  able  to  vie  successfully  with  the  congregation  of  Clugny.  The  latter 
was  indeed  considerably  shaken  by  the  excesses  of  its  abbot,  Pontius 
(1109-25),  who  carried  the  staff  of  the  shepherd  and  of  the  pilgrim  in  the 
same  hand  which  bore  the  sword  of  the  highway  robber.  It  was,  however, 
enabled  to  close  this  controversy  honorably  to  itself  under  the  direction  of 
Peter  the-  Venerable  (1122-56).  (5)  Bernard  was  born  at  Fontaine,  of  a  fami- 
ly distinguished  for  monastic  piety.  Even  during  the  struggles  of  his  early 
youth  he  showed  that  he  was  by  natural  temperament  inclined  to  a  monastic 
life.  Accordingly  in  the  year  1113  he  became  a  monk  at  Citeaux,  and  in 
1115  the  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  a  convent  founded  by  persons  belonging  to 
that  community.  By  his  entire  disengagement  from  the  world,  he  seemed 
utterly  independent  of  the  rules,  and  was  actually  superior  to  all  those 
laws  by  which  men  are  usually  governed.  He  was  certainly  highly  endowed 
by  nature,  and  in  popular  estimation  as  well  as  in  his  own  opinion  he  pos- 
sessed the  power  of  working  miracles.  Educated  beneath  the  foliage  of  a 
mighty  forest,  his  thoughts  were  continually  directed  toward  heaven.  In 
spite  of  the  general  insipidity  of  the  age,  he  was  distinguished  by  an  elo- 
quence which  was  irresistible  even  by  those  who  could  not  fully  comprehend 
his  discourse.  He  was  rather  jealous  of  human  learning,  and  so  zealous  in 
behalf  of  the  Church  that  he  engaged  in  a  sanguinary  persecution.  He  was 
enthusiastic  in  his  efforts  to  promote  the  power  of  the  priesthood,  and  yet 
candid  and  severe  with  respect  to  their  irregularities.  In  almost  every  part 
of  Europe  he  beheld  those  whose  minds  he  had  formed  by  his  instructions 
seated  upon  episcopal  thrones,  he  himself  acted  as  an  umpire  in  nearly  all 
the  quarrels  which  took  place  between  different  princes  and  nations,  and  by 
the  diffusion  of  his  highly  theocratic  spirit  among  the  priesthood,  he  became 
the  most  influential  man  of  his  age.  By  his  influence  his  order  became  so 
powerful,  that  soon  after  his  death  (1153)  it  endeavored  to  excel  its  rivals  of 
Clugny,  not  so  much  in  humility  and  contempt  of  the  world  as  in  indepen- 
dence and  wealth. 

§  208.    Praemonstrants  and  Carmelites. 

Hermanni  MonacU  de  mirac.  s.  Mariae  laudes,  III,  2ss.  (Guiberti,  Opp.  ed.  tfAchery,  p.  544.) 
Acta  SS.  June.  Th.  I.  p.  S04ss.  Chrye.  van  der  Sterre,  Vita  S.  Norb.  Antu.  1656.  Hugo,  Vie  de  S. 
Norb.  Luxemb.  1704  4,  BibL  Ord.  Praemonst.  per  Jo.  U  Paige,  Par.  1633.  £ 

Joan.  Phocas,  compendiaria  descriptio,  etc.  (Leon.  Allatii  Symmicta.  Ven.  1733.  f.  p.  17.)  Jo- 
coU  de  Vitriaco  Hist.  Hieros.  c.  52.  (JBongars  Th.  I.  p.  1075.)  Rule  in  Hotiten.  Th.  III.  p.  ISss. 
Daniel  a  Virg.  Maria,  Speculum  Carmelitanum.  Antu.  1680.  4  Th.  £ 

Norbert  was  originally  a  canon  at  Cologne,  and  as  the  chaplain  to  Henry 

5)  Bernardi,  Apol.  ad  Guil.  (MaUllon  Th.  IV.  p.  83.)  Petri  Ven.  ad  Bern.  I.  Ep.  28.  IV.  Ep. 
17.  VI.  Ep.  4.  (Bibl.  PP.  Max.  Th,  XXII.)  Dialogus  inter  Cluniac.  mon.  et  Cist  de  diversis  utriusque 
Ord.  observv.  (Martene,  Thes.  Th.  V.  p.  1569.) 


230  MEDIAEVAL  OHUECH  HISTORY.  PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-I21* 

V.  lived  in  the  enjoyment  of  wealth,  with  the  brightest  prospects  of  promo- 
tion in  the  priesthood.  By  an  event  which  was  supposed  to  hear  a  strong 
resemblance  to  the  conversion  of  Paul,  he  was  induced  to  throw  all  these  aside, 
and  enter  upon  the  humble  employment  of  a  preacher  of  repentance.  After 
some  ineffectual  attempts  to  reform  other  canons,  he  founded  an  order  of  mo- 
nastic canons  in  the  unhealthy  vale  of  Premontre  (1120).  When  he  appeared 
preaching  repentance  at  the  Diet  of  Speyer,  he  was  elected  as  if  by  a  divine 
inspiration  to  the  vacant  archbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  and  entered  that  city 
in  the  garb  of  a  beggar.  A  powerful  storm  of  opposition  was  raised  against 
him  on  account  of  his  strenuous  efforts  to  induce  his  wealthy  retinue  there 
to  practise  the  same  abstemiousness  which  he  showed.  The  people,  how- 
ever, before  whose  fury  he  was  once  obliged  to  save  his  life  by  flight,  main- 
tained possession  of  his  body  us  though  it  were  the  sacred  palladium  of  their 
city,  in  opposition  to  the  demands  of  the  monks  of  Premontre.  Before  his 
death  (1134)  Norbert  witnessed  the  rapid  increase  of  his  order  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  numerous  chapters  and  convents  for  monk^  and  nuns. — Berthold, 
a  crusader  from  Calabria,  who  with  a  few  companions  had  resided  for  a  time 
in  a  cave  of  Mount  Carmel,  was  the  founder  of  the  order  of  the  Carmelites, 
though  his  claims  to  that  honor  have  been  denied  by  his  followers.  On  ac- 
count of  the  hallowed  recollections  connected  with  the  mountain  where  they 
resided,  and  the  similarity  of  the  habits  of  their  order  with  those  of  Elias, 
they  have  always  maintained  that  it  was  founded  by  that  ancient  prophet, 
and  continued  until  modern  times  by  a  series  of  successive  prophets,  (a) 
When,  by  the  conquests  of  the  Saracens,  the  Carmelites  lost  possession  of 
their  original  seat,  they  allege  that  the  holy  Virgin  gave  her  scapular  to 
Simon  Stock,  the  general  of  the  order,  that  it  might  become  thenceforth  the 
habit  of  all  its  members,  with  the  assurance  that  whoever  should  die  in  this 
dress  would  never  suffer  in  everlasting  fire.  (?>)  New  possessions  were  ac- 
quired by  these  Brethren  of  our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  in  every  country  of 
Europe. 

§  209.     The  Trinitarians. 

Bonaventura  Jfaro,  Annales  Ord.  S.  Trin.  Horn.  1CS4    Rnle  in  Zfofofe*.  Th.  III.  p.  8sa. 

The  vague  and  visionary  efforts  of  two  hermits,  John  de  Matha,  pre- 
viously a  Parisian  divine,  and  Felix  de  Valois,  appear  to  have  been  finally 
directed  to  a  definite  object  by  Innocent  IIL,  and  an  Order  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  was  established  for  the  redemption  of  Christian  slaves  (1198).  The 
first-fruits  of  its  efforts  were  exhibited  in  the  year  1200,  when  a  multitude 
of  Christians  purchased  from  slavery  in  Morocco  returned  to  their  homes. 
The  order  of  the  Trinitarians  (de  redemptione  captivorum,  Mathurins,  freres 
aux  &nes)  spread  itself  rapidly  in  all  parts  of  Southern  Europe.  Female 
convents  were  also  instituted,  and  through  many  vicissitudes  the  primary 
object  of  the  order  has  not  been  altogether  abandoned  even  to  a  very  recent 

a)  Papebroch  (Acts  SS.  April  Th.  I.  p.  774ss.  and  in  some  controversial  writings)  has  given  tb« 
toie  history  in  opposition  to  the  prolix  volumes  of  the  Carmelites.  [Mosheim  Hist  Cent.  XII.  Part 
II.  §  21.  McLain's  transl.] 

6)  Launoii  Dss.  de  Sim.  Stochii  viso.  Par.  1653.  (Opp.  Th.  II.  P.  II.) 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLE3.  LIFE.    §  210.  HUMILIATES.    §  211.  EELIG.  KNIGHTS.      23 1 

period.  The  residence  of  its  General  (minister  generalis),  and  the  place 
where  its  general  chapter,  composed  of  all  the  superiors  of  its  convents,  con- 
vened, was  at  Cerfroy,  where  the  two  original  hermits  were  once  visited  by 
a  white  deer  with  the  mark  of  a  cross  between  its  horns. 

§  210.     The  Humiliates. 

Tiraboschi,  vetera  Humiliatorum  monnmenta.  Mediol.  1766ss.  3  Th.  4. 

Many  felt  that  the  religious  should  be  brought  into  more  intimate  connec- 
tions with  the  secular  life  than  the  general  Church  at  that  time  was  able  to 
afford.  The  community  of  the  Humiliates  was  therefore  instituted  in  the 
eleventh  century,  composed,  at  first,  of  an  association  of  pious  Milanese  who 
had  been  exiled  from  their  native  city.  Gradually  it  became  extended  over 
all  parts  of  Lombardy,  and  embraced  principally  mechanics,  especially  weav- 
ers of  woollen  fabrics,  connected  together  by  the  bond  of  a  common  employ- 
ment, and  a  love  of  pious  exercises.  All  their  property  was  held  in  common. 
At  a  later  period  even  monks  and  priests  united  with  them,  and  took  part  in 
the  labors,  the  business,  and  the  trade  of  the  Society.  Their  community  was 
tolerated  by  the  hierarchy  on  the  ground  of  its  being  a  point  of  connection 
between  the  convent  and  the  world.  Innocent  III.  endeavored  to  give  it  a 
definite  position  by  imposing  upon  it  the  rule  of  Benedict,  and  it  was  sup- 
plied with  a  grand  master  in  1246.  Finally  it  became  secularized,  and  was 
abolished  by  Pius  V.  (1571). 

§  211.     Establishment  of  the  Orders  of  Knighthood. 

I.  Wil  Tyr.  1, 10.  XVIII,  4ss.  Jac.  de  VUriaeo  c.  64.  Ptol.  Veltronius,  Statuta  Ord.  hosp.  S. 
Jo.  Eom.  1588.  f.  HoUten.  Th.  II.  p.  444ss.— II.  (  Vertot.)  Hist,  des  Chevaliers  hospitallers  de  S.  Jean. 
Par.  1726.  4  Th.  4  1T61.  7  Th.  (Niethammer)  Gesch.  d.  Maltheserord.  nach  Yertot  Jen.  1792.  2  vols. 
Paoli,  dell'origine  ed  institute  del  ord.  di  S.  Giovanni.  Eom.  1781.  4.  Falkenstein,  Gesch.  d.  Job. 
Ord.  Dresd.  1833.  2  vols. 

I.  Wil.  Tyr.  XII,  7.  Jac.  de  Vitr.  c.  65.  Bernardi  Tract  de  nova  militia  a  adhortatio  ad  milites 
templi.  (Opp.  Th.  IV.  p.  98.)  HoUten.  Th.  II.  p.  429ss.  Hunter,  Statntenbuch.  Brl.  1794.  1  vol.— 
II.  P.  du  Puy,  Hist  des  Templiers.  Par.  1650.  Brux.  1751.  4  Uebers.  Frankf.  1665.  4  ITEstival, 
Hist  crit  et  apol.  des  Chev.  da  Temple.  Par.  1789.  2  Th.  4.  An  Epitome :  Die  Eitter  des  Temp,  zu 
Jerus.  Lpz.  1790.  2  vols.  Wileke,  Gesch.  d.  Temp.  Ord.  Lpz.  1826s.  2  vols.  Falkenstein,  Gesch.  d. 
Temp.  Ord.  Dresd.  1833.  2  vols.  [<7.  G.  Addison,  Hist  of  the  Knights  Templars,  &c.  Lond.  1843.  2 
ed.  8.  3  ed.  1854.  8.] 

I.  Statuten  des  dent  Ord.  edited  by  K  Ilennig,  Konigsb.  1806.  Petri  de  Dusburg  (about  1326), 
Chronic.  Prussiae  s.  Hist.  Ord.  Teut  ed.  HartknocTi,  Jen.  1679.  4  Codex  diplomatics  Ord.  Teut 
Urkundenbuch  z.  Gesch.  d.  deut  0.  ed.  by  J.  G.  Henne,  Mentz.  1845.— II.  Duellii,  Hist  Ord.  Equit 
Teut  Vind.  1727.  f.  Joh.  Voigt,  Gesch.  Preuss.  b.  z.  Untergange  d.  Herrsch.  d.  deutsctu  Ordens. 
Konigsb.  1827ss.  4  vols. 

The  various  orders  of  knighthood  which  sprung  np  during  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, were  the  legitimate  result  of  the  feudal  system  and  the  military  occupa- 
tions of  the  youth.  "When  regarded  as  an  affair  of  past  times,  this  system  is 
extolled  as  the  ideal  toward  which  noble  minds  were  induced  to  aspire,  but 
in  its  bitter  reality  it  was  the  ascendency  of  a  great  corporation,  whose 
power  was  restrained  by  Christian  customs,  and  embellished  by  the  princi- 
ples of  love  and  honor.  Duels  and  tournaments  were  always  zealously 
opposed  by  popes  and  synods,  but  the  system  of  knighthood  itself  was  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Church  because  it  enlisted  men  in  the  service  of  God,  and  for 


232  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  SOO-1216. 

the  defence  of  all  who  were  oppressed.  The  two  most  powerfu*  tendencies 
of  the  age  were  united  during  the  holy  wars  in  forming  a  spiritual  knight- 
hood which  combined  the  three  monastic  vows  -with  the  solemn  promise 
never  to  desist  from  a  conflict  with  unbelievers.  1.  Some  citizens  of  Amalfi, 
while  trading  with  Palestine,  had  (1048)  founded  a  hospital  for  the  reception 
of  pilgrims  to  Jerusalem.  The  fraternity  which  had  the  management  of  this 
hospital,  after  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Christians,  took  the  monas- 
tic vow  under  the  name  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Hospital,  dedicated  to  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  in  Jerusalem.  Raymond  du  Puy,  the  second  principal  of 
the  order,  to  their  former  duty  of  hospitality  and  attendance  upon  the  sick, 
added  that  of  knighthood  in  opposition  to  infidels  (about  1118),  and  this  soon 
became  the  principal  object  of  the  order.  2.  Nine  knights,  with  Hugo  de 
Pay  ens  as  their  master  (magister  militiae),  took  from  the  hand  of  the  Patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem  the  knightly  monastic  vow  (1118),  and  from  their  location 
in  the  royal  palace,  by  the  side  of  the  former  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  they 
assumed  the  name  of  Templars  (pauperes  commilitones  Christi  templique 
Salomonis).  3.  During  the  siege  of  Aine  (1190),  some  citizens  of  Bremen 
and  Lubeck  founded  a  hospital  which  was  favored  by  the  German  princes, 
and  under  Henry  of  Walpot  became  the  Order  of  the  German  Knights  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  Each  of  these  orders  embraced  three  estates,  viz.,  Knights, 
Priests,  and  Serving  Brethren.  In  this  latter  class  were  included  not  only 
all  who  were  engaged  in  manual  labor,  but  squires.  The  whole  was  arranged 
in  accordance  with  an  aristocratic  constitution,  under  the  government  of  a 
Grand  Master,  Commanders,  and  Chapters  of  Knights.  They  formed  the 
standing  army  of  the  Church  in  the  East,  but  as  a  general  society  of  noble- 
men they  acquired  vast  possessions  in  every  part  of  Europe.  The  Templars 
especially  soon  became  independent  by  their  own  power,  and  the  privileges 
granted  to  them  by  the  pope.  So  highly  was  their  spirit  of  devotion  to  the 
order  cultivated,  that  they  became  a  military  society  of  noblemen,  combining 
their  hereditary  powers  with  the  privileges  of  the  clergy.  It  was  not  long, 
therefore,  before  they  found  themselves  in  a  hostile  position  to  both  bishops 
and  kings.  Wherever  the  Church  in  any  way  stood  in  need  of  worldly 
weapons,  especially  in  Spain  while  contending  with  the  Moors,  and  in  Germa- 
ny in  connection  with  the  Cistercians,  similar  orders  of  knights  were  estab 
lished  of  a  purely  national  character. 


CHAP.  IV.— STATE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  CHUKCH. 

§  212.    Scientific  Education  of  the  Ninth  Century. 

Launoli  Ds.  de  scholis  celebr.  a  Car.  M.  et  post  eundem  instauratis.  Par.  1672.  Hamb.  1717.  Hist 
Htteraire  de  la  France  par  des  rel.  Benedictins.  Par.  1733ss.  Th.  IV.  V.  Cramer,  Bossuet,  Th.  V.  vol. 
II.  Hefele,  -wiss.  zust  im  sudwest  Deutschl.  9.  10.  und  11.  Jahrhh.  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1833.  P.  2.) 
Bdhr,  Gescb.  d.  rOrn.  Lit  im  Carol  Zeita.  Carlsr.  1840. 

The  diffusion  of  education  commenced  by  Charles  the  Great  was  con- 
tinued under  the  Carolingians  by  the  schools  established  in  the  cathedrals 
ind  convents.  The  most  efficient  agent  in  it,  so  far  as  related  to  Germany, 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  212.  E.  MAURUS.    CLAUDIUS.    EKIGENA.     233 

was  Edbanus  Maurus,  the  pupil  of  Alcuin,  and  tlie  friend  of  the  Emperor 
Louis  when  that  monarch  was  in  distress.  He  had  travelled  in  Palestine,  and 
in  822  was  called  to  preside  over  the  convent  of  Fulda,  Compelled  to  fly 
from  that  place  in  842,  he  soon  after  (847)  became  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  and 
died  in  856.  With  great  humility  he  devoted  himself  to  the  lowly  task  of 
collecting  the  various  explanations  of  the  Scriptures  found  in  the  writings 
of  the  fathers,  and  gave  a  minute  description  of  the  universe,  (a)  The  labors 
of  scientific  men  were  principally  directed  to  the  consideration  of  the  exter- 
nal forms  of  the  Church.  In  this  kind  of  literature,  as  well  as  in  his  course 
of  life,  Agobard,  Archbishop  of  Lyons  (died  841),  may  be  regarded  as  the 
representative  of  the  moderate  opposition  raised  in  the  French  Church 
against  praying  to  images,  and  all  kinds  of  superstition.  (5)  Claudius, 
Bishop  of  Turin  (d.  about  840),  a  great  admirer  of  Augustine,  presents  us 
with  a  specimen  of  the  stormy  battle  then  waged  against  the  worship  of 
images,  popes,  and  saints,  (e)  Hincmar,  Archbishop  of  Bheims  (died  882), 
shows  the  position  of  an  ecclesiastical  statesman  standing  between  kingsy 
popes,  and  bishops,  sometimes  in  the  character  of  a  friend,  and  sometimes  in 
that  of  an  opponent,  frequently  with  great  earnestness,  but  always  with  dex- 
terity and  dignity  in  times  of  extreme  peril,  defending  the  rights  of  the 
national  Church  and  of  his  archbishopric,  (d}  Haymo,  Bishop  of  Halber- 
stadt  (died  853),  brought  to  the  recollection  of  his  contemporaries  the  views 
of  the  primitive  Church  by  means  of  a  much-used  epitome  of  the  Latin 
translation  of  Eusebius.  (e)  Jonas,  the  successor  of  Theodolf  in  the  bishopric 
of  Orleans,  in  opposition  to  Claudius  defended  the  customs  of  the  Church  of 
that  period,  so  far,  at  least,  as  they  proceeded  from  a  pious  disposition.  The 
advice  he  gave  to  laymen  was  superior  to  the  prejudices  of  the  Church,  and 
frequently  attained  the  enlarged  philanthropy  required  by  the  gosple.  (/) 
John  Scotus  (or)  Erigena  (d.  about  880),  who  resided  at  the  court  of  Charles 
the  Bald,  though  he  was  originally  educated  in  the  British  school,  under  the 
influence  of  the  writings  of  Origen  and  the  Areopagite,  stood  so  isolated 
from  his  contemporaries,  and  so  far  superior  to  his  times,  that  his  doctrines 
were  not  sufficiently  understood  to  be  condemned  by  the  Church  until  the 
thirteenth  century,  (g)  To  his  profound  conceptions  of  the  divine  immen- 

a)  Opp.  ed.  Colvenerius,  Col.  1627.  6  Th.  f.  Migne.  (Patrolog.  Par.  1S62.  vols.  CVIL-XII.)— 
F.  n.  C.  Schwarz,  de  Ehab.  M.  primo  Germ,  praeceptore.  Heidelb.  1811.  4.  Tub.  Quartalschr.  1838. 
P.  3s.  F.  Kunstmann,  Hraban.  Mentz.  1841. 

&)  Opp.  ed.  Baluz.  Par.  1666.  2  Th.  (Galland.  Th.  XIII.  p.  405.)  HundesJiagen,  de  Agob.  vita 
et  scriptis.  Giess.  1832.  P.  I. 

c)  Fragments  in  Flacii  Catal.  test  verit  p.  936.  Bibl.  PP.  Max.  Th.  XIV.  p.  197.  MaWlov, 
rett  Anal.  p.  90.  Rudelbaeli,  Claud,  inedit  opp.  specimina.  Hafn.  1824.  <?.  Schmid,  Claud.  (Zeitschr. 
hist.  Th.  1843.  H.  2.) 

of)  Opp.  ed.  Sirmond,  Par.  1645.  2  Th.  f.  Flodoard,  Hist  ecc.  Kern.  Ill,  15-29.  Hist  lit  de  la 
France.  Th.  V.  p.  544ss.  Gess,  Merkwurdigk.  a.  Leben  u.  Schrr.  Hincm.  Gott  1806. 

<?)  De  Christ  rerum  memoria  s.  Hist  ecc.  breviarium,  ed.  Boxhorn,  Lugd.  1650.  JMufcr, 
Helmst  1671. 

/)  De  cultu  imaginum  1.  III.  a.  840.  (BibL  PP.  Lugd.  Th.  XIV.  p.  167.  De  institut  laicali  1.  III. 
a.  828.  (PAchery,  Spicil.  ed.  2.  Th.  I.  p.  258.)  De  institut  regia.  (/&.  p.  824.) 

g)  De  divisione  naturae  L  V.  ed.  Gale,  Oxon.  1681.  f.  ScMuter,  Monast.  1838.— P.  ffjort.  J.  Scot 
o.  v.  Urspr.  e.  chr.  Phil.  Kopenh.  1823.  Fronmuller,  Lehre  des  J.  Sc.  v.  Bosen.  (Tub,  Zeitschr. 
1830.  P.  1.  3.)  Staudenmaier,  J.  Sc.  u.  d.  Wissensch.  sr.  Zeit  Frkf.  1S34.  vol.  I.  Hock,  J.  Sc.  (Bonn, 


234  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IIL    A,  D.  800-1216. 

sity,  the  world  was  one  vast  Theophany  in  different  forms  of  development, 
the  Incarnation  was  simply  the  reconciliation  of  the  finite  with  the  infinite, 
the  sacred  Scriptures  were  the  necessary  terms  in  which  the  truth  must  be 
expressed,  in  adaptation  to  human  infirmity,  and  religion  and  philosophy 
were  the  twofold  form  in  which  the  same  essential  spirit  was  manifested.  A 
German  poetic  composition,  (A)  in  which  the  evangelical  history  was  repre- 
sented with  all  the  peculiarities  of  the  Germanic  popular  life,  was  a  dawn 
without  a  day,  since  all  literature  continued  to  be  written  in  Latin,  and  sci- 
ence, even  when  laymen  took  part  in  it,  was  wholly  of  an  ecclesiastical  char- 
acter (clergie).  During  the  stormy  period  which  followed  the  subversion  of 
the  house  of  Charles  the  Great,  the  more  eminent  lights  of  literary  culture 
were  either  wholly  extinguished,  or  were  concealed  behind  the  walls  of  con- 
vents, where  their  beams  were  only  occasionally  visible.  That  portion  of 
Anglo-Saxon  Christian  literature  which  Alfred  the  Great  (871-901)  saved  by 
his  sword,  and  animated  with  the  antique  traditions  of  ecclesiastical  learning, 
was  apparently  lost  at  his  death.  (?) 

§  213.    First  JEucharistic  Controversy. 

While  attempting  to  present  the  mysterious  import  of  the  Liturgy,  Pas- 
cJiasius  Itadbert  advanced  the  doctrine  that  the  substance  of  the  consecrated 
bread  and  wine  in  the  Eucharist  was  changed  into  the  very  body  of  Christ 
which  was  born  of  the  virgin.  This  was  declared  to  be  an  act  of  creation 
by  almighty  power,  though  invisible  to  any  but  an  eye  of  faith,  (a)  This 
sentiment  was  opposed  by  the  learned  writers  of  that  age,  especially  by 
Rdbanus  Maunis,  by  Ratramnus,  a  monk  of  Corbie,  who  maintained  the 
indefinite  view  prevalent  in  the  primitive  Church,  according  to  which  there 
was  simply  a  communion  of  the  earthly  with  the  heavenly,  and  by  Erigena, 
to  whom  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  could  present  nothing  but  a 
sign  of  an  omnipresent  God.  (5)  The  doctrine  of  Paschasius  must  have  been 
well  adapted  to  the  popular  understanding,  from  which,  indeed,  it  may  have 
taken  its  rise,  since  even  before  this  the  consecrated  bread  had  been  changed 
under  the  hands  of  Gregory  the  Great  into  a  bleeding  finger,  (c) 

Zeitschr.  f.  Phil.  u.  Th.  1835.  II.  16.)  JR.  Matter,  J.  Sc.  Mainz.  1844  A.  Torstrick,  Phil.  Erigenae 
ex  ipsius  principiis  delineata.  Gott  1844  P.  I. 

7i)  Comp.  (nose's)  Leben  Jesu.  p.  38. 

€)  Asserii  Hist  de  reb.  Alfr.  ed.  Wise,  Oxon.  1722.  F.  L.  v.  Stotberg,  Leb.  Alfr.  Munst  1815. 
[Rob.  Pmoell,  Life  of  A.  the  Great  Lend.  1634  12.  Reinhold  Pauli,  King  Alfred,  &c.  Transl.  Lend. 
1852.  Life  of  A,  by  Spelman,  Lond.  1840.  F.  Steinetz,  The  Mod.  Mon.  &c.  in  a  Life  of  Alfred  tha 
Gr.,  from  the  German  of  A.  V.  Hotter,  &c.  Lond.  1849.]  Weiss,  Gesch.  Alfr.  Schaffh.  1852. 

a)  De  corpore  et  sang.  Domini  s.  de  sacramentis,  831.  the  later  edition,  844.  dedicated  to  Charles 
the  Bald,  is  in  Martene,  CoL  arnpL  Th.  IX.  p.  367.  Ep.  ad  Frudegardnm  in  Bibl.  PP.  Lugd.  Th. 
XIV.  p.  754ss. 

&)  Rdbani  Ep.  ad  Heribald.  (MaUtton,  vett  Analect  ed.  2.  p.  17.)  Eatramni  de  corp.  et  sang. 
Dom.  L.  ad  Carol.  Col.  582.  ed.  J.  JSoileau,  Par.  (1686.)  1712. 12.  Often  attributed  to  Erigena.— Lattjt 
&.  d.  verloren  gehaltne  Schrift  des  Job.  Sc.  v.  d.  Euchar.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1828.  vol.  I.  H.  4.) 

c)  Pauli  Diac.  Vita  Greg.  M.  c.  23.    Joan.  Diac.  II,  41.    Pasc7i»  Rod.  c.  14 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  214.  GOTTSCHALK.    §  215.  HEOSWITHA.       235 

§  214.     GottschalJc.     Cont.  from  §  212. 

O.  Mauguin,  vett  auctorum  qui  s.  IX.  de  praed.  scripserunt,  opp.  et  fragm.  Par.  1650.  2  Th.  4. 
Mansi  Th.  XIV.  XV.— J.  Usserius,  Gotteschalci  et  praedestinatianae  controv.  Hist  (Dubl.  1631.  4) 
Han.  1662.  Against  Gottschalk :  Z.  Cellot,  Hist  Gottesc.  praedestinatiani.  Par.  1655.  f.  [Biblical  Ee- 
pertory,  vol.  XII.  No.  II.  p.  225ss.  Neander,  Hist  of  Chr.  EeL  Transl.  by  Torrey,  vol.  III.  p.  472ss.] 

The  authority  of  Augustine  had  continued  unimpaired  till  the  middle 
ages,  though  his  peculiar  doctrines  were  generally  misunderstood,  and  almost 
universally  rejected.  Gottschalk  was  a  monk,  of  a  noble  Saxon  family,  who 
even  in  his  childhood  had  been  devoted  to  a  monastic  life.  At  a  synod  which 
met  at  Mentz  (829),  he  obtained  a  release  from  his  monastic  vow,  but  by  the 
influence  of  his  abbot,  Rdbanus,  this  decision  was  subsequently  reversed. 
His  excited  spirit  now  sought  tranquillity  in  the  perusal  of  the  writings  of 
Augustine,  in  a  removal  to  the  convent  of  Orbais,  and  in  a  pilgrimage  to 
Eome.  In  the  most  decided  forms  of  expression  he  announced  his  doctrine 
of  a  double  predestination,  founded  upon  the  absolute  foreknowledge  of  God, 
according  to  which  some  were  elected  to  life,  and  others  were  consigned  to 
destruction.  Personal  bitterness  was  combined  with  the  aversion  felt  in  the 
Gallican  Church  towards  Augustinism,  and  Gottschalk  was  condemned, 
through  the  influence  of  Rabanus,  at  the  second  Synod  of  Mentz  (848),  and 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  metropolitan,  Hincmar  of  Rheims.  (a)  The 
cause  of  Gottschalk,  or  rather  of  Augustine,  was  sustained  by  all  the  learning 
of  Ratramnus,  and  the  hierarchical  authority  of  Remigius,  Archbishop  of 
Lyons.  On  the  other  hand,  Hincmar  defended  the  Frankish  doctrine  that 
man  was  indeed  free  and  yet  needed  divine  grace,  and  Erigena  contended  for 
the  perfect  unity  of  the  divine  decrees.  (5)  The  controversy  remained  unde- 
cided, but  Gottschalk,  worn  down  by  hierarchical  violence,  and  absorbed  in 
private  reveries  by  which  his  life  was  beguiled  away,  died  excommunicated 
but  unsubdued  in  prison  (868). 

§  215.     Literary  Interest  during  the  Tenth  Century,  under  the  Othos. 

So  strong  were  the  recollections  of  classic  antiquity  awakened  in  the 
court  of  the  imperial  house  of  Saxony  by  its  connection  with  Constantinople, 
that  it  began  to  indulge  the  dream  of  restoring  the  Roman  empire  to  its 
original  form.  The  decisions  pronounced  by  the  various  emperors  with  re- 
gard to  the  popes,  gave  them  an  opportunity  to  speak  freely  respecting  the 
abuses  then  practised  in  the  Church.  The  Arabians  had  ever  since  the  eighth 
century  monopolized  the  natural  sciences  as  the  appropriate  product  of  their 
own  civilization,  together  with  every  thing  in  Greek  literature  which  related 
to  them.  The  school  they  had  established  at  Cordova  (after  980)  excited  the 
attention  of  the  neighboring  Christian  countries,  (a)  As  an  evidence  of  the 
classic  education  which  existed  in  the  imperial  court,  Eroswitha  (Helena  v. 


a)  De  praedest  contra  Gottsch.  Epp.  III.  ed.  Sirmond,  Par.  1647.  (The  Letters  of  Eabanus  are 
also  in  Mauguin  Th.  I.  P.  I.  p.  8ss.)  Two  unprinted  letters  of  Eab.  respecting  Gottsch.  (Tub. 
Quartalschr.  1836.  H.  3.)  Flodoard,  H.  ecc.  Eem.  Ill,  28.  Mansi  Th.  XIV.  p.  919. 

ft)  Ratramni  de  praed.  1.  II.  (Mauguin  Th.  I.  P.  I.  p.  27.)  Remigii  L.  de  trib.  epp.  (/&.  Th. 
II.  P.  I.  p.  61.)  Ilincmar,  de  praed.  Dei  et  lib.  arb.  (1st  sect  lost  Opp.  vol.  I.)  De  tribus  epp.  L. 
Opp.  vol.  I.  Maug.  Th.  II.  P.  II.  p.  67.)  Erigena,  de  praed.  Dei.  (Mauguin  Th.  I.  P.  I.  p.  103.) 

a)  Middledorpf,  de  institutis  literariis  in  Hisp.  quae  Arabes  auctores  habuerunt  Goett  1810.  4 


236  MEDIAEVAL  CttUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  IIL    A.  D.  800-1216. 

Rossow,  died  about  984),  a  nun  of  Gandersheim,  may  be  mentioned.  She 
recounted  the  exploits  of  Otho  the  Great  in  rhyme  and  in  hexameter  verse, 
and  expressed  the  great  principles  of  Christianity  in  the  style  of  Terence.  (5) 
On  the  other  hand,  Noiker  Ldbeo,  superintendent  of  the  school  in  the  con- 
vent Of  St.  Gall  (died  1022),  availed  himself  of  his  knowledge  of  the  ancient 
languages  to  give  translations  from  them  into  the  High  German,  (c)  Ratherius, 
Bishop  of  Verona  and  Liege  (d.  974),  though  sometimes  a  wanderer  and  even 
a  prisoner  in  consequence  of  the  political  commotions  of  Italy  and  his  own 
ardent  temperament,  in  bitter  and  pointed  language  held  up  before  his  cleri- 
cal brethren  a  picture  of  their  own  corruptions,  and  the  duties  required  of 
them  by  the  ancient  laws  of  the  Church,  (d)  The  Arabic  influence  was 
represented  by  Gerbert.  (e)  In  subsequent  times  he  has  been  looked  upon  as 
a  magician,  and  perhaps  the  spirit  of  his  age  rendered  it  necessary  that  astro- 
nomy should  partake  in  some  degree  of  the  character  of  astrology.  But  the 
importance  which  the  school  of  Rheims  attained  under  his  management,  and 
the  estimation  in  which  he  was  held  both  in  France  and  Germany,  proves 
that  he  was  not  as  isolated  and  unappreciated  in  his  own  day  as  the  Italian 
accounts  imply.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  the  clergy  in  general  were  by 
no  means  in  advance  of  the  age  in  whiclj  they  lived,  and  it  required  no  great 
skill  on  the  part  of  any  one  to  subject  a  bishop  who  should  exhibit  his  know- 
ledge of  Latin  in  the  sacred  desk,  to  the  most  awkward  imputations.  (/) 

§  216.  Academical  Studies  in  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Centuries. 
No  sooner  was  there  sufficient  order  secured  in  the  state  and  in  the 
Church  to  afford  opportunity  for  a  tranquil  elevation  and  communion  of 
spirit  among  men,  than  the  exuberance  of  life  which  had  long  been  concealed 
broke  forth  in  the  cultivation  of  science.  An  appropriate  instrument  for  the 
intellectual  energy  then  awakened  was  found  in  the  recently  discovered  Latin 
translation  of  the  dialectic  writings  of  Aristotle,  (a)  There  were  still  pre- 
served some  remnants  of  a  Roman  empire  and  laws,  and  the  condition  of  the 
Lombard  cities  rendered  the  development  of  these  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance.  Accordingly,  about  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  Ro- 
man law  was  reduced  by  Irnerius  to  a  new  scientific  form,  and  applied  to 
new  relations  as  a  European  Christian  law.  (&)  For  the  cultivation  of  these 
laws  several  universities  were  established.  That  of  Bologna  was  at  first 
merely  a  school  for  the  study  of  Law,  while  that  of  Paris  was  for  the  study 
of  Dialectics  and  Theology.  In  the  former,  the  highest  powers  of  the  corpo- 
ration (universitas)  were  vested  in  the  pupils,  but  in  the  latter  they  were  in 
the  hands  of  the  Doctors.  They  owe  their  establishment  not  to  the  favor  of 

Z>)  Carmina  Ottonis  I.  Comediae  sacrae  VL  (Opp.  ed.  Setiurzfleisch,  Vit  1707.  4.) 

c)  Catalogue  in  R,  v.  Raumer,  p.  38ss. 

d)  De  Contemtu  canonum.    Apologia  sui  ipsias.    De  discordia  inter  ipsum  et  clericos.    Medita- 
tiones  cordis  s.  praeloq.  (Opp.  ed.  Ballerini,  Veron.  \!®>.)—Engelhardt,  u.  Bather.  (KGeschichtL 
Abhh.  Erl.  1832.  N.  5.)    Neander,  Leben  d.  Eather.  (Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  W.  1851.  N.  86.) 

e)  Comp.  §  178.  note  g.    Eespecting  Gerbert's  works,  see  Hock,  GerberL  p.  166ss. 

/)  Vita  Meinwerci  c.  81.  (Leibn.  Scrr.  rer.  Brunsv.  p.  555.)    Comp.  Saxo  Gramm.  1.  XI.  ed. 
$tep?tan.  p.  209. 

a)  Jburdain,  Eecherches  critiq.  sur  1'age  et  Torigine  des  traductions  lat  d'Aristote.  Par.  1S19. 
&)  Savigny,  Gesch.  d.  rum.  Eechts  in  Mit.  Alt  3  &  4  vols. 


CIIAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  216.  UNIVERSITIES.    §  217.  BEEENGAR.       237 

i 

popes  or  princes,  but  to  the  necessities  of  the  times,  as  thousands  of  students 
were  drawn  together  by  the  reputation  of  some  distinguished  teacher.  Acts 
of  incorporation  were  not  sought  for  from  the  pope  until  a  later  period,  when 
the  younger  universities  endeavored  by  such  means  to  rival  those  which  de- 
pended upon  their  own  reputation.  The  advantages  springing  from  these 
seats  of  science,  which  controlled  the  opinions  of  the  succeeding  generation, 
were  so  apparent  that  the  popes  were  anxious  by  special  favors  to  secure 
their  attachment  to  themselves,  and  render  them  institutions  in  which  Chris- 
tian studies  generally  (studium  generale)  might  be  pursued,  (c)  By  the  influence 
of  these  universities  science  became  generally  diffused,  at  least  among  the 
higher  classes,  but  in  spite  of  the  freedom  of  its  development,  it  still  con- 
tinued subservient  to  partial  corporate  interests,  enveloped  in  barbarous 
Latin,  and  almost  exclusively  of  an  ecclesiastical  character. 

§  217.     The  Second  Eucharistic  Controversy. 

I.  Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  757ss.    Adelmani  Ep.  de  verit  corp.  et  sang.  Dom.  ed.  C.  A.  Schmidt, 
Brunsv.  1770.    Lanfrcmci  L.  de  euchar.  Bacr.  c.  Ber.  (1063-70.)  Bas.  1523.  and  often.  (Opp.  ed. 
D'Achery,  Par.  1648.  f.  p.  230.)    Bereng.  L.  de  s.  coena  c.  Lanfr.  before  1073.    (The  edit,  of  the 
Wolfenbiittel  MSS.  made  known  by  Leasing,  and  half  finished  by  Siciudlin  and  Ilemsen  in  6  Pg. 
Goett  1820-29.  4.)    Edd.  A.  F.  and  F.  Th.  Viseher,  Ber.  1834.    Acta  Cone.  Rom.  sub  Greg.  VII. 
a  Bereng.  conscripta.  (Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  761.)    Bernaldus  Const,  (an  opponent  of  Berengar)  do 
Ber.  damnatione  multiplici.  108S.  (Matth.  Rieberer,  Raccolta  Ferrarese  di  opp.  scientific!.  Ven.  1789. 
Th.  XXI.) 

II.  Nabillon  de  multiplic.  Ber.  damnatione.  (Analect  Th.  II.)    Lessing,  Ber.  Turon.  o.  Ankund. 
e.  wichtigen  Werks  dess.  Brunschw.  1770.  4.  (Schriften.  vol.  VIII.  p.  314ss.    Stdudlin,  annuntiatur 
editio  libri  -Ber.  simul  omnino  de  scriptis  ejus.  Goett  1814.  4.     Ibid.   Ber.   Tnr.  (Stdudl.  u. 
TzscMrn.  Archiv.  1814.  vol.  II.  St.  1.)     [IT.  Sudendorf,  Ber.  Tur.  o.  e.  Samml.  ihn  betreff.  Briefe. 
Hainb.  1S50.] 

Berengar  (after  1031),  the  superintendent  of  the  cathedral  school  of 
Tours,  and  (after  1040)  archdeacon  at  Angers,  maintained,  in  opposition  to 
the  new  doctrine  advanced  by  Paschasius,  that  there  was  a  change  in  the 
sacramental  elements  only  in  a  figurative  sense.  He  contended  that  not  the 
earthly  elements  themselves,  but  their  influences  were  changed  by  their  con- 
nection with  Christ  in  heaven,  who  was  to  be  received  not  by  the  mouth 
but  by  the  heart,  These  views  he  expressed  in  a  letter  to  his  learned  friend 
Lanfranc,  at  that  time  Scholasticus  (superintendent  of  a  cathedral  school) 
in  the  convent  of  Bee,  but  afterwards  (1070)  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
The  latter  carried  out  the  doctrine  of  Paschasius,  by  saying  that  the  actual 
body  of  Christ  in  heaven  remained  entirely  unaffected  by  the  change  in  the 
elements  on  earth.  This  letter  of  Berengar  being  denounced  before  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities,  (a)  his  doctrine  was  condemned  at  synods  held  at  Rome 
and  Vercelli  (1050).  Learned  friends  advocated  his  cause,  but  public  opinion 
was  against  him.  His  doctrine  admitted  of  a  variety  of  interpretations,  and 
left  the  subject  in  the  vague  state  in  which  it  had  been  held  in  past  times ; 
while  that  of  his  opponents  presented  a  clearly  defined  idea,  and  threw  great 

c)  Bulaei,  Hist  Univ.  Paris.  1665-73.  6  Th.  f.  Crevier,  H.  de  TUniv.  de  Paris.  Par.  1761.  7  Th. 
12.  Dularle,  H.  de  TUniv.  Par.  1829.  Th.  l.—Savigny,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  Rechts  im  MA.  vol.  Ill 
p.  18683. 

a)  Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  768. 


238  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

honor  upon  the  forms  of  worship,  by  making  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  a  glo- 
rious Theophany.  Hildebrand  was  at  that  time  legate,  and  not  only  person- 
ally the  friend  of  Berengar,  but  in  sentiment  tolerant  toward  his  opinions. 
But  at  the  Synod  of  Tours  (1054),  this  prelate  was  prudent  enough  to  save 
his  reputation  for  orthodoxy  by  the  simple  scriptural  confession  that  the 
bread  and  wine  in  the  Lord's  Supper  were  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
Berengar,  however,  was  without  sufficient  influence  at  Rome  (1059)  to  de- 
fend his  opinions  against  the  rude  violence  of  his  enemies,  and  finally  he  con- 
sented to  subscribe  a  confession  in  which  a  grossly  carnal  participation  in  the 
flesh  and  blood  of  Christ  was  asserted.  But  no  sooner  were  his  feet  beyond 
the  Alps  than  he  recalled  this  confession,  with  bitter  execrations  against  what 
he  called  Satan's  seat  at  Kome.  The  controversy  was  continued  with  equal 
literary  skill  on  both  sides,  in  a  learned  correspondence  between  him  and 
Lanfranc,  the  keenest  dialectician  of  the  age.  The  whole  spirit  of  the  times, 
however,  was  arrayed  against  Berengar,  because  he  contended  for  a  spiritual 
and  against  a  sensuous  conception  of  Christianity.  At  a  Synod  held  at  Rome 
(1078),  Gregory  made  one  more  effort  to  secure  indulgence  for  the  conscience 
of  his  friend  by  presenting  a  formula  of  a  general  nature,  but  even  he  was 
obliged  to  give  way  before  the  zealots  who  surrounded  him,  and  (1079)  to 
demand  a  more  decided  declaration.  Although  even  this  was  subsequently 
recanted  by  Berengar,  he  was  protected  by  the  influence  of  Gregory,  and 
lived  in  retirement  on  the  island  of  St.  Come,  where  he  died  (1088) 
amidst  the  blessings  of  the  Church.  His  memory  was  for  a  long  time  hon- 
ored in  Tours,  but  the  doctrine  that  there  was  a  change  in  the  nature  of  the 
sacramental  elements,  although  the  outward  phenomena,  in  order  to  try  the 
faith  of  believers,  remained  the  same,  had  now  obtained  the  victory.  Tran- 
substantiation  by  the  hand  of  the  priest  was  made  an  article  of  faith  at  the 
great  Council  of  Lateran.  (&) 

§•218.    Scholasticism.    First  Period. 

L.  Danaeus,  Prolegg.  in  Sentt  Lomb.  (Opp.  theol.  Gen.  1583.  t  p.  1093.)  TribbecTiotius,  de 
doctorib.  schol.  (1665)  ed.  neumann,  Jen.  1719.  Cramer,  Bossuet,  vol.  V.-VII.  Eberstein,  naturl. 
Theol.  dcr  Schol.  Lpz.  1803.  Jiitier,  u.  Begr.  u.  Verlauf.  d.  chr.  PhlL  (Stnd.  u.  KriL  1833.  IL  2.  p. 
286ss.)  Histories  of  Philosophy,  especially  by  Degerando,  Hegel,  Eittcr,  [O.  H.  Lewes,  Dugald 
Stewart,  V.  Cousin,  and  C.  8.  Henry.] 

In  the  Berengarian  controversy  Scholasticism  had  commenced  its  develop- 
ment. This  was  a  kind  of  knighthood  in  Theology,  a  natural  result  of  the 
free  power  of  thought  in  connection  with  the  absolute  ascendency  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church.  Academical  studies  were  pursued  without  restraint, 
Aristotle's  Logic  was  universally  admired,  and  the  whole  movement  of  the 
age  was  vigorous,  though  partially  turned  aside  from  what  experience  shows 
to  be  the  sober  reality  of  life.  All  these  circumstances  had  given  occasion 
for  its  existence,  and  its  whole  power  was  now  to  be  exerted  in  proving  that 
the  doctrines  which  had  been  previously  adopted  by  the  Church  were  abso- 
lutely true  in  the  view  of  an  intelligent  mind,  and  in  defending  their  neces- 
sity. After  a  brief  struggle  it  was  completely  triumphant  over  the  Theology 

&)  Cone.  Later.  IV.  c,  1.  (Mansi  Th.  XXII.  p.  981.)    [Landon,  p.  29888.] 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  218.  ANSELM.    P.  LOMBABD.  239 

which  had  no  other  hasis  than  that  of  authority,  and  during  its  first  period  it 
was  wholly  employed  in  giving  subtlety  to  the  thoughts  of  the  common  mind  by 
Aristotelian  formulas.  In  the  very  commencement  of  its  course  we  find  Anselm 
of  Aosta,  the  pupil  of  Lanfranc,  and  the  successor  of  that  prelate,  not  only  in  the 
monastic  school,  but  also  (after  1093)  in  the  archiepiscopal  office  (died  1109). 
Though  always  humble,  he  exhibited  extraordinary  powers  of  mind  not  only 
as  a  theologian,  but  as  a  dignitary  of  the  Church.  The  knowledge  he  sought 
was  that  with  which  faith  supplied  him,  though  he  endeavored  to  complete 
the  ecclesiastical  system  of  truth  on  the  basis  of  Augustine's  Theology,  by 
his  doctrine  of  Satisfaction  for  sin,  and  to  found  a  rational  system  by  his 
proof  of  the  divine  existence.  According  to  him,  a  recognition  of  the  divine 
existence  is  necessarily  involved  in  a  complete  self-consciousness,  and  immor- 
tality and  salvation  were  the  direct  result  of  the  love  of  God.  This  religion, 
which  had  been  wholly  lost  by  sin,  could  be  restored  in  no  other  way  than 
by  the  expiatory  death  of  the  incarnate  God.  (a)  At  the  close  of  this  period 
appeared  Peter  Lombard,  an  academical  teacher,  and  (after  1159)  Bishop  of 
Paris  (d.  1164).  In  his  Sentences,  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  Church  is  de- 
rived from  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  but  it  is  compiled  and  arranged  in 
such  a  way  as  to  constitute  a  scientific  whole.  This  work  became  the  man- 
ual in  universal  use  during  the  century  in  which  it  was  published,  and  gave 
its  character  to  that  which  followed.  This  distinction  was  due  not  so  much 
to  its  acnteness  or  its  profundity,  as  to  the  ecclesiastical  position  of  its  author, 
its  happy  adjustment  of  opposite  views,  and  its  plainness  to  the  popular 
mind.  (&)  In  the  speculative  views  which  constituted  the  basis  of  its  system 
of  truth,  was  apparent  a  principle  which  had  been  much  discussed  in  the  old 
Greek  philosophy  under  the  name  of  Nominalism  and  Eealism.  The  former 
regarded  all  general  ideas  (universalia)  as  nothing  but  abstractions  of  the 
human  understanding,  and  derived  from  the  objects  presented  to  its  observa- 
tion (post  rem) ;  while  the  latter  viewed  them  as  having  their  origin  entirely 
in  the  mind  itself  (ante  rem),  or  according  to  a  turn  of  expression  at  one 
time  prevalent,  and  introduced  for  the  sake  of  compromise,  as  that  which  is 
essential  in  every  thing  actual  (in  re),  (c)  These  opposite  views  had  a  theo- 
logical significance  in  the  controversy  which  sprung  up  between  Anselm  and 
Roscelinus,  a  canon  of  Compeigne.  The  latter  was  a  nominalist,  and  was 
consequently  accused  of  Tritheism  at  the  Synod  of  Soissons  (1092),  where  he 
was  compelled  to  retract  his  assertions  on  this  subject,  (d)  Nominalism,  after 
this,  wore  a  suspicious  aspect  in  the  view  of  the  Church  generally. 

a)  Monologium,  Proslogium,  Cur  Deus  homo?  (Erl.  1834.)  De  conceptu  virginal!  etorig.  pec- 
cato.  Opp.  (ed.  Gerberon,  Par.  1675.)  edd.  Benedictt.  Par.  172L  Th.  f.— Acts  SS.  Apr.  Th.  II.  p. 
SGGss.  (Mohler)  Anselmus.  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1827.  8.  4.  H.)  BiUroth,  do  Ans.  Proslogio.  et  Monol. 
Lps.  1832.  Bee  §  184.  note  a. 

V)  Sententiarum  1.  IV.  Ven.  1477.  rec.  J.  Aleaume,  Lovan.  1546.  f.  and  often. 

c)  J.  Saldberti  Phil.  Nominalium  vindicata.  Par.  1651.    JBaumgarten-Cmsius,  de  vero  Schol. 
Eealium  et  Nominal!  im  discr.  decretisque  ipsorum  theoL  (Opuscc.  1836.  p.  55ss.  Eemodelling  of  tho 
Progr.  of  1821.) 

d)  Joannis  Man.  Ep.  Ans.  (Balm.  Miscell.  1.  IV.  p.  478.)    Ansdmi  1.  II.  Ep.  85.  41.  and  (1094) 
L.  de  fide  Trin.  et  de  incarn.  verbi  c.  blasphemias  EuzelinL 


240  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

§  219.    Mysticism.    First  Period. 

II.  Schmid,  d.  Mystic,  d.  Mitt  Alt  in  s.  Entstfhungsper.  Jen.  1S24  Alb.  Liebner,  Hugo  V.  8. 
Victor,  u.  d.  theol.  Richtungen  er.  Zeit  Lpz.  1S32.  J.  Gorres,  die  christl.  Mystik.  Regensb.  1836sa. 
3  vols.  A.  ffelferich,  d.  chr.  Mystik  in  ihrer  Entw.  u.  ihrer  Denkm.  vol.  L  Entwicklungsgcsch. 
Goth.  1842.  [L.  Noack,  Gescb.  d.  cbr.  Mystik.  LI«J.  1858.] 

The  tendency  of  the  age  in  the  direction  of  the  feelings  and  of  the  imagi- 
nation was  shown  in  a  mysticism  of  a  lively  and  vigorous  character.  This 
was  an  effort  of  the  human  mind,  by  means  of  its  affections,  to  connect 
itself  immediately  with  the  Deity.  It  was  not  unfriendly  to  the  Church,  but 
it  was  earnest  against  the  moral  abuses  found  there.  Bernard  discovered 
the  highest  life  which  man  can  attain  in  a  perpetual  love  of  God,  which, 
while  it  is  vigorous  in  action  and  in  self-denials,  poetic  in  its  utterances,  and 
the  source  of  all  spiritual  knowledge  of  God,  is  nevertheless  conscious  that 
it  is  itself  inexpressible,  (a)  Richard  of  St.  Victor  (d.  1173),  by  means  of 
biblical  allegories,  made  known  the  secrets  of  the  human  heart  struggling  for 
words,  for  he  describes  the  process  of  contemplation  as  one  in  whose  highest 
flights  the  soul  in  ecstatic  rapture  is  perfectly  blessed  with  intuitions  of  the 
divine  glory.  (J)  The  fanciful  nature  of  this  spirit  appears  in  the  revelations 
of  Hildegard,  Abbess  of  the  convent  of  Rupert,  near  Bingen  (d.  1178). 
Under  the  sanction  of  St.  Bernard,  they  were  acknowledged  to  be  actual 
divine  revelations,  because  the  figures  and  allegories  in  which  they  were 
clothed  were  agreeable  to  the  taste  of  her  contemporaries.  But  although  they 
revealed  nothing  supernatural,  they  contained  many  profound  views  of  the 
mysteries  of  history,  (c)  In  the  convent  of  St.  Victor  near  Paris,  ever  since 
its  founder  (1109),  William  of  Champeaux,  had  been  obliged  to  give  way 
before  the  more  brilliant  reputation  of  his  pupil  Abelard,  a  reconciliation  had 
been  sought  between  Mysticism  and  Scholasticism,  on  the  ground  that  the 
latter  was  represented  by  inspired  men,  and  the  former  professed  to  be  a 
series  of  spiritual  elevations.  (J)  The  profoundly  spiritual  mind  of  Hug o  of 
St.  Victor  (died  1141),  naturally  inclined  to  discover  the  points  of  agreement 
between  different  systems,  regarded  Scholasticism  as  an  excellent  preparation 
for  Mysticism,  since  it  intelligently  established  the  doctrines  of  the  latter, 
and  in  its  perfection  must  lead  the  soul  up  to  the  enjoyment  of  ecstatic  emo- 
tions. He  therefore  regarded  each  of  these  tendencies  of  the  mind  as  the 
complement  and  correlative  of  the  other,  (e)  The  union  of  these  distinct  ele- 


ct) Especially,  De  contemtu  mnndi,  de  consideratione,  de  diligendo  Deo,  Tr.  ad  Hngonem  de  S. 
Viet  comp.  §  207. 

b)  Especially,  De  statu  inter  hominis,  de  praepar.  animi  ad  contempl.  s.  Benjamin  minor,  de  gra- 
tia contempl.  s.  Benj.  major.  Opp.  Rothom.  1650.  i'.—Liebner,  Rich,  a  S.  Viet  de  contempl.  doctrina. 
Gott  1S37.  P.  I.    Engelliardt,  Rich.  v.  8.  Victor  u.  Ruysbroek.  Erl.  1888. 

c)  Scivias,  (Revelationes  S.  Virgg.  Hildeg.  et  Elia.  Col.  1628.  f.)  Liber  divinornm  opp.  simplicis 
hominis.  comp.  Man&i  ad  Fabric.  Bibl.  med.  et  inC  Lat  Th.  III.  ed.  Patav.  j>.  268ss.— Cl  Meiners, 
de  8.  Hild.  vita.  (Comm.  Soc.  Gott  Th.  XII.  Class,  hist  et  ph.)    J.  K.  Dahl,  d.  h.  Hild.  Mainz.  1832. 
Gorres,  vol.  I.  p.  2S5ss.  II.  p.  210s. 

d)  SoUosser,  Abh.  zu  Vincent  v.  Beauvais'  Handb.  Frkf.  1S19.  vol.  II. 

e)  Especially,  de  sacramentis  chr.  fidei  1.  II.  Opp.  Rothom.  1643.  8  Th.  f.    According -to  the  proofe 
adduced  by  Liebner.  (Stnd.  u.  Krit  1831.  part  2.  p.  254ss.)  the  Tractates  theol.  ascribed  to  Hildebert 
(Hildeb.  Opp.  ed.  Beaugendre,  Par.  1708.  C)  contains  nothing  except  the  first  four  books  of  Hugo's 
Summa  Sententt 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  219.  JOHN  OF  SALIS.    §  220.  ABELAED.       241 

ments  of  the  age  aftep*  all  never  became  a  prominent  result,  for  even  Hugo's 
successor,  Bichard,  declared  decidedly  in  favor  of  Mysticism,  and  Walter  of 
St.  Victor  (1180),  who  had  studied  under  Richard,  assailed  the  most  celebra- 
ted leaders  of  the  French  Scholastic  party  as  sophists  and  heretics.  (/)  He 
defended  Mysticism  without  really  being  a  Mystic,  but  John  of  Salisbury,  a 
faithful  companion  of  Becket,  and  who  became,  after  the  assassination  of  that 
prelate,  a  bishop  of  Chartres  (d.  1182),  stood,  like  one  conversant  with  Ro- 
mans and  Greeks,  in  an  entirely  different  position.  It  is  true  that  he  justi- 
fied philosophy  on  account  of  its  general  utility  for  moral  purposes,  but 
honestly  exposing  his  pride  of  an  empty  knowledge  to  the  ridicule  of  his 
contemporaries,  he  predicted,  as  a  warning  to  others,  that  Scholasticism,  in 
the  course  of  its  scientific  investigations,  would  lose  the  truth,  (g) 

.      §  220.     Abelard,  1079-1142. 

I.  Letters  of  Abelard  and  Heloise,  especially  Ep.  I.  in  the  Euits  De  historia  calamitatum  suarum, 
with  notes  by  Du  Chesne.    Introductio  ad  Theol.  1.  III.  incomplete.   (Abael.  et  Ifel.  Opp.  ed.  Am- 
loise,  Par.  1616.  4.)  Theol.  chr.  1.  V.  (Martane  Thos.  Anecd.  Th.  V.  p.  1156.)    Ethica  s.  L.  scito  te 
ipsum.  (Pezii,  Anecd.  v.  III.  P.  II.  p.  627.)— Dial,  inter  Philos.,  Judaeum  et  Christian,  ed.  Hhein- 
wald,  Ber.  1831.    Sic  et  non.  Dialectics  (and  dialectical  fragments  in :  Ouvrages  inedils  $  Abelard 
pnblies  par  Victor  Cousin,  Par.  1836.  4.)    Sic  et  Non.  Primum  integrum  edd.  K  L.  Henke  et  G.  & 
JAndenkolil,  Marb.  1851.    From  his  school :  Abael.  Epitome  Theol.  chr.  ed.  Itheinwald,  Ber.  1S35. 
[Abailardi  et  Hel.  Epp.  Oxon.  1728.  8.    Lettres  d'Ab.  et  Hel.  traduits  sur  les  manuscrits  de  la  bib- 
lioth.  royal  p.  K  Oddoul,  pr6cedes  d'un  Essai  hist  p.  M.  et  Mme  Guizot,  Par.  1839.  2  vols.] 

II.  Gervaise,  vie  de  P.  Ab.  et  H61.  Par.  (1720)  1728.  2  Th.  Hist,  lit  de  la  Fr.  Th.  XII.  p.  86.  629ss. 
J.  Berington,  Hist  of  the  Lives  of  Ab.  and  Hel.  from  1079-1163,  with  tho  Letters  from  the  Coll.  of 
Amboise.  Birming.  1788.  4.    Schlosser,  Ab.  u.  Dulcin,  Leben  e.  Schwarmers  u.  e.  Phil.  Goth.  1807. 
J.  II.  F.  Frerichs,  de  Ab.  doct  dogm.  et  mor.  Jen.  1727.     Cousin,  Introduction  to  his  edition. 
J.  D.  H.  Goldhorn,  de  summis  principiis  Theol.  Ab.  Lps.  1836.    E.  A.  Lewald,  de  Opp.  Ab.  quae 
Cousin  ed,  Heidelb.  1839.  4.    Franck,  Beitr.  zu  Wurdig.  Ab.  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  1840.  H.  4.)    M.  Ca- 
rUre,  Ab.  u.  Hel.  Giess.  1844.    J.  L.  Jacobi,  Ab.  u.  Hel.  Brl.  1850.    F.  Braun,  de  Ab.  Ethica.  Marb. 
1852.    [<?.  W.  Wight,  The  Eomance  of  Ab.  and  Hel.  New  York.  1853.  12.    Bohringer,  Church  of 
Christ  and  its  Witnesses,  in  last  vol.  1854.] 

In  its  opposition  to  Scholasticism,  Mysticism  found  its  most  distinguished 
antagonist  in  Abelard.  His  reputation  in  the  schools  was  more  brilliant,  his 
spirit  more  liberal,  his  familiarity  with  the  ancient  Roman  writers  more  inti- 
mate, and  his  independence  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers  greater,  than  that  of 
any  of  his  associates  of  the  scholastic  party.  He  regarded  the  principle,  that 
nothing  is  to  be  believed  which  is  not  understood,  as  the  primary  maxim  of 
that  school.  This  doctrine  of  the  supremacy  of  reason,  when  taken  in  con- 
nection with  that  of  the  absolute  authority  of  the  Church  in  matters  of  faith, 
which  was  equally  sustained  by  Abelard,  produced  an  obvious  incongruity  in 
his  fundamental  principles.  Even  in  his  youth  he  took  delight  in  vanquish- 
ing the  most  renowned  teachers  of  that  period  by  his  dialectic  skill.  He 
taught  (after  1115)  on  Mount  St.  Genevieve,  and  became  the  most  celebrated 


/)  Contra  novas  haereses,  quas  Sophistae  Abaelardus,  Lombardus,  Petrus  Pictav.  et  Gilber- 
tns  Porretan.  libris  sentt.  suarum  acuunt  Generally  called:  Contra  quatuor  labyrinthos  Galliae 
Extracts  in  Bulaei  H.  Univ.  Paris.  Th.  II.  p.  200.  402.  562.  629ss.  A.  Planck,  u.  d.  Schr.  d.  Walth 
v.  S.  V.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1844.  H.  4.) 

g)  Policraticus  S.  de  nugis  cnrialium  et  vestigiis  philosopher.  1.  VIII.  Lugd.  1639.  Metalogicua, 
1.  IV.  Ib.  1610.  Epp.  803.  (Bibl.  PP.  max.  vol.  XXIII.  p.  242.)— n.  Keuter,Joh.  v.  Salisb.  Ber 
Mn.  1S42. 

16  , 


242  MEDIAEVAL  CHTJECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  SOO-121Q. 

instructor  in  philosophy  and  theology  then  in  Paris.  It  was  there  that  lit 
found  the  highest  rapture  and  the  deepest  grief  in  his  love  of  Heloise.  Her 
lofty  spirit  scorned  to  become  the  wife  of  Abelard,  for  she  thought  such  a 
connection  incompatible  with  his  attainment  of  those  ecclesiastical  dignities 
which  she  regarded  as  his  proper  right.  Even  this  hope  her  relatives 
attempted  to  baffle  by  an  act  of  most  shameful  atrocity  (1119).  Abelard 
then  took  refuge  from  the  world  in  the  convent  of  St.  Denys,  where  in  an 
earnest  penitential  spirit  he  was  gradually  enabled  to  praise  God  for  the 
chastisements  which  he  had  endured.  Heloise  was  induced  solely  by  her 
attachment  to  him  to  take  the  veil.  Compelled  to  return  to  his  station  as  an 
instructor  by  the  solicitations  of  the  academical  youth,  he  was  opposed  by 
the  combined  jealousy  of  the  Scholastics  and  the  hatred  of  the  Mystics.  At 
a  synod  held  at  Soi&sons  (1121),  at  which  a  legate  presided,  his  "  Introduc- 
tion to  Theology"  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  as  an  infidel  representation 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  he  himself  was  sentenced  unheard  to 
be  confined  in  a  very  retired  convent.  But  such  severe  ill-treatment  only 
increased  the  sympathy  of  the  people  with  him,  and  he  was  soon  after  per- 
mitted by  the  legate  to  return  to  St.  Denys.  "When,  however,  he  was  per- 
secuted by  the  monks  on  account  of  his  discovery  that  Dionysius  of  Paris 
was  not  the  Areopagite,  he  betook  himself  to  a  wilderness  near  Nogent.  Im- 
mense multitudes  followed  him  to  this  retreat  that  they  might  listen  to  his 
instructions,  and  in  a  forest  they  constructed  a  multitude  of  huts,  and  a  temple 
which  he  dedicated  to  the  Spirit,  the  Comforter.  "When  threatened  with  new 
persecutions,  he  committed  this  Paraclete  to  the  care  of  Heloise  as  its  abbess, 
and  consented  to  become  the  abbot  of  the  convent  of  St.  Gildas  at  Ruits,  in 
Brittany,  to  which  he  had  been  elected  (1126).  Here  for  ten  years  he  strug- 
gled unsuccessfully  to  establish  monastic  discipline,  when  ho  gave  up  the 
attempt  and  returned  to  give  lectures  once  more  as  a  professor  in  Paris. 
There  he  was  opposed  by  a  crowd  of  enemies  under  the  direction  of  St.  Ber- 
nard. A  catalogue  of  alleged  heresies  was  extracted  from  his  writings,  many 
of  which  were  contrary  to  the  ordinary  mode  of  instruction  in  the  Church, 
or  would  admit  of  inferences  inconsistent  with  the  orthodox  creed.  The  real 
controversy  related  to  the  subject  of  Scholasticism  itself,  which  was  accused 
of  desecrating  divine  mysteries  by  its  daring  attempts  at  analysis,  (a)  The 
spirit  of  Abelard  was  now  broken,  and  when  his  writings  were  condemned 
at  a  synod  held  at  Sens  (1140),  he  appealed  to  the  pope,  by  whom  he  was 
doomed  on  Bernard's  representation  to  a  perpetual  confinement  in  a  con- 
vent, (i)  An  asylum  was  finally  secured  for  him  by  Peter  of  Clugny,  and 
when  he  died  the  body  of  her  friend  was  committed  to  the  hands  of  He- 
loise (c)  as  an  offering  richly  adorned  by  God  himself  in  behalf  of  mental 
freedom,  not  only  in  the  literary  but  in  the  social  world.  It  is  difficult  to 
tell  whether  he  was  most  beloved  or  hated  by  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 

'  a)  Bernardi  Ep.  188.  ad  Cardinales.  189.  ad  Innoc.  Tr.  de  errorib.  Ab.  ad  Innoc.  (Opp.  Th.  IV. 
p.  il4.)  Also  -with  the  Index  XIX.  capital,  in  the  works  of  Abelard. 

&)  Documents  of  Synod,  sent  to  the  pope  by  Bernard,  Ep.  870.  Abelard's  Apology  in  opposition 
to  Bernard  in  his  Ep.  20.  (Opp.  p.  330ss.)  Satires  respecting  the  Synod  and  St  Bernard  by  Barer* 
jariw  Scholasticus,  Apologet  pro  magistro  c.  Bernard.  (Abaelardi  Opp.  p.  302ss.) 

c)  Petri  Yen.  Ep.  ad  HeL  Heloissae  ad  Petrum.  (AMel.  Opp.  p.  337ss.) 


CHAP.  IV,    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  221.  SAC.  SCKIPT.    §  222.  NIEBELUNGEN.      243 

§  221.     The  Sacred  Scriptures. 

Many  works  upon  the  Scriptures  were  written  by  persons  belonging  to  the 
circles  of  the  Mystics  and  the  Scholastics,  but  although  they  exhibited  a  high 
degree  of  mental  acuteness  and  sprightliness,  they  displayed  an  entire  want 
of  a  proper  conception  of  the  peculiarities  of  ancient  times.  Though  these 
peculiarities  were  not  unknown  to  the  authors,  they  nevertheless  received  a 
deep  coloring  from  the  outward  relations  of  the  modern  world,  and  yet  were 
represented  as  a  tradition  from  the  past.  An  abundant  literature  was  also 
formed  around  the  sacred  writings.  In  her  Pleasure  Garden,  Herrad,  the 
Abbess  of  Landsperg  (about  1175),  has  contrived  to  weave  into  the  scrip- 
tural history  a  general  summary  of  all  secular  knowledge,  (a)  All  kinds 
of  literature  are  full  of  allusions  to  something  in  the  Bible.  But  although 
the  Jews  were  induced  by  their  Arabic  learning  to  investigate  the  He- 
brew text,  the  Scriptures  were  interpreted  by  ecclesiastical  writers  with- 
out any  important  aid  from  a  knowledge  of  other  languages.  The  vari- 
ous manuscripts  of  the  Yulgate  differed  widely  from  each  other.  The  glosses 
of  Walafrid  Strdbo  (849)  and  Anselm  of  Laon  (d.  1117),  were  generally  used, 
although  they  were  nothing  but  verbal  definitions  and  paraphrases  derived 
from  the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  (b)  In  the  more  extended  commentaries,  four 
different  senses  were  presupposed  in  every  scriptural  passage ;  the  historical 
meaning  was  regarded  only  as  the  vestibule  to  the  sanctuary,  and  whatever 
life  appeared  was  expended  in  the  play  of  allegorical  interpretations.  Ru- 
pert, Abbot  of  Deutz  (d.  1135),  endeavored  to  re-establish  all  theology  upon 
the  basis  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as  the  great  Book  through  which  God  has 
intelligently  presented  the  way  of  salvation  to  all  nations,  (c)  When  the 
Slaves  endeavored  to  retain  the  use  of  their  own  national  language  in  their 
religious  worship,  they  were  opposed  by  Gregory  VII.  (1080),  who  was  the 
first  that  ventured  to  censure  the  use  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vernacular 
tongue,  and  justified  this  opposition  by  a  reference  to  the  mysteries  of  the 
primitive  Church,  (d) 

§  222.     Commencement  of  a  National  Literature  in  the  Twelfth  Century. 

A  faint  reflection  of  the  ancient  national  glory  long  remained,  almost  en- 
tirely unaffected  by  the  influence  of  Christianity,  in  the  hearts  of  the  people, 
and  was  exhibited  in  the  German  epic  poetry.  This  finally  received  a  per- 
manent written  form  during  the  thirteenth  century,  in  the  composition  called 
The  Niebelungen.  (a)  The  popular  fable  of  the  Court  of  the  Beasts  was  a 
pleasant  representation  of  human  society  among  a  people  conversant  with 
the  simple  life  of  the  forest.  As  this  story  had  already  bsen  to  some  extent 
similarly  applied  by  some  of  his  predecessors,  it  was  formed  by  a  monk  of 
Clugny  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  into  the  fable  of  Reinardus, 

a)  Hortus  deliciarum,  a  manuscript  with  miniatures  in  the  Lib.  at  Strasburg.  Engelhardt,  Her- 
rad  v.  L.  u.  ihr  H.  delic.  Stuttg.  1818. 

Z>)  Walafridi  Glossa  ordinaria  in  Biblia.  (Opp.  Par.  1852.  2  vols.  In  the  Patrol,  cd.  Migne,  vo^ 
CXIII.)  Anselmi  Glossa  interlinearis.  Bas.  1502.  f.  and  often. 

c)  Euperti  Tuitiensie,  Opp.  Mog.  1631.  2  Th.  f.      d)  Greg.  1.  TIL  Ep.  11. 

a)  [The  Fall  of  the  Niebelungers,  &c.  transl.  by  W.  N.  Lettsom,  Load.  1850.]  k 


244  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTOET.    PEE.  IIL    A.  D.  800-1216. 

which  contained  an  ironical  satire  upon  the  gluttony  of  the  monks,  and  tin 
avarice  of  the  popes.  (J)  Independent  of  the  clergy,  and  yet  in  the  midst 
of  the  enthusiasm  of  the  first  Crusades,  sprung  up  the  joyous  art  of  the 
Troubadours.  With  passionate  zeal  it  entered  into  ail  the  discussions  of  the 
age,  and  though  its  inspirations  were  sometimes  employed  in  singing  the  ex- 
ploits of  the  Church,  it  was  at  other  times  equally  fearless  in  opposing  the 
bad  practices  of  the  hierarchy,  and  was  always  independent  of  ecclesiastical 
control;  (c)  The  Suabian  minnesingers,  the  nightingales  of  the  middle  ages, 
near  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century  began  to  sing  of  earthly 
love,  joy,  and  sorrow.  The  ordinary  feelings  with  which  men  regarded  the 
Blessed  Virgin  were  transferred  by  these  minstrels  to  the  whole  female  sex.  (d) 
Walter  of  the  Vogelweide  penetrated  far  into  the  mysterious  emotions  of  genu- 
ine Christianity,  and  yet  confessed  with  childlike  candor  that  he  found  in  his 
heart  nothing  like  love  toward  Ms  enemies.  On  the  other  hand,  with  the 
spirit  of  a  real  German,  he  set  himself  in  opposition  to  all  priestly  dissimula- 
tion and  the  unrighteous  ban  which  the  pope  had  imposed  upon  his  country. 
A  vivid  picture  of  the  Crusades  is  presented  in  the  legends  and  songs  relat- 
ing to  the  expedition  of  Charles  the  Great  into  Spain.  In  these  poems  that 
monarch,  who  is  called  pre-eminently  the  servant  of  God,  with  his  twelve 
paladins,  are  described  as  exposing  their  bodies  to  the  most  imminent  perils 
for  the  benefit  of  their  souls.  Instead  of  the  treasures  of  the  Niebel- 
ungenlied  with  its  heathenish  spirit,  we  now  have  the  story  of  the  San 
Graal.  The  knightly  epic,  however,  when  it  became  fully  developed,  was 
not  much  pervaded  by  the  ecclesiastical  spirit.  The  meditative  Wolfram 
of  Escheribach,  in  his  poem  of  the  Parzival,  enters  indeed  into  the  proper 
ideas  of  the  Church,  distinguishes  between  the  ideal  and  the  actual,  and 
describes  the  expiations  and  the  external  holiness  which  are  necessary 
to  the  enjoyment  of  a  higher  life,  but  what  he  describes  is  not  an  eccle- 
siastical expiation,  and  the  guardians  of  his  sanctuary  are  not  priests,  but 
holy  knights  and  a  divinely  consecrated  king.  The  luminous  Godfrey  pf 
Strasburg  in  his  Tristan  described  the  sumptuous  life  of  the  court,  in  which, 
totally  regardless  of  the  decisions  of  the  Church,  the  eternal  rights  of  the 
heart  were  treated  as  inviolable,  even  when  opposed  to  what  was  then  called 
the  sacrament  of  marriage,  (e)  As  early  as  the  time  of  the  Othos,  laymen 
generally  scorned  the  cultivation  of  every  kind  of  science,  and  towards  the 
close  of  the  twelfth  century  the  clergy  entirely  renounced  the  study  of  all 
literature  in  the  language  of  the  people.  The  general  result  of  all  the  influ- 
ence of  this  age  was,  that  the  clergy  entirely  lost  the  monopoly  they  had  pre- 
viously possessed  in  the  mental  cultivation  of  the  people.  (/)  Hence,  at  the 
same  time  with  the  ecclesiastical  sciences,  a  species  of  poetry  was  formed, 
dictated  solely  by  those  feelings  which  exist  in  every  human  bosom.  It  was 
not,  however,  a  poetry  altogether  popular  in  its  character,  for  it  was  highly 

Z>)  Gervinus,  Gesch.  d.  poet.  Nation.  Llteratur.  vol.  I.  p.  102ss. 

o)  The  particulars  in  Millot,  Eaynouard  u.  unserm  Dietz. 

<2)  O.  JBarthel,  Oppos.  gegen  die  Hierarchic.  Walther  v.  d.  V.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1845.  H.  8.) 

«)  The  particulars  in  Gorres,  Lachmann,  Grimm,  Gervinus,  and  Hagen. 

/)  Comp.  H.  Leo,  v.  d.  sieben  Vrumicheiten.  (Hal.)  1S39. 


CHAP.  V.  EXTENS.  OF  THE  CHUECH.  §  223.  DENMARK.  SWEDEN.   245 

artificial,  and  adapted  only  to  the  chivalrous  tastes  of  the  knights.  The 
most  brilliant  exhibitions  of  its  power  were  presented  at  the  court  of  the 
Hohenstaufens. 


CHAP.  V.— EXTENSION  OF  THE  KOMAST  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

Adam.  Brem.  (§  170.)  Ejusd.  de  situ  Daniae  et  reliquarura,  quao  trans  Daniam  sunt,  regionum 
natura,  morib.  et  reL  ed.  Fabric.  Hamb.  1706.  £ 

§  223.     The  Holy  Ansgar.    801-865. 

I.  A  letter  of  Ansgar  and  the  Life  of  St.  Willeliad.  (Peris  Th.  II.  p.  878.)    Vita  Anskarii  by 
his  follower  Mmbert.  (Ed.  DaJdmanr*  in  Peris,  Th.  II.  p.  633.)    Life  of  S.  Willehad  and  S.  Ansgar, 
uebers.  m.  Anm.  v.  Carsten  Misegaes,  Brm.  1826.  S.  Anskarii  Pigmenta.    Written  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Lapperiburg,  Hamb.  1644. 

II.  E.  C.  Krust,  S.  Ansgar.  Alton.  1823.    F.  A.  KrummacTier,  S.  Ansgar.  alte  u.  neue  ZeiL 
Brem.  1828.    H.  Reuterddhl,  Ansg.  o.  d.  Anfangspunkt  d.  Chr.  in  Schwed.  from  the  Swedish  by 
Mayerhoff,  BrL  1837.    F.  O.  Krafft,  Narr.  de  Ansg.  aquilonarium  gentium  Apost  Hamb.  1840.  4. 
G.  IL  EMppel,  Lebensbeschr.  d.  Erzb.  Ansg.  Brem.  1845.    [Diplomatarium  Norvegicum,  ed.  by 
C.  Lange  and  C.  R.  linger,  to  bo  in  10  vols.,  but  only  the  1st  part  in  1849,  and  the  2d  in  1852,  are 
yet  pubL  Christiania.  4to.] 

The  Danish  prince  Harold  having  obtained  the  throne  of  his  ancestors 
by  the  assistance  of  Louis  the  Pious,  after  a  long  contest  with  his  competi- 
tors, became  a  willing  instrument  by  which  the  policy  of  the  Frankish 
monarch  might  be  carried  out  in  his  own  country.  .He  was  baptized  in  the 
city  of  Mentz  (826),  and  his  followers  were  delighted  with  the  splendid  gifts 
conferred  on  them  by  the  sponsors.  On  his  return  to  Jutland,  he  was  accom- 
panied by  Ansgar,  a  monk  of  Corvey,  who  had  been  induced  by  his  religious 
feelings  and  a  vision  of  Christ,  to  consecrate  himself  to  the  work  of  convert- 
ing the  heathen.  The  archbishopric  of  Hamburg  was  founded  for  him  by 
Louis  the  Pious  with  the  papal  consent  (831),  for  the  propagation  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  Northern  countries.  As  this  city  was  soon  after  pillaged  by 
pirates,  from  whose  ravages  nothing  was  saved  by  Ansgar  but  some  relics, 
his  archbishopric  was  attached  by  the  German  king  and  the  pope  to  the 
bishopric  of  Bremen  (849).  Having  been  appointed  the  papal  legate  and  the 
imperial  ambassador  for  the  northern  nations,  Ansgar  resided  in  this  latter 
city,  and  possessed  an  influence  among  those  people  which  prepared  the  way 
for  his  subsequent  efforts  in  Jutland  and  Sleswic.  He  was  not,  indeed,  very 
seriously  opposed  in  his  labors,  except  by  the  indifference  of  the  people. 
This  he  endeavored  to  overcome  by  obtaining  possession  of  heathen  children, 
and  by  ransoming  those  persons  who  had  been  carried  into  captivity,  and 
training  them  to  be  future  missionaries.  On  his  first  mission  to  Sweden 
(829),  he  found  some  germs  of  Christianity  already  existing  there,  and  by 
the  favor  of  the  court  he  was  permitted  to  plant  some  further  seeds  of  the 
gospel  among  the  people.  These,  however,  were  soon  after  entirely  de- 
stroyed in  a  popular  insurrection.  His  second  visit  to  that  country  (855)  was 
more  successful,  since  the  proclamation  of  the  new  faith  was  then  tolerated 
by  the  people  and  their  gods,  on  account  of  the  protection  afforded  by  the 
God  of  the  Christians  to  those  who  went  to  sea.  He  was  often  discovered 


246  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

by  Reimbert  in  tears,  because  he  was  not  regarded  by  his  Lord  worthy  oi 
the  martyrdom  which  he  supposed  had  been  promised  him. 

§  224.     German  Nations  of  the  North. 

The  foundation  which  had  been  laid  by  Ansgar  in  Denmark  was  protected 
and  enlarged  by  the  influence  of  the  Saxon  emperors,  although  it  was  viewed 
with  great  dislike  by  many  as  the  religion  of  their  national  enemies.  The 
cause  of  Christianity,  however,  gained  new  strength  by  the  continuance  of 
their  connection  with  the  Normans.  This  people,  ever  since  the  commence- 
ment of  the  tenth  century,  had  obtained  possessions  by  conquest  in  England 
and  France,  and  had  adopted  the  faith  as  well  as  the  higher  civilization  of 
the  conquered  nations.  The  triumph  of  the  new  religion  was  finally  secured 
through  the  conquest  of  England  by  the  Danish  kings.  Canute  the  Great 
secured  the  union  of  Denmark  with  England,  and  the  reconciliation  of  the 
two  nations  by  thfc  establishment  of  the  Church  among  the  Danes ;  and 
while  he  was  on  his  pilgrimage  to  Rome  (1027),  in  accordance  with  his  pre- 
vious stipulations,  it  was  connected  with  the  Roman  Church,  (a)  By  means 
of  persons  sent  forth  from  Bremen,  Christianity  continued  to  extend  itself 
in  Sweden,  and  though  at  first  its  progress  was  slow,  it  was  without  opposi- 
tion, and  connected  with  many  harmless  heathen  customs.  Alms  and  fasts 
were  vowed  to  the  Lord  Christ  by  a  city  in  time  of  distress,  though  it  was 
still  in  a  state  of  heathenism.  The  drinking  horns  of  heathen  chiefs  were 
not  unfrequently  emptied  to  the  health  of  Christ  and  of  the  archangel 
Michael.  The  series  of  Christian  kings  commenced  with  Olaf  SchoossTconig 
(1008),  but  the  temple  of  Odin  at  Upsala  was  not  destroyed,  until,  after  a 
sanguinary  contest,  it  was  levelled  with  the  ground  by  King  Inge  (1075).  (I) 
The  gospel  was  conveyed  to  Norway  in  the  ninth  century  by  some  seafaring 
youth,  but  the  white  Christ  was  generally  regarded  by  the  people  as  the  god 
of  a  foreign  nation.  Harald  Harfagar,  in  a  public  assembly,  took  an  oath 
that  he  would  never  again  present  an  offering  to  deities  whose  sway  extended 
merely  to  his  own  country,  but  only  to  one  who  was  Lord  of  the  whole 
earth,  and  by  whose  help  he  hoped  to  extend  his  authority  over  all  Norway. 
And  yet  when  his  son  Hacon  the  Good  (936-950),  who  had  been  educated 
and  baptized  in  England,  thereupon  proposed  that  all  the  people  should  be 
baptized,  not  only  was  the  proposal  rejected,  but  the  prince  was  compelled  to 
feign  that  a  cross  which  he  had  formed  upon  Odin's  cup  was  intended  for  the 
sign  of  Thor's  hammer.  At  his  funeral  the  Skald  proclaimed  that  he  had  been 
admitted  to  the  Valhalla,  because  he  had  mildly  forborne  to  destroy  the  sacred 
things  belonging  to  the  ancient  gods.  The  cause  of  Christianity,  however, 
had  now  become  identified  with  that  of  the  supreme  monarchs  of  the  coun- 

a)  Saxo  GrammaUem,  (died  about  1204.)  Hist  Danicae  L  XVI.  ed.  SlepTianius,  Sor.  1644.  2 
Th.  f.  Klote,  Lps.  1771.  4.—Panioppidant  Annal.  Ecc.  Dan.  diplomatic!.  Hanv.  1741ss.  Th.  I. 
Munter,  KGesch.  v.  Danem.  u.  Norw.  Lpz.  1823.  vol.  I.  F.  C.  DaJUmann,  Gesch.  v.  Dannem. 
Hamb.  1840.  vol.  I.  p.  28ss. 

&)  Claudii  Oernhjalm,  Hist.  Sueonum  Gothorumque  ecc.  1.  IV.  Stockh.  1689.  4.  Statuta  syno« 
dalia  vet.  Ecc.  Suevogothicae,  ed.  EeuterdaM,  Lend.  1841.  <L—Geijer,  Gesch.  Schwed.  A.  d.  schwed, 
Handschr.  v.  Leffler,  Hamb.  1838.  vol.  L  [F.  C.  Geijer,  H.  of  the  Swedes.  Transl.  from  the  Swedish^ 
byJ.K  Turner,  Lond.  1847.  8.] 


CHAP.  V.    EXTENS.  OF  THE  CHUKCII.    §  224.  NORWAY.    ICELAND.         24? 

try,  and  the  former  kings  of  the  particular  trihes  were  as  tenacious  of  their 
ancient  gods,  as  they  were  of  the  private  rights  sanctioned  by  those*  deities. 
The  wild  and  intriguing  influence  of  Olaf  Trygvesen  (995-1000)  was  ex- 
pended in  accomplishing  the  triumph  of  the  Church,  to  effect  which  he  was 
supplied  with  priests  from  England  and  Bremen.  Olaf  the  Tliick,  who  be- 
came king  of  Norway  in  the  year  1019,  in  an  expedition  he  made  at  the  head 
of  his  army  throughout  his  kingdom,  arranged  the  affairs  of  the  Church  on 
a  permanent  basis.  Dissatisfied,  however,  with  his  policy,  the  heathen  por- 
tion of  the  nation  delivered  up  his  kingdom  into  the  hands  of  Canute  the 
Great.  In  defence  of  the  cause  of  the  cross,  Olaf  appealed  to  the  religious 
enthusiasm  of  his  subjects,  and  finally  perished  in  a  disastrous  battle  (1033). 
But  even  in  the  succeeding  year,  when  hatred  began  to  be  awakened  in  the 
bosoms  of  the  Normans  against  the  dominion  of  foreigners,  a  strong  feeling 
of  attachment  for  Olaf  was  revived,  and  his  body  being  taken  from  its  grave, 
was  found  free  from  decay.  From  that  time,  under  the  name  of  St.  Olaf, 
he  has  been  invoked  as  the  patron  saint  of  Norway,  and  after  a  single  cen- 
tury he  was  honored  by  all  the  Northern  nations,  (c)  In  Iceland,  Christian- 
ity having  been  proclaimed  by  several  transient  messengers,  Olaf  Trygvesen 
at  last  found  a  permanent  lodgment,  and  after  a  severe  conflict  it  was  for  the 
sake  of  peace  accepted  at  a  general  assembly  of  the  people  (1000),  though 
with  the  condition  that  men  might  worship  the  ancient  gods  in  private,  and 
that  children  might  be  publicly  exposed  without  molestation,  (d)  About  this 
time,  also,  a  flourishing  bishopric  was  erected  by  some  emigrants  from  Iceland 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  Greenland,  whose  tithes  were  paid  at  Rome  in  the 
teeth  of  walruses,  (e)  In  all  these  Northern  countries  the  moral  and  social 
spirit  of  Christianity  had  to  contend  with  the  custom  of  private  revenge  for 
blood  shed  by  enemies,  the  right  of  a  freeman  to  commit  suicide,  the  expo- 
sure of  children,  and  the  eating  of  the  flesh  of  horses  and  of  vultures. 
"When  the  images  of  the  gods  were  destroyed  by  bold  and  powerful  men  with 
no  divine  judgments  following  the  action,  the  people  generally  acknowledged 
that  Christ  was  the  superior  Deity.  The  ancient  world  of  the  gods  was  not, 
however,  entirely  renounced,  but  only  thrown  back  into  a  mysterious  abyss, 
and  converted  into  a  gloomy  kingdom  of  magic,  peopled  by  trolds,  nixies, 
and  elves.  There  was  indeed  a  legend  current  among  the  more  indulgent 
portion  of  the  people,  which  held  out  a  hope  that  even  the  spirits  of  nature 
would  in  some  future  period  be  redeemed  from  their  state  of  banishment.  (/) 


c)  I.  Snorro  /Sturleson,  (died  1241.)  Heimskringla,  ed.  Schoening,  Hafn.  1777ss.  5  Th.  f.  [Transl. 
into  Engl.  by  £  Laing,  3  vols.  Lond.  1844.]     II.  Hunter,  KGesch.  v.  D.  u.  Norw.  vol.  I.  p.  431ss. 
[A.  Crichton,  Scandinavia.  Anc.  and  Mod.  &c.  Edinb.  1889.  2  vols.  8.    IT.  W/ieaton,  Hist,  of  tho 
Northmen,  &c.  New  ed.  New  York.  1847.  2  vols.] 

d)  I.  Islendingalok  (by  priest  Are  the  Wise,  died  1148.)  c.  7ss.  Uebers.  in  Dahlmann's  Forsch. 
Alton.  1822.  vol.  I.  p.  472ss.    Hungurvaka  a.  Hist  primorum  VSkalholtensium  in  Isl.  Episcc.  (13th 
cent)  Hafn.  1778.    Kristni-Sago,  s.  Hist  rel.  chr.  in  Isl.  introd.  (14th  cent)  Hafn.  1774.— II.  Finni 
Johannei,  Hist  ecc.  Isl.  Hafn.  1772ss.  4  Tb,  4.    StavcUm,  u.  kirchl.  Gesch.  u.  Gregor.  v.  Isl.  (KHist. 
Arch.  vol.  II.  pt  1.)    Munter,  vol.  I.  p.  519ss.    [An  Hist  and  Descrip.  Account  of  Iceland,  Green- 
land, and  the  Faroe  Islands,  &c.  (Ed.  Cab.  Lib.)  Edinb.  and  New  York.  1 840.] 

e)  Torfaei  Groenl.  antiqua.  Hafn.  1706.    Munter,  vol.  I.  p.  555ss.    Comp.  Antiquitates  Anteri 
eanae  s.  Scrr.  septentr.  rerum  ante  Columbianar.  Hafn.  1837.  4. 

/)  Grimm,  Mythol.  p.  279. 


248  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

One  result  at  least  of  the  conversion  of  these  Northern  nations,  was  that 
those  countries  of  Europe  which  bordered  on  the  sea  were  no  longer  exposed 
to  the  ravages  of  pirates,  (y)  The  ecclesiastical  supervision  of  them  which 
had  previously  been  vested  in  the  see  of  Bremen  was  now  (1104)  transferred 
to  the  archbishopric  of  Lund. 

§  225.     The  Slavic  Nations. 

The  Slavic  nations  acknowledged  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being,  whom 
they  regarded  as  the  original  Creator  of  all  things,  but  they  also  paid  divine 
honors  to  a  race  of  gods  which  they  believed  to  have  sprung  from  him. 
These  were  divided  into  two  classes,  called  the  white  and  the  black  deities. 
Although  the  latter  represented  the  destructive  powers  of  nature,  they  were 
not  viewed  as  absolutely  evil,  since  they  allowed  the  germ  of  life  to  remain 
even  in  the  things  which  they  decomposed.  These  divinities  were  repre- 
sented by  uncouth  symbolical  forms,  and  in  the  several  tribes  there  were 
found  sacred  cities  and  a  hierarchy,  (a)  Some  conversions  effected  among 
the  Slaves  by  Charles  the  Great  were  as  transitory  as  his  conquests.  The 
conversion  and  spiritual  superintendence  of  the  people  who  resided  near  the 
Danube  were  intrusted  to  their  neighbors,  the  Archbishops  of  Salzburg  and 
Lorch,  whose  rights  were  subsequently  possessed  by  the  Bishop  of  Passau. 
The  Slavic  nations,  however,  were  too  much  opposed  to  any  connection  with 
Germany,  and  too  little  acquainted  with  the  German  or  Latin  languages,  to  be 
influenced  by  a  Christianity  coming  to  them  from  that  quarter.  The  Holy 
Scriptures,  the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  and  the  services  of  religion,  were 
introduced  to  the  Moravians  in  the  Slavonian  language  by  two  Greek  monks 
(803),  Cyrillm  (Constantine)  and  Methodius,  who  became  connected  with 
Kome,  but  did  not  relinquish  their  peculiar  Greek  forms  of  worship.  Metho- 
dius was  consecrated  at  Rome  Archbishop  of  Moravia,  and  the  Slavish  forma 
of  worship  received  the  papal  sanction  (880),  on  the  ground  that  God  under- 
stood all  languages  and  should  be  worshipped  by  all  nations.  His  efforts, 
however,  to  erect  a  distinct  national  Church  met  with  continual  opposition 
on  the  part  of  the  German  bishops,  and  finally  (908)  the  Moravian  kingdom 
was  divided  by  the  swords  of  the  Hungarians  and  Bohemians.  The  Slavish 
ritual  was  kept  up  under  these  new  rulers  in  only  a  few  churches,  principally 
in  Illyria.  (5)  Towards  the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  Borziwoi,  Duke  of 
Bohemia,  was  induced  by  the  flattering  promises  of  Methodius  to  receive  bap- 
tism. His  last  days  were  spent  with  his  sainted  wife  Ludmilla  in  retirement 
from  the  world.  Wenceslaus  (928-938),  his  grandson,  urged  forward  the 

0)  Adam  Brem.  Do  situ  Dan.  c.  96. 

a)  Frencel.  de  diis  Sorabor.  et  al.  Slavor.  (Hoffmann,  Scrr.  rer.  Lusat.  Th.  II.)  Mone,  Gcsch. 
d.  Heidenth.  im  nordl.  Eur.  vol.  I.  p.  lllss.  Gieseler,  u.  d.  Verbreitung  christl.  dual.  Lehrbegr. 
unter  d.  Slaven.  (Stud.  n.  Krit  1837.  H.  2.  p.  857ss.)  Ilanusch,  d.  Wiss.  d.  slav.  Mythus.  Lemb. 
1842.  P.  J.  Schajbrik,  slaw.  Alterthumer,  edit,  by  WvtBbe,  Lpz.  1843.  2  vols. 

1)  I.  Vita  Constantini,  by  a  contemporary  writer.  (Acta  S3.  Mart  Th.  II.  p.  19.)     Presby- 
teri  Diocleatis  (about  1161),  Eegnum  Slavor.  c.  8ss.  (Schlozer's  Nestor,  vol.  IIL  p.  153ss.)    3fansi 
Th.  XVIII.  p.  132S8.— II.  Assemani  Kalendaria  Ecc.  univ.  Eom.  1T55.  4.  Th.  IIL    Pilarz  et  Mora- 
tcetz,  Moraviae  Hist.  eccl.  et  pol.  Brnnni.  1785ss.  8  Th.— J.  Ddbrowsky :  Cyrill.  u.  Meth.  der  Slave* 
Apostel.  Prag.  1823.    Miihr.  Legende  v.  Cyr.  u.  Meth.  Prag.  1826.— Glagolltica,  Ueber  den  Urepr.  d, 
r::m.  slav.  Liturgie.  2  ed.  Prag.  1832. 


CHAP.  V.    EXTENS.  OP  THE  CHUKCH.    §  225.  WENDS.    POLES.  245 

progress  of  Christianity  more  by  Ms  influence  as  a  monk  than  as  a  temporal 
prince.  Dissensions  were  produced  among  the  people  by  the  hostility  some 
felt  against  the  Christian  faith,  and  finally  entered  even  the  ducal  palace. 
According  to  popular  tradition,  Ludmilla  was  put  to  death  by  her  own 
daughter-in-law,  and  "Wenceslaus  by  his  brother.  Christianity,  however, 
having  passed  through  severe  persecutions,  obtained  a  sanguinary  triumph 
under  Boleslaus  the  Mild  (after  967),  and  with  the  establishment  of  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Prague  (973),  a  permanent  ecclesiastical  constitution  was  adopted. 
As  the  only  condition  on  which  that  see  could  be  procured  from  the  pope, 
the  Koman  ritual  was  also  then  introduced,  (c)  The  Wends,  who  resided  in 
the  country  between  the  Saale  and  the  Oder,  and  were  divided  into  many 
tribes  under  as  many  princes,  being  assailed  by  the  Germans,  defended  them- 
selves with  extreme  difficulty.  Otho  I.  was  anxious  to  render  the  dominion 
he  had  acquired  over  them  by  the  sword  more  secure  by  the  baptism  of  the 
people,  and  hence  the  bishoprics  which  he  established  among  them  were 
intended  to  be  quite  as  much  the  citadels  of  his  own  power  as  the  castles  of 
the  Church.  Hence,  by  the  same  act  in  which  the  "Wends  under  Mistewoi 
threw  off  from  their  necks  (983)  the  yoke  of  the  German  civil  power,  Chris- 
tianity was  also  cast  away.  Gottschalk,  his  grandson,  succeeded  in  uniting 
the  several  Wendic  tribes  into  a  single  kingdom  (1047),  and  was  successfully 
endeavoring  to  establish  a  national  Christian  Church,  when  he  was  assassina- 
ted in  the  midst  of  his  efforts  (1066).  The  people  then  consecrated  anew 
the  altars  of  their  ancestors  with  the  blood  of  Christian  priests,  and  every 
trace  of  Christianity  among  them  was  obliterated.  Pomerania  having  been 
conquered  by  Boleslaus  ///.,  Duke  of  Poland,  Oiho,  Bishop  of  Hamburg,  was 
invited  by  him  to  baptize  the  inhabitants.  This  work  was  finally  effected  by 
that  prelate  (1124,  1128),  (d)  and  other  tribes  were  likewise  overcome  and 
converted  by  the  Saxon  princes,  especially  by  Henry  the  Lion  (1142-62). 
The  desolated  country  became  settled  by  various  German  colonies,  until 
finally  only  a  few  miserable  remnants  of  the  ancient  people  preserved  the 
Wendic  language  and  customs,  and  the  whole  country  became  German  and 
Christian,  (e)  The  last  refuge  which  the  gods  and  the  liberty  of  the  Wends 
had  found  in  fiugen,  was  burned  by  Absalon  (Axel),  Bishop  of  Koeskilde, 
the  statesman  and  the  hero  of  the  seas  (1168).  (/)  The  gospel  was  carried 
into  Poland  by  certain  persons  who  took  refuge  there  on  the  overthrow  of 
the  Moravian  kingdom,  and  on  the  marriage  of  Miecislaus,  Duke  of  Poland, 


c)  Cosmos.  Prag.  (died  1125.)  Chron.  Bohemor.  (Scriptt  rer.  Bohem.  Prag.  1784.  Th.  I.)    Vita  S. 
Ltidmillae.  (Dolner,  Abbandl.  d.  Bohm.  Gesch.  d.  Wiss.  1786.  p.  417ss.)    Vita  S.  Ludm.  et  S.  Wen- 
ceslai  auct  Christanno  de  Scald  Mon.  (Acta  SS.  Sept  Th.  V.  p.  854.  Th.  VII.  p.  825.)    F.  Palackij, 
Gesch.  v.  Bohm.  Prag.  1836.  vol.  I.     Tormcaldt,  Adalb.  v.  Prag.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1853.  II.  2.) 

d)  De  vita  b.  Otton.  1.  III.  (Canisii  Lectt  ed.  Basnage,  Th.  III.  P.  !L)—(SeU)  Otto  v.  Bamb. 
Stettin.  1792.    Susch,  Memoria  Othon.  Pomerani  Apostoli.  Jen.  1824 

e)  I.  After  Wittichind,  Thietmar,  Adam  of  Bremen  (§  170),  and  Saxo  Gramm.,  consult  Ifelmold, 
(pastor  at  Bosow  near  Lubeck),  Chron.  Slavorum  (till  1170),  ed.  Bangert,  Liib.  1659. 1702.  4.  (Liebnit. 
Scrr.  Brunsu.  Th.  II.)— II.  Eanngiesser,  Bekehrnngsgesch.  d.  Pommern.  Greifsw.  1824.     F.   W. 
Barthold,  Gesch.  v.  Pommern.  u.  Eugen.  Hamb.  1889.  vol.  I.    L.  Giesebrecht,  wend.  Gesch.  v. 
780-1182.  Berl.  1843.  3  vote 

/)  M&nter,  vol.  II.  Abth.  I.  p.  820.  Abth.  II.  p.  781ss.     Eatrup,  Absalon.  from  tho  Danish  by 
MoJinike.  (Zeitechr.  f.  hist.  Th.  1832.  vol.  II.  pt  J.) 


250  MEDIAEVAL  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

with  a  Bohemian  princess,  Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the  state  (96G) 
By  his  second  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  the  Margrave  Dietrich,  and  by 
its  dependence  upon  the  German  empire,  Poland  was  drawn  into  connections 
with  the  Roman  Church.  Such  connections  being  cherished  with  specia.1 
care,  the  Polish  churches  were  induced  to  pay  tribute  to  St.  Peter,  the  Slavic 
ritual  which  had  previously  been  used  in  them  was  gradually  abandoned,  and 
in  the  subsequent  political  commotions  of  the  nation  the  papal  power  was 
sometimes  very  great.  (#)  Long  after  this  period  the  people  were  accustomed 
to  celebrate  the  drowning  of  their  ancient  gods  with  lamentations  and  par- 
tial sorrow.  (K) 

§  226.     The  Hungarians. 

Scfwandtner,  Scrr.  ror.  Hung.  Vind.  1746.  f.  Th.  I.  -F<y'<5r,  Codex  dlplomaticus  Hung.  eccl.  ct 
civ.  Budae.  1829.  Th.  I.-J.  v.  Mailath,  Gcsch.  dcr  Magyaren.  Wien.  1828.  vol.  I.  [Godkin,  Hist, 
of  H.  Lond.  1854.] 

A  few  Hungarian  princes,  while  on  a  visit  to  Constantinople,  consented 
to  be  baptized,  and  their  country  was  filled  with  Christian  slaves  captured 
during  the  inroads  of  their  people  in  Germany.  By  these  means  Christianity 
had  obtained  a  foothold  in  the  country,  until  more  peaceable  relations  with 
Germany  were  established  by  the  victories  of  the  Saxon  emperors.  The  em- 
peror then  requested  the  bishops  Piligrin  of  Passau  and  Adalbert  of  Prague 
to  undertake  the  conversion  of  the  Hungarians.  Duke  Geysa  (972-997), 
being  sufficiently  wealthy  and  powerful,  was  in  the  habit  not  only  of  build- 
ing Christian  churches,  but  of  offering  sacrifices  to  the  gods,  (a)  His  son 
/Stephen  (997-1038)  brought  Hungary  into  the  political  community  of  civil- 
ized nations,  gave  to  the  Church  a  permanent  form  of  government  in  subjec- 
tion to  Rome,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  emperor  and  the  sanction  of  the 
pope,  assumed  the  royal  crown.  (&)  Surrounded  as  he  was  by  Christians  and 
Germans,  the  new  king  ventured  in  various  ways  to  curtail  the  ancient  privi- 
leges of  the  people.  In  the  political  commotions  which  occurred  daring  the 
ten  years  immediately  following  his  death,  the  most  violent  efforts  were  put 
forth  to  re-establish  idolatry,  and  were  repelled  with  equal  violence. 

§  227.     The  -Finns,  Liwnians,  and  Esthonians. 

Eric  the  Saint,  King  of  Sweden,  effected  the  conquest  of  the  Finns 
(1157),  and  subjected  them  to  the  authority  of  his  own  crown  and  of  the 
Church.  For  a  long  time,  however,  their  magicians  were  much  more  hon- 
ored than  their  clergy,  (a)  But  an  intercourse  had  already  been  commenced 
with  Livonia  by  the  German  maritime  cities.  Meinhard,  a  canon  of  Bremen, 

g)  I.  After  Thietmar  consult  Martini  GaUi  (about  1130),  Chron.  Pol.  cd.  Bandtkie,  Yarsov. 
1824.  Vincent  de  Kadlubeh  (d.  1226),  de  gestis  PoL  (Dlugosz,  Hist  Pol.  Lps.  1711.  f.  Th.  I.)— 
II.  Ch.  G.  v.  Friese,  KGesch.  d.  K.  Pohl.  Brsl.  1786.  voL  I.  Itopell,  Gesch.  Pol.  Hamb.  1340.  vol. 
I.  Append.  4.  7i)  Grimm,  deutsche  Mythol.  p.  446s. 

a)  Thietmar  1.  VIII.    (Leibnit.  p.  420.) 

1)  Chartvilius,  (13th  cent)  Vita  8.  Stephani.  (Sc7iwandtneri  Scrr.  rer.  Hung.  Vind.  1746. 1  p. 
414.)  Eespecting  the  story  of  the  Crown  adorned  with  Greek  characters,  and  the  salutation  as  Ees 
Apostolicus  and  Legate,  see  A.  F.  Kollar,  de  origg.  et  usu  perpetuo  potestatis  legisL  circa  sacra  app 
Eegum  Hung.  Vind.  1764.  Hor&nyi,  de  s.  corona.  Hung.  Pesth.  1790. 

a)  Oernlijalm  1.  c.  IV,  4.    Mone,  vol.  I.  p.  43ss. 


CHAP.  VL    FEOT.  PARTIES.    §  228.    CATHAPJSTS.  25 1 

made  some  attempts  to  convert  its  inhabitants  (after  1186),  for  we  find  that 
he  assisted  them  to  build  fortresses  against  their  enemies,  and  was  consecra- 
ted to  the  bishopric  of  Yxkiill.  Proceeding  from  that  point,  the  bishops 
obtained  their  respective  dioceses  by  military  conquests,  in  the  course  of 
which  they  were  often  in  danger  of  losing  their  lives,  and  they  confirmed 
the  results  of  their  preaching  by  leading  the  Germans  in  miniature  crusades 
against  the  people.  The  bishopric  of  Riga  was  founded  by  Albert,  the  second 
in  succession  after  Meinhard,  and  the  ecclesiastical  subjugation  of  the  country 
was  finally  completed  by  the  weapons  of  an  order  of  knights  instituted  by 
him  (1202),  called  the  Brethren  of  the  Sword.  With  the  aid  of  this  order 
and  of  the  Danes,  the  Estonians  were  also  subdued  and  converted  to  the 
faith  (after  1211).  The  ascendency  of  this  order  and  of  the  bishops  was 
afterwards  undisputed.  (J) 


CHAP.  VI.— PAKTIES  PROTESTING-  AGAINST  THE  CHUKCH. 

C.  du  Plessis  d'Argentre,  Col.  judiciorum  do  novis  error,  ab  initio  XII.  S.  usque  ad  arm.  1632. 
Par.  1728.  3  Th.  f.  Fuesslen,  K.  u.  Ketzerhist.  d.  mittlern  Zeit.  Fr.  u.  Lpz.  ITTOss.  8  vols.  Flatlie, 
Gesch.  der  Vorliiufer  d.  Eef.  Lpz.  1835s.  2  vols.  U.  Ilahn,  Gesch.  d.  Ketzor.  im  MA.  Stuttg. 
1845-60.  3  vols. 

§  228.     Tlie  Catharists. 

A  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  now  began  to  manifest  itself  on  the  part  of 
many  persons  on  account  of  the  extravagant  worldly  spirit  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  the  religious  spirit  of  the  people  began  to  put  forth  a  strong  pro- 
test against  the  Church  itself.  Persons  of  this  tendency  were  at  first  burned 
(1022)  at  Orleans,  (a)  and  were  found  in  various  parts  of  Germany  (5)  and 
England,  but  the  great  body  of  them  inhabited  Lombardy  and  Provence,  (c) 
In  these  latter  countries  the  Troubadours  had  contributed  much  to  the  spirit 
of  independence  with  which  the  hierarchy  was  spoken  of  in  that  country, 
while  in  Italy  the  Church  was  principally  regarded  as  a  political  power.  The 
emperor  had  no  interest  in  destroying  the  enemies  of  the  papacy,  and  the 
popes  were  obliged  frequently  to  regard  the  friendship  of  the  Lombards  as 
of  more  importance  than  the  extermination  of  heretics.  Even  the  contest  to 
which  Gregory  excited  the  laity  against  the  married  priests,  either  produced 

V)  Henrlci  Letti  (about  1226),  Origg.  Livoniae  sacrae  et  civ.  s.  Chron.  c.  notis  J,  D,  Gniberi,  Fr. 
et  Lps.  1740.  f.— Parrot,  Entwickl.  d.  Sprache,  Abstamm.  Gesch.  MythoL  d.  Liwen,  Letten,  Eesten. 
Stuttg.  1828.  2  vols.  H.  A.  G.  de  Pott,  de  Gladiferis  s.  fratrib.  militiae  Christ!.  Erl.  1806.  Kurd  v. 
Schloser,  Livl.  u.  d.  Anfunge  deutschen  Lebens  im  baltischen  Nord.  Brl.  1850. 

a)  Ademar,  &  monk  of  Angouleme  about  1209,  Chron.  (Bouquet  Th.  X.  p.  154ss.)  Gesta  Syn. 
Aurelian.  (Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  376ss.)  Gldber  Radulf.  Ill,  8. 

Z>)  1146  on  the  Lower  Ehine :  Evervini,  Praepos.  Steinfeld.  Ep.  ad  Bernard.  (Argentre  Th.  I.  p. 
88ss.)  1163.  Eckbertl  Sermm.  XIII.  adv.  Catharorum  errores.  Col.  530.  (Bibl.  PP.  max.  Th.  XXIII. 
p.  600.) 

c)  The  documents  are  in  Hist.  g6nerale  de  Languedoc  par  un  B6nedictin  de  S.  Maur.  Par.  1737. 
vol.  III.  Polemical  writers  near  the  end  of  the  12th  cent. :  Ebrardi  Flandrensis  L.  antihaeresis. 
(Bibl.  PP.  max.  Th.  XXIV.  p.  1525.)  Ermengardi  Opsc.  c.  haereticos,  qui  dicunt  omnia  visibilia 
non  esse  a  Deo  facta,  sed  a  diabolo.  (Ib.  p.  1602.)  Alani  de  Insulis  1.  IV.  c.  haereticos  sui  temp. 
(The  two  first  vols.  in  Alani  Opp.  ed.  C.  de  Visch,  Antu.  1654.  f.  The  two  last  in  C.  de  Viscli 
Bibl.  Scrr.  Cist.  Col.  1650. 4.)—  C.  Schmidt,  Hist  et  doctrine  des  Cathares  ou  Albigeois.  Par.  1849. 2  vote. 


252  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    FEB.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

or  absorbed  elements  hostile  to  every  thing  connected  with  the  ecclesiasticai 
authorities  (Paterini).  (d)  The  name  of  Catharists,  by  which  this  sect  waa 
usually  designated,  shows  what  were  their  ordinary  pretensions.  A  similar 
opposition  prepared  the  way  for  the  influence  exercised  by  the  Paulicians 
who  had  been  transferred  into  the  western  countries  of  Europe  (hence  called 
Publicani,  Bugri).  The  accounts  we  have  respecting  them  are  almost  exclu- 
sively from  their  enemies,  or  from  apostates  from  them,  and  are  consequently 
full  of  errors  and  calumnies,  (e)  All  agree,  however,  in  describing  them  as 
universally  and  absolutely  opposed  to  the  Catholic  Church  and  all  its  pomp, 
in  consequence  of  what  they  professed  to  be  an  immediate  communication  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  exalting  them  above  all  conscious  necessity  of  ecclesiastical 
or  civil  laws.  Their  opposition  to  every  thing  of  a  sensuous  nature  mado 
them  practically  renounce  all  carnal  pleasures,  and  led  them  theoretically  to 
ascribe  the  whole  visible  universe  to  an  evil  cause  and  to  deny  the  real  hu- 
manity of  our  Redeemer.  This  dualistic  tendency,  however,  may  have  gone 
no  further  than  the  popular  notion  of  a  devil  and  his  subordinate  spirits,  and 
in  a  portion  of  the  Catharistic  Church  it  appears  to  have  been  modified  in 
various  ways,  to  have  been  full  of  moral  seriousness  and  religious  sincerity, 
and  yet  to  have  laid  great  stress  upon  fastings,  genuflexions,  and  Latin  forms 
of  prayer.  (/)  Scriptural  preaching  and  the  gospels  were  held  in  much 
esteem,  but  various  opinions  prevailed  among  them  respecting  the  prophets. 
The  baptism  of  the  Spirit  (consolamentum)  was  substituted  for  baptism  by 
water,  and  was  administered  by  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  all  persons 
present  who  had  themselves  received  it.  In  this  ordinance  only  perfect 
Christians  (bos  homes,  boni  homines)  received  their  consecration,  for  the 
duties  which  it  imposed  were  so  rigid  that  most  persons  remained  catechu- 
mens (credentes,  of  two  different  degrees),  and  did  not  receive  the  consola- 
mentum, which  they  regarded  as  necessary  to  salvation,  until  their  dying 
hour.  The  dualistic  view,  however,  could  consistently  forbid  nothing  but 
marriage  and  the  eating  of  flesh.  In  the  midst  of  a  people  thus  professing 
to  be  filled  with  the  Spirit,  and  whose  pope  was  the  Holy  Ghost  himself,  none 
of  the  existing  officers  of  the  Church  could  exercise  any  of  their  hierarchi- 
cal prerogatives.  The  prohibitions  contained  hi  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
were  accepted  in  their  most  literal  and  painful'sense,  and  those  who  went  to 
a  dualistic  extreme  resolved  the  ordinary  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  even  all 
historical  Christianity,  into  mere  allegories  illustrative  of  the  Christian's  inner 
life.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Pasagii  of  Lombardy  maintained  the  absolute 
authority  of  the  Old  Testament  in  opposition  to  the  Manicheans  who  rejected 


&)  Sigebert.  Gemblac.  ad  ann.  1074. 

e)  Bonacorsi,  one  of  those  teachers  who  returned  to  the  Cath.  Church,  about  1190,  Vita  haereti- 
cor.  s.  manifestatio  haeresis  Catharor.  (VAchery,  Spicil.  Th.  I.  p.  203.  Supplements  in  Baluzii 
MiscelL  ed.  Mansi  Th.  II.  p.  581.)  J.  Moneta,  Dominican,  about  1240.  adv.  Cath.  et  Waldenses,  ed. 
RiccMni,  Eom.  1T43.  f.  Raineriu*  Sacchoni,  once  a  chief  of  the  sect,  but  afterwards  a  Dominican 
and  Inquisitor,  1250,  Summa  de  Catharia  et  Leonistis.  (Martene,  Thes.  nov.  Anecd.  Th.  V.  p.  1759.  and 
Argentre  Th.  I.  p.  48.  (The  edit  by  Oretser  is  no  further  the  actual  work  of  Eainerius,  but  a  later 
collection  made  by  some  German.  Gieseler,  de  Eainerii  Sacch.  Summa.  Gott  1884  4.)  [C.  Schmidt, 
Hist  et  doct.  de  la  secte  des  Cathares,  etc.  Par.  1849.  2  vols.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S50.  H.  4.] 

/)  Thus  according  to  an  orig.  doc. :  Ein  Katharisches  Eituale,  ed.  by  E.  Kunite,  Jen.  1352. 


CHAP.  VI.    PEOT.  PAKTIE3.    §  228.  PASAGII.    §  229.  PETEK  OF  BEUTS.       253 

it,  and  the  Ebionite  and  Arian  doctrines  concerning  Christ  in  opposition  to 
the  views  of  the  Docetae.  (g)  The  name  of  this  sect,  as  well  as  the  time  in 
which  it  sprung  np,  suggests  that  this  revival  of  Jewish  Christianity  may  have 
been  occasioned  by  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem.  (7i)  The  ecclesiastical  rulers 
were  at  first  very  lenient  toward  these  various  sects,  but  they  were  soon  com- 
pelled to  resort  to  the  severest  punishments.  Even  then  they  could  not  pre- 
vent multitudes  from  embracing  these  doctrines  in  secret,  and  barely  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping  from  a  general  and  public  defeat.  Some  who  urged  th#t, 
according  to  the  teaching  of  Christ  and  the  example  of  St.  Martin,  such  un- 
fortunate persons  ought  to  receive  instruction  rather  than  hanging,  could 
gain  no  attention,  (i) 

§  229.  Peter  of  Bruys  and  Henry.  Tanchelm  and  Eon. 
In  the  course  of  the  opposition  which  sprung  up  against  the  Church  in 
the  twelfth  century,  a  few  individuals  became  prominent  either  as  advocates 
or  leaders  of  sects.  Peter  de  Bruys,  who  had  been  deposed  from  the  priest- 
hood, but  preached  (after  1104)  in  the  south  of  France,  was  one  of  these. 
He  declaimed  against  the  baptism  of  infants,  the  mass,  and  celibacy,  burned 
the  cross  which  had  been  the  instrument  of  our  Lord's  passion,  and  called 
upon  his  hearers  to  destroy  the  churches,  since  God  was  as  willing  to  hear 
prayer  offered  to  him  in  an  inn  or  a 'stable  as  from  before  an  altar.  Many 
disturbances  of  a  violent  nature  were  created  by  him,  but  he  was  finally 
burned  by  a  mob  at  St.  Gilles  (1124).  (a)  Henry,  a  monk  who  had  with- 
drawn from  his  order,  and  was  sometimes  thought  to  be  a  pupil  of  Peter  de 
Bruys,  labored  in  the  same  region  of  country  (1116-48),  and  was  at  first 
highly  honored  even  by  the  clergy.  He  was  a  strenuous  preacher  of  repent- 
ance, and  though  not  opposed  to  ecclesiastical  authority,  held  up  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  clergy  to  the  derision  of  the  people.  He  was  finally  overcome 
by  his  powerful  opponent,  and  ended  his  days  in  prison.  (5)  Tanchelm  (about 
1115),  who  resided  on  the  sea-coast  of  the  Netherlands,  preached  zealously 
against  ecclesiastical  organizations,  collected  around  himself  an  armed  train  of 
followers,  claimed  to  be  God  equal  to  Christ  on  account  of  the  Holy  Ghost  which 
he  professed  to  have  received,  held  public  celebrations  in  honor  of  his  espou- 
sal to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  was  finally  slain  (about  1124)  by  a  priest,  (c) 
Eon  (Eudo  de  Stella)  proclaimed  that  he  had  been  sent  into  the  world  to  be 
the  judge  of  the  living  and  the  dead.  He  made  his  appearance  sometimes  in 
one  and  sometimes  in  another  place  in  different  parts  of  France,  attended  by 

#)  Bonacorsi  in  PAchery,  p.  211ss.  G.  Sergomensis  c.  Oath,  et  Pasagios  c.  a.  1230.  (Muratori 
Antiqq.  Ital.  Med.  aevi.  vol.  V.  p.  152ss.)  [C.  U.  ITakn,  Gesch.  d.  Ketzer  im  MA.  bes.  im  11.  12.  u. 
18.  Jahrh.  Stuttg.  1850.  8  vols.] 

7i)  Comp.  Loscher,  Eef.  Acta.  vol.  I.  p.  857.  On  the  other  hand:  Baumg.  Crusius,  Comp.  d. 
DGesch.  p.  802. 

t)  Hermanni  Contr.  Chron.  ad.  ann.  1052.  Gesta  Episcc.  Leodiens.  c.  50.  60s.  (M'artene,  ampliss. 
Col.  Th.  IV.) 

a)  Petri  Vener.  Ep.  adv.  Petrobrussianos  haer.  (Bibl.  PP.  max.  Tb.  XXII.  p.  1023ss. 

1)  Acta  Episc.  Ccnomanensium  c.  35s.  (Mabillon  vett  Analecta.  Th.  III.)  Bernardi  Vita  scr. 
Qaufrid.  Ill,  6. 

c)  Ep.  Trajcctensis  Ecc.  ad  Frid.  Archiep.  Colon.  (Argentre  Th.  I.  p.  llss.)  Abaelardi  Intr.  ad 
Theol.  (Opp.  p.  1066.)  Vita  Norlerti,  §  86.  (Acta  SS.  Jun.  Th.  I.  p.  848.) 


254  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  EISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

a  bold  retinue,  and  living  in  so  sumptuous  a  style  on  the  wealth  of  the 
churches  and  monasteries,  that  the  people  generally  believed  him  to  be  a  ma- 
gician. He  was  at  last  taken  by  surprise,  arraigned  before  a  Synod  at 
Bheims  (1148),  and  without  despairing  of  the  success  of  his  cause,  died  in 
the  prison  of  St.  Denys.  (d) 

§  230.     The  Waldenscs. 

.  i.  Memorials  of  tho  Wald.  Manuscripts  in  Geneva  and  Dublin,  generally  affected  by  later  Protes- 
tant influences  (comp.  Dieckhoff,  modified  by  Herzog),  especially  with  respect  to  times  before  Huse: 
Cantica,  described  by  Herzog,  p.  72ss.  and  la  nobla  Leyceon  In  Raynouard,  Choix  des  poesies 
orig.  des  Troubad.  Par.  1818.  vol.  II.  p.  7838.  According  to  the  Geneva  and  Dublin  text  in  Heraog, 
p.  444ss.  Kath.  Verdicts  and  Protocols  of  the  Inquisition  in  Argentre,  (Col.  Jud.  vol.  I.  p.  71ss.) 
and  PA.  a  Limborch,  Hist  Inquisit  in  the  conclusion  mentioned  as  L.  sententt  Inquis.  Tolosanae. 
Catharistic  accounts  and  polem.  writings:  Bernards,  Abbas»Fontis  calidi  (d.  before  1200)  adv.  Val- 
densium  sectam.  (Bibl.  PP.  max.  voL  XXIV.  p.  1586.)  Alanus  d*  Insulis  (d.  1202),  c.  Ilaerctic. 
L1  II.  (Opp.  ed.  K.  v.  Viscfi,  Antu.  1654)  WaUTw  Mapes  in  Uahn,  vol.  II.  p.  257s.  Stephanus  de 
Borbone  (about  1250),  de  scptem  donis  8p.  S.  VII,  81.  (Argentre  voL  L  p.  S5ss.)  Rainerius.  Mo- 
neta  (§  228,  n.  e.) 

II.  Gilles,  Hist  ccc.  des  ogl.  rcformeca  en  quelques  vallocs  do  Piemont  Gen.  1644.  J.  Lcger, 
Hist  gen.  des  cgl.  cvang.  des  valldes  de  Pi6m.  ou  Vaudoises.  Leid.  1669.  2  vols.  f.  Uebers.  v.  Schtcei- 
nite,  Lpz.  1T50.  2  vols.  4.  (J.  Bree)  Hist  des  Vaud.  Laus.  1796.  2  vols.  Lpz.  1798.  A.  Monaetier, 
Hist  d'egl.  Vaudoise.  Gen.  1847.  2  vols.  A.  Mutton,  Tlsrael  des  Alpes,  prem.  Hist  complete  des 
Vaud.  Par.  1S51.  4  vols.— Hahn  (see  before  §  228.)  voL  II.  comp.  Preface  to  voL  III.  p.  X.  F.  Ben- 
der, Gesch.  d.  W.  Ulm.  1850.— .4.  W.  Dieckhoff,  d.  W.  im  MAlter.  Gott  1851.  Iferzog,  d.  roman. 
W.  ihre  vorref.  Zustande  u.  Lehren,  ihro  Eef.  im-16.  Jhh.  u.  d.  Euckwirk.  drs.  Hal.  1853.  [Pey- 
ran,  Hist  Defence  of  the  "Wald.  Lond.  Svo.  E.  Henderson,  Origin,  &c.  of  the  Vaudois.  W.  & 
GiUy,  The  Albigenses  in  Littell's  Eel.  Mag.  vol.  L  p.  6.  A.  Monastier,  Hist  of  the  Vaudois 
Church  from  its  Origin.  New  York.  1849.  12mo.  Rolt.  Baird,  Waldenses,  Albig.  and  Vaud.  Philad. 
1848.  Svo.  C.  U.  Ilahn,  Gesch.  d.  Ketzer  im  Mittelalter,  bes.  im  11. 12.  und  13.  Jahrh.  Stuttg.  1847.  G. 
U.  Hahn,  in  Stud.  u.  Krit  1851.  H.  4.  p.  8G2.  Herzog,  d.  Waldenser,  vor  u.  nach  d.  Eef.  Lps.  1853. 12.] 

The  dissatisfaction  and  ferments  which  prevailed  during  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, gave  occasion  during  the  last  half  of  it  to  tho  appearance  of  tho  Wal- 
denses. As  they  were  generally  conversant  with  the  Scriptures,  they  main- 
tained in  opposition  to  unworthy  priests,  that  all  who  truly  imitated  Christ 
in  his  life  of  poverty,  had  a  right  freely  to  preach  the  gospel.  As  the  natu- 
ral result  of  their  demand  that  Christians  should  live  in  complete  poverty 
and  virginity,  a  distinction  was  formed  soon  after  the  excitement  of  their 
origin  had  subsided,  between  the  Perfect,  who  forsook  all  and  went  forth 
two  by  two  in  their  sandals  preaching  repentance,  and  the  mere  Believers, 
who  forsook  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  but  who  continued  in  the  enjoyments 
of  conjugal  and  social  life.  Witnesses  whose  testimony  is  beyond  suspicion, 
though  they  belonged  to  the  Catholic  Church,  inform  us  that  their  name  and 
origin  is  to  be  traced  to  (Peter)  Waldus,  an  opulent  citizen  of  Lyons,  who 
was  transported  by  his  own  ideal  of  evangelical  perfection,  had  the  gospels 
and  many  sentiments  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers  which  harmonized  with 
them  translated  into  the  Eomanic  vernacular  language,  gave  all  his  posses- 
sions to  the  poor,  and  from  a  desire  to  attain  a  state  like  that  found  in  the 
apostolic  Church,  went  forth  (about  1160)  as  a  preacher  of  repentance.  The 
tradition  more  recently  entertained  among  the  Waldenses  themselves,  accord- 
ing to  which  their  origin  is  to  be  traced  to  primitive  and  even  to  apostolic 

d)  Willielm  Neulrigens  de  reb.  Angl.  1, 19.  (Argentre  Th.  L  p.  36ss.)    Otto  Fris,  de  gest  Frid. 
I,  54a.    Alberid  Chron.  ad  ann.  1148. 1149. 


CHAP.  VI.    PEOT.  PARTIES.    §  230.  WALDENSES.    §  231.  ALBIGENSES.       255 

times,  is  true  only  so  far  as  the  same  spirit  has  always  been  sustained  among 
them  by  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  has  always  protested  against  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  Church.  It  is  also  probable  that  in  some  of  their  Alpine  val- 
leys a  spirit  has  been  maintained  ever  since  the  time  of  Claudius  of  Turin, 
which  harmonized  with  and  was  best  defined  by  the  preaching  of  the  Wal- 
denses.  These  Poor  People  of  Lyons  (Leonistae,  Humiliati,  Sabatati)  had  no 
idea  of  breaking  away  from  the  Church,  and  when  then:  archbishop  com- 
manded them  to  be  silent,  they  turned  with  the  utmost  confidence  to  Alex- 
ander III.  (1179),  who  treated  them  with  scorn.  Their  doctrine  that  laymen 
might  teach  the  people  necessarily  brought  them  into  collision  with  the 
clergy,  and  they  were  soon  (1184)  excommunicated  by  Lucius  III.  But  obey- 
ing God  rather  than  men,  they  established  congregations  in  France,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  and  had  their  principal  residences  in  Provence  and  in  the 
lofty  valleys  of  Piedmont.  Although  they  differed  from  the  Catholic  Church 
not  so  much  in  their  doctrines  as  in  their  manner  of  life,  which  was  strictly 
conformed  to  the  letter  of  Christ's  sermon  on  the  mount,  they  were  con- 
strained to  deny  that  the  Church  of  the  pope  was  the  Church  of  Christ,  even 
when  they  allowed  that  many  had  been  saved  who  had  never  forsaken  it. 
Their  moral  convictions  were  strongly  against  the  doctrine  of  a  purgatory, 
with  all  its  auxiliary  additions ;  «they  required  a  confession  of  all  sins,  but 
expected  forgiveness  from  God  alone,  and  they  honored  the  saints  as  models 
of  piety,  but  not  as  intercessors  before  God.  Wherever  their  congregations 
were  properly  organized,  their  Masters  or  Barbs,  chosen  from  among  the  Per- 
fect, preached,  heard  confessions,  and  in  cases  of  necessity  administered  the 
sacraments.  Innocent  III.  at  one  time  indulged  the  hope  that  he  could  bring 
their  evangelical  poverty  under  the  control  of  monastic  vows  (pauperes  catho- 
lici),  but  the  fortunes  of  this  sect  soon  became  involved  with  those  of  the 
Catharists,  and  it  was  said  that  even  if  the  faces  of  these  heretics  were  dif- 
ferent, their  tails  were  all  twisted  together.  They  frequently  lived  concealed 
in  the  midst  of  the  Catholic  Church,  recognizing  each  other  by  secret  signs, 
and  wherever  they  were  they  always  formed  a  light  amidst  surrounding  dark- 
ness, were  active  in  promoting  evangelical  virtues  and  familiarity  with  the 
Scriptures,  and  always  stood  ready  to  aid  with  the  power  of  a  Scriptural 
Christianity  every  higher  development  of  man's  moral  nature. 

§  231.     The  AlUgemian  War. 

I.  Petri  Honachi  (de  Yaux  Cernay)  Hist.  Albigensiam.    Guil.  de  Podio  Laurentii  (Chaplain  to 
Kaymund  VII.)  super  Hist,  negotii  Francor.  adv.  Albig.    (Both  found  in  Bouquet-Srial  Th.  XIX.) 
Hist  de  la  croisade  contre  les  heretiques  Albigeois,  6crito  en  vers  provencaux,  publ.  par  M.  C.  Fau- 
*iel,  Par.  1837.  4.    Hist  de  la  guerre  des  Albig.  (Together  with  other  documents  in  the  Hist  de  Lan- 
gued.  Th.  III.  Preuves.)    J.  du  Tillet,  Hist  belli  c.  Alb.  Initi  comp.  ex  Bibl.  Vat  ed.  A.  Vres- 
eel,  1845.  , 

II.  Sismonde  di  Sismondi,  les  croisades  contre  les  Albig.  Par.  1S2S.  [transl.  into  Engl.  Lond. 
1826.  8vo.]    J.  J.  Earrau  et  A.  B.  Darragon,  Hist  des  crois  c.  les  Alb.  Par.  18-13.    C.  ScJimidt, 
(§  228,  note  c.) 

The  Catharists  and  Waldenses  having  become  in  some  parts  of  Provence 
more  powerful  than  the  Church  itself,  their  example  was  exceedingly  danger- 
ous. Complete  authority  was  therefore  bestowed  by  Innocent  III.  for  the 
suppression  of  these  heretics.  His  legates  travelled  about  barefoot  in  the 


256  MEDIAEVAL  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

manner  of  the  apostles,  sometimes  preaching  and  disputing,  and  sometimes 
getting  up  judicial  proceedings  and  popular  acts  of  violence.  Peter  of  Cas- 
tclnau,  one  of  these  legates,  in  order  to  accomplish  his  object,  seized  upon 
those  powers  which  belonged  exclusively  to  the  civil  magistrate,  and  thus 
became  embroiled  in  a  quarrel  with  Count  Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse,  one 
of  the  most  powerful  princes  of  the  country.  The  result  was  that  the  legate 
was  assassinated,  and  the  guilt  of  the  deed  was  imputed  to  the  Count  him- 
self. Innocent  then  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  him  and  all  other  heretics, 
under  the  conduct  of  Arnold,  Abbot  of  Citeaux,  as  legate,  and  of  Simon  de 
Montfort.  Raymond  endeavored  to  escape  the  danger  by  humbling  himself 
and  taking  the  cross  against  his  own  people.  The  arms  of  the  crusaders  were 
now  turned  against  Raymond  Roger,  Viscount  of  Beziers  and  Albi,  and 
hence  the  heretics,  and  especially  the  Catharists,  against  whom  this  crusade 
was  principally  directed,  were  generally  called  Albigenses.  (a)  Beziers  was 
taken  by  storm,  and  the  legate  boasted,  that  as  a  messenger  of  divine  wrath, 
he  had  utterly  destroyed  the  city.  (J)  Montfort  now  turned  the  fury  of  his 
excited  followers  against  the  territories  of  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  and  when 
he  had  conquered  them  he  was  recognized  at  the  Synods  of  Montpellier  and 
the  Lateran  (1215)  as  the  lawful  lord  of  all  that  he  had  thus  acquired,  (c) 
Innocent  perceived  the  impolicy  of  this  proceeding,  but  lest  he  should  lose 
the  great  object  at  which  he  was  aiming,  he  did  not  venture  to  rend  the  prey 
from  the  possession  of  the  tigers  whom  he  had  let  loose,  (d) 


CHAP.  VII.— THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCH. 

§  232.    Extension  of  the  Church. 

The  Bulgarians,  originally  of  Turkish  extraction,  but  after  their  settle- 
ment in  Moesia  very  extensively  blended  with  the  Slaves,  were  for  a  long 
time  the  most  formidable  of  all  the  neighbors  with  whom  the  Greek  empire 
was  obliged  to  contend.  For  a  considerable  period  they  scornfully  rejected 
a  system  of  faith  proposed  to  them  by  their  enemies.  Christianity,  however, 
was  gradually  introduced  among  them  at  various  epochs  (845-865) ;  once  when 
the  daughter  of  their  prince  returned  from  captivity  among  the  Greeks,  then 
when  in  time  of  famine  they  made  supplication  to  the  God  of  Christians  and 
were  delivered,  and  finally,  under  the  influence  of  Methodius,  who  is  reported 
to  have  exerted  his  talents  among  them  not  only  as  an  apostle  but  as  a  paint- 
er, (a)  That  portion  of  the  Bulgarians  who  resided  on  the  Volga  were  con- 
verted to  Mohammedanism,  and  the  kindred  tribe  of  the  Chazars,  who  re- 
Bided  in  the  Chersonese,  was  divided  between  Mohammedanism,  Judaism,  and 
Christianity.  (&)  The  Mainots,  who  inhabited  the  rocky  caverns  of  the  Tay- 

a)  P.  Jas,  de  Valdehsium  secta  ab  Albigens.  bene  distinguenda.  L.  B.  1834.  4 
I)  Caesar  Neisterbac.  V,  21.    Innoc.  1.  XII.  Ep.  108. 

c)  Mansi  Th.  XXII.  p.  1069. 

d)  Hurter,  Innoc.  vol.  II.  p.  657ss. 

a)  Constantini  Porphyr.  Continuator  IV,  13ss.    Nicetas  David,  Ignat  (Mansi  Th.  XVL  p. 
845.)    Comp.  §  225. 

&)  Frdhn,  Ibn-Fosslan's  und  andrer  Araber  Berichte  u.  d.  Eussen  alt.  Zeit  Petersb.  1323.  4.  Pro- 


CHAP.  VII.    OEIENT.  CHUKCH.    §  232.  EUSSIANS.    §  223.  EOMAN  EMPIEE.     257 

getus,  continued  to  resist  the  efforts  of  the  Church  until  the  latter  half  of 
the  ninth  century,  when  they  also  yielded  subjection  to  it.  About  the  same 
time  the  Slaves,  who  at  different  periods  had  broken  into  the  territory  of 
ancient  Greece,  became  Christians,  and  were  connected  with  the  Greek 
Church,  (c)  The  Russians  became  acquainted  with  Christianity  on .  the  bat- 
tle-field. Traditionary  accounts  tell  us  of  the  extraordinary  success  of  some 
efforts  to  convert  them  during  the  ninth  century,  but  no  traces  of  the  results 
appear  in  subsequent  ages.  Photius  proclaimed  that  they  were  enthusiastic 
in  their  desires  for  the  gospel,  but  the  event  proved  that  his  announcement 
was  premature.  Olga,  their  excellent  dowager  princess,  procured  baptism 
for  herself  in  Constantinople  (955),  but  even  to  the  close  of  her  life  she  could 
enjoy  the  services  of  a  Christian  priest  only  in  secret.  Her  grandson  Vladi- 
mir,  after  a,  careful  investigation  of  the  different  forms  of  religion  then  preva- 
lent, received  baptism  from  the  Greeks  (988).  The  people  beheld  with  tears 
the  abuse  which  was  heaped  upon  their  ancient  gods,  and  submitted  them- 
selves silently  to  baptism  in  the  river  Dnieper.  A  metropolitanate  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Greek  Patriarch  was  established  in  Kiew,  then  the  capital 
of  the  empire.  A  convent  (Petschera)  established  in  a  cave  near  Kiew,  be- 
came, after  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  semiAary  from  which  the 
whole  country  was  supplied  not  only  with  bishops  and  saints,  whose  bodies 
never  decayed,  but  with  a  Russian  literature,  (d) 

§  233.     The  Roman  Empire  and  the  Church. 

The  Roman  Empire  in  the  East,  continually  pressed  more  and  more  by 
the  power  of  the  Turks,  the  Normans,  and  the  Crusaders,  maintained  its 
courage  by  the  proud  recollections  of  its  former  greatness,  and  its  existence 
merely  in  consequence  of  the  fortunate  position  of  its  capital.  The  mechan- 
ism which  prevailed  in  the  secular  and  spiritual  administrations  then  united 
in  the  head  of  the  imperial  government,  generally  continued  unaffected  by 
the  revolutions  which  BO  frequently  took  place  in  the  palace.  The  spirit  of 
the  Church  sympathized  with  the  universal  torpidity,  and  orthodoxy  took 
the  place  which  belonged  to  morality  and  religion.  The  patriarchs  of  Con- 
stantinople perpetrated  and  endured  all  those  acts  of  violence  which  the 
highest  civil  officers  are  accustomed  to  inflict  and  receive  where  feeble  despot- 
isms prevail.  A  party  of  the  clergy  was  kept  under  restraint  by  another 
party  in  the  army.  The  enthusiasm  of  the  crusaders  met  with  no  response 
here  except  ridicule  and  suspicion.  The  number  and  power  of  these  sacred 
warriors  was  such  that  Constantinople  finally  became  a  mere  colony  of  the 


face.    J.  v.  Klaproth,  Beschr.  d.  russ.  Prov.  z\v.  d.  kasp.  u.  Schwarz  Mecre.  Berl.  1814.  p.  119ss. 
262ss. 

c)  Le  Quien,  Oriens  chr.  Th.  II.  p.  103ss.    FaUmerayer,  Qesch.  d.  Halbins.  Morea  wahrend  des 
Mittelalt.  Stuttg.  u.  Tub.  1830.  vol.  I.  p.  173ss.  216.  227ss.    The  statements  and  spirit  of  this  work 
should  be  corrected  by  a  perusal  of  Zinkeisen,  Gesch.  Griechenl.  Lpz.  1832.  vol.  I.  p.  704ss.  767s, 
850ss.       ' 

d)  Nestor  (died  about  1113),  Annals  (till  1110.  Petersb.  1767ss.  5  Th.-4.)  m.  Uebers.  u.  Anm.  (till 
Vladimir)  by  Schlozer,  Gott.  1802ss.  5  vols.— Karamsin,  Gesch.  d.  russ.  Eeicbs.  Uebers.  by  Hauen- 
schilcl,  Eig.  1820S3.  vol.  I.  II.    Stralil,  Gesch.  d.  russ.  Klrche,  HaL  1830.  vol.  L  , 

17 


258  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  SOO-121G. 

Western  nations,  and  what  remained  of  the  Grecian  Empire,  with  all  on 
which  its  hopes  could  rest,  was  transferred  to  Trehizond. 

§  234.     Photius. 

Plwtil  Epp.  ecL  Montacutius,  Lond.  1651.  t  Original  documents  In  Mansi  Th.  XV.  XVI.  Vita 
s.  certamon  8.  Ignatii,  by  Nicetas  David.  (Manni  Th.  XVI.  p.  209.)  Anattasii  Bibl.  Praef.  ad 
Cone.  VIII.  oec.  ( Manai  Th.  XVI.  p.  Iss.)  Ejusd.  Vita  Nicholai  I.  Vita  Hadriani  II.— K  B.  Swalvc, 
de  dissidio  Ecc.  chr.  in  gr.  et  lat  Photii  auct  maturate.  L.  B.  1880.  [G.  Finlay,  H.  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire.  Lond.  1853.  8.] 

The  real  ruler  of  the  emperor  and  the  empire  was  Bardas,  the  uncle  of 
Michael  III.  The  Patriarch  Ignatius,  a  eunuch  of  the  dethroned  imperial 
family,  zealously  protested  against  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  Bardas  and  the 
immoralities  of  the  emperor,  in  whose  drinking  revels  the  sacred  rites  of  the- 
Church  were  caricatured.  To  get  rid  of  him,  Photius,  through  the  influence 
of  the  court,  was  elevated  to  the  patriarchal  office  (858).  This  man  had 
passed  through  the  highest  offices  of  the  state,  and  was  possessed  of  much 
diversified  learning.  'By  his  promotion  to  that  office  a  schism  was  created  in 
the  Church,  which  the  court  attempted  to  heal  hy  means  of  the  Eoman 
bishop.  Legates  were  sent  to  Constantinople  by  Nicholas  /.,  but  they  were 
soon  won  over  to  the  party  of  Bardas,  and  gave  sentence  against  Ignatius 
(861).  Nicholas,  however,  annulled  their  decisions,  and  rejected  Photius  as 
an  intruding  layman  (863).  This  disagreement  became  still  more  serious 
when  the  Bulgarians  were  drawn  into  ecclesiastical  connection  with  the 
Church  of  Rome,  (a)  A  circular  was  then  sent  forth  by  Photius,  severely 
censuring  as  heresies  all  those  usages  in  which  the  Roman  differed  from  the 
Greek  Church.  Among  the  heresies  enumerated  were  the  observation  of 
fasts  on  Saturday,  the  curtailment  of  the  great  fasts,  the  contempt  of  con- 
firmation when  performed  by  the  hand  of  a  presbyter,  and  the  prohibition 
of  the  lawful  marriage  of  priests.  To  these  charges  was  added  the  bitter 
reproach  that  the  Roman  Church  had  sinned  against  the  Holy  Ghost  by  cor- 
rupting the  Apostles'  Creed.  (&)  For,  the  doctrine  of  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (§  105)  from  the  Son  as  well  as  from  the  Father,  though  it  had 
been  maintained  as  truth  by  Leo  III.,  had  been  disapproved  as  an  addition  to 
the  Creed,  (c)  and  yet  had  finally  found  admission  into  the  Latin  version  of 
that  symbol.  At  a  synod  convened  by  Photius  in  Constantinople  (867),  the 
pope  was  excommunicated  and  deposed.  During  the  same  year,  however, 
Basil  became  sole  ruler  in  the  empire  by  the  murder  of  Michael,  with  whom 
he  had  before  been  associated  in  authority,  and  for  this  bloody  crime  the 
imperial  murderer  was  debarred  by  Photius  from  the  communion  <f  the 
Church.  With  calm,  lofty  dignity,  the  Patriarch  stood  before  his  judges, 
and  was  condemned  in  the  Synod  of  Constantinople  (869),  which  claimed  to 
be  oecumenical,  (d)  By  the  same  assembly  Ignatius  was  restored  to  the  pa- 
triarchal office,  and  sought  to  regain  his  former  friendship  with  Rome,  but 

a)  Comp.  Gfrorer,  Carolinger.  vol.  I.  p.  439.  449ss. 
&)  Ep.  2.  MontacuL  p.  47ss. 

c)  Mansi  Th.  XIV.  p.  17ss.    Anast.  Vita  Leon.  Ill,  (Muratori  Th.  III.  P.  L  p.  208.) 

d)  Mansi  Th.  SVL  p.  122ss.  371ss» 


CHAP.  VII.    OKIENT.  CHURCH.    §  2.34.  PHOTIUS.    §  235.  SCHISM.  259 

tlie  dispute  respecting  the  Bulgarians,  whom  one  in  his  position  could  not 
honorably  surrender,  soon  produced  a  renewed  occasion  for  strife.  On  the 
death  of  Ignatius  (878),  the  emperor  became  reconciled  to  Photius,  and  JoJin 
VIII.,  hoping  to  effect  a  favorable  compromise  of  his  difficulties,  recognized 
the  claims  of  the  restored  patriarch.  At  the  Synod  of  Constantinople  (879), 
which  is  regarded  by  the  Greek  Church  as  the  eighth  oecumenical  council, 
and  was  attended  by  Roman  deputies,  all  decrees  which  had  been  issued 
against  Photius  were  annulled,  (e)  The  pope,  however,  soon  found  that  he 
had  been  deceived  in  his  expectations,  and  pronounced  sentence  of  excom- 
munication against  the  patriarch  and  his  synod.  Photius  was  also  hated  by 
the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne,  who  had  no  sooner  assumed  the  imperial 
crown  under  the  name  of  Leo  the  "Wise  (886),  than  he  was  sent  to  a  convent, 
where  he  found  his  grave  (about  891). 

§  235.     The  Division  of  the  Church. 

Leo  Allatius,  do  Ecc.  occ.  et  or.  perpetua  consens.  Col.  1648.  4.  Maimbourg,  Hist  du  sclnsmo 
dea  Grecs.  Par.  1677.  4.  and  others.  C,  A.  v.  Jieic7din-Meldegg,  d.  Ursachen  d.  Trennung.  (Theol. 
Abbh.  Greiz.  1829.) 

The  previous  relations  of  the  Oriental  to  the  Eoman  Church  were  never 
again  re-established  in  a  definite  form.  The  Circular  which  had  been  issued 
by  Photius  has  ever  since  continued  a  perpetual  monument,  in  which  the 
actual  differences  between  the  two  churches  are  exhibited  in  their  most  ob- 
noxious form.  The  political  separation  of  Italy  from  the  Grecian  Empire 
necessarily  involved  also  its  ecclesiastical.  The  more  the  power  of  the  pope 
increased  in  the  West,  the  more  decidedly  was  it  needful  to  repel  his  claims 
in  the  East.  A  full  declaration  of  the  schism  was  delayed  by  nothing  but 
the  hope  which  the  emperor  entertained,  that  he  might  obtain  some  assist- 
ance against  the  Infidels  from  the  warlike  nations  of  the  West.  But  in  an 
epistle  of  the  Patriarch  Michael  Cerularius  (1053),  the  usual  reproaches  which 
had  been  heaped  upon  the  Romish  Church  were  increased  by  another,  which 
accused  it  of  the  Jewish  heresy  of  using  unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucha- 
rist, (a)  A  violent  epistolary  controversy  ensued.  Roman  legates  in  Con- 
stantinople demanded  satisfaction  for  the  offence,  and  the  patriarch  sought 
support  against  the  policy  of  the  emperor  in  the  passions  of  the  people.  On  the 
16th  July,  1054,  the  Roman  legates  deposited  on  the  great  altar  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Sophia  the  sentence  of  excommunication  which  had  been  issued  against 
the  patriarch,  and  shook  off  the  dust  from  their  feet.  (5)  A  Greek  Synod 
hurled  back  a  sentence  of  excommunication  against  the  Roman  Church,  and 
the  other  Catholic  patriarchs  became  connected  with  Constantinople,  (c) 
Both  Churches,  the  Eastern  and  the  Western,  each  in  like  manner  claiming 
to  be  Catholic  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other,  became  henceforth  permanently 
separated.  In  consequence  of  the  crusades,  this  division  of  the  Church  be- 

e)  Mansi  Th.  XVII.  p.  373ss. 

«)  To  be  found  only  in  a  Latin  transl.  in  £aronius  ad  ann.  1053.  N.  22. 

J)  Brevis  commemoratio  eorum,  quae  gesserunt  Apocrisiarii  S.  Rom.  Sedis  in  regia  xirbe,  by  Car- 
dinal  Humbert,  in  Baron,  ad  ann.  1054.  N.  19. 

c)  Mich.  Cerularii  Ep.  II.  ad  Petrum  Patr.  Antioch.  (Cotelerii  Ecc.  gr.  Monunx  Th.  IL  p. 
1866S.  162ss.) 


260  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1210. 

came  gradually  ripened  into  a  national  hatred.  While  they  were  in  progress, 
several  efforts  were  made  "by  those  engaged  in  them  to  unite  with  the  other 
ecclesiastical  parties  of  the  East,  without  success  on  account  of  national  dif- 
ferences. The  Maronites,  at  that  time  a  warlike  trihe,  were  the  only  class 
which  honestly  and  sincerely  submitted  themselves  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Latin  patriarch  of  Antioch  (1182).  (d)  The  Armenians  endeavored  to  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  a  reconciliation  whenever  they  wished  for  assistance 
from  the  "West,  but  only  a  few  individual  congregations  under  the  control 
of  the  Western  governments  maintained  any  connection  with  the  Eomish 
Church,  and  were  permitted  to  retain  their  own  sacred  language  and  the 
usages  of  their  ancestors. 

§  236.     State  of  Science. 

The  science  of  this  period  corresponded  with  the  rigid  lifelessness  which 
characterized  all  departments  of  society.  But  the  study  of  the  classical 
writers  and  the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  which  had  never  been  entirely  discon- 
tinued, served  to  transmit  from  generation  to  generation  the  inheritance  of 
such  an  education  as  they  were  capable  of  imparting.  When  Bardas  com- 
menced his  administration,  it  began  to  bo  perceived  that  the  proud  spirit  of 
the  nation  could  not  long  maintain  itself  by  the  side  of  the  vigorous  cultiva- 
tion of  the  Mohammedans  and  the  Western  nations,  without  keeping  up  a 
superiority  to  them  in  learning.  He  therefore  became  the  patron  of  science, 
and  Constantinople  was  for  a  considerable  time  the  seat  of  an  eminent  lite- 
rary activity.  Histories  of  the  world,  the  empire,  and  the  Church  were 
written  by  authors  of  various  conditions  in  life  and  with  different  degrees  of 
merit,  but  all  of  them  pervaded  by  the  spirit  peculiar  to  a  resident  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  kind  of  studies  pursued  was  to  some  extent  philological 
and  rhetorical,  or  connected  with  natural  sciences,  without  any  predominance 
of  an  ecclesiastical  element.  Photim,  who  was  even  in  scientific  matters  a 
model  for  his  Church,  has  in  his  Bibliotheca  (a)  preserved  for  subsequent 
ages  brief  extracts  and  notices  of  many  Christian  and  heathen  writers,  who 
would  otherwise  have  been  unknown.  His  Norftocanon,  by  the  common  con- 
sent of  the  Greek  Church,  has  been  adopted  as  its  authoritative  code  of  eccle- 
siastical law.  The  first  part  embraced  the  canons  of  those  synods  which 
were  then  regarded  as  authoritative,  together  with  some  canonical  epistles. 
These  canons  and  epistles  had  been  collected  together  some  time  in  the  sev- 
enth century,  and  merely  received  some  additions  in  number  from  the  hands 
of  Photius.  The  second  part  contains  the  civil  laws  relating  to  the  Church, 
systematically  arranged  and  abridged  in  fourteen  sections,  with  figures  refer- 
ring to  the  corresponding  canons  of  the  first  part.  (5)  Simeon  MetapJirastes 

d)  Wilh.  Tyr.  XXII,  8.  Eunstmann,  die  Maron.  u.  ihr  Verb.  z.  lat  K.  (Tub.  Quartalschr. 
.845.  H.  1.) 

«)  Mvpi6frl3\ov  s.  Bibl.  ed.  Im.  JSekker,  BCT.  1824s.  2  Th.  4. 

1)  The  first  Part,  together  with  the  Scholiae  of  Zonaras  (about  1120),  and  Balsamon  (1170),  Eeve- 
rcgii  Suj/oSj/cov  a  Pandectae  canonum,  Ox.  1672.  2  Th.  f.  The  Second  Part  is  in  JusteUi  Bibl.  Th. 
II.  p.  785.  and  the  text  of  the  canons  which  was  written  out  at  some  time  in  the  10th  cent  in  A, 
Majo  Spicil.  Eoman.  Eom.  1842.  Th.  VII.  Comp.  JSiener,  z.  Eovis,  d.  Just.  Codex.  Berl.  18Sa  p. 
84S3.  JBickell  in  d.  Jen.  L.  Z.  1844.  N.  282. 


CHAP.  YII.    OEIENT.  CHURCH.    §  236.  LITEEATUEE.    §  237.  PAULICIANS.      261 

(10th  cent.)  has  recorded  in  a  lively  manner  the  old  legends  of  the  ancient 
saints,  (c)  Oecumenius,  Bishop  of  Tricca  (about  990),  (d)  Theophylact,  Arch- 
bishop of  the  Bulgarians  (1107),  (e)  and  Euthymius  Zigabenus,  a  monk  of 
Constantinople  (d.  about  1118),  (/)  formed  collections  for  the  interpretation  of 
the  Scriptures  out  of  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  which  are  valuable  because 
they  are  the  only  medium  through  which  we  have  received  a  large  part  of 
the  treasure  from  which  they  were  drawn.  The  Creed  of  the  Church  had 
become  firmly  established  on  the  basis  of  ecclesiastical  tradition,  and  was 
now  decked  off  with  a  few  cautious  Aristotelian  formulas.  It  had  also  been 
somewhat  tinctured  with  the  peculiarities  of  Platonism  through  the  influence 
of  the  Areopagite  and  the  fathers  of  the  fourth  century.  It  was  obliged  to 
maintain  a  perpetual  conflict  with  the  philosophy  and  heretical  opinions  of 
past  times.  A  peculiar  spirit  is  very  perceptible  in  the  controversial  writ- 
ings of  Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Methane  (died  after  1166),  (g)  and  in  the  Treasure 
of  Orthodoxy  (A)  which  Nicetas  Choniates  found  consolation  in  composing  in 
the  midst  of  the  misfortunes  of  his  native  land.  But  the  special  character  of 
the  age  is  most  distinctly  seen  in  the  Panoplia,  collected  from  the  writings 
of  the  fathers  by  Euthymius  Zigabenus  by  order  of  the  theological  emperor 
Alexius  Comnenus,  for  the  refutation  and  condemnation  of  all  heretics,  (i) 
Among  the  Oriental  parties,  the  Jacobites  were  distinguished  for  having  pre- 
served a  lively  current  of  the  old  Syriac  learning  through  several  successive 
generations. 

§  237.    Paulicians.    Section  2.     Continued  from  §  146. 

Constantini  Porphyr,  Basilius  Maeedo.  e.  87ss.  Anna  Comnena,  Alexias.  Par.  1651.  f.  1. 
XIV.  p.  450ss.— Mich.  Pselli.  vepl  evepyttat  8ai/J.6vw  Sid\.  ed.  Jfasenmuller,  Kil.  16S8. 12.  An- 
na Comn.  Alex.  XV.  p.  486ss.  EuthymU  Zygadeni  Narratio  de  Bogom.  seu  Panopliae  tit.  23.  gr. 
recogn.  Zini  interpret  add.  Gieseler,  Goett  1842.  4.  (Also  in  Wolf.) 

Sergius  (after  800),  under  the  name  of  Tychicus,  induced  the  Paulicians 
to  return  to  the  simplicity  of  morals  which  prevailed  in  the  ancient  Church. 
After  his  death  (835)  no  single  individual  was  elected  to  preside  over 
them,  but  they  were  governed  by  a  council  of  their  teachers.  The  most 
intolerable  oppressions  were  patiently  endured  by  them,  and  it  was  not  till 
the  Empress  Theodora  had  commenced  a  process  by  which  they  were  to 

c)  Never  printed  as  a  separate  work,  some  122  biographies  in  the  histories  of  the  saints  of  the 
Greek  and  Eoman  Churches,  and  the  Codices,  seldom  by  themselves.    Leo  AUatiuA,  de  variis  Si- 
meonib.  et  Simeonum  scriptis.  Par.  1664.  4. 

d)  Comru.  in  Acta  App.  Epp.  Paulinas  et  cath.  ed.  F.  Morellus,  Par.  1631.  2  Th.  f. 

e)  Comm.  in  XII.  Proph.  min.  IV.  Evv.  Acta  App.  Epp.  Paul.  (Opp.  ed.  J.  F.  B.  M.  de  Ruleis, 
Yen.  1755s.  4  Th.  f.) 

/)  Comm.  in  Psalm.  (Theopliyl.  Opp.)  in  IV.  Evv.  ed.  <?.  F.  Mattiiaei,  Lps.  1792.  3  Th.  £ 

g)  'Aj/aTTTu|is  TTJS  freoAoyiKTjs  ffroixeidxrews  Up6i<\ov  U\aTuvufov,  ed.  Voemel,  Frcf.  1S25. 

h)  Qrjffavpbs  op&oSo£tas  1.  XXVII,  only  the  five  first  books  in  the  transl.  by  Pet.  Morellus, 
Par.  1569.  (Bibl.  PP.  max.  Th.  XXV.) 

i)  Uavoir\ia  Soy  party))  rrys  opfroS.  irto-Tews,  Tergov.  1711.  £  (The  extravagant  Tit  24.  against 
Islam  in  Sylburgi  Saraeenica,  ed.  Beurer.  Heidelb.  1595.)  Lat  ed.  Zino,  Yen.  1555.  f.  (Bibl.  PP. 
Lugd.  Th.  XIX.  Tit  12  and  13  against  the  Eoman  Church  is  suppressed.)  Comp.  Annae  Comn.  Sup- 
plementa  Historiam  ecc.  Grace,  p.  XI.  et  XIL  speetantia,  ed.  T.  L.  F.  Tafd,  Tub.  1832.—  Uttmann, 
Nic.  v.  Methone,  Euth.  Zig.  and  Nic.  Chon.  a  d.  dogm.  EntwickL  d.  Griech.  K.  im  12  Jahrh.  (Stud. 
a.  Krit  1833.  P.  3.) 


262  MEDIAEVAL  CHUKCH  HISTOET.    PEE.  III.    A.  D.  800-1216. 

be  utterly  exterminated  by  a  general  massacre,  that  they  flew  to  arms.    An 
imperial  general  whose  name  was  Carbeas  (844),  actuated  by  a  desire  of  re- 
venge for  the  wrongs  which  his  father  had  sustained  from  the  government, 
became  their  leader,  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Arabians,  and  strongly  forti- 
fied TepJirica,  a  mountain-hold  on  the  eastern  confines  of  the  empire.    He 
and  his  successor  Chrysocheres,  with  all  the  cruelty  which  fanaticism  inspires, 
made  excursions  from  this  fortress,  and  laid  waste  the  provinces  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor.   Although  the  Emperor  Basil  finally  succeeded  in  destroying  Tephrica 
(871),  many  Paulicians  maintained  their  existence  as  a  people  in  the  moun- 
tainous regions,  and  kept  the  extreme  portions  of  the  empire  in  continual 
agitation.    That  he  might  break  up  their  connections  with  the  Saracens,  John 
Zimisces  formed  a  treaty  with  thlm  (970),  in  accordance  with  which  they 
were  for  the  most  part  removed  to  Thrace,  where  a  colony  of  them  had  been 
formed  even  in  the  eighth  century.    Here  they  acknowledged  a  certain  kind 
of  allegiance  to  the  empire,  but  in  the  independent  possession  of  Philippo- 
polis  they  served  with  great  bravery  as  border  sentinels.    Alexius  Comne- 
nus  having  been  abandoned  by  a  large  band  of  them  in  the  Norman  war, 
effected  their  subjugation  by  stratagem  and  violence  (after  1085).    During  his 
residence  in  his  winter  quarters  in  Thrace  (1115)  he  sought  the  honor  of  their 
conversion,  and  in  fact  many  of  them  yielded  to  the  arts  of  the  imperial 
apostle.    But  the  Paulicians,  under  the  name  of  Euchites,  with  Manichean 
doctrines  and  fanatical  forms  of  prayer,  and  under  Elders  who  were  regarded 
as  apostles  of  Thrace,  had  before  this  become  numerous  among  the  Bulga- 
rians, (a)    The  affinities  of  these  people  for  the  Slavonic  Dualism  gave  them 
acceptance  in  that  nation  among  which  they  were  commonly  called  Bogo- 
miles.    According  to  their  system  of  faith,  the  original  Source  of  all  Being 
had  two  sons,  called  Satanael  and  Logos.    In  his  attempts  to  attain  equality 
with  the  Father  the  former  became  evil  in  his  nature,  seduced  the  angels 
from  their  allegiance,  and  formed  the  visible  universe.    Through  tha  divine 
powers  which  he  still  retained  he  created  man,  and  by  Eve  he  became  tha 
father  of  Cain.    All  ecclesiastical  organizations  were  established  under  the 
influence  of  Satanael,  and  had  their  principal  seat  formerly  at  Jerusalem,  but 
then  at  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople.    The  holy  Virgin  con- 
ceived in  consequence  of  an  influence  through  the  ear,  and  Christ  in  the 
body  of  an  angel  succeeded  in  overcoming  his  elder  brother.    The  Bogomilea 
acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  Psalms  and  of  sixteen  prophets  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  received  many  apocryphal  books,  (5)  but  they  gave  an 
allegorical  interpretation  to  the  sacred  history,  and  to  the  usages  of  the 
Church.    In  the  garb  of  monasticism  they  concealed  themselves  even  in  Con- 
stantinople until  Alexius  extorted  a  confession  from  them,  and  burned  Basi- 
lius  their  leader  at  the  stake  (1118).  (c)    Small  communities  of  Bogomiles 
were  found  among  the  Bulgarians  through  the  whole  period  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  Paulicians  have  continued  to  exist  under  many  changes  in  and 
around  Philippopolis  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Haemus  until  the  present  day. 

a)  Schnitzer,  d.  Each,  im  11.  Jahrh.  (Stirm's  Stud,  i  Geistl.  Wurt.  vol.  II.  H.  1.) 
Z>)  Liber  S.  Joannis.  (ThUo  Cod.  apocr.  Th.  I.  p.  834.)    Yisio  Isa.  (§  89,  note  d.) 
c)  J.  C.  Wolf,  Hist  Bogom.  Vit  1712.  4    L.  Oeder,  Prodr.  H.  Bog.  crit.  Goett  1743.  4.    Engel- 
hardt,  d.  Bog.  (KGesch.  Abhh.  Erl.  1832.  N.  2.) 


FOURTH   PERIOD. 

INNOCENT    III.     TO    LUTHER. 

§  238.     General   View  and  Historical  Writers. 

1)  §  170.  Fontes  rerum  Germ.  Geschichtsquellen  Deutschl.  (14.  &  13.  Jhh.)  ed.  by  J.  F.  Boelimer. 
Stuttg.  1843-5.  2  vols.  Albertus  Stadensis,  Benedictine  Abbot,  Franciscan,  died  after  1260,  Chron. 
till  1256.  ed.  Reinecc.  1587.  Vit  1608.  4.  (ScUlteri  Scrr.  rer.  germ.  vol.  II.  p.  123.)  Continuation 
1264-1324,  ed.  A.  Ilojer,  Hafn.  1720.  Vincentius  Bellovacensis,  Dominic,  in  Eoyemont,  died  about 
1264,  Speculum  historiale,  till  1250.  Argent.  1473.  4  vols.  f.  Aug.  1474.  3  vols.  f.  (Schlosser,  Vine.  v. 
Beauvais  u.  Erzieh.  m.  3  Abh.  Frkf.  1819.  2  vols.)  Mattheus  Paris,  Benedict  in  S.  Albans, 
Hist  major  till  1259.  (1066-1235.  from  the  Chron.  of  Roger  de  Wendover,  Lond.  1840.)  contin.  by 
W.  Rishanger,  till  1273,  ed.  Wats,  Lond.  1644.  1684.  [publ.  by  the  Camden  Soc.  edited  by  Halli- 
well.  Lond.  1840.]  f.  &  often.  Joannes  de  Winterthur,  Francisc.,  Chron.  1215—1348.  (Thesaur.  Hist. 
Helv.  Tig.  1735.  f.)  Albertus  Argentinensis,  Chron.  1273-1378.  (Urstis  vol.  II.  p.  95.)  The  Strasburg 
Chronicle  by  Closener  (died  1304.)  closes  at  1362.  ed.  by  a  Lit.  Assoc.  in  Stuttgard.  1843.  Jac.  Twinger 
of  Konigsliofen,  a  priest  of  Strasburg,  died  1420.  Elsafs.  Chron.  till  1386,  ed.  by  ScMlter.  Strasb. 
1698.  4.  (KuniscJi,  Konigsh.  &  his  Cbron.  In  W.  Mutter's  Ascania.  Ibid.  1820.  P.  II.  Strobel  de 
F.  Closneri  Chron.  germ.  Arg.  1S29.)  Gobelinus  Persona,  Dean  of  Bielefeld,  died  1420,  Cosmodro- 
mium,  independently  1340-1418.  (Meibom.  vol.  I.  p.  53.)  Antoninus,  Dominic.  Archbish.  of  Flor- 
ence, Summa  historialis  till  1459.  Nor.  1484.  3  vols.  f.  &  often.  (Opp.  Flor.  1741ss.  vol.  I.)  Werner 
RolfinTc,  Carthusian  in  Cologne,  d.  1500,  Fasc.  temporam  till  1476.  Col.  1474.  f.  &  often.  Cont  by 
Jo.  Linturius  till  1514  (Pistor.  Struve  voL  II.  p.  347.)— 2)  Albertinus  Jfussatus,  of  Padua,  d.  1330, 
Hist  Augusta  Henr.  VII.  De  gestis  Italor.  post  mortem  Henr.  till  1317,  Ludov.  Bavarus,  Fragment 
(Murat.  vol.  X.)  Giov.  Villani,  of  Florence,  Storie  Florentine  till  1848,  cont  by  Matteo  & 
Filippo  ViUani  till  1364.  (Murat.  vol.  XIIIs.)  Mil.  1729.  f.  &  often.  Jean  Froissart,  of  Valen- 
ciennes, d.  1441,  Chron.  de  France,  d'Angl.  etc.  1326-1400.  Par.  1503.  1504.  4  vols.  f.  revue  p.  Sau- 
vage,  Lyon.  1559ss.  4  vols.  f.  In  the  Coll.  des  Chroniques  par  Buchon,  Par.  1S24. 10-25  vols.  of  the 
13th  cent  (Praetorius  u.  Froiss.  In  Schlosser's  Arch.  f.  Gesch.  1S33.  vol.  V.)  [Chronicles 
of  Engl.  France,  Spain,  &c.,  transl.  new  ed.  Lond.  1845. 2  vols.  8.]  Phil,  de  Commines,  d.  1509,  Chron. 
et  Histoire  1464-98.  Par.  1528.  f.  &  often,  rev.  p.  L.  du  Fresnoy,  Lond.  1747.  4  vols.  4.  Fr.  Guicci- 
ardini,  d.  1540.  Storia  d'ltalia,  1493-1532.  Yen.  1567.  4.  &  often.  [llist  of  Italy  from  1493-1532, 
iiausl.  by  A.  P.  Goddard,  2  ed.  1775,  Lond.  9  vols.  8.  Froissart,  Commines  &  Guicciardini  have 
been  transl.  into  Eng.  &  published  together.  New  York  &  Lond.  1848.]  The  portions  of  Guic.  sup- 
pressed by  public  authority  are  in  Heidegger,  Hist  Papatus,  ed.  2.  Amst  1698.  Goldasti  Monarchia 
vol.  III.  p.  17ss. — 3)  Coccius  Sabellicus,  Historiogr.  of  Venice,  d.  1506,  Enneades  s.  rhapsodia  Histo- 
riarum  till  1504,  Yen.  1498ss.  2  vols.  f.  &  often.  (Opp.  Bas.  1560.  4  vols.  f.)— 4)  Ptolemaeus  de  Fiado- 
nibus,  Lucensis.  Domin.  Bish.  of  Torcello,  d.  1327,  Hist  ecc.  till  1312.  (Murat.  vol.  XI.  p.  741.) 
Trithemius,  d.  1516.  Annales  Ilirsaugienses  830-1514.  S.  Galli'1690.  2  vols.  f— 5)  Astronomical 
Hist  of  the  Empire  by  Georg.  Acropolita,  1204-61.  ed.  Leo  Allatius,  Par.  1651.  f.  Georg.  Pachy- 
tneres  1258-1308.  ed.  Possinus,  Eom.  1661ss.  2  vols.  f.  Im.  BeJcker,  Bonn.  1S35.  Niceph.  Gregoras, 
1204-1359.  ed.  Boivinus,  Par.  1702.  2  vols.  f.  Joan.  Cantacuzenos  1320-54.  ed.  Pontanus,  Par.  1645. 
3  vols.  f.  Joan.  Ducas  1341-1462,  ed.  Bullialdus,  Par.  1649.  f.  Chalcondylas  1298-1462,  ed.  Fa- 
Irot,  Par.  1650.  f.  Georg.  Phranzes  1401-77,  Lat  ed.  Pontanus,  Ingoldst.  1604.  4. 

For  a  considerable  time  the  hierarchy  apparently  preserved  its  position  at 
the  zenith  of  its  power.  But  in  consequence  of  those  abuses  to  which  un- 
limited authority  always  leads  when  intrusted  to  human  hands,  public  favor, 
on  which  it  entirely  rested,  soon  became  alienated  from  it.  The  claims  which 


2G4  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

it  set  up  were  as  exorbitant  as  ever,  and  even  more  so,  but  as  tbey  were 
generally  repelled,  they  were  productive  only  of  injury  to  itself.  The  power 
of  the  Papacy  and  of  the  empire  were  so  conducted  as  mutually  to  destroy 
one  another.  The  kings  always  found  support  against  the  encroachments  of 
the  popes  in  the  sense  of  justice  and  in  the  strong  love  of  independence  which 
existed  in  the  hearts  of  their  people.  Under  the  uniform  improvement  in  the 
dispositions  and  habits  of  the  people,  which  the  Church  had  fostered  in  every 
European  country,  peculiar  nationalities  now  began  to  be  prominently  devel- 
oped. An  intellectual  education  was  extended  among  the  people  without  the 
aid  of  the  Church,  by  means  of  which  the  popular  mind  became  moro  ma- 
ture, and  lost  its  peculiar  ecclesiastical  character.  In  these  circumstances 
the  hierarchy  attempted  to  maintain  its  ascendency  by  intrigues  and  direct 
force,  and  while  it  was  struggling  for  its  own  existence  it  could  no  longer 
afford  protection  against  political  despotism.  A  reformation  extending  not 
only  to  the  members  but  to  the  very  head  of  the  Church  was  generally  re- 
garded as  indispensable,  and  was  in  various  quarters  actually  attempted. 
Catholicism  itself  appeared  to  have  become  for  many  nations  an  antiquated 
system,  and  not  adapted  to  the  existing  condition  of  things.  And  yet,  as  it 
may  often  be  remarked  in  history,  that  great  spiritual  principles  sometimes 
produce  their  sublimest  forms  just  as  they  are  about  to  be  subverted,  eo 
Catholicism  accomplished  its  noblest  achievements  during  this  period.  The 
papacy  was  still  the  most  prominent  of  all  actors  in  history,  although  its 
sphere  was  frequently  limited  to  the  circle  of  French  and  Italian  politics. 
The  life  of  a  few  princes  sometimes  becomes  the  leading  object  in  the  picture 
of  events,  and  new  powers  are  raised  up  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Church, 
General  history  was  still  written  in  the  same  ecclesiastical  style  in  which  it 
had  formerly  been  composed.  Vincent  of  Beautais,  in  his  Encyclopaedia  of 
all  the  knowledge  and  movements  of  his  times,  has  given  us  a  clear  and  true  pic- 
ture of  his  age.  Matthew  Paris,  in  his  English  history,  containing  also  many 
sagacious  observations  respecting  all  the  countries  of  Western  Europe,  has 
not  hesitated  to  disclose,  with  some  bitterness,  the  crimes  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal rulers,  for  this  rigid  monk  was  animated  by  a  supreme  love  to  the  Church 
itself.  Albert  of  Strasburg,  a  candid  and  faithful  writer,  presents  lively 
views  of  individual  characters.  The  Alsatian  Chronicle  presents  a  history  of 
the  people  whose  name  it  bears  in  their  own  language.  Antoninus  of  Florence 
composed  a  general  history,  in  which  the  future  saint  has  displayed  the  most 
undoubting  faith  and  much  modest  criticism.  Several  statesmen  have  also 
given  us  histories,  in  which  are  presented  the  views  of  men  in  secular  life. 
Among  these  were  :  Albertinus  Nussatus,  who  wrote  a  history  of  his  own 
times  and  of  neighboring  countries,  in  a  manner  somewhat  harsh  but  accu- 
rate ;  Villani,  who,  with  his  brother  and  nephew,  composed  a  history  of 
Florence,  with  which  also  is  connected  many  notices  of  the  Middle  Ages 
generally,  in  a  style  of  old  Roman  simplicity ;  Froissart,  in  whose  Chronicles 
the  wars  and  royal  courts  of  Western  Europe  are  described  with  an  extreme 
relish  for  the  glories  of  the  declining  orders  of  knighthood ;  and  Commines, 
in  whose  work  we  have  the  memorials  of  an  age  in  which  he  sat  at  the  helm 
of  affairs,  and  knew  all  the  secrets  of  its  history.  The  extreme  character  of 


CHAP.  I.  PAPACY.  §  239.  FKEDERIC  IL  GEEGOEY  IX.         265 

this  class  of  writers  may  be  best  seen  in  Guicciardini,  in  whose  history  of 
Italy  we  have  a  true  and  lively  picture  of  events,  in  which  he  was  too  inti- 
mately concerned  always  to  be  impartial.  Finally,  we  have  the  brilliancy  of 
classic  learning  displayed  in  the  General  History  written  by  Sdbellicus.  In 
immediate  connection  with  the  subject  of  Church  History,  Ptolemaeus^  of 
Lucca  compiled  a  work  which  is  of  considerable  critical  value,  on  account  of 
the  great  number  of  authorities  which  he  has  carefully  quoted,  with  respect 
to  the  times  immediately  preceding  his  own.  In  a  Chronicle  of  the  old 
Benedictine  Abbey  of  TrittenJieim,  is  also  interwoven  the  history  of  the 
general  Church,  especially  so  far^as  relates  to  Germany,  with  much  learning, 
but  with  an  extreme  bias  for  orthodoxy.  The  Byzantine  historians,  in  the 
lofty  style  of  writing  peculiar  to  their  ancient  authors,  have  described  the 
solemnities,  the  afflictions,  and  the  commotions  of  the  Eastern  Eoman  Em- 
pire, in  which  they  generally  bore  so  important  a  part.  But  in  the  opinions 
which  they  express  respecting  western  affairs,  allowance  must  be  made  for 
the  asperity  of  feeling  produced  by  the  dominion  of  the  Latins  and  the  abor- 
tive attempts  frequently  made  at  reconciliation. 


CHAP.  I.— RELATION  OF  THE  PAPACY  TO  GENERAL  AFFAIRS. 

Mart.  Polonus.  (at  the  head  of  §  171.)  Bernardus  Guido,  Dominic.  Bishop  of  Lodeve,  d.  1381. 
&  Amalricus  Augerii,  Augustinian,  about  1365,  both  until  John  XXII.  (Murat.  vol.  IIL  P.  I,  II.) 
Platina  (Barthol.  Sacchi),  Abbreviator,  d.  1481,  Yitae  Pontificum  Eoin.  Yen.  1479.  f.  Later  editt. 
altered;  the  Dutch  editt  without  the  name  of  the  place  of  pub.  are  correct  according  to  the  ed.  prin- 
ceps.  1460. 1645.  &  1664. 12.  Theodoricus  de  Niem,  abbreviates  d.  about  1417,  named  as  the  author 
of  Vitae  Pontiff.  Eom.  1288-1418.  additis  Imperatt.  gestis.  (Eccard  vol.  I.  p.  1461.)  Leon.  Aretinus. 
papal  Secretary,  d.  1444,  rerum  suo  temp,  in  Ital.  gestar.  Commtr.  1378-1440.  ( Mur atari  vol.  XIX.  p. 
909.)  Yitae  Paparum  Avenionensium,  ed.  Steph.  Baluzius,  Par.  1693.  2  vols.  4  to  be  corrected  by 
reference  to :  Hist,  des  souverains  Pontifes  dans  Avignon,  Avign.  1777.  4.  Lives  of  particular  Popes 
in  Murat.  voL  III.  P.  I,  II.  Orig.  Docc.  in  Raynald.  J.  Voigt,  Stimmen  a.  Eom.  u.  d.  papetL  Hof 
im  15.  Jahrh.  (Raumer's  hist  Taschenb.  1832.  N.  2.)—Boehmer,  Eegesta  Imperii.  1198-1254.  Lately 
revised.  Stuttg.  1849.  4  Eegesta  Imp.  1246-1313.  Lately  revised.  Stuttg.  1844.  4 

§  239.     Frederic  II.     (UQ4r-Dec.  13,  1250. 

I.  Petri  de  Vineis,  (d.  1249.)  Epp.  1.  YI.  ed.  Iselin.  Basil.  1740.  2  vols.    Boehmer,  Eeg.  Imp.  p. 
66ss.    Perte  vol.  IY.  p.  228ss.    Extracts  from  the  Eegestis  Honor.  HI.  et  Greg.  IX.  in  Raynold  & 
Raumer.    Mccardi  de  S.  Germano  Chron.  1189-1243.  (Murat.  vol.  VII.  p.  963.)    Contin.  by  Me. 
de  Jamsilla  till  1258.  (7&.  vol.  YIII.  p.  489.) 

II.  (Funk)  Geschichte  Friedr.  II.  Zflll.  1792.  Eaumer,  vols.  III-IY.  p.  211.   W.  Zimmermann,  die 
Hohenst.  o.  Kampf  d.  Monarchic  gegen  Papstu.  republ.  Freih.  Stuttg.  1838.  2  vols.— C.  Zft/7<?r,  K. 
Friedr.  II.  Munich  1844 

The  most  enlarged  mental  endowments  and  the  highest  earthly  powers 
were  possessed  by  Frederic  II.  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  destiny  of  the 
house  of  Hohenstaufen.  By  means  of  the  Saracen  population  of  Sicily,  a 
part  of  whom  he  had  induced  to  settle  in  Apulia,  he  always  had  an  army 
ready  with  which  to  terrify  the  states  of  the  Church.  Hence  the  mild  dis- 
position of  Honorius  IIL  (after  1216)  was  satisfied  when  the  inheritance 
bequeathed  by  the  Countess  Matilda  was  secured  to  him,  and  he  made  no 
resistance  when  the  emperor's  oldest  son,  already  heir  apparent  to  the  throne 


266  MEDIAEVAL  CJIUBCH  HISTOEY.    PER.  IY.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

of  Sicily,  was  elected  to  be  the  next  successor  in  the  empire,  and  when  ak 
the  privileges  of  the  Sicilian  monarchy  were  re-established.  On  his  corona- 
tion at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Frederic  had  taken  the  vow  oi  the  cross,  and  had 
subsequently  renewed  it  at  Rome.  By  his  marriage  with  lolante,  the  heiress 
of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  the  obligation  to  perform  this  vow  seemed  to 
have  become  more  imperious.  But  the  emperor,  occupied  with  the  care  of 
establishing  his  power  in  Italy,  always  pleaded  for  a  longer  delay.  The  last 
period  fixed  upon  expired  just  as  Honorius  died  (March  18,  1227),  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gregory  IX.  This  pope  was  a  nephew  of  Innocent  III.,  and 
like  that  prince  possessed  much  skill  in  law,  and  an  inflexible  resolution.  In 
his  obstinate  old  age  he  was  even  less  restrained  by  a  regard  to  the  conse- 
quences of  what  he  regarded  as  right,  (a)  On  the  15th  August,  1227",  the  em- 
peror set  sail  from  Brundusium,  but  in  three  days  returned,  on  account  of  a 
pretended  or  at  least  a  very  convenient  sickness.  Gregory  then  issued  against 
him  a  sentence  of  excommunication,  and  was  consequently  driven  from  Rome 
by  the  emperor's  adherents.  Frederic  now  appealed  to  the  Christian  world 
with  severe  accusations  against  the  pope,  and  without  troubling  himself  to 
obtain  a  release  from  a  papal  ban  which  ho  regarded  as  unjust  and  invalid, 
he  again  embarked  for  Palestine,  August,  1228.  But  the  anathema  preceded 
him,  and  induced  his  natural  allies  in  the  East  to  arm  themselves  against 
him.  At  the  same  time  a  great  host  of  ecclesiastical  emissaries  fell  upon  his 
Italian  inheritance.  In  this  extremity,  from  the  personal  favor  of  his  oppo- 
nent, Camel,  Sultan  of  Egypt,  a  truce  of  ten  years  was  obtained,  during 
which  it  was  agreed  that  he  should  retain  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem. He  entered  the  holy  city  in  triumph  (March  17,  1229),  placed  upon 
his  head  the  crown  of  Jerusalem,  hastened  back  to  Italy,  and  drove  the  papal 
soldiers  before  him.  Many  disapproved  of  the  violent  measures  of  the  pope 
against  a  crusader,  and  after  vainly  using  his  utmost  efforts  in  every  place,  to 
stir  up  enemies  against  the  greatest  hero  of  that  century,  Gregory  obtained 
from  his  policy  or  piety  an  honorable  peace  at  St.  Germano  (Aug.  28,  1230). 
The  pope  was  obliged  to  submit  to  the  overwhelming  power  of  the  emperor, 
and  to  accept  of  the  code  of  laws  edited  by  Peter  of  Vinea  (1231),  by  which 
the  law  of  the  two  Sicilies  was  firmly  established,  and  though  heretics  were 
surrendered  to  the  hands  of  the  Church,  the  secular  power  of  the  Church  was 
made  strictly  subordinate  to  the  State.  (5)  But  when  Frederic  again  prose- 
cuted the  struggle  his  family  were  always  obliged  to  maintain  with  the  Lom- 
bards, the  pope  once  more  formed  an  alliance  with  the  friends  of  popular 
freedom,  and  in  a  sentence  of  excommunication  pronounced  against  him 
on  Palm  Sunday,  1239,  released  all  his  subjects  from  the.ir  oath  of  alle- 
giance, and  surrendered  his  body  to  the  devil  for  the  salvation  of  his 
soul.  Each  party  now  sought  by  written  manifestoes  to  gain  over  to  its  side 
the  favorable  judgment  of  the  people,  and  the  two  great  heads  of  Christen- 
dom confronted  each  other  with  charges  of  heresy.  In  their  controversial 
writings  the  specifications  against  each  other  are  clothed  sometimes  in  the 


a)  Vita  Greg,  by  pel-sons  near  him.  (Mural  vol.  III.  p.  575.) 

Z>)  Constitutiones  Eegum  Siciliae.  Neap.  1786.  £    Itawmer,  vol.  Ill  p.  316ss. 


CHAP.  I.  PAPACY.  §  239.  INNOCENT  IV.  §  240.  CONKAD  IV.      267 

most  common  language  of  ordinary  life,  and  at  other  times  with  the  poetic 
imagery  of  the  apocalypse.,  Frederic  interpreted  the  favor  which  the  pope 
showed  toward  the  Lombards  as  an  evidence  of  his  partiality  for  the  Cathar- 
ists  living  in  their  midst.  Gregory  accused  the  emperor  of  being  the  author 
of  the  profane  remark  respecting  the  three  impostors  who  had  deceived  the 
world,  and  justified  the  imputation  by  a  reference  to  the  impartial  justice 
with  which  he  had  treated  the  Saracens,  the  relish  with  which  he  had  en- 
tered into  oriental  pleasures,  and  several  insolent  expressions- with  regard  to 
the  miracles  of  the  Church,  (c)  Frederic,  who  certainly  had  more  faith  in 
astrology  than  in  priests,  not  only  proved  his  orthodoxy  but  conquered  the 
territories  of  the  Church  until  he  sat  down  under  the  very  walls  of  Rome. 
The  pope  called  a  general  council  of  the  Church.  The  emperor  gave  orders 
that  the  fleet  which  conveyed  the  bishops  to  Rome  should  be  captured. 
Gregory  died  unavenged  (Aug.  21,  1241),  and  after  many  tedious  dissen- 
sions among  the  cardinals,  Innocent  IV.  (Fiesco  of  Lavagna)  was  chosen  in 
his  stead  (June  24,  1243).  The  new  pope  had  been  the  friend  of  the  empe- 
ror, but  after  various  ineffectual  efforts  to  conclude  a  peace  he  became  a  mor- 
tal enemy.  By  the  aid  of  his  countrymen  the  Genoese,  he  escaped  from 
Italy,  and  at  the  general  council  of  Lyons  (1245),  (d)  he  once  more  hurled 
forth  all  the  curses  of  the  Church  against  the  emperor,  as  a  heretic  and  a 
sacrilegious  robber.  The  contest  was  waged  not  only  with  spiritual  but  with 
carnal  weapons,  for  the  pope  endeavored  to  secure  assistance  by  exciting 
insurrections  in  Germany  and  in  Sicily.  Frederic  died  without  yielding  to 
the  papal  claims,  (e)  but  among  the  people  many  believed  that  his  body  would 
see  no  corruption,  and  at  the  proper  time  that  he  would  return  and  over- 
throw the  exorbitant  power  of  the  priesthood. 

§  240.     Overthrow  of  the  Souse  of  HoJienstaufen. 

I.  Boelimer,  Keg.  p.  255ss.    Jamsilla,  cent  by  an  unknown  hand  till  1265.  (Hurat.  vol.  VIIL  p. 
586.)  and  by  the  Guelph  Saba  Jfalaspina,  rer.  Bicul.  1.  VI.  1250-76.  (75.  p.  781.) 

II.  W.  Jdger,  Gesch.  Conrads  II.  Nuremb.  1787.    Pfister,  Gesch.  v.  Schwaben.  Heilb.  1803.  vol. 
II.    Raumer,  vol.  IV.  p.  52Sss. 

Innocent  IV.  now  proclaimed  that  the  sacrilegious  house  of  Hohenstaufen 
had  for  ever  forfeited  all  title  to  sovereignty,  and  he  hastened  to  take  posses- 
sion of  Sicily  as  a  vacant  fief  of  the  Church.  But  Conrad  IV.  abandoned 
Germany  to  its  own  dissensions  and  conquered  his  Italian  patrimony.  Italy, 
however,  was  fatal  to  him,  and  at  his  early  death  (1254)  he  left  nothing  for 
his  son  Conradin  but  the  remnant  of  his  paternal  inheritance  in  Suabia.  The 
German  crown  was  purchased  by  foreigners  from  the  imperial  princes,  who 
were  controlled  by  papal  influence.  The  Two  Sicilies  were  seized  upon  by 
Manfred,  a  natural  son  of  Frederic,  and  in  them  he  established  a  popular 
government,  against  which  Innocent  preached  a  crusade  in  vain.  The  popes, 

c)  The  remark  was  first  made  by  Simon  de  Tournay,  1201,  &  the  treatise  de  tribus  impostoribua 
(cd.  pr.  589.  8.)  belongs  to  the  16th  cent.    Jiosenkrans,  d.  Zweifel  am  glauben.  Kritik  d.  Scrr.  de  trib. 
impost  Hal.  u.  L.  1830.    De  impostura  rel.  breve  compend.  s.  L.  de  trib.  impost  edit,  with  lit  Introd- 
by  Genthe.  Lps.  1833. 

d)  Vita  Inn.  by  his  Confessor,  Nic.  do  Curbio.  (Murat.  vol.  III.  p.  592.)  Boelimer,  Keg.  p.  812ss. 
«)  His  Will  Murat<»"i  Th.  IX.  p.  661s.  Boehmer,  p.  310. 


268  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOKY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

perceiving  that  their  power  was  insufficient  to  keep  possession  of  the  twc 
Sicilies,  sold  their  title,  first  to  England  and  then  to  France.  Finally  Charles 
of  Anjou,  by  the  aid  of  Clement  IV.  (1265-68),  became  king  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  after  the  death  of  Manfred  in  the  battle  of  Benevento  (1266).  But 
Conradin  felt  called  upon  by  the  spirits  of  his  ancestors  to  leave  the  circle 
of  his  youthful  associates  in  Suabia,  and  attempt  the  conquest  of  his  patri- 
monial possessions  beyond  the  Alps.  He  no  sooner  made  his  appearance  there 
than  he  was  hailed  as  a  deliverer  by  all  disaffected  persons.  But  being  de- 
feated at  the  battle  of  Tagliacozzo,  he  was  taken  prisoner  while  flying  from 
his  pursuers,  and  having  passed  through  the  miserable  farce  of  a  legal  trial, 
the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens  closed  his  life  on  the  scaffold  on  the  29th  Octo- 
ber, 1268.  The  popes  now  had  the  satisfaction  of  having  utterly  destroyed 
the  family  of  their  most  powerful  enemy,  and  their  triumph  was  purchased 
by  the  complete  distraction  of  Germany,  the  dismemberment  of  Italy,  and 
the  ascendency  of  France. 

§  241.    St.  Louis.    (1215.)     122G.—Aug.  25,  1270. 

I.  Joinville,  (Seneschal  to  Louis)  Hist  do  S.  Louis,  p.  Ch,  du  Fresne,  Par.  1663.  f.  1761.  £    JM- 
dovici,  Vita  et  Conversatio  per  Gaufredum  de  Bettoloco,  Confessorem,  et  Guil.  Carnotensem^  Ca- 
pellanuin  cjus.    (Du  Cfieane  vol.  V.  p.  444.)    Ludovici  Ep.  de  captione  et  liberatione  sua.    (ft>.  p. 
395ss.) 

II.  Wilken,  7th  vol. :  Die  Kreuzzfige  Lud.  des  Heil.  u.  der  Verlust  dcs  h.  Landes.  Lps.  1882. 

Louis  IX.  was,  in  his  pious  conscientiousness,  a  sincere  Christian ;  in  his 
scrupulous  austerities  and  saintly  humility,  a  rigid  monk ;  and  in  the  energy 
and  equity  of  his  transactions,  even  with  the  hierarchy,  a  noble  prince.  On 
his  recovery  from  a  dangerous  illness  he  assumed  the  vow  of  the  cross,  and 
maintained  his  resolution  against  all  France  with  such  success  that  by  his 
policy  and  enthusiasm  the  whole  nation  was  induced  to  co-operate  in  the 
sacred  struggle.  The  Holy  Land  had  been-  devastated  by  the  incursions  of 
the  wild  tribe  of  the  Chowaresmians,  and  had  once  more  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  (1247).  Palestine  could  be  conquered  only  in 
Egypt.  Damietta  was  taken  by  Louis  in  the  spring  of  the  year  1249,  but 
when  the  crusaders  advanced  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  between  the 
dykes  of  the  Nile  which  had  been  cut  through,  they  were  attacked  by  famine 
and  pestilence.  Louis  was  at  last  obliged  to  purchase  a  return  to  his  own 
land  with  the  wealth  of  his  kingdom.  But  in  the  midst  of  his  misfortunes  he 
was  still  unsubdued  in  spirit  and  unseduced  to  evil.  By  the  encouragement 
which  he  showed  to  the  third  estate,  and  by  the  record  which  he  made  of 
the  established  usages  of  the  nation  he  gave  a  firm  legal  basis  to  the  state,  and 
by  the  pragmatic  sanction  (1269)  gave  stability  to  the  national  church.*  In 
heart  he  was  not  unmindful  of  his  vow,  and  even  when  advanced  in  age,  with 
Christ's  crown  of  thorns  in  his  hand  he  called  upon  the  nobility  of  France 
by  their  love  and  honor  to  prosecute  the  crusades.  When  the  expedition 
accordingly  set  out,  it  was  induced,  by  the  hope  either  of  an  easier  conquest 
or  of  the  conversion  of  their  enemies,  or  by  the  influence  of  Charles  of  An- 

*  Leilnitii  Mantissa.  P.  L  p.  157.    Comp.  Raumer,  voL  VI.  p.  llfc. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACT.    §  241.  ST.  LOUIS.    §  243.  EUDOLPH  OF  HAPSBUPwG.        260 

jou,  to  turn  aside  for  the  invasion  of  Tunis.  The  plan  of  establishing  a 
French  colony  there  was  frustrated  hy  the  carelessness  of  the'  king,  and  the 
unfavorable  character  of  the  climate.  Louis  died  of  the  plague  before  Tunis, 
and  with  him  as  with  the  Emperor  Frederic,  perished  the  work  to  which  he 
had  dedicated  his  life.  Louis  belonged  rather  to  a  former  age,  while  Fred- 
eric labored  for  results  which  could  be  attained  only  in  the  distant  future. 
Hence  both  of  them  seemed  to  toil  in  vain,  but  both  were  illustrious  in  their 
lives. 

§  242.     The  Termination  of  the  Crusades. 

The  Latin  empire  in  Constantinople  continued  still,  but  it  was  perpetually 
torn  by  internal  divisions,  and  regarded  by  the  people  as  a  foreign  yoke.  Its 
capital  therefore  fell  an  easy  prey  even  to  the  feeble  arms  of  the  Greeks 
under  Michael  Palaeologus  (1261).  Palestine  and  Syria,  though  frequently 
reconquered,  were  always  again  lost  in  consequence  of  the  divisions  in  the 
Christian  host.  God  seemed  to  have  forsaken  his  own  cause,  (a)  The  ro- 
mantic enthusiasm  which  had  exhibited  so  many  interesting  forms  had  now 
given  place  to  a  more  sober,  but  more  selfish  spirit,  and  Mount  Calvaries  were 
constructed  nearer  home.  Gregory  X.  (1271-76)  exerted  all  the  influence 
which  a  pope  possessed,  to  obtain  possession  of  the  East  by  a  new  crusade, 
and  thus  preserve  it  for  Christianity,  but  his  efforts  were  entirely  vain.  (5) 
Ptolemais  (Acre),  the  last  fortress  of  the  crusaders,  was  stormed  by  the  Egyp- 
tian host  on  the  18th  May,  1291.  (c)  The  only  benefit  which  the  crusades 
could  accomplish  was  for  the  spiritual  and  commercial  interests  of  the  "West- 
ern nations,  and  this  office  they  had  now  fulfilled,  (d) 

§  243.  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  1273-91.  The  Sicilian  Vespers. 
The  German  throne  had  been  for  a  long  time  vacant  when  the  Count  of 
Hapsburg  became  king  by  the  choice  of  the  more  powerful  princes  of  the 
empire.  He  now  endeavored  to  obtain  the  papal  acknowledgment,  and  took 
the  oath  which  had  been  customary  ever  since  the  time  of  Otho  IV.,  because 
Alphonso  of  Castile,  a  rival  king,  whom  Gregory  X.  had  persuaded  to  re- 
nounce all  claims  upon  the  crown,  was  yet  living.  "With  the  moderation  of 
a  mind  powerful  in  its  proper  sphere,  Rudolph  abandoned  all  the  rights  of 
the  empire  to  its  Italian  dependencies,  and  confined  his  attention  to  the 
establishment  of  a  legal  government  in  Germany,  and  to  the  attainment 
of  the  power  which  his  family  needed  for  its  maintenance.  He  therefore 
succeeded  in  living  on  terms  of  honorable  peace  with  the  pope,  who  needed 
a  powerful  support  against  the  influence  of  France  in  Lower  Italy,  and  he 
had  opportunity  to  pave  the  way  for  the  future  independence  of  the  empire,  (a) 

a)  Cornp.  Sirventes  des  Templers  In  Diets,  Leben  u.  Werke  d.  Troubad.  Zwick.  1829.  p.  599. 
&)  Humbertus  de  Romania  (in  the  service  of  the  pope,)  de  his,  quae  tractanda  videbantur  in  Cone. 
gen.  Lugd.  (Mansi  -vol.  XXIV.  p.  109ss.) 

c)  Marinus  Sanutus,  Secretorum  fidelium  cracis  1.  III.  P.  XII.  c.  21ss.  (Bongars  vol.  II.)  Abul 
feda  (himself  present.)  Annal.  Moslem,  vol.  V.  p.  95ss. 

d)  Heeren,  Entwlckl.  d.  Folgen  d.  Kreuzz.  £  Europa.  Gott  1S08.  (Hist  W.  vol.  II.)  Regenlogen, 
de  fructibns  quos  humanitas,  libertas,  mercatura  etc.  perceperint  e  bcllo  sacro.  Amst.  1S09, 

a)  Codex  epistolaris  Eud.  I.  ed.  Gerbertt  8.  Blasii.  1722.  £  aus.  Eodmann,  Lps.  1806.    Boehm&r 


270  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

Clement  IV.  had  reason  to  doubt  the  wisdom  of  his  policy  with  respect  tc 
the  Sicilies,  for  instead  of  deriving  any  pecuniary  aid  from  Charles  of  Anjou, 
that  prince  was  continually  exacting  money  from  him.  (5)  So  intolerable 
were  the  oppressions  of  the  French  in  Sicily  that  even  Gregory  X.  predicted 
that  a  day  of  vengeance  would  soon  arrive  against  his  royal  vassal,  (c)  But 
when  Martin  IV.  (1281-85)  a  Frenchman,  and  subservient  to  French  inter- 
ests, was  seated  in  the  papal  chair,  (d)  at  the  ringing  of  the  vesper  bells  on 
the  third  day  in  Easter,  1282,  an  insurrection  broke  forth,  and  every  French- 
man on  the  island  was  slain.  Peter  of  Aragon,  on  account  of  his  marriage 
with  Constantia,  the  daughter  of  Manfred,  was  proclaimed  King  of  Sicily,  and 
was  immediately  excommunicated  by  the  pope.  Charles  of  Anjou  retained 
possession  only  of  Naples,  and  the  popes  lost  all  influence  in  Sicily  until  new 
relations  were  formed  with  France  in  the  beginning  of  the  next  century, 
when  a  reconciliation  was  effected,  (e) 

§  224.     The  Hermit  in  the  Papal  Chair.    July  5.— Dec.  13,  1:294. 

Boehmer,  Eegest  p.  388.  Ptolemaei  Luc.  (an  eye-witness)  II.  ecc.  XXIV,  29ss.  Raynald.  ad 
ann.  1294.  Jacoli  Cardintili*  Carmen  de  vita,  and  de  canonisatione  Coel.  (Mural  vol  III.  P.  I.  p. 
613ss.  655ss.)  Petrui  de  Alliaeo,  Vita  Coel.  (A eta  BS.  Maj.  voL  IV.  p.  4S5.)—Coele8tini  Opp.  (asce- 
tic) ed.  Telera,  Neap.  1C40.  4.  (Bibl.  PP.  Lugd.  voL  XXV.) 

The  French  influence  in  Naples  had  gained  over  a  party  among  the  cardi- 
nals, which  was  opposed  by  another,  embracing  various  shades  of  distinction, 
called  the  papal,  the  Italian,  and  the  German.  But  when  neither  of  these 
parties  was  found  strong  enough  to  elect  one  of  its  own  number  to  the  papal 
chair,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  name  of  Peter  de  Murrhone,  a  hermit  and  a 
popular  saint,  residing  at  Abruzzo,  all  agreed  to  bestow  their  votes  on  him, 
each  party  hoping  to  find  in  him  an  instrument  for  its  own  purposes.  He 
assumed  the  name  of  Celestine  V.,  and  never  renounced  his  saintly  poverty 
and  his  former  simplicity  of  life.  But  with  the  exception  of  the  King  of 
Naples,  to  whose  influence  he  surrendered  himself,  and  whose  favorites  he 
appointed  cardinals,  all  parties  soon  perceived  his  utter  unfitness  for  the  office 
of  government.  Hence,  when  he  had  confirmed  the  rigid  regulations  of 
Gregory  X.  with  respect  to  the  limitation  and  seclusion  of  the  conclave,  (a) 
he  was  induced  by  Cardinal  Cajetanus,  who  acted  in  behalf  of  the  older  car- 
dinals, although  with  the  view  of  himself  becoming  pope,  voluntarily  to 
resign  his  office.  Instead  of  the  solitude  of  the  mountain  for  which  he  had 
longed,  his  successor  consigned  him  to  the  solitude  of  a  prison,  in  which  he 
died  (1296).  By  his  third  successor  he  had  assigned  to  him  (1313)  a  place 
among  the  saints,  and  by  Dante  a  place  in  hell.  (&) 


Eeg.  p.  51ss.   Pertz  vol.  IV.  p.  3S2ss.— Le  Bret,  de  prucL  Eud.  in  rebus  cum  Curia  peractis.  Tub 

1783.  4. 

1)  Martene,  Thes.  nov.  vol.  IL  p.  174. 179.    c)  Saba  Malaspina  VL  4.    d)  Boehmer,  Eeg.  335ss 
e)  Mich.  Amari,  la  guerra  del  Vespro  Siciliano.  Palermo.  1842.  ed.  4,  Fir.  1851. 
a)  Proclaimed  at  Lyons,  1274.    Mansi  voL  XXIV.  p.  Slss.    6)  Inferno  III,  5Sss. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  245.  BONIFACE  VIIL    PHILIP  AUGUSTUS.  '271 

§  245.    Boniface  VIII.    Dec.  24,  1294.— Oct.  11,  1303. 

Ptol.  Luc.  H.  ecc.  XXIV,  86.  (Comp.  Cod.  Patav.  in  Murat.  voL  XI.  p.  1218ss.)  For  Hist.  & 
orig.  documents,  (P.  du  Puy)  Hist  du  differend  entre  le  Pape  Boniface  et  Phil,  lo  Bel.  Par.  1655.  f. 
BaiUet,  Hist  des  dem61ez  du  P.  Bonif.  avec  Phil.  ed.  2.  Par.  1719. 12.— Riibeus,  Bonif.  et  familia  Ca- 
jetanorum.  Kom.  1651.  Tosti,  Storia  di  Bon.  VIII.  e  de' suoi  tempi.  Eom.  1S46.—  W.  Dnimann, 
Gesch.  Bon.  d.  VIII.  Konigsb.  1852.  2  Th. 

Cajetanus  of  Anagni,  a  jurist  and  a  priest,  who  had  grown  old  while 
employed  in  the  affairs  of  the  Koman  court,  ascended  the  papal  chair  under 
the  name  of  Boniface  VIII.  This  distinction  he  attained  through  the  recom- 
mendation of  his  enemy  the  King  of  Naples.  Actuated  by  a  frantic  hatred 
to  the  Ghibelline  party  he  sent  into  banishment  the  powerful  family  of  the 
Colonna  who  now  declared  Oelestine's  resignation  invalid,  and  drove  the 
plough  over  Palestrina'the  town  in  which  they  resided.  He  reproved  Philip 
of  France  for  having  seized  upon  the  property  of  the  Church,  and  for  an 
adulteration  of  the  coin,  and  according  to  a  right  then  conceded  to  the  hier- 
archy, he  proposed  to  act  as  a  mediator  (1295)  in  the  sanguinary  war  between 
that  prince  and  Edward  I.  of  England.  Philip  the  Fair  forbade  his  inter- 
ference, and  when  Boniface  forbade  all  taxation  of  Church  property,  (d)  the 
king  prohibited  any  exportation  of  the  precious  metals.  That  he  might  not 
lose  all  his  revenues  from  France,  and  as  he  was  already  forsaken  by  a  por- 
tion of  the  French  clergy,  the  pope  sought  to  become  reconciled  to  Philip  by 
giving  the  mildest  construction  to  his  own  prohibition.  Both  kings  now  con- 
sented that  he  should  decide  their  difficulties,  not,  however,  as  the  pope,  but 
as  one  selected  by  the  parties  for  that  special  purpose.  No  sooner,  however, 
was  his  decision  made  known  in  a  Bull  (June  30,  1298),  than  Philip  refused 
to  comply  with  its  requisitions,  because  it  did  not  properly  respect  the  right 
of  prior  possession  against  that  of  recent  conquest.  Eeproaches  of  roya; 
oppression,  and  papal  treachery  to  the  Church,  were  exchanged  between 
them,  and  the  legate  in  France,  as  a  French  bishop,  was  thrown  into  prison 
for  high  treason.  Angry  edicts  were  proclaimed  by  Boniface  on  the  5th  of 
December,  1301,  summoning  the  French  prelates  to  Eome  for  the  purpose  of 
reforming  the  king  and  the  empire.  The  king,  whose  ordinary  government 
was  eminently  despotic,  now  appealed  to  his  people,  and  convened  a  general 
Diet  of  his  kingdom.  The  three  estates  were*  unanimous  in  maintaining  the 
independence  of  the  French  kingdom  (1302).  An  extract  from  tne  papal 
decrees  which  had  been  so  falsified  as  to  make  it  in  the  highest  degree  offen- 
sive to  the  royal  feelings,  declared  every  one  a  heretic  who  did  not  believe 
that  the  king  in  temporal  as  well  as  in  spiritual  matters  was  subject  to  the 
pope.  To  this  the  king  replied  by  declaring  every  one  a  fool  who  did  not 
believe  that  the  King  of  France  was  in  temporal  things  subject  to  no  one.  (5) 
Boniface  now  commenced  a  contest  with  the  whole  French  nation,  and  al- 
though he  denied  that  he  had  ever  claimed  France  as  a  papal  fief,  he  never- 
theless maintained  that  every  creature,  under  peril  of  his  final  perdition,  was 


a)  Clericis  laicos:  S&xt.  Decretal,  lib.  3.  tit  28.  c.  8. 

1)  The  genuine :  Ausculta  fili.    The  spurious :  Deum  time.    Baillet,  p.  103,  Ills. 
voL  II.  p.  19. 


272  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTQKY.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.'  1216-1517. 

bound  to  obey  the  Eoman  bishop,  (c)  He  then  proceeded  to  excommunicate 
the  king,  who  appealed  once  more  to  a  general  Diet  of  his  empire  (June, 
1303).  Before  that  body  he  had  the  pope  accused  of  the  most  monstrous 
crimes,  and  demanded  that  a  general  council  should  be  summoned  to  adjudi- 
cate upon  them.  The  pope  pronounced  an  interdict  upon  the  whole  of 
France,  abrogated  the  privileges  of  the  universities,  and  bestowed  the  French 
crown  upon  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  Philip's  chancellor,  William  of  No- 
garet,  and  Sciarra  Colonna,  the  expelled  cardinal,  surprised  and  imprisoned 
the  pope  (Sept.  7)  in  his  own  city  of  Anagni.  In  the  hands  of  his  enemies 
he  now  resolved  to  die  like  Him,  whose  earthly  vicar  he  professed  to  be. 
After  a  confinement  of  three  days  he  was  liberated  by  his  own  countrymen, 
but  grief  for  the  dishonor  he  had  suffered  had  broken  his  heart.  It  is  possi- 
ble that  Boniface  thought  more  of  himself  and  of  his  treasures  than  of  the 
general  welfare,  but  he  was  impelled  forward  by  his  idea  of  the  pontificate, 
his  conduct  was  in  the  very  spirit  of  Gregory,  he  only  mistook  in  some  cases 
the  proper  hour  for  action,  and  in  general  had  not  observed  the  great  changes 
which  had  taken  place  since  the  time  of  his  predecessor.  Subsequent  ages 
have  held  him  responsible  for  his  misfortunes.  But  kings  had  learned  the 
secret  of  repelling  papal  assumptions,  the  universal  dominion  of  the  hierarchy 
had  been  broken,  and  public  opinion,  expressed  in  powerful  tones,  had  pro- 
nounced its  disapproval  of  all  attempts  to  blend  the  spiritual  writh  the  secu- 
lar authority,  (d) 

§  246.     Commencement  of  the  Babylonian  Exile. 

Although  Benedict  XL  (Oct.  22,  1303— June  7,  1804J,  was  a  steadfast 
friend  of  his  predecessor,  he  was  compelled  to  yield  to  adverse  circumstances. 
Accordingly  he  availed  himself  of  an  honorable  embassy  from  Philip  to  ob- 
tain a  reconciliation  with  that  monarch,  in  which  all  decrees  against  France 
were  revoked,  so  far  as  appeared  consistent  with  the  honor  of  the  papacy,  (a) 
When  the  conclave  was  assembled  for  the  election  of  his  successor,  it  was 
found  that  the  party  of  Boniface  was  a  complete  match  for  that  of  France, 
but  the  superior  policy  of  the  latter  prevailed,  and  Bertrand  d'Agoust,  Arch- 
bishop of  Bordeaux,  a  creature  of  Boniface,  but  secretly  pledged  to  act  with 
the  French  party,  was  unanimously  elected.  (5)  Clement  V.  (June  5,  1305 — 
April  20,  1314)  never  crossed  the  Alps,  but  in  the  year  1309  fixed  upon  Avig- 
non as  his  residence.  By  the  appointment  of  numerous  French  cardinals  he 
secured  the  election  of  a  successor  of  the  same  political  character  with  him- 
self. These  were  generally  French  court  bishops  who  directed  the  usurpa- 
tions of  the  hierarchy  only  against  other  nations.  Although  Clement  sub- 
jected the  French  Church  to  the  payment  of  tithes  to  the  king,  repealed 
some  parts  of  Boniface's  bulls,  and  made  others  inapplicable  to  France, 
avoided  with  difficulty  a  formal  condemnation  of  Boniface  himself,  and  ven- 

c)  Unam  sanctam :  Extra®,  comm.  lib.  I.  tit  8.  c.  1.    Drumann,  vol.  II.  p.  67ss. 

d)  Dante,  Purgator.  XVI,  97ss.  XXVII,  TOss.    Aegidius  de  Columna,  (Arcbbish.  of  Bourgos, 
d.  1316)  de  po  test  ate  regia  et  pontificia.  (Goldasti  Monarchia  S.  E.  Imp.  Frcf.  1614.  £  yol.  II.  p.  96.) 
Joannes  de  ParrMsiis,  (Dominic,  d.  1304.)  Tr.  de  pot  regia  et  papali.  (75.  p.  108.) 

a)  Raynald  ad.  ann.  1304.    2>u  Puy,  p.  207ss.        I)   Villani,  VIII,  80. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY    §  246.  CLEMENT  V.    §  247.  JOHN  XXII.  273 

tured  only  in  /secret  to  recall  a  compulsory  public  recommendation  of  the 
French  prince  for  election  to  the  imperial  dignity,  he  hurled  the  most  terri- 
ble anathemas  (1309)  against  the  republic  of  Venice  for  its  attempt  to  gain 
forcible  possession  of  Ferrara,  and  when  Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg  went  on 
a  military  expedition  to  Rome  he  renewed  all  the  exorbitant  demands  of  his 
predecessors.  Henry  died,  in  the  midst  of  his  victories  (1313),  and  it  was  then 
proclaimed  in  the  papal  bulls  that  the  pope  was  the  emperor's  lord  paramount, 
and  consequently  that  when  the  imperial  throne  was  vacant  the  pope  was 
the  imperial  regent  in  Italy,  (c) 

§  247.     Louis  of  Bavaria.     1314—47.     Joanna  of  Naples. 

I.  Orig.  Docc.  in  Qlenscfilager,  Staatsgesch,  des  rom.  Kaiserth.  1.  Hajfte  des  14  Jhh.  Frkf.  1755. 
4.  BoeJwner,  Eegesta  Imp.  1314-47.  Frkf.  1839.  4.  &  Additam  I.  Frkf.  1841.  4.  Vita  Lud.  IV.  Al- 
?>eri.  Mussati  Lud.  Bavarus,  Jo.  Victoriensis  and  others  inBoehmer,  Fontes  rer.  Germ.  vol.  I.' Her- 
wart  ab  Hoheriburg,  Lud.  IV.  defensus.  Mon.  1618s.  3  vols.  4.  Geicald,  Defensio  Lud.  IV.  Ingolst. 
1618.  ±.—Mannert,  Ludw.  IV.  Landsh.  1812.  ScJilett,  Biogr.  v.  K.  Ludw.  Sulz.  1822. 

After  a  long  and  violent  assembly  of  the  French  and  Italian  cardinals, 
John  XXII.  was  presented  to  the  people  as  their  pope  (1316-34).  "While  yet 
in  Lyons  he  gave  his  oath  to  the  Italians  that  he  would  never  mount  a  beast 
except  on  his  journey  to  EomeT  and  accordingly  embarked  by  ship  for  Avig- 
non, and  never  left  his  palace  there.  In  Germany,  Louis  of  Bavaria  and 
Frederic  of  Austria  were' contending  for  the  imperial  crown,  and  at  that  time 
it  appeared  to  be  the  interest  of  France  to  allow  the  power  of  the  empire  to 
expend  itself  in  these  civil  dissensions.  Hence,  when  Louis  had  made  his 
opponent  a  prisoner  (1322),  and  in  opposition  to  the  summons  that  he  should 
submit  to  the  decision  of  the  pope,  pleaded  that  his  title  to  the  crown  was 
already  complete  by  the  choice  of  the  princes  of  the  empire,  John  simply  re- 
plied by  a  ban  of  excommunication  and  an  interdict  (1324).  But  even  the 
papal  sanction  of  a  breach  of  faith  was  ineffectual  to  make  it  tolerable  to  the 
loyal  spirit  of  the  Germans.  Louis  came  to  an  agreement  with  his  opponent, 
and  after  a  formal  appeal  to  a  general  council  caused  himself  to  be  crowned 
emperor  at  Rome,  and  a  pious  mendicant  monk  to  be  placed  in  the  papal 
chair  (1328).  No  sooner,  however,  was  his  army  withdrawn  from  Italy  than 
his  power  in  that  country  ceased,  the  pope  whom  he  had  set  up  was  sent  to 
Avignon,  and  a  papal  decree  announced  that  Italy  was  for  ever  separated  from 
Germany.  On  the  one  side  of  the  Alps  the  emperor's,  and  on  the  other  side 
the  pope's  extreme  pretensions  to  a  universal  dominion  were  advocated  by 
influential  writers,  (a)  By  his  passionate  interference  in  all  kinds  of  theo- 
logical controversy  John  XXII.  gave  occasion  for  the  imputation  that  he  was 
himself  infected  with  heresy.  (5)  In  his  proud  theocratic  pretensions  the 
Germans  could  perceive  nothing  higher  than  the  instigations  of  France.  The 
interdict,  however,  though  but  partially  carried  into  effect,  was  not  without 

c)  F.  W.  Sarthold,  Eomerzug  Heinr.  v.  Liitzelburg.  Konigsb.  1830s.  2  vols. 

a)  On  the  imperial  side  :  Marsilius  of  Padua  and  John  of  Jandun  in  their  principal  joint  pro- 
duction, about  1328,  Defensor  pacis.  (Goldasti  Monarchia,  vol.  II.  p.  154.)  On  the  papal  side:  Au- 
gustinus  Triumphus,  Summa  do  potest  ecc.  ad.  Jo.  Aug.  Vind.  1473.  and  often.  Alvarus  Pelagius. 
le  planctu  ecclesiae.  1.  II.  Ulm.  1474.  Ven.  1560.  f. 

1)  Guil.  Occam,  Comp.  errorum  Joannis  P.  (Goldasti  1.  c.  vol.  II.  p.  957.) 
18 


274  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  IT.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

its  influence  in  disturbing  the  popular  tranquillity.  A  reconciliation  with  the 
Church  was -sought  for  by  Louis,  and  although  it  was  desired  by  Benedict  XII. 
(1334—42)  no  less  than  by  the  emperor,  it  was  prevented  by  French  influence. 
This  dependence  of  the  popes  induced  the  imperial  princes  to  form  the  First 
Electoral  Alliance  at  Reuse  (July  16,  1338),  and  Louis  announced  that  the 
imperial  dignity  came  directly  from  God  alone,  (e)  But  as  the  emperor  had 
done  violence  to  the  feelings  of  his  people,  sometimes  by  arbitrary  invasions 
of  the  prerogatives  of  the  Church,  and  sometimes  by  pusillanimous  conces- 
sions, Clement  VI.  (1342-^52)  succeeded  in  obtaining  five  electoral  votes  in 
favor  of  Charles  IV.  the  son  of  the  King  of  Bohemia  (1346).  But  this  par- 
son-king was  obliged  immediately  to  take  refuge  in  France,  and  did  not  reach 
the  ignominy  of  a  new  election  and  coronation  until  after  the  death  of  Louis, 
and  at  the  expense  of  the  most  ruinous  sacrifices  (1349).  In  Naples  the  Hun- 
garian prince,  Andreas,  the  husband  of  the  young  royal  heiress,  Joanna,  was 
murdered  (1345).  His  widow,  who  was  soon  after  married  to  her  cousin,  the 
Prince  of  Tarento,  was  compelled  to  fly  before  the  vengeance  of  the  Hunga- 
rians to  Avignon.  Clement  VI.,  her  liege  lord  and  her  judge  in  the  place 
of  God,  solemnly  pronounced  the  beautiful  queen  innocent  of  the  murder  of 
her  husband,  and  confirmed  her  recent  marriage.  She,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  she  might  obtain  funds  to  carry  on  a  war  with  the  Hungarians,  sold 
Avignon  to  the  papal  see  (1348),  and  after  various  vicissitudes  of  war, 
obtained  permanent  possession  of  her  patrimonial  estates  through  the  media 
tion  of  the  pope. 

§  248.     Close  of  the  Babylonian  Exile. 

In  consequence  of  the  absence  of  the  pope  and  the  weakness  of  the  em- 
peror, in  Italy,  every  city  there  made  efforts  to  attain  independence,  and 
whenever  this  was  secured,  innumerable  factions  and  tyrants  commenced  a 
struggle  with  each  other.  The  result  was  that  all  considerate  persons  began 
to  long  for  some  powerful  head  who  could  rule  over  the  whole.  These  de- 
sires, however,  were  not  satisfied  by  Charles  IV.,  whose  expedition  to  Home 
(1354)  was  welcomed  with  great  enthusiasm  by  the  people,  for  the  only 
object  of  that  monarch  was  to  obtain  the  pageant  of  a  coronation.  Innocent 
VI.  (1352-62),  a  prince  well  versed  in  legal  science  and  of  strict  integrity, 
recognized  the  necessity  of  a  reformation,  and  he  even  entered  upon  it  him- 
self by  reducing  the  splendor  of  his  court,  and  attempting  to  appropriate  to 
the  actual  service  of  the  Church  the  treasures  accumulated  from  various 
benefices.  The  estates  of  the  Church  had  been  divided  into  many  indepen- 
dent cities  and  principalities,  or  had  been  taken  possession  of  by  neighboring 
governments.  In  vain  the  popes  resorted  to  terrible  excommunications  tc 
frighten  these  ecclesiastical  robbers ;  the  papal  government  was  not  restored 
until  Albornoz,  the  cardinal  legate  (1353-67),  succeeded  in  raising  a  bold  cru- 
sade on  a  small  scale,  and  brought  into  action  all  the  arts  of  a  skilful  diplomacy. 
The  Eomans  had  been  for  a  brief  period  intoxicated  with  the  idea  of  free- 
dom and  universal  dominion,  excited  by  their  tribune  Cola  di  Rienzo*  but 

c)  OlenscTdager,  N.  63.    Boehmer,  Reg.  p.  120. 

*  F.  Papencordt,  Cola  di  Rienzo  u.  e.  Zeit  Hamb.  1841. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §248.  INNOCENT  YL    §249.  THE  SCHISM.  275 

when  they  saw  the  eternal  city  becoming  almost  desolate  in  consequence  of 
the  absence  of  the  pope,  all,  especially  those  to  whom  the  higher  object  of 
the  papacy  was  dear,  became  anxious  for  his  return.  Urban  V.  (1362-70), 
in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  his  cardinals  and  the  king  of  Trance,  at  last 
returned  to  Kome  (1367).  He  was  soon,  however,  compelled  to  return 
to  Avignon  by  the  unsettled  condition  of  affairs  in  Italy.  Gregory  XL 
(1370-78)  once  more  yielded  to  the  solicitations  of  his  Italian  subjects,  and 
was  carried  back  by  the  Komans  in  triumph  (1377).  *  Yet  the  cities  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  States  were  not  unmindful  of  their  independence,  for  they  were 
careful  to  intimate  that  all  regard  for  religion  must  be  laid  aside  when  it  be- 
comes hostile  to  freedom,  and  that  nothing  but  death  could  render  the  resi- 
dence of  the  pope  in  Italy  absolutely  certain. 

§  249.     The  Schism. 

I.  Orig.  Docc.  in  Raynald*.  Balu&.  and  in  Bulaei  Hist.  Univ.  Paris,  vol.  IV.    Theodoricus  de 
Niem,  de  schismate  inter  Papas  et  Antipapas  (till  1410.)  1.  III.  et  nemus  unionis.  Bas.  1560.  f. 
Arg.  1609. 

II.  Du  Pity,  Hist  du  schisme  1378-1428.  Par.  1654.  and  often.     Maimbourg,  Hist  du  grand 
echisme  d'occident  Par.  1678.  Uebers.  1792. 

The  election  of  an  Italian-  pope  was  at  last  obtained  by  the  persevering 
obstinacy  of  the  Eoman  people.  The  Archbishop  of  Bari,  Urban  VI. 
(1378-89),  a  Neapolitan,  was  favorably  inclined  toward  the  people,  though 
toward  the  cardinals,  whose  opposition  to  himself  he  well  knew,  he  evinced 
the  natural  severity  of  his  character.  The  twelve  cardinals  from  beyond  the 
Alps  therefore  fled  to  Anagni,  hired  a  band  of  condottieri,  declared  the  elec- 
tion of  Urban  invalid  because  under  constraint,  drew  three  Italian  cardinals  by 
artful  promises  into  their  conclave  at  Fondi,  and  chose  Cardinal  Robert  of 
Geneva  for  then*  pope,  under  the  name  of  Clement  VII.  (1378—94).  He  took 
up  his  residence  at  Avignon,  and  through  the  influence  of  France  he  was 
gradually  acknowledged  in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  in  Scotland,  Savoy  and 
Lorraine,  and  was  regarded  as  the  proper  successor  of  the  French  popes.  In 
opposition  to  Joanna  of  Naples,  who  had  likewise  declared  in  favor  of  Cle- 
ment, Urban  stirred  up  Charles  of  Durazzo,  the  heir-apparent  to  her  throne, 
and  recalled  the  memory  of  her  deed  of  blood.  The  queen  then  adopted  the 
French  prince  Louis  of  Anjou,  whom  Clement  invested  with  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  and  sustained  in  the  expenses  of  his  war.  Charles  having  seized 
upon  the  person  of  Joanna,  had  her  put  to  death  in  prison,  and  maintained 
possession  of  Naples.  But  Urban  soon  after  became  displeased  with  him 
because  he  refused  to  bestow  Capua  on  a  nephew  of  the  pope,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  assistance  he  had  received,  excommunicated  him,  was  besieged  by 
him  in  Nocera,  and  was  finally  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  Genoa.  In  his 
flight  through  the  midst  of  his  enemies  he  had  five  cardinals-  bound  and  con- 
veyed with  him  to  Genoa,  where  they  were  put  to  death.  Both  popes  were 
surrounded  by  a  train  of  cardinals,  so  that  the  decease  of  both  would  have 
no  effect  in  diminishing  the  schism.  To  sustain  the  expenses  of  the  war  be- 
tween two  popes  and  of  two  distinct  papal  courts,  it  was  necessary  to  devise 
new  methods  of  extortion  by  which  every  thing  on  earth  and  in  heaven  was 
put  up  for  sale.  Each  pope  was  under  the  other's  ban,  the  people  were 


276  MEDIAEVAL  CHtJECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

necessarily  the  only  arbitrators  of  this  controversy,  and  the  organs  of  the 
popular  will  were  those  who  represented  the  interests  of  science.  The  first 
actual  movement  for  the  attainment  of  peace  was  made  by  the  University  of 
Paris.  The  only  practicable  method  by  which  this  strife  could  be  composed 
seemed  to  be  the  simultaneous  abdication  of  both  competitors.  Peter  de 
Luna,  under  the  name  of  Benedict  XIII.,  was  then  reigning  (after  1394)  in 
Avignon,  and  Angelo  Corrario,  under  that  of  Gregory  XII.,  in  Rome  (after 
1406).  On  their  election  both  had  promised  to  make  the  sacrifice  which  tho 
interests  of  the  Church  required,  but  both,  on  various  pretexts,  refused  to 
abide  by  their  engagements.  Benedict  was  then  abandoned  by  the  French, 
and  fled  into  Spain.  Both  popes  were  finally  forsaken  by  their  cardinals, 
who,  appealing  to  Christ  himself,  a  general  council  and  a  future  pope,  assem- 
bled at  Leghorn  (1408). 

§  250.     The  Council  of  Pisa.    March  Vti-Aug.  7,  1409. 

I.  Acts  of  Council,  In  Mansi  voL  XXVIs.    Theod.  de  Niem,  de  schism.  Ill,  SSsa.    [London, 
pp.  488-492.] 

II.  Lenfant,  Hist  du  Cone,  de  Pise.  Amst  1724.  1727.  2  vols.  4.    J.  ff.  <c.  Wesseriberg,  die  gros- 
sen  KVoreamml.  des  15.  a.  18.  Jahrh.  (Const  1S40.  4  vols.)  vol.  II.  p.  48ss.    Comp.  ITefele,  krit 
Beleucht  Tub.  1841. 

There  appeared  to  be  no  way  in  which  this  struggle  between  the  rival 
claimants  of  the  papal  dignity  could  be  legally  terminated,  but  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  whole  Church,  in  whom  the  highest  degree  of  power  could 
be  combined.  The  cardinals  now  laid  aside  their  divisions,  and  by  the  advice 
of  the  Universities,  convoked  a  general  Council  at  Pisa.  The  priesthood 
was  represented  by  twenty-four  cardinals  and  two  hundred  bishops,  present 
either  in  person  or  by  proctors ;  the  monastic  orders  by  three  hundred  ab- 
bots ;  scientific  bodies  by  deputies  from  the  universities,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  masters  in  theology,  and  three  hundred  graduates  of  the  Roman  and 
canonical  law ;  and  the  state  especially  by  the  envoys  of  France  and  Eng- 
land. In  opposition  to  the  protests  of  the  two  popes,  Rupert,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  Ladislaus,  King  of  Naples,  the  council  confirmed  the  principle* 
defended  by  Gerson,  Chancellor  of  Paris,  affirming  that  the  power  with 
which  Christ  invested  the  Church  was  independent  of  the  pope.  Both  Bene- 
dict and  Gregory  were  then  summoned  before  the  council,  and  after  a  formal 
trial  were  deposed  for  contumacy  and  the  violation  of  their  engagements. 
The  representatives  of  the  Church,  however,  well  knew  that  they  could 
hope  for  no  influence  or  success  unless  they  removed  the  innumerable 
abuses  then  prevalent.  The  cardinals  therefore  bound  themselves  by  an 
oath,  that  whoever  should  be  elected  from  their  number,  should  never  dis- 
solve the  council  until  it  had  completed  the  work  of  reformation  in  the  head 
and  members  of  the  Church.  Peter  of  Candia,  an  aged  and  quiet  man  who 
afterwards  bore  the  name  of  Alexander  V.,  was  made  choice  of,  and  that  he 
might  make  those  preparations  which  <he  alleged  to  be  necessary,  he  imme- 
diately postponed  the  work  of  reformation  to  a  council  which  he  promised 
to  convene  in  three  years  from  that  date.  By  his  unrestrained  liberality  the 

*  Tr.  de  imitate  Ecc.  and  Libellus  de  auferibilitate  papae  ab  Ecc.  (Opp.  vol.  II.  P.  I.) 


CHAP.  I.  PAPACY.  §  251.  COUNCIL  OF  CONSTANCE.         277 

resources  of  the  Church  were  in  a  short  time  squandered.  Benedict  still 
maintained  his  claims  in  Spain  and  Scotland,  and  Gregory  was  acknowledged 
by  Kupert  and  Ladislaus.  Christendom  beheld  with  amazement  three  popes 
within  its  bounds,  and  all  its  abuses  continued  without  restraint. 

§  251.     The  Council  of  Constance.    NOD.  5,  l±l±- April  22,  1418. 

I.  Eespecting  John  XXIIL,  after  Platiria  his  secretary,  consult  Theod.  de  Niem,  Vita  Jo.  (Hardt, 
Cone.  Const  vol.  IL  P.  XV.  p.  335.)    Invectiva  in  diffugientem  a  Const  Cone.  Jo.  (/&.  P.  XIV.  p. 
296.)  and  L.  Aretinus,  Commentar.  (Murat.  vol.  XIX.  p.  927ss.)— Magnum  oecum.  Constantienso 
Cone.  od.  Herm.  von  der  Hardt,  Fret  ot  Lps.  697ss.  7  vols.  f.  Theod.  Vrie,  an  Augustinian  of  Osna- 
bruck,  do  consolatione  Ecc.  (also  Hist  du  Cone.  Const,  in  Hardt,  vol.  I.  p.  1.) 

II.  Lcnfant,  Hist  du  Cone,  de  Const  Amst  (1714.)  1727.  2  vols.  4.    Bourgeois  du  CJiastenet, 
nouvelle  Hist  du  Cone,  de  Const.  Par.  1718.  4.    fioyko,  Gesch.  d.  KVers.  zu  Kostnitz.  Vien.  & 
Prague.  1782ss.  4  vols.  (1st  &  2d  vols.  2d  ed.  1796.)    Aschoach,  Leben  K.  Sigism.  (according  to  Win- 
deck.)  Frkf.  (1838s.)  vol.  II.     Wessenberg  vol.  II.  p.  69ss.    [Landon,  pp.  150-162.    L.  Bonnechose, 
(§  800.)  on  Gerson,  John  Huss,  and  the  Council  of  Constance,  republ.  in  1853.  Par.] 

Cossa,  the  cardinal  legate,  who  displayed  great  talents  in  the  management 
of  secular  affairs,  but  was  totally  destitute  of  all  spiritual  character,  had 
Alexander  Y.  brought  to  Bologna,  that  he  might  close  his  days  in  that  city 
(1410).  Having  expelled  the  Visconti  from  Bologna,  Cossa  ruled  without 
restraint  as  the  tyrant  of  that  city,  and  the  cardinals  were  obliged  to  make 
choice  of  him  as  the  successor  in  the  papal  chair.  He  assumed  the  name  of 
John  XXIIL,  and  was  soon  driven  from  the  Ecclesiastical  States  in  a  war 
with  Ladislaus.  The  emperor  Sigismund  refused  to  afford  him  any  assistance 
unless  he  would  appoint  some  place  beyond  the  Alps  in  which  a  council 
should  be  assembled  for  the  removal  of  the  schism,  and  the  accomplishment 
of  the  ecclesiastical  reformation  demanded  by  the  people.  The  place  agreed 
upon  by  the  pope  and  the  emperor  was  Constance,  and  the  council  was  sum- 
moned to  convene  on  the  first  of  November.  Full  of  anxiety  and  perplexed 
with  conflicting  views,  John  XXIII.  repaired  to  Constance  on  the  29th  Oct., 
1414.  Besides  the  representatives  of  the  clergy,  a  great  multitude  of  secu- 
lar lords  came  together  there,  presenting  an  array  of  all  the  glory  of  Europe. 
At  the  head  of  the  civil  powers  stood  the  emperor  with  the  sincere  intention 
of  effecting  the  reformation  of  the  Church.  Gerson  and  the  Cardinal  Peter 
tfAilly  were  the  principal  leaders  of  the  reforming  party.  Their  superior 
power  in  the  assembly  was,  evinced  and  increased  by  the  arrangement  that 
the  voting  should  take  place  by  nations.  This  rule  was  adopted  on  account 
of  the  numerical  majority  of  Italian  prelates,  and  even  in  the  preliminary 
meetings  business  had  been  transacted  in  separate  sections  under  the  name 
of  the  German,  the  Italian,  the  French,  the  English,  and,  after  the  aban- 
donment of  Benedict,  the  Spanish  nations,  (a)  The  cardinals  constituted  a 
college  by  themselves,  with  no  defined  prerogatives.  "Within  their  respective 
nations,  the  prelates,  it  is  true,  maintained  that  their  votes  were  decisive  of 
all  questions  which  came  before  them,  but  they  were  generally  swayed  by 
the  influence  of  the  princes  and  doctors.  There  were  only  a  few  public  ses- 
sions in  which  all  these  nations  were  united  in  one  body,  and  even  in  these 
there  were  seldom  any  debates,  but  simply  solemn  communications  and  pro- 
of) Hardt,  vol.  II.  p.  224ss. 


278  MEDIAEVAL  CITOECH  HISTOEY.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1210-1517 

clamations  of  decisions  elsewhere  formed.  The  majority  finally  announced, 
that  in  their  opinion  the  schism  could  never  be  effectually  healed  but  by  the 
simultaneous  abdication  of  each  of  the  three  popes,  and  the  general  voice 
became  more  and  more  decided  in  its  demands  for  the  impeachment  of  John 
XXIII.,  on  account  of  his  dissolute  course  of  life.  John  then  appeared  will- 
ing to  resign  the  tiara,  but  soon  after,  in  spite  of  his  oath  to  the  contrary, 
with  the  aid  of  Frederic  of  Austria,  he  made  his  escape  (March  20,  1416)  to 
Schaffhausen.  He  afterwards  removed  still  farther  dow,n  the  Rhine,  and 
revoked  all  his  promises  on  the  ground  that  they  were  given  under  con- 
straint. After  a  brief  suspense  the  council  declared  itself  independent  of  all 
popes,  and  superior  to  them.  (&)  The  trial  of  John  XXIII.  was  regularly 
carried  forward,  he  was  proved  guilty  of  a  long  catalogue  of  crimes,  sus- 
pended from  his  dignities,  after  the  submission  of  Austria  imprisoned,  and  on 
the  29th  of  May  finally  deposed.  Gregory  also  resigned,  but  on  honorable 
terms  (d.  1417).  After  long  and  fruitless  negotiations,  Benedict  was  gene- 
rally deserted  by  his  friends,  and  deposed  by  the  council  as  a  heretic  with 
respect  to  the  article  asserting  that  there  is  only  one  Catholic  Church  (July 
26,  1417).  With  as  much  expedition  as  possible  a  new  papal  election  was 
now  held.  In  vain  did  the  German  nation  urge  that  the  reformation  of  the 
head  and  members  of  the  Church -should  first  be  completed ;  they  were  over- 
ruled by  those  who  dreaded  the  predominance  of  an  ultra-liberal  party,  if 
the  Church  should  continue  without  a  head.  Six  deputies  from  each  nation 
were  added  to  the  twenty-three  cardinals  in  the  conclave,  and  on  Nov.  11, 
Otho  Colonna  was  elected  pope,  under  the  name  of  Martin  V.  He  had  pre- 
viously been  regarded  as  a  courteous,  skilful,  and  moderate  man,  and  he  now 
knew  well  how  to  thwart  the  general  demands  for  a  reformation  by  separate 
treaties,  conceding  some  privileges  as  to  ecclesiastical  offices  to  particular  na- 
tions, and  some  claims  of  the  papal  chancery.  The  patience  of  the  council 
was  completely  exhausted.  "With  great  pomp,  on  the  ICth  May,  1418,  the 
pope  took  his  departure,  and  the  baffled  hopes  of  such  as  longed  for  reforma- 
tion were  now  turned  to  a  future  general  council  promised  in  five  years 
from  that  time. 

§  252.    Martin  V.    Nov.  11,  UI7-Feb.  20, 1431. 

The  Concordat  which  Martin  proposed  to  the  French  nation  was  rejected 
by  the  Parliament  (1418),  and  all  remittances  of  money  to  Rome  for  crimi- 
nal trials  and  ecclesiastical  benefices  were  once  more  forbidden.  But  in 
spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Parliament,  the  king  was  induced  by  court 
intrigues  to  effect  an  acceptance  and  a  partial  introduction  of  the  Concordat 
(1424).  The  activity  and  caution  of  the  pope  was  also  sometimes  successful 
in  renewing  all  the  ecclesiastical  claims  and  pecuniary  extortions  which  had 
formerly  prevailed.  Cossa,  who  had  beguiled  his  imprisonment  in  Heidel- 
berg by  writing  verses  on  the  fickleness  of  fortune,  met  his  successor  at  Flor- 
ence, sued  for  clemency,  and  obtained  peace  and  honor  for  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  In  consequence  of  a  misunderstanding  between  Martin  and  the  King 

&)  Hardt,  yol.  IL  p.  265ss.  9Sss. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  252.  MAETIN  V.    §  253.  EUGENIUS  YI.  279 

of  Aragon,  Peter  of  Luna  appeared  once  more  on  the  public  stage  (d.  1424), 
and  it  was  not  until  his  second  successor  that  this  papacy  at  Peniscola  was 
brought  to  an  end.  Martin  was  obliged  to  tarry  for  a  long  time  among  the 
proud  merchants  of  Florence,  before  he  could  obtain  possession  of  the  cities 
of  the  Ecclesiastical  States  from  the  hands  of  freemen,  and  from  tyrants. 
He  finally  became  master  of  Rome  (Sept.  20,  1420),  and  re-established  the 
government  and  the  churches  which  had  so  long  been  suffered  to  decay.  The 
synods  he  convened  at  Pavia  and  Siena  found  a  reasonable  excuse  in  the 
small  number  of  prelates  assembled  to  postpone  the  reformation  to  a  still 
later  period.  But  public  sentiment  was  so  powerful,  and  the  necessity  of 
some  assistance  against  the  Hussites  had  become  so  urgent,  that  he  was  finally 
compelled  to  summon  the  promised  general  council  at  the  imperial  city  of 
Basle,  in  March,  1431. 

§  253.     The  Council  of  Basle.    1431-1443.  (1449.) 

I.  Acts  of  Council  in  Mansl  vol.  XXIX.-XXXI.  and  Wurdtwein,  Subsidia  diplom.  Heidelb. 
1774s.  vol.  VIII.  IX.    [Landon's  Manual  of  Councils,  p.  56-74]    Aeneae  Sylv.  Commtr.  de  gestis 
Bas.  Cone.  (1439.)  1.  II.  (Orfhuini  Gratii  Fascic.  rerum  expetend.  ac  fugiend.  Col.  1535.  f.)  and 
often.  (Comp.  Hase  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1843.  H.  8.)    Augustini  Patricii  Summa  Concilior.  Basil., 
Florentini,  etc.  (Harzhem.  Cone.  germ.  vol.  V.  p.  774.)  Vita  Eugenii.  (Baluz.  Miscell.  1.  VII.) 

II.  Richerii  Hist.  Cone.  gen.  Col.  1681.  4. 1.  III.  p.  20ss.     Wesseriberg,  vol.  II.  p.  271ss. 

Eugenius  VI.  (1431-47),  in  compliance  with  a  promise  made  at  his  elec- 
tion, confirmed  the  call  which  his  predecessor  had  issued  for  a  general  eccle- 
siastical council.  This  assembly  gradually  convened  in  Basle,  and  immediately 
announced  that  the  extermination  of  heretics  and  the  purification  of  the 
Lord's  vineyard,  which  in  the  call  had  been  proposed  as  the  object  of  the 
council,  had  reference  to  the  reconciliation  of  the  Hussites  and  the  removal 
of  abuses  from  the  Church.  This  announcement  was  scarcely  made  before 
the  pope  perceived  the  designs  of  the  council,  and  began  to  dread  the  influ- 
ence of  its  independent  spirit  among  a  free  people,  and  on  the  confines  of 
three  great  nations.  He  therefore  hastened  to  give  directions  that  it  should 
adjourn  to  meet  in  his  own  city  of  Bologna.  In  this,  however,  he  was  op- 
posed with  the  earnest  remonstrances  of  his  own  legate,  the  Cardinal 
Julian,  (a)  The  council  solemnly  re-aifirmed  the  decrees  of  its  predecessor 
at  Constance  respecting  the  independence  and  supremacy  of  a  general  coun- 
cil of  the  Church  while  engaged  in  matters  of  faith,  schism,  and  reformation. 
The  pope  himself  was  cited  before  it  to  answer  for  his  conduct.  Pressed  as 
he  then  was  by  disturbances  among  the  Roman  people,  Eugenius  sought  to 
become  reconciled  with  the  synod,  and  after  acknowledging  its  -independence, 
his  legates  were  allowed  to  preside  over  it  (April  26,  1434).  (&)  The  assem- 
bly having  been  increased  by  the  presence  of  many  deputies  of  chapters  and 
persons  belonging  to  the  lower  clergy,  now  proceeded  to  set  forth  a  strict 
order  of  business.  To  prepare  all  its  decrees,  it  resolved  itself  into  four 
deputations,  each  of  which  was  composed  of  persons  from  all  the  Ecclesias- 

a)  Itaynald.  ad  ann.  1431.  N.  22.    Given  in  full  in  the  Fascic.  rer.  expetend.  et  fugiend.  Ccl 
J535.  £  27ss. 

Z>)  Mansi  vol.  XXIX.  p.  90.  comp.  409.    [Waddington  Ecc.  Hist  Chap.  XXIV.] 


280  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    TEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-151T. 

tical  states,  (c)  Every  thing  which  could  be  censured  as  an  abuse  in  the 
Church  by  the  clergy  and  prelates  was  brought  forward.  The  papal  court 
was  in  many  respects  reduced,  significant  references  were  made  to  the  cus- 
toms of  the  primitive  Church,  the  revenues  of  the  pope  from  countries  be- 
yond the  Alps,  and  his  power  of  bestowing  benefices  there,  were  consider- 
ably reduced,  the  illegal  transfer  of  ecclesiastical  trials  to  Rome  was  forbidden, 
the  pope  was  solemnly  admonished  for  his  disregard  of  these  decrees,  and  in 
a  great  variety  of  ways  even  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  was 
interfered  with.  When  Eugenius  heard  of  this,  he  adjourned  the  council 
after  its  twenty-sixth  session  to  Ferrara  (Sept.  18,  1487),  and  subsequently 
to  Florence.  At  the  council  which  he  convened  at  the  latter  place  he  excom- 
municated the  rebellious  assembly  at  Basle.  But  this  latter  body  instituted 
legal  proceedings  against  him,  the  issue  of  which  was  that  Eugenius  was  de- 
posed (June  25,  1439)  for  simony,  heresy,  and  disturbance  of  the  public 
peace.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  prelates  had  by  this  time  either  with- 
drawn, or  had  gone  over  to  the  council  at  Florence.  Allemand,  Archbishop 
of  Aries,  a  man  of  eminent  piety  but  devoted  to  the  principles  of  liberty, 
being  the  only  cardinal  now  left,  presided  over  the  assembly,  and  the  places 
of  the  bishops  were  occupied  by  doctors  and  the  pastors  of  churches.  That 
they  might  have  a  powerful  protector  near,  Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who 
after  a  long  and  glorious  reign  had  transferred  his  territories  to  his  son,  and 
was  then  peaceably  living  as  a  pious  hermit  by  the  lake  of  Geneva,  was 
elected  pope  by  a  committee  appointed  for  that  purpose  by  the  council  (Oct. 
30,  1439).  He  assumed  the  name  of  Felix  V.,  but  his  authority  was  acknowl- 
edged only  by  his  former  sulyects,  the  Kings  of  Aragon  and  Hungary,  a 
few  German  princes,  the  Swiss  confederacy,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  uni- 
versities. But  the  voice  of  the  people,  which  had  hitherto  been  the  princi- 
pal support  of  the  council,  disapproved  of  the  rashness  of  a  proceeding  which 
had  no  means  provided  for  its  support,  and  threatened  the  Church  with  a 
new  schism.  The  council  was  now  placed  in  the  position  of  a  violent  fac- 
tion, compelled  to  make  concessions  inconsistent  with  its  principles  to  increase 
or  confirm  its  party,  (d)  The  imperial  states  observed  a  careful  neutrality 
between  the  pope  and  the  council,  but  at  a  Diet  convened  at  Mentz  (March 
26,  1439),  they  accepted  the  decrees  of  reformation  which  had  been  passed 
at  Basle.  Yet  when  Frederic  III.  of  Austria,  a  well-disposed  man,  but  pos- 
sessed of  neither  inclination  nor  ability  to  carry  forward  the  principles  of  lib- 
erty, or  any  thing  else  of  an  elevated  character,  was  raised  to  the  imperial 
throne,  and  Aeneas  Sylvius  of  Piccolomini,  the  shrewd  and  enthusiastic 
secretary  and  historian  of  the  council,  found  it  for  his  interest  to  enter  first 
into  the  service  of  the  emperor,  and  then  of  the  pope,  Eugenius  was  induced, 
in  consideration  of  his  recognition  as  pope,  to  withdraw  his  decree  of  depo- 
sition against  the  Electors  of  Treves  and  Cologne,  and  conditionally  to  con- 
cede that  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basle  might  be  enforced  in  Germany 
(Feb.  5,  7,  1447).  (e}  But  the  same  Aeneas  Sylvius  who  had  obtained  these 

c)  Mansi  vol.  XXIX.  p.  377. 

d)  Mansi  vol.  XXXI.  p.  202. 

e\  Concordata  Principum.  Decrees  at  Monta,  in  Horix,  Concordats  Nat  Germ.  Frcf.  et  Lps.  ed 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  253.  BASLE.    §  254.  NICHOLAS  V.  281 

concessions,  subsequently  induced  Nicholas  V.,  by  a  separate  agreement  with 
the  emperor  at  Vienna  (Feb.  17,  1448),  craftily  to  steal  away  from  the  Ger- 
man Church  nearly  all  the  privileges  thus  secured.  This  agreement  finally 
became  possessed  of  imperial  authority  by  distinct  contracts  with  individual 
princes  and  bishops,  under  the  name  of  the  Concordat  of  Asehafferiburg.  (jQ 
On  the  other  hand,  France  had  on  the  whole  faithfully  adhered  to  Eugenius, 
but  in  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  passed  at  Bourges  (1438),  it  had  received  the 
decrees  of  Basle  as  far  as  they  were  subservient  to  the  independence  of  the 
Gallican  Church,  (g)  This  ecclesiastical  assembly  at  Basle  having  been  grad- 
ually abandoned  by  the  Church,  by  its  own  pope,  and  finally  by  its  own 
members,  closed  its  sessions  after  1443  without  a  formal  adjournment.  Felix 
resigned  his  precarious  dignities  (1449),  in  an  honorable  compact  with 
Nicholas. 

§  254.     The  Popes  until  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Century. 

Platina,  from  Sixtus  IV.  till  Pius  V.,  continued  generally  according  to  good  authorities  by  the 
Augustinian  Onufrio  Panmni  (d.  1568.)  Yen.  1562.  4.  and  often,  especially  Ven.  1708.  Steplianus 
Jnfessura,  Chancellor  of  the  city  of  Home  about  1494,  Diarium  Eomanae  Urbis  1294-1494.  (Eccard 
voL  II.  p.  1863.  Muratori,  with  omissions,  vol.  III.  P.  II.  p.  1109.) 

Nicholas  V.  (1447-55,  Thomas  of  Sarzana),  notwithstanding  his  hasty 
temper,  by  the  mildness  and  equity  of  his  government  restored  once  more 
the  glory  of  the  papacy.  Himself  a  man  of  extensive  erudition,  he  was 
always  liberal  to  literary  men,  and  to  the  poor.  His  last  years  were  embit- 
tered by  his  grief  respecting  Constantinople,  (a)  Calixtus  III.  (1455-58, 
Borgia)  armed  on  his  own  account  a  victorious  army  against  the  Turks,  and 
spared  no  pains  to  secure  the  throne  of  Naples  to  his  nepotes.  (U)  Aeneas 
Sylvius  was  in  natural  talents  and  in  learning  among  the  very  first  men  of 
his  age,  and  at  the  expense  of  his  character  succeeded  in  attaining  the  object 
of  his  ambition.  Under  the  name  of  Pius  II.  (1458-64)  he  vainly  endeav- 
ored to  cast  obloquy  on  the  liberal  tendencies  and  efibrts  of  his  earlier  years, 
to  wrest  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  from  the  hands  of  the  French,  and  to  place 
himself  when  old  and  sick  at  the  head  of  a  crusade  against  the  Turks.  He 
was  not  a  general  apostate  from  his  principles ;  his  youthful  sins  were  com- 
mitted in  his  youthful  dreams,  but  his  whole  career  as  a  Koman  pontiff  has 
left  us  no  trace  of  its  influence,  (c)  Paul  II.  (1464-71,  Barbo),  though  an 

2. 1772s.  vol.  I.  The  four  bulls  of  Eugenius  are  in  C.  W.  Koch,  Sanctio  pragm.  Germ.  ill.  Argent 
17S9.  4.  SylL  docum.  p.  ISSss.  Comp.  Raynald.  ad  ann.  1447.  N.  7. 

/)  All  the  Archives  of  the  Diet  of  Mentz  are  in  Wurdtwein,  Subsid.  diplom.  vol.  IX.  N.  9.  p. 
"Sss.  All  the  Archives  of  the  Diet  of  Vienna  are  inJEocA,  1.  c.  p.  201ss.  On  the  question  whether 
the  decrees  of  Basle  were  abrogated  with  respect  to  Germany,  see  Spittler,  Geech.  d.  Fundamen- 
talges.  d.  deutschkath.  K.  (Gott  hist  Mag.  vol.  I.  pt  2s.  vol.  IV.  pt  1.)  On  the  other  side,  see  Koch, 
p.  36ss.  Ueber  d.  Fundamentals,  d.  deutschkath.  K.  Frkf.  u.  Lps.  1790. 

0)  Hist  de  la  pragm.  sanction.  (Traitez  de  droits  et  libertez  de  1'Egl.  Gall.  Par.  1731.  f.    As  an 
appendix  to  the  1st  vol.  of  P.  Pithou  or  Du  Puis.) 

a)  L  Vita  Nic.  by  his  Secretary,  Gianeszo  Manetti  (Muratori  vol.  III.  P.  II.  p.  905.)— II.  Dom. 
Georgii  Vita  Nic.  Eom.  1742.  4.  Jagemann,  Gesch.  d.  fr.  Kunste  u.  Wiss.  in  Ital.  vol.  IIL  P.  3. 

1)  Muratori  vol.  III.  P.  II.  p.  961ss. 

c)  I.  Opp.  (hist,  geogr.,  rhet.)  Bas.  155L  f.  and  often.  Epp.  Nor.  14S1.  and  often.  Oratt  ed. 
Mansi,  Luc.  1755.  4  His  life  by  his  admirers,  Platina,  Campani  (Murat.  vol.  III.  P.  II.  p.  967.) 
and  by  himself  in  the  name  of  his  Secretary,  Gdbellini  Commentr.  rerum.  memor.  quae  temp.  Pii 


282  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  EISTOEY.    Pii.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-151T. 

enemy  to  all  the  partisans  and  policy  of  his  predecessor,  did  not  disturb  the 
tranquillity  of  Italy.  He  was  avaricious,  but  it  was  that  he  might  spend 
what  he  amassed  in  pomp  and  prodigality,  a  persecutor  of  science  on  account 
of  what  he  regarded  as  its  heathenish  tendencies,  tender-hearted  and  easily 
moved  to  tears,  a  fortunate  rather  than  a  holy  father,  and  one  who  regarded 
his  own  arbitrary  purposes  as  his  supreme  law.  (d)  Sixtus  IV.  (1471-84, 
della  Kovera),  a  learned  Franciscan  general,  who  had  been  implicated  in  the 
conspiracy  of  the  Pazzi,  ventured  to  issue  sentence  of  banishment  against 
Lorenzo  Medici  for  escaping  the  daggers  of  the  conspirators.  His  interdicts 
were  disregarded  by  the  Florentines  and  Venetians.  Rome  was  much  em- 
bellished by  him,  but  the  Church  was  sold  and  Italy  filled  with  blood  that  he 
might  acquire  principalities  for  his  nepotes  or  sons,  (e)  Innocent  VIII. 
(1484-92,  Cybo)  commenced  his  reign  with  the  violation  of  the  stipulations 
he  had  made  at  his  election.  To  obtain  the  rents  which  he  claimed  from 
Naples,  then  in  league  with  his  seditious  barons,  he  prosecuted  -against  it  a 
disgraceful  war,  which  both  parties  were  finally  willing  to  conclude  with  an 
honorable  peace,  from  a  common  fear  of  the  French.  In  the  very  act  of  call- 
ing upon  Christendom  to  embark  in  a  war  with  its  hereditary  enemies,  he 
sold  himself  to  the  Sultan  Bajazet  to  become  a  jailer  for  that  monarch. 
"While  Rome  was  distracted  by  the  factious  struggles  of  the  Colonna  and  the 
Orsini,  he  acquired  for  disgraceful  crimes  the  ambiguous  title  of  father  of 
his  country.  (/) 

§  255.    Alexander  VI.    Aug.  2,  1492-^.  18,  1503. 

I.  Burchardi  Diarium  Curiae  Horn.  1434-1506.  (Specimen  Hist  Arcanae  de  Vita  Alex.  ed.  Leib- 
nit.  Han.  1696.  4.  more  fully  In  Eccard  vol.  II.  p.  2017.  Comp.  Paulve,  Sophronlzon.  voL  IV.  II. 
1.  vol.  VIII.  H.  6.)  Infessura.  (p.  2S1.)  In  the  higher  sense  of  history,  Guicciardini,  1. 1.-VI. 

IL  Mr.  D.  B.  (Dubos?)  la  vie  d'Alex.  Append,  to  the  Hist  du.  droit  publ.  eccl.  franc.  Lond. 
1737.  Tommasi,  la  vita  dl  Cesare  Borgia.  Montechiaro.  1670.  4.  published  in  French  as  anonymous 
Memoirs.  Amst  1739.  2  vols.  12.  Brl.  1782.  Gordon,  la  vie  du  P.  Alex,  et  Cesar  B.  trad,  de 
1'Anglols.  Amst  1732.  2  vols.  12.  Eplgr.  in  Flacius,  L  c.  p.  40a 

Alexander  VI.  (Roderigo  Borgia)  made  use  of  the  whole  power  with 
which  the  Church  supplied  him  to  establish  an  independent  kingdom  for  his 
own  femily.  At  one  time  he  appealed  to  all  the  powers  of  Europe  to  assist 
him  in  a  struggle  against  France,  when  Charles  VIII.  overran  Italy  to  obtain 
possession  of  Naples,  as  an  inheritance  from  the  house  of  Anjou.  At  another 
he  formed  an  alliance  with  France,  that  he  might  overthrow  some  of  the 
principal  families  of  Rome,  and  spoil  the  Italian  princes  of  their  lawful  pos- 
sessions. His  son,  the  fratricide  Caesar  Borgia,  renounced  the  Cardinal's 

II.  contiguerunt  Eom.  1584.  4.  Frcf.  1614.  C— II.  H.  C.  Helming,  de  Pii  II.  rebus  gestls  et 
morib.  Ber.  1825.  4.  Nic.  Seets,  de  Aen.  Bylvii  morum  mentisque  mutationis  rationib.  Harlem. 
1839.  K,  li.  Hagenbach,  Erlnnerungen  an  Aen.  Sylv.  Bas.  1840. 

d)  Platina,  who  suffered  too  much  on  his  account  to  be  impartial  toward  him,  and  hence  should 
be  comp.  with  Cannesius,  edit  by  Cardinal  Quirini,  Pauli  Veneti  Vita,  praemissis  vindiciis  adv. 
Platinam  aliosque.  Eom.  1740.. 4. 

e)  His  scholastic  Treatises,  Eom.  1470.  Nor.  1473.    Life, 'probably  by  Platina  in  Murat.  voL  III. 
P.  II.  p.  1052.    Epigrams  in  Flacius,  varia  de  corrupto  Ecc.  statu  poemata.  p.  401s.—  Walchner 
polit.  Gesch.  d.  1478.  zu  Flor.  geh.  Synode  u.  dcs  Zwistes  der  Eepubl.  mit  Sixt  Eotw.  1824. 

/)  Infessura  in  Eccard.  p.  1947ss.—  Vialardi,  Vita  d'Innocenzo  VIIL  Ven.  1618.  t  Epigram* 
In  Flacius,  p.  403. 


CHAP.  L    PAPACY.    §  255.  ALEXANDER.    §  256.  JUXITJS  II.  283 

hat  to  become  a  duke  over  the  principality  to  be  formed  from  the  possessions 
of  the  Church,  and  of  the  princes  of  Central  Italy.  The  Italians  were  en- 
couraged with  the  precious  hope  that  the  great  object  of  his  despotism  was 
the  ultimate  union  of  the  whole  peninsula.  As  a  political  sovereign,  Alex- 
ander gave  great  offence  to  the  Church  by  his  intimate  alliance  with  the 
Sultan  against  France,  (a)  Although  his  sensuality  was  so  disgusting,  that 
he  was  accused  by  public  rumor  of  even  incest  and  every  disgraceful  crime, 
his  talents  were  yet  so  great  and  his  activity  was  so  untiring  in  the  pursuit 
of  his  objects,  and  either  he  or  the  papacy  was  so  much  respected,  that  when 
kings  contended  for  the  possession  of  the  newly  discovered  Western  world,  it 
was  finally  divided  between  Spain  and  Portugal  according  to  his  arbitration. 
He  was  unscrupulous  with  regard  to  the  means  by  which  he  accomplished 
his  plans.  While  yet  only  a  cardinal  he  paid  some  deference  to  public  senti- 
ment, but  when  he  had  attained  the  papacy  he  thought  it  necessary  to  put  it 
down  by  a  censorship  of  books.  This  practice,  originated  by  him,  (J)  was 
regarded  as  amply  sufficient  to  control  the  evil.  Though  he  had  moments  of 
painful  contrition,  he  was  sometimes  false  and  hypocritical  merely  for  his  own 
amusement.  He  was  never  guilty  of  weakness  except  with  respect  to  Kosa 
Yanozza  and  her  children.  Though  his  vices  could  not  escape  the  general 
hatred,  he  was  always  kind  to  the  people.  The  rich  and  the  powerful  were 
often  the  victims  of  his  policy,  and  he  did  not  shrink  even  from  assassination 
when  he  thought  it  needful  for  his  purposes.  In  the  midst  of  his  career  he 
fell  a  victim  to  poison,  prepared  by  his  son  for  a  cardinal  then  his  guest. 
His  government  was  so  conducted  that  every  vestige  of  an  independent  aris- 
tocracy was  effaced  from  the  papal  states. 

§  256.     Julius  II.    Nov.  1,  1503-^&.  21,  1513. 

I.  Guicciardini  1.  YI.-XI.    Paris  de  Grassis,  Diarium  Curiae  Eom.  1504-22.  never  printed 
but  used  by  Raynald  and  Itoscoe  (p.  285.)    ffadrianus  Castellensis,  Itinerarium  Julii.  (Ciaconii 
vita  Horn.  Pontiff.  Lugd.  1663.  vol.  IL)    Spalatin,  Leben  Julii.  (Tenzel,  Ber.  v.  d.  Ee£  Lpz.  1718. 
vol.  II.  p.  lls.) 

II.  Dubos,  Hist,  de  la  ligue  faite  h  Cambray.  Haye.  1710.  2  vols.     From  the  time  of  Julius 
Sower's  Hist,  of  the  Popes  has  been  independently  revised  by  Rambach. 

On  the  sudden  death  of  Alexander,  the  republic  of  Venice,  Caesar  Bor- 
gia, and  the  various  inferior  tyrants  endeavored  to  obtain  possession  of  and 
divide  among  themselves  the  papal  states,  while  the  Roman  emperor,  the 
Catholic  sovereign  of  France,  and  the  Most  Christian  King  had  the  same  de- 
sign with  respect  to  Italy  in  general.  Under  these  circumstances,  no  one  but 
the  Cardinal  Julian  della  Kovera  appeared  capable  of  meeting  the  coming 
storm.  His  election  was  decided  upon  even  before  the  conclave  met,  by  the 
large  promises  he  was  able  to  hold  forth.  Julius  II.  was  by  necessity  as 
well  as  by  choice  a  military  prince,  but  all  the  arts  of  peace  were  in  the  high- 
est sense  fostered  and  honored  during  his  reign.  Considering  his  Genoese 
extraction,  he  was  remarkably  frank  and  sincere  in  his  disposition,  and 
though  sometimes  swayed  by  an  irascible  temper  and  by  wine,  he  could  not 

a)  Eccard  vol.  II.  p.  2053ss.  Fundgruben  d.  Orients,  vol.  V.  p.  183ss. 
&)  Raynald.  ad  ann.  1501.  N.  86. 


284  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOET.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

be  influenced  by  fear,  or  by  a  love  of  gold  or  of  relatives.  Private  passions 
were  indeed  foreign  to  his  nature.  His  sword  and  his  political  efforts  were 
entirely  devoted  to  the  liberation  of  Italy  and  the  enlargement  of  the  papa. 
states.  So  effectually,  by  stratagem  and  by  violence,  was  Caesar  Borgia  ex- 
pelled from  Italy,  that  the  very  name  of  'Caesar  became  contemptible.  Bo- 
logna and  other  cities  belonging  to  Borgia's  patrimony,  which  had  been  kept 
back  by  petty  tyrants,  were  now  conquered  by  the  mere  terror  of  his  mili- 
tary preparations.  In  opposition  to  the  republic  of  Venice,  which  had 
refused  to  surrender  several  cities  belonging  to  the  eastern  border  of  the 
states  of  St.  Peter,  he  now  entered  into  a  combination  with  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  and  Louis  XII.  to  form  the  League  of  Camlray  (1509).  But 
when  the  French  had  brought  nearly  the  whole  of  Lombardy  into  subjection, 
he  listened  to  the  entreaty  of  the  Venetians  as  they  besought  him  not  to  give 
up  Italy  to  be  plundered  again  by  the  barbarians.  No  sooner  had  his  de- 
mands upon  the  Venetians  been  satisfied,  than  he  directed  all  his  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  weapons  against  Louis  XII.  Though  now  an  old  man  and  bro- 
ken down  by  the  gout,  he  hesitated  not  to  throw  himself  into  all  the  cares 
and  dangers  of  a  winter  campaign,  nor  was  he  dismayed  when  his  army  was 
utterly  destroyed,  and  nothing  remained  to  him  but  the  majesty  of  the  papal 
name.  Immediately  by  his  exertions  was  formed  the  Holy  Alliance,  by 
whicji  Venice,  Spain,  England,  and  the  Swiss  confederacy  became  united 
with  him,  and  the  French  were  soon  driven  beyond  the  Alps  (1512).  Louis 
met  the  sword  of  St.  Peter  with  spiritual  weapons,  and  by  means  of  some 
disaffected  cardinals  he  called  a  general  council  at  Pisa  for  the  reformation 
of  the  Church  (Nov.  5,  1511).  A  few  French  prelates  assembled  there,  who 
proceeded  forthwith  to  suspend  the  pope  as  a  modern  Goliath ;  but  they  were 
soon  compelled  by  the  displeasure  of  the  Italians  to  remove  their  sessions  to 
Milan,  and  during  the  next  year  they  entirely  disappeared  before  the  tri- 
umphant army  of  the  pope.  The  people,  however,  still  continued  to  hope 
that  a  reformation  of  the  Church  might  be  effected  by  a  general  council,  and 
Julius  had  promised  at  his  election  that  one  should  be  called  together  for  that 
purpose.  Accordingly  a  general  assembly  of  the  Church  was  summoned  to 
meet  in  the  Lateran,  in  opposition  to  that  which  had  convened  at  Pisa.  In 
the  first  session  (May  3,  1512),  a  discourse  was  pronounced  by  Aegidius  of 
Viterbo,  a  general  of  the  Augustinian  order,  in  which  it  was  maintained 
that  tKe  Church  had  become  great  only  by  the  use  of  the  weapons  of  the 
Spirit ;  that  temporal  possessions  were  of  comparatively  small  importance, 
but  that  every  thing  depended  upon  its  wealth  in  spiritual  blessings,  (a)  On 
the  other  hand  the  peculiar  spirit  of  the  pope  himself  was  predominant  in 
the  council,  and  nothing  more  was  done  than  to  summon  France  to  answer 
for  the  adoption  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  and  to  anathematize  all  kinds  of 
simony  in  the  election  of  a  pope.  Just  as  this  was  done  Julius  II.  died  while 
meditating  the  most  gigantic  schemes.  Upper  Italy  was  apparently  free,  a 
full  treasury  had  been  prepared  for  his  successor,  and  the  papal  states  were 
extended  to  their  utmost  limits.  There  was  indeed  an  evident  inconsistency 
between  his  character  and  his  office,  which  gave  occasion  to  some  bitter  ani- 

a)  Harduini  vol.  IX.  p.  1576ss.    liicherii  L.  IV.  P.  IL  p.  4se. 


CHAR  I.  PAPACY.  §  25T.  LEO  X.  PKAG.  SANCTION.        285 

madversions  and  pleasant  satires  (5)  in  countries  beyond  the  Alps.  France 
had  announced  its  determination  to  destroy  the  great  modern  Babel,  (c)  buf 
in  Italy  the*  primary  objects  of  this  heroic  man  were  so  popular,  that  his 
name  has  been  invested  there  with  a  splendid  posthumous  renown,  (d) 

§  257.     Leo  X.    March  11,  1513-1517.  (1521.) 

I.  Paris  de  Grassis  (§  256.)    Paulus  Jovius  (Bishop  of  Nocera,  d.  1552),  Vitae  viror.  illustr. 
(Opp.  hist.  Bas.  1578.  f.  vol.  I.  Vita  I.)    Guieciardini,  1.  XI.-XIV.    Spalatin  in  Tensel.  1.  c.  p.  13. 

II.  Rcscoe,  Life  and  Pontificate  of  LeV>  X.    [Loud.  (Bohn.)  1846.  2  vols.  8.    Rankc,  Hist  of  the 
Popes.  Lond.  1845.  (Bohn)  3  vols.  12.  and  Philad.  1843.  8.]  fianke,  die  Papste,  ihre  K.  u.  ihr  Staat  im 
16.  u.  17.  Jahrh.  Brl.  1834.  vol.  I.  p.  69ss.  79ss.    Audin,  Gesch.  d.  P.  Leo  X.  from  the  French  of 
Erug,  Augsb.  1845s.  2  vols.     {.Bower's  Hist,  of  the  Popes  to  1758.  and  from  that  time  cont.  by  S.  H. 
Cox.  till  1846.  New  York.  8.  v.  1843.    J.  E.  Riddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  2  vols.  Lond.  1854.] 

Giovanni  Medici  was  the  successor  of  Julius,  with  whose  fortunes  he  had 
been  intimately  and  faithfully  connected  both  in  exile  and  on  the  throne. 
By  the  influence  of  his  father  Lorenzo,  he  had,  even  when  a  boy,  attained 
some  of  the  most  exalted  stations  in  the  Church,  and  when  he  reached  the 
papal  chair  he  was  yet  in  the  vigor  of  his  manhood.  By  his  natural  powers 
as  well  as  by  his  uniform  habits  he  was  prepared  to  relish  every  pleasure 
which  the  world  could  offer,  and  he  therefore  collected  in  the  Vatican  every 
thing  which  could  give  splendor  to  the  arts  and  sciences  of  his  age.  "Well 
educated  in  the  classics  and  in  the  liberal  arts,  he  was  qualified  to  do  this 
with  discrimination,  and  from  his  connections  he  was  disposed  to  look  upon 
these  treasures  as  the  appropriate  patrimony  of  his  house.  Under  the  name 
of  Leo  X.  he  always  showed  himself  a  skilful  and  kind  master,  who  could 
appear  with  dignity  whenever  his  levity  of  disposition  was  not  drawn  forth. 
He  was  not  indeed  a  great  man  either  in  action  or  in  comprehensiveness 
of  views.  Even  the  arts  were  promoted  only  for  his  own  gratification. 
Placed  at  the  very  summit  of  all  human  influence  at  a  time  in  which  God 
created  as  it  were  a  new  world  by  the  hands  of  consummate  artists,  he 
allowed  the  most  exalted  talents  in  his  service  to  exhaust  themselves  in 
trifling  employments.  Although  he  seemed  regardless  of  even  the  outward 
semblance  of  apostolic  or  ecclesiastical  propriety,  he  was  far  from  regarding 
Christianity  as  a  mere  fable.  His  administration  was  characterized  by 
earnestness,  and  when  directed  against  criminals  by  a  due  degree  of  severity. 
His  unbounded  liberality,  however,  as  well  as  his  lavish  profusion,  required 
supplies  of  wealth  which  rendered  all  kinds  of  expedients  indispensable.  In 
the  contest  which  both  Spain  and  France  were  waging  to  obtain  possession 
of  Italy,  it  was  his  policy  to  hold  each  at  a  distance  from  the  prey,  and  to 
betray  each  in  turn  to  the  other.  A  glorious  victory  was  achieved  for  the 
papacy  during  his  administration,  in  the  removal  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
(1516),  which  was  yielded  by  Francis  I.,  that  by  the  friendship  of  the  pope 
his  conquest  of  Milan  might  be  secured,  and  his  hopes  respecting  Naples 
might  be  realized.  The  Council  of  Lateran  continued  in  session  until  March 
16,  1517,  long  enough  to  celebrate  this  victory  and  carry  into  effect  a  few 
papal  edicts. 

4 . 

5)  (Hutten?  Erasmus?)  Julius  exclusis.  (Pasquill.  vol.  II.  Eleutheropoli  i.  e.  Baa.  1544.  p.  123ss.) 
c)  WdleTt,  Vorbericht,  to  the  15th  vol.  of  Luther's  Werken,  p.  42ss. 
d}  Guieciardini  1.  XL  p.  326. 


286  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

CHAP.  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

§  258.     Corpus  juris  canonici. 

First  complete  edition  by  Jo.  Chappuis,  Par.  1449ss.  8  vols.  ed.  2. 1503.  The  edit  of  the  Correo 
tores  Eoinani,  and  published  by  Gregory  XIII.  to  be  immutable:  Kom.  1582.  8  vols.  f.  and  often 
Critical  Editions :  e  rec.  Pithoeorum  ed.  Claud,  le  Pelletier,  Par.  16S7.  2  vols.  f.  and  often.  J.  IL 
Boehmer,  Hal.  1747.  2  vols.  4.  A.  C.  RicMer,  Lps.  ISSSss.  2  vols.  4. 

While  the  supreme  power  in  the  Church  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the 
popes,  by  the  side  of  the  more  ancient  Decrees  of  Gratian,  a  new  papal 
code  was  gradually  formed  in  three  Collections  of  Decretals,  which  were 
abridged,  harmonized,  sent  to  the  universities,  and  thus  introduced  as  the 
authoritative  law  of  the  Church.  1.  Decretalium  Gregorii  IX.  compilatio, 
systematically  arranged  in  five  books  by  Raymund  de  Pennaforte,  in  compli- 
ance with  the  orders  of  Gregory  IX.  from  the  rescripts  of  that  pope,  and  a 
few  older  collections.  It  was  intended  to  supply  the  same  position  in  re- 
spect to  ecclesiastical  law  which  was  occupied  in  civil  law  by  the  legislation 
of  the  great  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  and  it  was  published  in  the  year  1234, 
both  in  Paris  and  Bologna,  (a)  2.  Sextus  Decretalium  Liber,  compiled  in 
five  books  by  order  of  Boniface  VIIL,  from  Decretals  of  a  later  date,  and 
sent  to  the  universities  in  1298.  3.  Clementinae,  compiled  by  Clement  V. 
from  Constitutions  principally  issued  by  the  general  synod  held  at  Vienne, 
committed  by  himself  to  the  Consistory  of  Cardinals  (1313)  and  to  his  Uni- 
versity of  Orleans,  and  sent  by  his  successor  (1317)  to  Paris  and  Bologna,  (b) 
Since  this  latter  period,  the  power  of  the  popes  has  not  been  sufficient  to  give 
the  force  of  law  to  their  enactments  throughout  Christendom,  and  hence  the 
general  code  of  the  Church  has  been  regarded  as  complete.  But  a  few  later 
laws  have  been  added  by  various  glossarists  and  editors  as  appendices  to  it 
(Extra vagantes).  In  the  first  complete  edition  of  the  code,  a  cqllection  of 
twenty  Extravagantes  of  John  XXII.  which  had  been  before  compiled,  was 
added,  together  with  all  the  laws  of  a  later  date,  so  far  as  they  could  be  ob- 
tained (Extrav.  communes),  until  the  time  of  Sixtus  IV.  Both  these  Appen- 
dices have  been  incorporated  in  the  more  recent  editions,  and  have  therefore 
obtained  in  judicial  proceedings  an  indefinite  but  never  a  legal  authority,  (c) 
These  decrees  and  decretals  constituted  the  elements  from  which  has  been 
formed  the  Corpus  juris  canonici,  whose  constituent  parts  are  characterized 
by  the  diversified  peculiarities  of  the  times  in  which  they  originated,  but 
take  cognizance  of  all  relations  in  ecclesiastical,  civil,  and  domestic  life.  It 
was  freely  accepted  by  the  whole  "Western  Church,  and  applied  by  them  to 
all  cases  in  which  its  provisions  were  consistent  with  ancestral  usages  and 
local  legislation.  On  the  one  hand  it  often  afforded  the  protection  of  law 
against  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  the  priesthood,  and  on  the  other  it  served  to 
sustain  the  power  of  the  hierarchy  by  the  force  of  habit  among  the  people, 

a)  Steck,  de  interpolationibus  Eaymundi  de  Pennaf.  Lps.  1754.  4.  Aug.  Theiner :  De  Bom. 
Pontiff,  epistolarum  deer,  antiquis  collectt.  et  de  Greg.  IX.  codice.  Lps.  1829.  4.  and  Eecherches  BUI 
plusieurs  collections  inedites  de  decretales.  Par.  1832. 

6)  G.  Z.  Boehmer,  de  Clementtnis.  (Obss.  jur.  can.  Goett  1766.) 

c)  BicfaHl,  u.  Entsteh.  u.  Gebr.  d.  ExtravagantensammL  Marb.  1S25. 


CHAP.  II.    ECCLES.  LAW.    §  259.  STATE  A.ND  CHUECII.  287 

and  by  the  efforts  of  learned  men,  long  after  the  real  basis  of  priestly  au  • 
thority  had  been  destroyed.  Many  commentaries  (glossae,  apparatus)  upon 
individual  collections  were  produced  by  the  learned  industry  of  this  period. 
From  the  explanations  written  upon  each  of  these  Collections,  a  summary 
(glossa  ordinaria)  has  been  formed  under  the  authority  of  the  schools,  which 
has  obtained  currency  in  the  ordinary  courts,  and  has  the  force  of  common 
legal  usage,  (d) 

§  259.     The  State  and  the  Church. 

The  political  institutions  of  all  the  great  states  of  Europe  were  estab- 
lished near  the  close  of  the  15th  century,  just  as  the  feudal  system  was  giv- 
ing place  to  the  monarchial.  Although  Germany  continued  divided  under 
various  forms  of  government,  some  of  which  were  free  and  others  were  arbi- 
trary, the  independence  of  the  empire  and  permanent  rules  for  the  imperial 
elections  had  been  secured  by  means  of  the  Electoral  Union  at  Ehense  and 
the  Golden  Bull  (1356).  A  definite  legal  condition  had  also  been  established 
(since  1495)  by  the  Landfriede,  or  the  Peace  of  the  country,  and  the  Impe- 
rial Chamber  of  Justice.  France,  by  the  despotism  of  some  of  its  kings, 
the  persecution  of  its  great  vassals,  and  the  favor  shown  to  the  Third  Es- 
tate, had  finally  become  a  consolidated  kingdom,  circumscribed  by  power- 
ful subordinate  corporations.  For  a  while  England  had  fought  gloriously  but 
unsuccessfully  for  a  territory  by  nature  assigned  to  France ;  it  had  then  been 
distracted  by  civil  wars,  in  which  its  principal  nobility  contended  for  the 
crown,  until  the  leaders  of  the  great  parties  were  gradually  struck  down  by 
a  terrible  judgment  of  heaven,  and  finally  Henry  VII.  (1485-1509),  by  de- 
pressing the  nobility  and  exalting  the  inferior  classes,  had  established  his 
throne  upon  a  permanent  basis.  By  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic 
with  the  hereditary  Queen  of  Castile,  Spain  also  had  become  united  as  a  sin- 
gle kingdom,  before  whose  power  Grenada,  the  last  Moorish  city,  after  an 
heroic  struggle,  was  compelled  to  yield  (1492).  In  Italy  the  popes  were 
themselves  too  feeble  to  obtain  the  sovereignty  of  the  whole  peninsula,  and 
yet  too  proud  to  allow  any  other  prince  to  do  so.  From  the  time  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  the  Great,  the  people  had  invited  various  foreign  rulers  to 
enter  it,  whom  they  soon  found  themselves  unable  to  endure,  (a)  The  power 
of  the  priesthood  was  no  longer  needed  or  sufficient  for  the  guardianship  of 
the  state.  The  prelates  of  the  several  countries  were  compelled  to  share  in 
the  various  fortunes  of  the  higher  nobility.  "Whenever  any  see  became  va- 
cant, the  kings  of  France  and  England  claimed  its  revenues  as  regalia  until 
the  new  prelate  had  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  them,  and  the  crown  of 
France  claimed  possession  of  all  vacant  benefices  in  any  diocese  until  it  was 
filled.  By  the  Concordat  with  Francis  I.  the  rights  of  the  Gallican  Church 
were  shared  between  the  king  and  the  pope.  (5)  In  Germany  the  king  pos- 
sessed a  prerogative,  according  to  which  a  prelate  was  bound  to  comply  with 
the  first  request  for  an  appointment  to  a  benefice  which  the  emperor  made 

d)  Sarti  L  c.  p.  832ss.    Swoigny,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  K.  vol.  VI.  p.  87ss. 
a)  Machiavetti,  Storie  Fior.  (Opp.  Italia,  1813.)  vol.  L  p.  13.  86. 
5)  P.  de  Marca,  VIII,  22.  §  6.    Jianke,  Papste,  vol.  I.  p.  82. 


288  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

after  his  consecration,  (c)  The  long  contested  right  of  requiring  that  ail 
papal  edicts  should  he  suhject  to  the  approval  of  the  civil  authority  before 
they  were  publicly  acknowledged,  was  maintained  by  a  few  governments  in 
a  rather  violent  manner,  (d)  In  spite  of  continual  denials  of  their  compe- 
tency the  civil  courts  asserted  with  increasing  success  their  jurisdiction  over 
private  legal  suits,  in  opposition  to  the  exorbitant  claims  of  the  spiritual 
courts.  The  powers  of  the  clergy  were  especially  curtailed  by  governments 
and  rulers  of  a  republican  character.  In  France,  when  the  parliaments  had 
once  succeeded  in  attaining  independent  judicial  and  civil  authority,  their 
rights  were  guarded  with  extreme  jealousy,  and  the  bishops  were  made  re- 
sponsible for  every  encroachment  upon  them.  The  Lombardic  cities,  es- 
pecially Venice,  the  Swiss  Confederates  (parson's  letter,  1370),  and  the  Ger- 
man imperial  diet,  demanded  that  the  clergy  should  be  subject  to  the  ordinary 
penal  laws  of  the  country,  should  contribute  their  share  of  public  taxes,  and 
be  restrained  within  certain  limits  in  their  acquisition  of  ecclesiastical  pro- 
perty, (e)  The  Free  Court  of  the  Vehme  in  Westphalia  went  so  far  as  to 
withhold  their  secrets  from  the  confessional.  (/) 

§  260.     The  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Papacy. 

The-  papacy  now  essentially  diseased,  and  yet  obliged  to  put  before  the 
world  the  most  exorbitant  claims,  became  henceforth  a  destructive  power  in 
the  Church.  By  the  authority  conceded  to  the  decretals  the  pope  became 
the  creator  of  his  own  prerogatives  at  pleasure.  The  bold  announcement  of 
the  papal  decision  that  nothing  could  hinder  the  execution  of  the  pope's  com- 
mands (non  obstante  quocunque),  was  in  utter  contempt  of  the  acknowledged 
rights  of  every  class.  The  power  which  each  party  in  a  suit  possessed  when- 
ever it  pleased  to  have  its  cause  removed  to  Rome,  was  occasionally  almost 
equivalent  to  a  complete  denial  of  justice.  The  influence  of  the  pastors  was 
also  much  impaired  by  the  profitable  papal  usurpation  of  a  general  power  to 
confer  absolution,  and  grant  dispensations.  Then  as  the  pope  alone  could 
confirm  the  elections  of  all  bishops  and  abbots,  no  one,  however  deserving, 
could  reach  the  office  of  a  prelate  without  the  friendship  of  influential  per- 
sons at  Rome,  or  some  act  of  royal  authority.  Nearly  all  other  lucrative  offi- 
ces in  the  Church  were  disposed  of  directly  by  the  Roman  see,  under  various 
legal  forms  (reservation,  prevention,  devolution,  commendam,  accident  of 
death  at  the  Roman  court).  Consequently,  foreigners  and  mercenary  tools 
gained  admission  to  the  Church,  united  several  offices  and  the  revenues  de- 
rived from  them  in  their  single  persons,  frequently  without  ever  seeing  their 
congregations,  and  while  living  in  extravagance  at  the  papal  court.  This 
power  of  ecclesiastical  patronage  was  an  inexhaustible  sour«e  of  papal  wealth, 

c)  K  C.  de  Senkeriberg,  de  jure  primarum  precum,  indulto  papali  baud  indigente,  Frc£  1784  4. 

d)  Stockmans,  jus  Belgarum  circa  bullarum  receptionem.  (Opp.  Col.  1700.  4.  cap.  2.) 

e)  Kaumer,  Hohenstauf.  vol.  III.  p.  193s.— Satthasar,  hist.  Entwickl.  d.  Freiheiten  u.  d.  Gerichts- 
bark.  d.  Eidgen.  in  geistl.  Dingen.  Zur.  1763.  (FucM)  Vers.  e.  pragm.  Gesch.  d.  staatsrecbtL  KVer£ 
d.  Eidgen.  Gennanien.  1816.— J.  6.  ReinTiard,  Meditt.  de  jure  principum  Germ,  cum  primia  Sax- 
oniae  circa  sacra  ante  temp,  reformationis.  Hal.  1717.  4 

/)  C.  G.  v.  Wdchter,  Beitrr.  z.  deutscben  Gescb.  insb.  d.  Strafrecbts.  Tub.  1845.  p.  38. 


CHAP.  IL    ECCLES.  LAW.    §  260.  ECCLES.  POWEE  OF  THE  PAPACY.         289 

partly  on  account  of  the  money  usually  given  at  every  confirmation  and  the 
annats,  and  partly  on  account  of  the  open  sale  of  offices.  The  protection  of 
ecclesiastical  property,  which  had  formerly  been  confided  to  the  pope,  became 
gradually  the  occasion  for  a  general  assessment  of  tithes  for  carrying  on  the 
war  with  the  Turks,  and  finally  became  recognized  as  affording  a  right  of  tax- 
ing the  Church  to  sustain  the  popes  in  their  various  wars,  (a)  Even  the  bet- 
ter class  of  popes  could  accomplish  very  little  in  opposition  to  these  abuses, 
during  the  short  period  of  an  ordinary  papal  reign.  The  reversions  had  in- 
deed been  prohibited  after  the  time  of  Alexander  III.,  but  they  had  in  some 
instances  been  bestowed  for  the  whole  period  of  a  single  generation,  and  the 
officers  of  the  Roman  Curia  were  exceedingly  depraved.  But  other  popes  of 
an  unworthy  character  were  well  acquainted  with  methods  by  which  even 
this  unhappy  state  of  things  might  become  more  disgraceful  and  treacherous. 
Offices  were  sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  and  payment  sometimes  received  from 
different  persons  for  the  same  living.  (5)  It  was  in  vain  that  individual  pro- 
tective laws  and  acts  of  authority  were  directed  against  these  methods  of 
impoverishing  the  people.  When  the  evil  had  attained  its  utmost  limit  an 
effort  was  made  by  the  great  councils  to  restore  security  to  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty, and  to  re-establish  the  Christian  character  of  the  offices  of  the  Church. 
But  France  was  the  only  country  which  succeeded  in  this  attempt.  The  new 
pragmatic  sanction,  which  gave  to  that  country  this  distinction,  had  been 
abandoned,  it  is  true,  in  consequence  of  the  royal  policy,  but  it  never  lost  its 
authority  as  an  expression  of  what  was  regarded  by  the  French  people  as 
law,  and  it  was  always  defended  by  the  parliament  and  the  universities,  (c) 
Other  nations  were  satisfied  with  a  few  unimportant  concessions.  The  Ger- 
man people  were  contented  with  the  Concordat  of  Vienna,  by  which  appoint- 
ments to  ecclesiastical  offices  were  withdrawn  from  the  papal  chair  for  one 
half  of  each  year.  But  concessions  obtained  as  a  mere  matter  of  grace  (d) 
wore  soon  rendered  useless  by  new  encroachments.  Two  theories  had  been 
Dut  forth  at  Constance  and  at  Basle — Episcopalism,  according  to  which  the 
pope  was  merely  the  first  officer  of  the  Church,  and  was  subject  to  its  laws 
and  representatives ;  and  Curialism,  which  carried  the  earlier  doctrine  of  the 
plenary  power  of  the  pope  so  far  as  to  assert  his  absolute  infallibility,  exagge- 
rated his  superiority  to  all  law  until  it  amounted  to  idolatrous  honors,  and 
finally  made  its  flatteries  absolutely  ridiculous,  by  asserting  that  simony  was 
impossible  at  Rome,  (e)  Both  theories  were  founded  upon  positive  laws,  and 
both  were  defended  by  men  of  great  learning.  The  first  was  the  spontaneous 
assertion  of  the  whole  French  nation,  and  the  latter  was  maintained  by  the 
body  of  the  clergy  at  Rome.  The  pious  reverence  which  the  people  always 
entertained  for  the  vicegerent  of  God  on  earth,  had  been  essentially  impaired. 
And  yet  they  were  generally  far  from  denying  the  necessity  of  a  pope  to 

a)  The  complaints  and  concessions  in  the  acts  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basics  and  the 
Gravamina  of  the  German  nation  at  the  Diets  afford  proofs  in  abundance. 
&)  E.  G.  Theod.  de  Nietn,  do  schism.  II,  Tss. 

c)  Ldbbei  et  Cossarlii  Cone.  vol.  XIV.  p.  202ss.    IticJierii  Hist.  Concill.  I.  IV,  2.  c.  4  MuncTi. 
Concordat,  vol.  I.  p.  255ss. 

d)  Acn.  Sylwii  Ep.  885. 

e)  August.  Triumphi  1.  c.  Qu.  IX.  Art.  1-4  Qu.  V.  Art.  8. 

19 


290  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-151T. 

maintain  the  unity  and  government  of  the  Church.  A  prediction,  ascribed 
to  Malachias,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  a  friend  of  St.  Bernard,  but  which 
probably  had  its  origin  in  the  time  of  the  great  councils,  describes  with  more 
or  less  accuracy,  in  concise,  obscure,  and  figurative  language,  the  character 
of  the  popes  from  the  time  of  Celestino  II.  (1143).  The  centuries  which 
have  since  elapsed  have  developed  nothing  to  bring  discredit  upon  it,  for 
according  to  it  eleven  popes  yet  remain  before  the  last  pope  shall  rule  over 
the  Church  in  great  tribulation,  and  the  city  of  the  seven  hills  shall  bo 
destroyed.  (/)  On  various  occasions  the  Cardinals  endeavored,  by  stipula- 
tions before  a  papal  election,  to  secure  their  persons  and  revenues  from  vio- 
lence, and  to  bind  the  successful  candidate  by  their  decisions,  (g)  But  no 
sooner  had  any  one  actually  reached  the  papal  chair  than  he  utterly  disre- 
garded all  such  illegal  restraints,  so  that  the  privileges  of  the  cardinals  were 
founded  only  upon  contradictory  precedents,  and  were  respected  on  personal 
rather  than  official  grounds.  In  the  season  of  extremity,  when  the  Church 
was  rent  by  divisions,  they  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  Church. 
The  decrees  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle,  by  which  the  college  of 
cardinals  was  declared  to  be  the  constitutional  authority  of  the  Church,  and 
which  required  that  it  should  be  composed  of  pious,  learned,  and  useful  men, 
selected  from  all  Christian  nations,  (K)  were  never  carried  into  execution. 
With  but  few  exceptions  the  cardinals  were  chosen  from  among  the  nepotes 
of  the  popes,  the  scions  of  a  few  great  Roman  families  (familie  papale),  and 
certain  royal  favorites,  for  whom  the  kings  of  the  different  nations,  according 
to  their  influence,  were  able  to  obtain  the  scarlet  hat. 

§  261.     The  Ecclesiastical  Assemblies. 

In  a  few  bishoprics  regular  diocesan  synods  were  formed,  that  they  might 
afford  counsel  to  the  bishops  and  be  the  depositaries  of  his  will.  Provincial 
synods  from  an  indefinite  extent  of  country  were  seldom  held,  and  only  on 
special  occasions  under  the  presidency  of  a  legate.  The  national  councils 
had  been  almost  universally  absorbed  by  the  assemblies  of  the  estates  of  the 
empire.  The  greater  or  less  general  councils  which  were  convoked  by  the 
popes  until  some  time  in  the  fourteenth  century,  either  in  the  Lateran  or  in 
the  south  of  France,  were  composed  of  representatives  of  the  states,  assem- 
bled partly  to  ascertain  the  sentiments  and  wants  of  the  Church  throughout 
the  country,  and  partly  to  carry  into  effect  the  papal  decrees.  In  these 
assemblies  very  little  regard  was  paid  to  the  peculiar  privileges  of  the  seve- 
ral states  either  with  respect  to  their  position  or  to  the  order  in  which  they 
voted,  but  every  one  had  influence  and  precedence  in  proportion  to  his  knowj- 
edge  of  the  subject  in  hand,  or  to  his  official  or  personal  authority.,  It  was 
for  this  reason  that  we  find  so  much  indefiniteness  with  regard  to  the  right 
of  voting  and  the  order  of  business  which  produced  such  want  of  precision 
in  the  mode  of  conducting  the  assemblies  of  the  fifteenth  century.  As  the 

/)  The  literature  in  Fabric.  Bibl.  med.  et  inf.  Latin.  T.  V.  v.  Malacbias. 
0)  Raynald.  ad  ann.  1431.  N.  5ss.  ad  ann.  1458.  N.  5. 

/*)  Germ,  nationis  Concordat*  c.  1.  (Hardt  voL  I.  p.  1055.)  Cone.  Bas.  S.  XXIIL  deer.  4.  (Mintl 
foL  XXIX.  p.  116ss.) 


CHAP.  IL    ECCLES.  LAW.    §  261.  ECCLESIASTICAL  ASSEMBLIES.  291 

Church  could  claim  the  essential  prerogative  of  infallibility  only  when  it 
spoke  through  an  individual  and  supreme  organ,  the  confidence  of  the  people, 
so  far  &3  relates  to  this  power,  was  gradually  withdrawn  from  the  dependent 
councils,  and  bestowed  upon  the  independent  pope.  The  liberal  party,  how- 
ever, ever  since  the  Council  of  Constance,  were  obliged  to  maintain  that  this 
infallibility  belonged  only  to  the  councils,  for  otherwise  the  supreme  author- 
ity of  such  assemblies  must  have  been  renounced,  (a)  When  the  three  great 
assemblies  of  the  Church  grasped  after  the  supreme  power,  they  certainly 
could  have  appealed  to  the  example  of  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  but  in  the 
state  in  which  legal  matters  had  stood  for  centuries  before  their  time,  such 
an  assumption  had  all  the  effect  of  a  revolution.  It  had,  however,  been 
called  for  by  the  force  of  circumstances  without  arbitrary  violence  on  the 
part  of  any  one.  These  general  councils  formed  the  design  of  becoming 
regular  periodical  assemblies  for  the  administration  of  the  legislative,  execu- 
tive, and  supremo  judicial  affairs  of  the  Church.  At  Basle  it  was  also  per- 
ceived that  this  representation  of  the  whole  Church  would  require  the  revi- 
val of  a  Synodal  Constitution,  according  to  which  there  must  be  a  regular 
series  of  assemblies,  beginning  with  the  lowest.  But  from  various  local 
obstacles  it  was  found  difficult  to  secure  an  actual  assembly  of  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  whole  Church,  or  perfect  freedom  to  their  decisions.  Only  in 
times  of  great  extremity,  or  of  universally  acknowledged  necessity,  could 
these  difficulties  be  overcome,  and  hence  the  pope  did  not  ordinarily  find  it 
hard  to  elude  the  action  of  these  dangerous  assemblies,  or  by  convening  them 
in  the  Lateran  to  reduce  them  to  their  former  insignificance.  Appeals  to  a 
future  general  council  were  forbidden  under  penalty  of  excommunication  by 
Martin  V.,  Pius,  and  Julius  II.,  (5)  since  every  papal  enactment  would 
thereby  have  become  nugatory  on  account  of  the  indefinite  period  in  which 
it  would  remain  in  suspense.  Still  from  the  sense  of  justice,  which  existed  in 
the  Church,  these  appeals  were  recognized,  and  were  sometimes  made  with 
greater  or  less  success  as  legal  forms  of  opposition  to  the  papal  decrees.  The 
legality  of  the  Council  of  Pisa  was  questioned  by  the  liberal  party,  (c)  The 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Constance  were  generally  acknowledged  by  the 
Koman  court.  The  validity  of  the  Council  of  Basle  was  altogether  denied 
by  those  who  favored  Kome,  but  according  to  the  principles  of  canonical  law 
it  was  certainly  a  legal  assembly,  at  least  until  its  twenty-sixth  session.  The 
popes  were  careful  to  observe  a  prudent  silence  respecting  the  supremacy  of 
the  general  councils,  but  in  practice  they  entirely  disregarded  it.  They  were 
thus,  unfortunately  for  themselves,  victorious  over  a  revolution  which  might 
otherwise  have  preserved  the  unity  and  the  peaceful  development  of  the 
Church. 

«)  (Blau)  Krit.  Gesch.  d.  kirchl.  Unfeblbark.  Frankf.  1790.  p.  240ss. 

&)  Gerson,  Opp.  vol.  II.  P.  2.  p.  390s.  Gobellini  Cmmtr.  1.  III.  p.  91.—Gerson,  quomodo  ot  an 
liceat  in  causis  fidei  a  Summo  Pontif.  appellare.  (voL  II.  P.  2.  p.  303ss.)  Goldaati  Monarchla,  vol. 
II.  p.  15T6ss.  1592ss.  Richerii,  Hist.  ConcilL  L  II.  p.  142. 

c)  ffardt,  Cone.  Constant  vol.  IV.  P.  2.  p.  24.  comp.  vol.  II.  p.  194. 


292  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    FEB.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

§  262.     The  National  Churches. 

The  Churches  connected  with  those  nations  which  had  been  developed 
out  of  the  Roman  empire  through  the  various  Germanic  races,  had  long 
since  become  organized  into  distinct  communities,  in  consequence  of  their 
intimate  connection  with  the  people  and  the  civil  government  of  each  coun- 
try. And  yet  the  influence  of  a  common  origin,  and  of  a  central  point  of 
intercourse  was  so  great,  that  they  all  felt  themselves  as  parts  of  one*vast 
empire  receiving  its  laws  from  Rome.  Although  the  popes  were  frequently 
requested  to  fill  all  ecclesiastical  offices  with  persons  who  were  natives  of  the 
country  in  which  they  were  to  officiate,  even  such  a  demand  was  rejected 
sometimes  to  maintain  the  grand  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  Church,  and 
sometimes  that  special  favor  might  be  conferred  upon  the  Italians.*  But  in 
proportion  as  the  central  power  became  enfeebled,  these  nationalities  became 
more  decidedly  prominent  first  in  France,  in  opposition  to  the  papal  as  well 
as  to  the  imperial  universal  monarchy,  and  secured  the  peculiar  privileges  of 
their  respective  national  Church  by  concordats  with  Rome.  Accordingly 
we  have  seen  that  they  presented  themselves  at  Constance  and  acted  there 
as  legal  corporations.  It  was  more  especially  by  means  of  the  separate  com- 
pacts then  concluded,  and  the  ground  assumed  by  the  synod  at  Basle,  that 
the  great  fundamental  principle  of  law  was  settled,  that  no  decree  either  of  a 
pope  or  a  council  possessed  legal  authority  in  any  country  until  it  had  been 
accepted  by  the  national  Church  there. 

§  263.     The  Bishops  and  their  Jurisdiction. 

As  the  appointment  of  nearly  all  ecclesiastical  officers  had  been  usurped 
by  Rome,  and  ecclesiastical  acts  of  all  kinds  could  be  purchased  by  the  Ex- 
emptions, especially  during  the  time  of  the  schism,  the  result  was  that  the 
episcopal  power  had  been  very  much  impaired.  This  induced  the  lishops  at 
Constance  and  at  Basle  to  assume  a  threatening  attitude,  and  to  demand  the 
restoration  of  all  that  they  had  lost.  But  every  bishop  had  something  to 
fear  or  hope  for  from  Rome,  and  nearly  every  one  dreaded  to  fall  into  the 
hands  of  a  body  which,  after  it  had  shaken  the  papacy,  had  power  also  to 
overthrow  the  prelatic  sees.  The  prelates  were  therefore  generally  satisfied 
with  their  secular  honors,  and  abandoned  the  great  struggle  to  look  after 
inferior  advantages.  The  Chapters  became,  especially  in  Germany,  desirable 
places  in  which  the  younger  sons  of  the  nobility  were  provided  for,  and  con- 
sequently their  position  was  entirely  secular  and  without  interest  to  the  body 
of  the  people.  On  the  other  hand,  the  decrees  of  Rome  and  Basle  met  with 
very  trifling  success  when  they  required  that  half  the  vacancies  in  the  chap- 
ters should  be  filled  by  men  of  distinction  in  science  and  in  the  Church. 
The  archdeacons  were  also  circumscribed  on  the  side  of  the  bishops,  by  a 
college  composed  almost  exclusively  of  secular  officials,  (a)  and  a  kind  of 
penitentials,  who  were  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  preaching  and  having 

*  ff&norii  regesta,  a.  V.  N.  IT.  (Raumer,  vol.  VL  p.  15.)  Comp.  Mat.  Paris  ad  ann.  1240.  p. 
860.  ad  ann.  1245.  p.  445.  450. 

a)  S&Kt.  I,  13.  De  officio  vicarii.— Pertsch,  v.  d.  Archidiak.,  blsch.  Offlcialen  u.  Vicarien. 
Hildesh.  1743. 


CHAP.  IL    ECCLE8.  LAW.    §  264  INQUISITION.  293 

the  charge  of  souls.  (5)  Those  bishops  who  preferred  to  live  as  princes  asso- 
ciated with  themselves,  for  the  performance  of  their  episcopal  and  priestly 
duties,  a  class  of  persons  who  were  called  Chorepiscopi  and  Suffragan 
Bishops.  These  were  bishops  who  had  been  expelled  from  their  dioceses  in 
the  Oriental  Church,  and  were  afterwards  appointed  by  the  pope  as  an  ex- 
pression of  a  perpetual  hope,  and  a  protestation  with  respect  to  those  ancient 
episcopal  sees  (Episcopi  in  partibus  infidelium).  (c)  In  consequence  of  the 
contest  maintained  by  the  University  of  Paris  against  the  encroachments  of 
the  mendicant  friars,  and  as  the  result  of  the  position  assumed  by  the  Synod 
of  Basle,  the  assertion  was  put  forth  in  France,  that  the  pastors  had  been 
instituted  by  Christ  to  be  an  essential  element  of  his  Church,  with  a  limited 
but  a  peculiar  sphere  of  action,  (d) 

§  264.     The  Inquisition. 

Nic.  Eymericus  (d.  1399),  Directorium  Inquisitorum,  Barcin.  1503.  c.  Comm.  Fr.  Peffnae,  Rom. 
1578.  f.  and  often.  Lud.  de  Paramo,  de  orig.,  officio  et  progressu  S.  Inquis.  Matr.  1598.  f.  Antu. 
1619.  f.  Phil  a  Limborch.  Hist.  Inq.  Amst.  1692.  f.  Samml.  d.  Instruct,  d.  Span.  Inquisitionsger. 
uebers.  v.  Reuse,  with  Spittler's  Entw.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Span.  Inq.  Han.  1788.  Llorente,  Hist  critique 
de  1'inq.  d'Espagne,  Trad,  de  TEspagn.  p.  A.  Pettier,  Par.  1817s.  4  vols.  [Limborch's  (abridged)  and 
Llorente's  Histories  have  been  translated  and  publ.  in  London  and  the  latter  in  Philad.  See  also: 
Records  of  the  Inq.  from  the  orig.  MSS.  taken  at  Barcelona.  Boston.  1828.] 

When  the  general  massacre  which  took  place  in  the  war  against  the  Albi- 
genses  (§  231)  was  closed  by  their  public  subjugation,  the  work  of  extermi- 
nating those  remnants  who  were  known  to  exist  in  secret  was  intrusted  by 
Innocent  III.  to  the  synodal  dourts.  The  method  in  which  this  was  to  be 
accomplished  was  determined  upon  at  the  Synod  of  Toulouse  (1229),  and 
was  as  follows :  (a)  "  Any  prince,  lord,  bishop,  or  judge,  who  shall  spare  a  here- 
tic, shall  forfeit  his  lands,  property,  or  office ;  and  every  house  in  which  a 
heretic  is  found  shall  be  destroyed.  Heretics  or  persons  suspected  of  heresy 
shall  not  be  allowed  the  assistance  of  a  physician,  or  of  any  of  their  asso- 
ciates in  crime,  even  though  they  may  be  suffering  under  a  mortal  disease. 
Sincere  penitents  shall,  be  removed  from  the  neighborhood  in  which  they 
reside  if  it  is  suspected  of  heresy,  they  shall  wear  a  peculiar  dress,  and  for- 
feit all  public  privileges  until  they  receive  a  papal  dispensation.  Penitents 
who  have  recanted  through  fear  shall  be  placed  in  confinement."  But  lest 
bishops  should  be  tempted  to  show  some  favor  to  those  who  were  dependent 
on  them,  Gregory  IX.  devolved  the  holy  office  upon  foreign  monks  (1232).  The 
Dominicans  gradually  became  possessed  of  this  office,  and  it  was  looked  upon 
as  their  peculiar  inheritance.  Louis  IX.,  from  a  regard  to  religion,  and  Eay- 
mond  VII.  of  Toulouse  and  Frederic  II.,  from  a  regard  to  their  own  reputa- 
tion, enacted  certain  laws  which  required  that  the  sentences  passed  by  the 
inquisition  should  be  carried  into  execution  by  the  civil  authorities.  (5)  These 

5)  Cone.  Later.  IV.  c,  10.  (Greg.  I,  81.  c.  15.) 

c)  Durr,  de  Suffraganeis  s.  vicariis  generalibus   m  pontificalibus  Episcoporum  Germ.  Mog. 
1782.  4 

d)  Gerson,  Opp.  vol.  II.  p.  250. 1067. 

a)  Cone.  Later.  IV.  c.  8.  (Mansi  vol.  XXII.  p.  986ss.)  Cone.  Tolosan.  c.  1-28..  (/&.  vol.  XXIII. 
p. 194ss.)  [Landorfs  Manual  of  Councils,  p.  594] 

6)  Ordonances  des  Eoys  de  France,  p.  M.  de  Lauriere,  Par.  1723.  £  voL  L  p.  50s.    Statute 


294  MEDIAEVAL  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

holy  fathers  were  responsible  to  no  one  but  the  pope  himself,  and  it  was  theii 
duty  to  search  for  heretics  in  every  quarter.  They  had  the  right  to  imprison 
any  one  who  was  suspected,  and  instead  of  furnishing  him  with  a  list  of  the 
charges  alleged  against  him,  they  required  of  him  a  general  confession.  Tor- 
ture was  used  in  their  examinations,  and  witnesses  whose  names  were  con- 
cealed were  sometimes  taken  from  among  convicted  criminals,  the  most 
worthless  of  men,  and  accomplices  in  guilt,  (c)  The  punishments  inflicted 
were,  public  penance,  confiscation  of  property,  perpetual  imprisonment,  and 
death  by  burning,  from  which  even  a  recantation  was  not  always  sufficient 
to  deliver  the  victim.  The  inquisition  now  became,  in  the  hands  of  the  hier- 
archy, a  desperate  means  of  sustaining  by  violence  and  terror  that  influence 
whose  true  foundation  had  begun  to  crumble.  In  vain  did  the  people  in  the 
south  of  France  rise  in  rebellion,  and  take  sanguinary  vengeance  upon  some 
of  their  inquisitors.  In  Italy,  where  the  spiritual  power  was  more  limited 
by  peculiar  circumstances,  the  inquisition  found  it  impossible  to  carry  out  its 
murderous  spirit.  In  Germany  the  people  combined  with  the  bishops  against 
this  attempt  to  force  upon  them  this  tribunal  ^for  heretics,  and  Conrad  of 
Marburg,  then  acting  as  its  president,  fell  a  victim  to  their  violence  (1233).  (d) 
In  Spain,  where  the  Jews  and  Moors  had  recently  been  baptized  (after  1391), 
notwithstanding  a  strong  remaining  attachment  to  their  ancestral  faith,  the 
holy  court  was  introduced  to  take  cognizance  of  all  public  or  secret  relapses 
which  might  take  place  among  them ;  for,  although  ecclesiastical  ethics  would 
allow  of  no  force  in  the  conversion  of  men  to  Christianity,  the  violation  of 
Christian  vows  was  punished  not  only  by  force,  but  by  death  itself,  (e)  It 
was  in  this  country  that  the  inquisition,  under  its  General  Torquemada  (after 
1483),  developed  its  fearful  power.  It  was  there  established  by  the  royal 
authority  (1478),  but  it  soon  became  in  his  hands  a  government  of  terror 
which  dictated  terms  to  the  king  himself,  trampled  upon  the  opposition  not 
only  of  the  imperial  diet,  but  of  every  other  power,  and  finally  crushed  all 
freedom  of  thought  in  Church  or  State.  The  popes  with  some  reluctance 
yielded  their  consent  to  these  proceedings.  Even  Ximenes,  with  a  character 
truly  heroic,  and  worthy  of  Spain  in  its  ancient  and  best  days,  who,  on  ac- 
count of  his  rigid  monastic  sanctity,  had  been  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  Cardinal  of  Spain,  and  finally  Regent  of  Castile  (d.  1517),  and  was  a 
munificent  patron  of  science,  regarded  it  as  not  beneath  his  dignity  to  accept 
of  the  office  of  Grand  Inquisitor,  that  he  might  secure  power  enough  to  cor- 
rect injustice,  defend  the  Christian  faith,  and  rescue  the  monarchy  from  the 
feudalism  of  the  middle  ages.  (./)  Such  an  inquisition  could  be  introduced 
and  sustained  only  among  a  people  which  for  centuries,  and  during  long  pro- 
tracted wars  for  their  country  and  for  their  religion,  had  been  accustomed 

Raimundi  super  haeresi  Albigensi  a.  1233.  (Mansi  voL  XXIIL  p.  265ss.)     Petri  de  Vineis  L  L 
Epp.  25-27. 

c)  Martene,  Thes.  anecdot  vol.V.  p.  1786ss.1795ss.-JP.  A.  Biener,  Beitr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  Inquisitions- 
Processes.  Lpz.  1827.  p.  60ss. 

d)  Albericus  ad  ann.  1233.  p.  544ss.     Trithem.  Chron.  Hire.  voL  I.  p.  523. 

e)  Thomas,  Summa,  P.  II.  P.  2.  Qn.  10. 

/)  C.  J.  ffefele,  d.  Card.  Ximenes  u.  d.  kirchl.  Zustande  Span.  Insbes,  z.  Wurdigung  d.  Inquis. 
Tub.  1844.    [Michel  Baudier,  Hist  de  la  vie  et  de  1'administration  du  Card.  Ximeses.  Par.  1853.  a] 


CHAP.  III.    EOCLES.  LIFE.    §  265.  FEANCIS  OF  ASSISI.    DOMINIC.  295 

to  regard  the  purity  and  antiquity  of  their  faith  as  superior  to  all  other  con- 
siderations. It  has,  however,  reduced  this  noble  nation  to  the  lowest  state 
of  morals,  and  defrauded  it  of  its  natural  course  of  development. 


CHAP.    III.  — ECCLESIASTICAL    LIFE. 

§  265.     The  Two  Great  Mendicant  Orders. 

I.  Vita  S.  Francisci  by  Thomas  de  Celano,  1229.  (Acta  SS.  Oct  vol.  II.  p.  633.)  completed  in 
1246.  by  Leo,  Angelus  et  Riiffinus  (Tres  Socii,  7&.  p.  723.)  as  the  holy  book  of  the  Order  by  Bona- 
ventura.  (Ib.  p.  T42.)    The  First  Eule  in  Holsten.  Brockie,  vol.  III.  p.  30ss.    Luc.  Wadding,  An- 
nales  Minorum  (till  1540.)  Lugd.  1625ss.  8  vols.  f.  (till  1564.)  Eom.  1731ss.  19  vols.  f.— Vita  S.  Dominici 
by  his  first  follower  Jordanus,  (Acta  SS.  Aug.  vol.  I.  p.  545.)  by  Humbertus  de  Eomanis,  the  fifth 
general  of  the  Order.  1254.  (II.  p.  858.)    Others  in  Holsten.  Brockie,  vol.  IV.  p.  W.—Ripoli  et 
Bremond,  Bullarium  0.  Praed.  Eom.  1739ss.  6  vols.  f.    Hamachii  aliorumq.  Annales  O.  Praedica- 
torum.  Eom.  1746.  f.     Quetif  et  Echard,  Scrr.  0.  Praed.  Par.  1719ss.  2  vols.  f. 

II.  Legende  doree,   ou  eommaire  de  mist,  des  freres  mendians.  Amst.  1734.  12.    (Alemlert) 
Hist,  des  Moines  mend.  Par.  1768. 12.  Nuremb.  1769.    E.  Vogt,  d.  h.  Fr.  v.  Ass.  Tub.  1840.    E.  Clta- 
mn  de  Malan,  Hist,  de  S.  Franc.  d'Ass.  Par.  1841.  Munich,  1842.    [A  life  of  Francis  of  A.  is  given 
in  Bohringer's  Church  of  Christ,  &c.  See  §  192.]— Lacordaire,  Vie  de  S.  Dom.  Par.  1840.  Landsh. 
1841.    [S.  P.  Day,  Monastic  Institutions.  Lond.  1846.  2  ed.  12.    Forts  Monks  and  Monasteries.  Lond. 
1835.    Stephens,  (in  Edinb.  Eev.  1847.  and  Eclectic  Mag.  Sept.  1847.)  Fr.  of  Ass.  &c.] 

The  enthusiasm  which  properly  belongs  to  the  Church,  and  yet  frequently 
endangered  her  existence,  was  finally  attained  and  enlisted  in  her  service, 
through  the  exertions  of  some  very  peculiar  characters.  "When  Francisco  of 
Assisi  (b.  1172)  heard  (1208),  in  the  church  dedicated  to  Mary  at  Portiuncula, 
the  words  in  which  our  Lord  sent  forth  his  disciples  to  preach  the  gospel,  an 
idea  was  revived  which  he  had  entertained  among  his  indistinct  youthful 
aspirations.  This  was  the  project  of  an  association  which  should  walk 
strictly  in  the  footsteps  of  the  apostles,  preaching  repentance  in  every  part  of 
the  world,  despising  all  kinds  of  private  property  or  possessions,  and  obtain- 
ing the  necessaries  of  life  from  the  "charities  of  their  fellow-men.  At  first  he 
was  despised  by  his  fellow-citizens,  execrated  by  his  wealthy  father,  and 
while  travelling  through  Western  Europe  and  Egypt  ridiculed  as  a  victim  of 
insanity.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  his  unflinching  contempt  of  the 
world,  his  honest  humility,  his  burning  love  to  God,  and  his  imitation  of  Jesus 
Christ  in  a  remarkable  style  of  living,  (a)  drew  around  him  thousands  of  dis- 
ciples. The  law  to  which  they  vowed  allegiance  required  love,  humility, 
poverty,  and  joy  in  Christ.  To  a  degree  which  had  never  before  been  wit- 
nessed on  earth,  it  now  became  a  luxury  to  share  in  the  earthly  sorrows  and 
passion  of  our  Lord.  The  brown  capoch  or  frock,  which,  according  to  the 
fashion  of  the  country,  was  fastened  to  the  waist  with  a  cord,  formed  all  the 
clothing  which  they  deemed  necessary,  and  constituted  the  honorable  badge 
of  the  order.  Innocent  III.  was  induced  by  the  simplicity  and  humility  of 

a)  This  view  was  carried  to  its  ultimate  point  in  the  40  Conformities  of  Bartholomael  AlMcii 
(de  Pisis)  Liber  Conformitatum,  1385,  and  acknowledged  by  the  General  Chapter  at  Assisi,  1399. 
Mediol.  1510.  f.  and  often.  Extracts  by  Erasmus  Alberus,  with  a  Preface  by  Luther :  Der  Bar- 
fusser  MSnche  Eulenspiegel  u.  Alcoran.  1531.  L' Alcoran  des  Cordeliers.  Gen.  1556.  in  Lat.  and 
French.  Amst  1734.  2  vols. 


^96  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

this  strange  saint  to  allow  him  to  consummate  his  plans  without  interruption 
(1209).  (&)  Honorius  III.  solemnly  confirmed  the  right  of  the  Order  of  tho 
Fratres  Minores  (1223)  to  preach  and  hear  confessions  in  every  place.  A  female 
order  (Ordo  S.  Clarae)  was  also  established  (since  1212)  by  Clara  of  Assist, 
whose  disposition  was  similar  to  that  of  Francis,  and  for  whose  followers  the 
latter  was  induced  to  prescribe  a  rule  (1224).  (c)  A  broad  basis  was  finally 
formed  (1221)  for  his  order,  when  he  established  a  fraternity  composed  of 
those  who  wished  to  be  his  disciples,  and  yet  were  under  the  necessity  of 
remaining  in  the  midst  of  worldly  employments  (tertius  ordo  de  poenitentia, 
Tertiarii).  (d)  Whenever  Francisco  attempted  to  pronounce  a  studied  dis- 
course he  was  always  confounded,  but  when  he  spoke  from  a  sudden  impulse, 
his  spirit  broke  forth  from  the  depths  of  his  heart  like  a  storm.  Like  some 
Minnesinger,  ho  celebrated  the  delicious  raptures  of  heavenly  love  and  the 
devotion  of  all  nature  for  its  Creator,  (e)  He  seems  to  have  possessed  a 
childlike  spirit,  which  loved  to  commune  with  all  forms  of  natural  life,  and 
made  him  salute  all  creatures  as  brethren  and  sisters.  After  many  vain  long- 
ings to  die  in  proof  of  his  love,  he  perceived  that  he  was  to  become  like  the 
crucified  Redeemer,  not  by  a  bodily  martyrdom,  but  by  the  intensity  of  his 
devotion.  He  at  last  died  lying  naked  on  the  ground  in  his  favorite  church 
(Oct.  4,  1226),  with  the  five  wounds  of  Christ  imprinted  on  his  body.  (/) 
The  biographies  of  St.  Francis  were  at  an  early  period  highly  adorned  by 
the  extravagant  fancies  of  his  followers.  Even  then  among  his  immediate 
attendants  many  legends  were  received  and  sent  forth  to  tho  world,  and  yet 
we  are  compelled  to  believe  that  this  seraphic  stranger  upon  earth  really 
experienced  many  things  out  of  the  ordinary  course  of  nature. — Domingo 
(b.  1170),  a  Castilian  and  a  canon  of  Osma,  was  a  man  of  a  thoughtful 
spirit,  which  in  its  cultivation  and  profound  emotions  sympathized  intensely 
Avith  the  welfare  and  miseries  of  his  fellow-men.  Deeply  affected  when  he 
heard  of  the  growth  of  heresy,  he  undertook  a  journey  in  the  manner  of  the 
primitive  apostles  into  different  parts  of  the  south  of  France  (after  1206), 
that  he  might  effect  the  conversion  of  the  Albigenses.  On  him  and  his  assist- 
ants in  this  enterprise,  Innocent  imposed  (1215)  the  rule  of  Augustine,  and 
Honorius  (1216)  conferred  on  them  the  privilege  of  exercising  a  general  pas- 
toral care  in  the  character  of  preaching  friars  (Fratres  praedicatores,  in 
France  Jacobins).  Even  nuns,  principally,  at  first,  such  as  had  been  con- 
verted from  the  Albigensian  faith,  placed  themselves  under  his  rule,  and  at  a 
later  period  a  class  of  Tertiarians  (Fratres  et  sorores  de  militia'  Christi)  be- 
came connected  with  his  order.  The  leading  principle  of  the  order  was,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  dearest  objects  for  the  promotion  of  the  saving  faith,  and  the 
means  which  its  members  used  were  a  learned  education,  holy  eloquence, 
and  the  restoration  of  the  priesthood  to  its  original  all-subduing  poverty. 

&)  Mat.  Paris  ad  ann.  1227.  p.  234        c)  In  Holsten.  Srockie  vol.  III.  p.  84ss. 

d)  Holsten.  Brockie  vol.  III.  p.  39ss. 

e)  Liebeskampfe  des  h.  Franc.    Der  h.  Fr.  als  Troubadour.  (Der  Katholik  von  Liebermann.  1820. 
H.  4.  N.  Is.)  In  the  Appendix  in  Vogt 

/)  The  fact  of  the  sacra  stigmata  was  proved  by  eye-witnesses ;  the  Legend  is  very  delicately 
hinted  at  by  Celano  (II,  1.  §  24.)  Comp.  Raynald.  ad  ann.  1237.  N.  60.  Wadding  ed.  Rom.  vol. 
II.  p.  429. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  265.  MENDICANT  OEDEES.  297 

No  sooner  had  Dominicus,  in  the  General  Chapter  at  Bologna  (1220),  effected 
the  passage  of  an  act  by  which  his  order  vowed  to  maintain  perpetual  and 
perfect  poverty,  than  he  died  (Aug.  6,  1221),  nttering  anathemas  upon  any 
who  should  pollute  his  order  by  bestowing  upon  it  earthly  possessions. — Tho 
constitution  of  these  two  orders  was  developed,  so  far  as  related  to  essential 
matters,  in  a  similar  manner.  A  Guardian,  who  among  the  Dominicans  was 
called  a  Prior,  presided  over  a  convent,  a  Provincial  was  placed  over 'all  the 
convents  in  a  country,  and  a  General  (minister  generalis)  residing  at  Kome 
was  over  the  whole  order.  Each  of  these  officers  had  the  counsel  and 
inspection  of  certain  Definatores,  who  represented  the  several  congregations 
under  their  jurisdiction.  The  principal  superintendence  and  legislation  was 
vested  in  the  provincial  convents,  and  for  the  whole  order  in  the  General 
Chapter.  Although  these  mendicant  orders  were  freed  from  the  ordinary 
cares  of  secular  life,  they  were  thrown  into  frequent  contact  with  the  people. 
They,  in  contrast  with  the  cathedral  chapters,  presented  to  those  possessed 
of  eminent  talents  and  merit  a  path  by  which  the  highest  dignities  of  the 
Church  might  be  attained.  As  they  possessed  the  right  to  receive  confes- 
sions wherever  they  might  be,  they  soon  became  the  spiritual  advisers  of 
the  whole  Church,  for  they  were  often  intrusted  with  secrets  which  persons 
would  not  confide  to  their  own  pastors  at  home.  In  this  way  they  easily 
found  occasion  to  interfere  in  all  the  relations  of  families,  cities,  and  states,  (g) 
As  their  table  was  every  where  spread,  they  could  admit  vast  multitudes  to 
their  order.  Many  convents  indeed  amassed  by  begging  much  wealth,  the 
possession  of  which  was  reconciled  with  their  vows  of  poverty  by  the  fact 
that  it  was  owned  not  by  individuals,  but  by  the  general  body.  With  the 
papal  court  they  were  united  by  the  bonds  of  a  reciprocal  interest,  and  hence 
the  mendicant  friars  were  regarded  by  the  pope  as  his  standing  army,  and  by 
various  kinds  of  charters  they  were  exalted  above  the  episcopal  clergy.  (A) 
But  this  exaltation  above  the  more  ancient  orders,  their  encroachments  upon 
the  spiritual  duties  of  pastors  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  universities,  and 
the  complete  violation  of  all  privileges  previously  possessed,  provoked  a  per- 
manent and  often  stormy  opposition.  William  of  St.  Amour  became  the 
leader  of  their  opponents,  and  pointed  out  the  dangers  to  which  the  Church 
was  exposed  on  account  of  this  foolish  system  of  sanctified  beggary.  Al- 
though such  men  as  Thomas  and  Bonaventura  defended  the  higher  objects 
contemplated  by  their  orders  with  consummate  ability,  even  they  were 
obliged  to  concede  that  such  bodies  were  very  likely  to  become  worldly- 
minded,  and  to  be  perverted  from  tteir  true  design,  (i)  Hence,  although  the 
mendicant  orders  were  at  first  regarded  as  instruments  for  restoring  the 
Church  to  its  primitive  vigor,  and  were  hailed  as  a  new  establishment  of  the 


g)  Mat.  Paris  ad  ann.  1239.  p.  850.  ad  ann.  1243.  p.  414.  ad  ann.  1246.  p.  465ss. 

h)  Emm.  Eoderici  nova  CoL  privilegiorum  apost  Kegularium  mendicantium  et  non  mend. 
Antu.  1623.  f. 

i)  Guildm.  de  periculis  novissimorum  temp.  1256.  (Opp.  Constant  1632.  4.    Brown,  Append,  ad 

fasc.  rer.  expet  et  fugiend.  p.  18.)    Thomas:  contra  retrahentes  a  religionis  ingressu.    Contra  im- 

pugnantes  Dei  cultum,  (Opp.  Par.  vol.  XX.)    Sonaventura :  L.  apoL  in  eos,  qui  Ordini  Min.  adver 

santur.    De  paupertate  Christ!  c.  Guilelmum.    Expositio  in  regulam  Fratrum  minor.  (Opp.  Lugd, 

673.  vol.  VII.)    Sulaei  1.  c.  vol.  III.  p.  260ss. 


•298  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

power  of  the  Lateran,  they  really  produced  a  great  dissension  among  all  the 
elements  of  ecclesiastical  life.  The  two  orders  were  themselves  often  brought 
into  collision  with  each  other  in  consequence  of  the  identity  of  their  worldly 
objects.  Mutual  jealousies  were  exhibited  in  attempts  to  disparage  one 
another,  and  in  doctrinal  disputations,  so  that  it  was  soon  evident  that  their 
interests  were  in  different  directions.  The  Dominicans,  in  consequence  of 
their  control  over  the  inquisition,  and  their  possession  of  the  confidence  of 
the  higher  classes,  obtained  ascendency  by  inspiring  a  dread  of  their  power 
and  their  political  influence  ;  but  the  Minorites  possessed  the  affections  of  the 
people,  and  in  consequence  of  their  Portiuncula-indulgences  and  their  legen- 
dary glory,  their  order  was  supposed  to  possess  more  than  common  power  in 
conferring  absolution  for  sins,  (i)  At  on  early  period  of  their  existence  the 
Dominicans  perceived  that  they  could  never  attain  their  objects  without  a 
scientific  character,  and  hence,  in  1230,  they  secured  for  themselves  a  theo- 
logical chair  in  the  University  of  Paris.  The  Minorites  soon  followed  their 
example. — St.  Francis  himself  lived  to  see  the  origin  and  progress  of  a  party 
under  the  guidance  of  Elias  of  Cortona,  combining  eminent  scientific  acquire- 
ments and  wealth  in  the  service  of  the  holy,  cause.  On  the  other  hand,  An- 
thony of  Padua  (d.  1231),  in  the  true  spirit  of  his  master,  thought  salvation 
possible  only  to  those  who  were  simple-hearted  and  separated  from  the 
world,  and  when  he  could  obtain  no  audience  for  such  doctrines  among  his 
fellow-men,  he  sought  consolation  by  preaching  to  the  fishes.  For  many 
years  the  two  parties  contended  for  supremacy  in  the  order.  Elias  was  twice 
elected  General,  was  twice  deposed  from  that  office,  and  finally,  having  fallen 
out  with  the  pope  (1244),  he  connected  himself  with  the  party  of  Frederic 
II.  (1)  Victory  at  last  decided  in  favor  of  this  milder  party  (Fratres  de  com- 
munitate),  since  its  principles  afforded  opportunity  to  combine  the  reputation 
of  a  mendicant  order  with  the  power  and  wealth  of  the  world.  On  the 
other  hand,  those  in  whom  the  bold  spirit  of  their  founder  continued  (Zela- 
tores,  Spirituales),  refused  even  to  possess  property  in  common.  The  pope's 
decision  was  given  in  favor  of  the  victorious  party  from  regard  to  a  distinc- 
tion between  a  possession  in  fee  simple  and  a  possession  of  usufruct,  and  also 
to  the  fact  that  the  ownership  of  the  entire  property  of  the  Minorites  was 
ostensibly  conferred  upen  the  Roman  Church,  (ra)  With  the  courage  of  men 
who  had  nothing  to  lose,  the  Spirituales  then  turned  their  reproaches  upon 
the  Roman  Church  itself,  and  as  their  demand  that  the  order  should  be  sub- 
jected to  the  rule  of  absolute  poverty  was  in  glaring  contrast  with  the 
wealth  of  the  clergy,  and  as  tHeir  voluntary  rejection  of  all  earthly  posses- 
sions was  seen  in  the  midst  of  a  Church  filled  with  quarrels  for  this  very 
kind  of  spoil,  a  hope  was  indulged  that  St.  Francis  was  about  to  effect 
through  them  a  great  reformation  of  the  Church.  This  hope  was  in  some 
degree  sustained  by  a  prophecy  of  the  Abbot  Joachim  of  Floris  in  Calabria 
(d.  1202),  who,  being  full  of  grief  for  the  corruptions  of  the  Church,  pre- 

£)  Acta  S3.  Oct.  vol.  II.  p.  S9Tas.— Cyprian  the  Younger  (of  Dantzic),  krit  Gesch.  d.  Port  Ab 
lasses.  1794. 

1)  Wadding  vol.  I.  p.  360.  vol.  II.  p.  160.  vol.  III.  p.  84  101.  312. 

m)  Greg.  IX.  a.  1231.  (Roderici  1.  c.  p.  7ss.)    Innoc.  IV.  a.  1245.  (7&.  p.  18.) 


OHAP.  IIL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  265.  DIVISIONS  AMONG  THE  FRANCISCANS.      299 

dieted  that  it  would  be  subverted  and  then  be  gloriously  renewed,  according 
to  the  figures  of  the  Apocalypse,  at  the  commencement  of  the  third  age  of 
ihe  world,  which  he  placed  in  the  year  1260.  (ri)  An  Introduction  to  that 
Everlasting  Gospel,  (p)  which  was  to  come  in  the  place  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ  which  then  prevailed  and  which  was  originally  intended  only  as  a 
preparation  and  symbol  of  the  truth,  was  published,  and  announced  that  the 
period  then  passing  was  the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  had  commenced 
with  the  labors  of  St.  Francis  and  his  genuine  disciples.  Those  who  put 
confidence  in  such  predictions  were  in  no  wise  perplexed  when  the  period 
assigned  for  these  wonderful  revelations  had  passed.  The  Spirituales  were 
united  by  Celestine  V.  into  a  congregation  of  poor  Celestine-Eremites. 
Boniface  VIII.  dissolved  this  association  (1302).  John  XXII.  surrendered 
the  Spirituales,  and  especially  the  lay  brethren  among  them  (Fratricelli),  into 
the  hands  of  the  Inquisition  (after  1318).  Many  of  them  joyfully  gave  up 
their  lives  in  the  flames,  because  they  were  determined  to  possess  no  pro- 
perty on  earth,  (p)  But  even  the  other  Minorites,  having  satisfied  their  con- 
sciences by  an  apparent  surrender  of  their  possessions  into  the  hands  of  the 
Eomish  Church,  were  zealous  in  maintaining  against  the  Dominicans,  that 
Christ  and  the  apostles  owned  no  property  in  common.  John  XXII.  rejected 
this  assertion  as  heretical,  and  formally  renounced  the  property  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans, which  as  a  mere  pretence  his  predecessors  had  held  (1322).  (q)  By 
this  means  the  order  lost  a  portion  of  its  members,  who,  with  Michael  of 
Cesena,  their  general,  took  refuge  with  the  Emperor  Louis,  and  defended  his 
cause  against  the  popes.  On  the  death  of  Louis  the  Spirituales  wandered 
about  as  fugitives,  and  founded  a  few  settlements.  They  were  often  over- 
thrown, but  were  invincible  by  mere  force,  and  at  last  most  of  them  became 
reconciled  to  the  Church  in  consequence  of  some  concessions  made  to  them. 
At  Constance  especially,  they,  together  with  the  Conventuals,  who  regarded 
their  possessions  as  still  belonging  to  the  donors,  were  recognized  under  the 
name  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Eigid  Observance,  with  superiors  of  their 
own.  (r) — The  most  celebrated  doctors  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies were  mendicant  friars.  But  when,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  hier- 
archy were  surpassed  in  attainments  by  the  classes  in  the  interests  of  science, 
the  mendicant  friars  became  the  principal  opponents  of  the  latter,  and  the 
champions  of  every  Eomish  abuse,  and  made  use  of  every  artifice  to  keep 
the  people  in  the  immaturity  of  a  superstitious  dependence.  But  the  master 


ri)  De  concordia  utriusque  Test  Expositio  Apocal.  Ven.  1519.  Psalterium  decem  chordar.  Yen. 
152T,  4.  Comp.  Acta  S3.  Maj.  vol.  VII.  p.  9Sss.  Engelhardt,  Joach.  u.  d.  ew.  Ev.  (KGesch.  Ab- 
handll.  Erl.  1832.  N.  I.)  O.  U.  HaJin,  die  apokal.  Lehren  d.  Joach.  v.  Flor.  (Stud.  u.  krit  1849.  II 
2.)  AleL  Phil.  d.  Hohenst  p.  312ss. 

o)  Introductorius  in  Ev.  aeternum,  by  Gerhard,  the  confidant  of  John  of  Parma,  a  General  sub- 
sequently deposed,  about  1254.  Since  destroyed,  with  the  exception  of  some  Extracts  In  Argentre, 
Col.  judiciorum  do  novis  err.  Par.  172Sss.  vol.  I.  p.  163ss.  Eccard  vol.  II.  p.  849ss.  In  a  similar 
spirit  Olivae  (d.  1297.)  Postilla  super  Apoc.  Extracts  in  Balusii  Miscell.  1.  I.  p.  213ss.  [O.  Ifahn, 
Gesch.  d.  Ketzer  im  MA.  Stuttg.  1852.  3  vols.] 

p)  Moshemii  Institt.  H.  ecc.  Cent.  XIV.  Chap.  II.  §  26.  note  ID. 

q)  Baluzii  Vitae  Pap.  Aven.  vol.  I.  p.  598.  Extrav.  Joan.  XXII.  Tit  14  c.  2ss.  Wadding 
Tol  VI.  p.  894e. 

r)  Sees.  XIX.  (Hardt  vol.  IV.  p.  515.) 


300  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

minds  of  this  period  combined  with  their  old  adversaries  to  expose  to  gene* 
ral  scorn  their  intellectual  shallowness,  their  stupidity,  their  covetousness, 
and  their  affected  clamor  about  heresy. 

§  266.    Public  Worship. 

Holiness,  during  this  period,  was  generally  looked  upon  as  a  mere  external 
thing.  Even  in  the  fourth  century  the  hermits  of  the  Thebais,  and  some  others, 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  reckoning  the  number  of  their  pater-nosters  by  some 
external  token,  (a)  This  formality  in  prayer  received  a  definite  form  and 
predominant  reference  to  the  divine  Mother,  when  the  Dominicans  intro- 
duced the  rosary  (Rosarium)  into  general  use.  Public  worship  consisted 
almost  entirely  in  the  offering  of  the  Mass,  which  professed  to  be  the  celebra- 
tion of  a  present  incarnate  Deity,  but  in  fact  it  often  degenerated  into  a  work 
of  superstition,  perverted  by  unbelief  to  purposes  of  gain.  The  business  of 
instruction,  however,  was  not  altogether  neglected  by  the  Church,  especially 
on  the  part  of  the  itinerant  mendicant  friars,  whose  hearers  were  frequently 
so  numerous  that  no  temple  but  that  of  God  under  the  open  heavens  was 
sufficient  to  contain  them.  The  discourses  of  many  preachers  abounded  in 
scholastic  learning  or  fantastic  conceits,  but  there  were  also  some  who  pro- 
claimed the  word  of  God  in  a  popular  style.  Thus  the  Dominican  John  of 
Vicenza  (about  1230)  became  distinguished  for  his  eloquence,  and  before  he 
allowed  himself  to  become  an  object  of  ridicule  by  meddling  with  miracles 
and  political  affairs,  he  was  an  eminent  peacemaker  between  the  numerous 
factions  which  then  distracted  Italy.  (&)  Thus  also  Berthold  of  Ratisbon  (d. 
1272)  powerfully  aroused  the  rude  and  hardened  consciences  of  his  hearers, 
and  urged  upon  them  the  duty  of  worshipping  God  in  spirit,  (c)  Gailer, 
also,  of  Kaiser sberg  (d.  1510),  whose  own  heart  was  pervaded  by  a  sincere 
love  of  perfection,  assailed  the  follies  of  the  world  and  of  the  Church  with 
the  weapons  of  the  keenest  wit.  (d)  Gabriel  of  Marietta  (about  1470),  a 
Neapolitan  preaching  friar,  presented  a  specimen  of  this  humorous  style  of 
popular  preaching,  in  which  the  speaker  sometimes  gave  to  his  discourses 
even  the  ordinary  comic  flavor,  (e)  This  kind  of  address  was  thought  to  bo 
especially  allowable  during  the  Easter  festival,  when,  according  to  a  preva- 
lent custom,  the  roughest  jests  were  tolerated  even  in  the  pulpit  to  excite 
what  was  called  the  Easter  laugh.  (/)  As  none  but  the  clergy  took  part  in 
the  public  services,  the  hymns  used  in  the  Church  remained  without  alteration 
in  the  Latin  language.  In  addition  to  those  which  had  been  used,  some  of  a 
tender  character  composed  among  the  Franciscans  were  generally  adopted 

a)  Palladii  Hist  Laua.  c.  23.  Sozom.  H.  ecc.  VI,  29.  MaliUon,  Ann.  O.  Bene'd.  vol.  IV.  p. 
462s.  Acta  SS.  O.  Bened.  Prae£  ad  Saec.  V.  N.  25ss. 

&)  Original  authorities  in  Raumer,  Geech.  d.  Hohenst  voL  III.  p.  508ss. 

c)  Berthold  dea  Franc.  Predigten,  th.  vollstiindig,  th.  in  Auszugen,  edit  by  Sling,  Berl.  1824. 
Comp.  Wiener  Jahrb.  1825.  voL  32.  p.  194ss. 

d)  Weltspiegel  d.  i.  Predigten  u.  Sebast  Brands  Narrenschiff.  Bas.  1574,  and  often.— F.  W.  Ph.  v. 
Ammon,  G.  v.  K.  Leben,  Lehren  u.  Pred.  Erl.  1826.    A.  Stroeber,  Essai  hist  sur  la  vie  et  lea  dcrita 
de  G.  de  K.  Strasb.  1834.  4. 

e)  Serrnm.  quadrigesimales.  Bresc.  1497.  and  numerous  collections  of  his  discourses,  especially 
that  of  Yen.  1577.  2  \ols.—J3aumffarten,  Naciir.  v.  Merkw.  Buchern.  voL  VIL  p.  124ss. 

f)  FussU,  Beitr.  z.  K.  u.  Kef.  Gesch.  voL  V.  p.  447ss.    Hist  polit  Blatter.  1889.  voL  IV.  H.  6. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLE3.  LIFE.    §  266.  FESTIVALS.    JUBILEE.  301 

by  the  Church.  Congregational  singing,  in  which  the  people  took  part,  had 
its  origin  in  the  extraordinary  festivals  and  among  the  Fraternities,  where 
the  congregations  participated  more  than  usual  in  the  services.  In  Germany 
it  especially  grew  out  of  the  Kyrie  Eleison,  which  was  anciently  sung  by  the 
people  in  full  chorus  as  a  Eefrain.  (g)  During  the  fourteenth  century  the 
festival  of  the  Immaculate' Conception  (§  225)  was  more  and  more  observed, 
and  the  doctrine  which  it  commemorated  became,  through  the  influence  of 
St.  Thomas,  a  party  question  between  the  Dominicans  and  the  Franciscans. 
Great  agitations  were  produced  by  the  discussion  of  this  question  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  but  finally  that  body  (1387)  and  Clement  VII.  (1389),  who 
was  carried  away  by  its  influence,  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  the  doc- 
trine because  they  regarded  it  as  most  favorable  to  the  interests  of  the  Church 
and  of  true  piety.  (7i)  In  Berne  the  Dominicans  supported  their  side  of  the 
controversy  by  causing  an  image  of  the  Virgin  to  shed  tears  of  blood,  by 
producing  letters  from  glorified  saints,  and  by  branding  a  deluded  man  with 
certain  marks  in  imitation  of  the  wounds  of  Christ.  The  tissue  of  deceit, 
stupidity  and  crime,  by  which  these  things  were  rendered  plausible,  was 
finally  exposed  to  public  scorn,  a  legate  presided  over  the  spiritual  court  ap- 
pointed for  an  investigation  of  the  affair,  and  four  of  the  principal  agents  in 
it  were  burned  (1509).  («)  The  doctrine  of  a  change  of  the  sacramental 
bread  into  the  body  of  the  incarnate  Lord  was  celebrated  on  the  festival  of 
Corpus  Christi  (F.  corporis  Domini).  This  festival,  which  originated  in  con- 
nection with  numerous  dreams  and  visions  in  the  diocesan  church  of  Liege, 
over  which  he  had  formerly  presided,  Urban  IV.  proclaimed  (1264)  as  a  gen- 
eral festival  of  the  Church.  It  was,  however,  generally  neglected  by  his 
successors,  and  was  merely  re-established  by  Clement  V.  as  the  festival  of 
the  grand  miracle  in  which  was  displayed  the  highest  glory  of  the  Church.  (&) 
Near  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  a  report,  the  origin  of  which  was 
unknown,  generally  prevailed  in  the  city  of  Borne,  that  according  to  a  cus- 
tom remembered  by  some  very  aged  people,  a  centennial  indulgence  might 
be  obtained  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter  on  the  occurrence  of  the  Jubilee  Year, 
1300.  Boniface  VIII.  was  induced  by  the  vast  concourse  of  devout  persons 
who  on  this  account  thronged  the  city,  to  bestow  upon  all  who,  in  a  peniten- 
tial spirit,  should  on  this  year  of  Jubilee  visit  the  churches  of  the  apostles,  a 
complete  pardon  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  previous  life.  Hundreds  of  thou- 
sands flocked  to  Rome,  so  that  people  were  compelled  to  acknowledge  that 
the  whole  human  race  was  Romish,  and  like  one  great  family  assembled 
around  its  common  father.  Hence,  in  consideration  of  the  brevity  of  human 
life,  and  the  benefit  of  the  Roman  people,  Clement  VI.  (1342)  decreed  that 

g)  n.  Hoffmann,  Gesch  d.  dent  KLiedes  b.  Luther.  Bresl.  1332.  F.  Wolff,  u.  die  Lais,  Se- 
quenzen  u.  Leiche.  Heidelb.  1S41.  C.  Fronts,  Gesch.  d.  geistl.  Liedertexte  vor.  d.  Ee£  Halbrst 
1853. 

7i)  Thomas,  Summa.  P.  III.  Qu.  27.  Art.  Iss.  Duns  Scotus  in  Sentt.  L.  III.  Dist  3.  Qu.  1.  §  9. 
Dist  18.  Qu.  1.  §  13.— Bulaei  1.  c.  vol.  IV.  p.  61Sss.  Argentrt,  1.  c.  voL  L  P.  II.  p.  61ss. 

*)  AnsUelm's  Berner  Chronik,  edit  by  Stierlein,  vol.  III.  p.  869ss.  vol.  IV.  p.  Iss.  Hottinger,  H, 
ecc.  P.  V.  p.  834ss. 

k)  Jo.  Hocsemiua  (about  1348),  gesta  Pontiff  Leodiens.  c.  6.  (ChapeavUli  gestor.  Pontiff.  Leo<L 
ecriptt  vol.  II.  p.  293.)  £sovii  Ann.  ad  ann.  1230.  N.  16.  Acta  SS.  Apr.  vol  I.  p.  443.  Both  bulb: 
Clement.  III.  Tit  16. 


302  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTOET.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

the  festival  of  the  Year  of  Jubilee  should  be  celebrated  every  fiftieth  year. 
Urban  VI.  (1389)  reduced  the  interval  to  33,  and  Paul  II.  (1470)  to  25 
years.  (Z)  From  these  pageantries  in  public  worship  were  finally  developed 
the  representation  of  sacred  dramas  in  the  form  of  Mysteries  and  Moralities, 
enacted  by  clergymen,  students,  or  fraternities,  frequently  with  an  admixture 
of  popular  comic  parts,  but  always  as  a  mode  of  divine  worship,  (m) 

§  2G7.    Flourishing  Period  of  the  Imitative  Arts  in  the  Church. 

Vasari,  le  vite  do'  pittori,  architetti  e  scultori  itaL  Fir.  8  P.  1550.  4.  and  often.  76. 1840ss.  6  vols. 
Uebers.  v.  Schorn  u.  Forster,  Stuttg.  1882-49.  6  vols.  [and  transl.  into  Engl  Vasarfs  Lives  of  the 
Painters,  &c.  in  Bonn's  Stand.  Lib.  Lond.  5  vols.  8.]  Serouas  cTAyincourt,  Hist  de  1'Art  par  lea 
monumens.  Par.  et  Strasb.  1528.  [transl.  fr.  the  Fr.  Hist  of  Art,  Ac.  1  voL  Lond.  1848.  f.]  U.  Hose, 
Uebersichtstaf.  z.  Gesch.  d.  neu.  Kunst  b.  RafaeL  Dresd.  182T.  I  F.  Kugler,  Handb.  d.  Kunstgesch. 
Stuttg.  1842.  [Kuffler'a  Hist  Manual  of  Sculp.  Paint  Arch.  anc.  and  mod.  in  Boha's  8t  Lib. 
Lond.  2  vols.  8.  1852.]  //.  Otte,  Abrias  e.  kircbl.  Kanst-ArcLaeoL  d.  MA.  d.  deutschcn  Landc. 
Nordhaus.  (1842.)  1845.  C.  Schnaate,  Oescb,  d.  bild.  K&nste  in  MA.  DGsseld.  1844  2  vols.  G. 
Einkel,  Gesch.  d.  bild.  Kunste  b.  d.  chr.  VGlk.  Bonn.  1845.— a  F.  v.  Rumohr,  itaL  Forsch- 
ungen.  Brl.  1827ss.  8  vols.  E.  Fortter,  Gcsch.  d.  deutscben  Kunst  Lpz.  1851-58.  2  vols.— Quater- 
mere  de  Quincy,  Hist  do  la  vie  et  des  ouvragcs  des  plus  celebres  arcbitectes  du  XL  8.  jusqu'a 
la  fin  du  XVIII.  cd.  2.  Par.  1882.  2  vols.  Uebers.  v.  Hddmann,  Darmst  1831.  2  vols.  G.  Mol- 
ier,  Denkmuhler  d.  deutsch.  Bauk.  12  U.  Darmst  181  Css.  new  series.  182^83.  I  [transl.  into  Engl. 
Memorials  of  Anc.  Ger.  Goth.  Arch.  &c.  Lond.  2  vols.]  Sulp.  Soisseree,  Denkmale  d.  Bauk.  am. 
Niederrhein.  Munich,  1S38.  f.  B.  Stark,  Eom  u.  Koln  o.  d.  Entwickl.  d.  chr.  German  Kunst  (Stud. 
TU  Krit  1851.  H.  2,—Cicoffnara,  Storia  della  scultnra  dal  BUO  risorgimento  in  ItaL  sino  al  secolo  d. 
Nappleone.  Ven.  ISlSss.  8  vols.  t—Lanzi,  Storia  pittorica  della  ItaL  ed.  8.  Bassano.  1809.  6  vols.  Pisa. 
1811.  6  vols.  16.  [Hist  of  Painting  in  Upper  and  Lower  Italy,  from  the  ItaL  of  Lanzi  by  W.  Roscoe, 
Lond.  1847.  8  vols.]  Kugler,  Gesch.  d.  Malerei.  vol.  L  p.  lOSss.  [H.  of  Painting,  transL  from  the 
Germ,  of  Kugler  by  JSastlake  and  Head,  Lond.  1842. 1846.]— J.  ff.  Wessenberg,  die  chr.  Bildcr. 
Const.  1827.  2  vols.  (J.  v.  Radowitz)  Ikonographie  d.  Heiligen.  BrL  1834.  Didron^  Icoriogr.  chre- 
tienne.  Par.  1841.  voL  I.  [Christ  Iconography,  from  the  Fr.  of  Didron  by  Mittington,  Lond.  1851. 
2  vols.  Lord  Lindsay,  H.  of  Chr.  Art  Lond.  1847.  8  vols.  8.  E.  Cresey  and  G.  L.  Taytor,  Arch, 
of  MA.  Lond.  4to.  J.  &  Memes,  H.  of  Paint  Sculp,  and  Arch.  Boston.  1881. 12.  A.  Cunningham, 
Lives  of  eminent  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects.  Lond.  and  New  York.  1830.  Mrs.  Jameson, 
Early  Italian  Painters.  Lond.  1848.  H.  Shaw,  The  Decorative  Arts,  Eccles.  and  Civil,  of  the  Mid. 
Ages.  Lond.  1852.] 

Among  the  Germanic  nations,  the  antique  style  of  Architecture,  espe- 
cially in  its  Byzantine  character,  had  been  adopted  in  the  erection  of  their 
churches.  Barrel-shaped  and  cruciform  arches,  much  depressed,  were  gene- 
rally adopted  in  their  construction,  as  the  knowledge  of  the  ancient  propor- 
tions and  ornaments  had  been  gradually  lost  (portal  of  the  Scottish  monas- 
tery at  Eatisbon,  crypt  at  Freysingen).  But  with  the  new  life  which  sprung 
up  in  the  eleventh  century,  a  peculiar  style  of  sacred  architecture  was 
developed  in  consequence  of  the  use  of  the  pointed  arch.  In  a  few  instances 
this  form  had  been  previously  adopted  as  a  temporary  expedient  in  some  Ital- 
ian structures  (St.  Lorenzo  of  Subiaco,  847,  Ruins  of  Tusculum),  but  its  appro- 
priate home  was  among  the  Northern  nations,  with  whose  pointed  gables  it 
admirably  corresponded,  and  yet  required  but  little  counterpoise.  But  that 

I)  Jacdbi  Cajetani  de  centesimo  s.  Jubilaeo  anno  Lib.  (Bibl.  PP.  Max.  vol.  XXV.  p.  936.  Ex- 
tracts in  Raynald.  ad  ann.  1300.  N.  Iss.)  Vittani  VIII,  86.  Extrav.  comm.  V.  Tit  9,  c.  1.  Ray- 
nald.  ad  ann.  1470.  N.  55.— Chart.  Chais,  Lett  hist  et  dogm.  sur  les  Jubilees  et  lea  Indulgences. 
Haye.  1751.  8  vols. 

m)  TF.  Hone,  Ancient  Mysteries.  Lond.  1823.  W.  Marriott,  ColL  of  Eiigl.  miracle  plays.  Bas, 
1888.  Monmerque  et  Michel,  Theatre  francais  au  moyen-fige.  Par.  1839.  Hist  pol.  Blatter.  1840. 
vol.  VI.  Th.  1-4.  C.  A.  Wittenhaur,  de  artis  scenicae  apud  Germ,  initiis.  Bon.  1852.  Gervinut, 
Gesch.  d.  poet  Nat  Lit  vol.  IL  p.  355ss. 


CHAP.  IIL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  267.  AKCIIITECTUKE.  303 

which  was  at  first  a  work  of  necessity  soon  became  the  freest  expression  of 
the  heart,  the  vaults  of  the  domes  rose  up  on  every  hand  like  a  stone  forest, 
and  the  tall,  slender  pillars  struggling  upwards,  became  the  type  of  a  spirit 
aspiring  after  heaven.  The  ground-form  still  continued  to  be  the  Basilica, 
often  in  the  shape  of  the  cross  (in  the  Latin  style),  the  choir  terminating  in 
a  polygon,  as  a  church  of  priests  represented  the  highest  aspiration  of  archi- 
tecture in  the  interior,  and  the  towers  expressed  the  necessary  culminating 
and  final  points  of  the  general  effort.  In  the  fantastic  decorations  of  leaves 
and  flowers,  of  scrolls  and  grotesque  figures,  of  gentle  animals  and  the  old 
conquered  dragon,  wrought  in  stone,  the  abundance  of  nature  as  well  as  of 
the  world  of  fancy,  was  enlisted  in  the  service  of  devotion.  A  mysterious 
light  entered  the  lofty,  sombre  halls  through  painted  windows,  which  were 
the  purest  transparent  representations  of  color,  (a)  Figures  derived  from 
sacred  history  grew  out  of  the  twisted  columns,  and  scenes  from  profane  and 
ecclesiastical  history  were  represented  by  shepherds  engraved  in  stone,  and 
resting  with  folded  hands  upon  the  tombs  of  saints,  bishops,  and  princes. 
The  Church  was  thus  like  a  new  temple  of  Solomon,  a  type  of  the  earth 
with  all  its  children,  and  the  vault  of  heaven  stretched  above  them.  The 
erection  of  these  sacred  buildings  was  then  a  great  popular  expedient  by 
which  men  could  conquer  a  holy  land  on  their  native  soil,  could  pour  the 
wealth  of  private  life  into  the  house  of  God,  and  transmit  the  vast  plans  of 
one  generation  to  its  successors.  (5)  The  first  stonemasons  and  architects 
came  from  the  monasteries,  and  gradually  lodges  of  freemasons  were  organ- 
ized, in  which  the  results  of  mechanical  skill  were  communicated  from  one 
person  to  another,  and  the  credit  of  the  trade  was  secured,  (c)  In  the  se- 
crecy of  these  lodges  an  asylum  was  also  found  for  dispositions  which  rose 
superior  to  the  contemporary  Church,  and  hence  we  find  that  ecclesiastical 
corruptions  were  sometimes  freely  and  boldly  proclaimed  by  the  stones 
which  compose  the  most  splendid  monuments  of  the  Church  itself.  The 
most  flourishing  period  of  this  architecture  was  during  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  when  Conrad  of  Hochstaden  laid  (1248)  the  foundation 
stone  of  the  cathedral  of  Cologne,  and  Erwin  of  Steinbach  formed  the  design 
U275)  of  the  tower  of'  the  minster  at  Strasburg.  (d)  During  the  fifteenth 
century  it  passed  in  some  measure  into  decay,  not  on  account  of  an  excessive 
refinement  in  building,  but  because  that  form  of  pious  feeling  which  creates 
such  works  for  a  distant  future  no  longer  existed  in  the  public  mind,  and  the 
spirit  of  the  middle  ages  was  gone.  This  Germanic  style  of  architecture, 
which  since  the  time  of  Vasari  has  received  the  name  of  Gothic,  has  subse- 
quently prevailed  extensively  in  France,  England,  Spain  and  Sicily.  In  Italy 
the  sight  of  the  old  Roman  architectural  structures  was  too  overpowering  to 


a)  M.  A.  Gessert,  Gesch.  d.  GlassmaLerei  Stuttg.  1819.    [Art  of  Painting  on  Glass,  from  tho 
Germ,  of  Gessert  Lond.  1825.  4.] 

I)  Comp.  C.  Grwieisen  u.  E.  Mauch,  Ulna's  Kunstleben  1m  MA.  Ulm.  1840. 

c)  Comp.  Heldmaniii  die  3  altesten  Denkmale  der  teutscben  Freimaurerbrudersch&ft.  Aarau. 
5S19.  (1819.) 

d)  S.  ^Boisseree,  Geech.  u.  Beschr.  d.  Doms  v.  Colin.  Munich,  (1828.)  1842.  4.    J.  v.  Gorres,  del 
Dom.  v.  Kolln.  u.  das  Munster  v.  Strasb.  Uegensb.  1842.    F.  Kugler,  d.  Dom.  v.  Kolln.  (Deutsche 
Vicrtelj.  Schr.  1842.  N.  19.) 


304  MEDIAEVAL  CHUEC  ll  HISTOEY.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

allow  of  its  adoption.  Its  utmost  limits  in  that  direction  are  witnessed  in  the 
white  marble  mountain  of  the  cathedral  of  Milan,  with  its  host  of  statues, 
where  the  Romish  element  already  begins  to  interfere  with  the  German. 
Every  remnant  of  this  German  style  was  surrendered  when  antique  grandeur 
and  purity  was  introduced  with  the  revival  of  classical  antiquity.  Brunel- 
lesco  formed  the  arch  of  the  cupola  of  the  Cathedral  of  Florence  (since  1421), 
and  Julius  II.  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern  St.  Peter's  Church  (1506), 
the  beautiful  structure  of  which  was  commenced  after  the  plan  of  Bra- 
mantes^  and  has  been  so  fatal  to  the  interests  of  the  papacy,  but  has  finally 
proved  to  be  its  most  exalted  type,  and  its  proudest  monument,  (e) 

The  Plastic  Arts,  from  which  Christian  morality  withheld  the  privilege 
of  presenting  any  figures  without  costume  except  those  of  the  martyrs,  were 
developed  in  forming  the  ornaments  and  utensils  of  churches,  and  had  their 
principal  home  in  Florence.  (/)  Nicolas  Pisano  (1221-74),  whose  works 
were  wrought  after  the  models  of  antiquity,  deserves  the  credit  of  being  their 
modern  father.  Lorenzo  Ghiberti  (1378-1455)  cast  in  bronze  the  doors  of 
the  baptistery  in  a  style  which  made  them  worthy  of  adorning  the  entrance 
to  Paradise,  but  he  was  an  artistic  painter  in  metals,  and  hence  his  successors 
have  been  much  perplexed  when  they  attempted  to  imitate  him.  During 
the  same  period  every  delightful  variety  of  nature's  beauties  was  represented 
in  the  pure  and  animated  reliefs  of  Lucca  della  Eollia  (1388-1450).  Dona- 
tello  (1383-1466)  made  up  for  his  deficiency  in  depth  of  character  by  his 
passionate  emotion.  Michael  Angela  (1474-1564)  in  his  youth  formed  a 
group  of  the  Madonna  with  the  dead  body  of  our  Lord,  in  which  much  feel- 
ing, delicacy,  and  beauty  were  exhibited,  but  at  a  later  period  he  seems  to 
have  despised  all  attempts  to  delineate  subjects  of  Christian  beauty.  His 
mausoleum  of  the  Medici  is  an  embodiment  of  profound  and  petrified 
thoughts,  and  his  Moses  is  a  terrible  representation  of  a  popular  ruler.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  Alps  the  imitative  arts  were  generally  made  subservient 
to  architecture.  From  the  shops  of  the  goldsmiths  and  brasiers  of  that 
period  proceeded  many  careful  imitations  of  ordinary  nature  adapted  to  pious 
uses.  In  this  limited  department  of  art,  Peter  ViscJier^s  Reliquary  of  St. 
Sebaldus  (1506-19)  possesses  an  artistic  excellence  of  the  very  highest  degree. 

Modern  Painting  originated  in  the  effort  to  represent  the  views  which 
are  peculiar  to  Christianity,  and  received  its  highest  cultivation  from  the 
patronage  of  the  Church.  In  the  Western  Church,  it  is  true,  there  were 
some  who  denounced  the  use  of  pictures  and  statues  as  an  unlawful  indul- 
gence of  the  eyes,  but  generally  it  was  thought  that  the  arts  might  properly 
be  used,  and  the  treasures  of  the  Church  might  be  worthily  expended  at 
least  in  commemorating  the  saints.  Ecclesiastical  laws  were  therefore 
directed  only  against  those  representations  which  were  thought  to  be  grossly 
sensual  and  of  a  corrupting  character.  The  pious  feelings  which  found  satis- 


«)  Descrizione  istor  del  principle  e  proseguimento  della  fabrica  del  duomo  di  Firenze.  Flor.  1786. 
Fontana,  il  Tempio  Vaticano  e  suo  origin  e.  Eom.  1694  f.  Plainer,  d.  neue  Peterskirche.  (Beschr. 
d.  Stadt  Eom.  vol.  II.  pp.  134-229.) 

/)  Comp.  Aug.  ITagen,  die  Chronik  s.  Vaterstadt  v.  Florentiner  Lor.  Ghiberti.  (Kunst-Eoman)  Lps. 
1833.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  26T.  PAINTING.  305 

faction  in  the  use  of  relics,  obtained  still  higher  enjoyment  from  an  image  in 
which  we  possess  such  a  beautiful  medium  of  connection  between  the  flesh 
and  the  spirit.  The  glorious  forms'  in  which  the  martyrs  receive  the  palms 
of  victory  as  they  ascend  to  heaven,  reconcile  us  to  the  repulsive  scenes  in 
the  midst  of  which  their  tortures  are  depicted.  The  old  traditions  (§  139) 
which  had  been  so  prevalent  in  the  ancient  Church,  never  became  entirely 
obsolete  in  Italy.  In  the  mosaic  work  of  the  Boman  churches  are  to  be 
found  specimens  of  paintings  produced  in  almost  every  preceding  century. 
A  very  delicate  and  expressive  style  of  miniature  painting  appears  in  the 
manuscripts  written  in  the  convents  in  the  time  of  the  Saxon  emperors.  (</) 
As  soon  as  intellectual  life  began  to  be  awakened  by  intercourse  with  Con- 
stantinople, Christian  art  also  made  its  appearance  first  among  the  Italians. 
A  corporation  with  a  regular  constitution  was  formed  under  the  patronage 
of  St.  Luke  among  that  highly  refined  people,  when  it  advanced  to  its  great- 
est perfection.  The  design  of  the  paintings  obtained  from  Constantinople 
was  generally  grand,  but  the  figures  were  vacant,  mummy-like,  and  of,  an 
extravagant  size,  but  painted  with  some  degree  of  skill,  and  generally  on  a 
ground  of  gold.  The  school  formed  on  this  model  was  commenced  by  Guido 
of  Siena  (about  1221)  and  Giunta  of  Pisa  (1210-36),  and  was  completed  by 
Cimabue  (about  1240-1300).  The  divine  Virgin  painted  by  the  latter  in 
Florence  is  noble  and  saintly,  but  unnatural.  Giotto  (1276-1336)  abandoned 
not  only  the  stiff  manner  but  the  lofty  spirit  of  antiquity,  and  under  the  im- 
pulse of  Dante's  suggestions,  founded  a  peculiar  style  of  Italian  art  by  imi- 
tating nature  in  her  most  animated  movements.  Not  only  the  commissions 
given  but  the  conduct  presented  by  the  monks,  afforded  the  artistic  skill  of 
this  Florentine  school  many  oppportunities  to  combine  the  pathetic  with  the 
burlesque  of  ordinary  life.  Even  in  representations  of  Scriptural  history, 
this  school,  which  attained  its  highest  perfection  in  Domenico  Ghirlandaio 
(1451-93),  presented  its  scenes  in  a  domestic,  common  style,  so  that  in  its 
hands  the  manger  of  Bethlehem  exhibited  simply  a  Florentine  accouchement. 
But  Angelica  of  Fiesole  (1387-1455)  had  already  introduced  into  his  art  the 
significance  and  endless  variety  of  human  expression,  and  infused  into  his 
sweet  pictures  the  riches  of  a  heart  at  home  not  only  in  the  convent  but  in 
heaven.  He  was  peculiarly  the  painter  of  glorified  saints,  and  by  means  of 
his  employment  enjoyed  communion  with  his  Lord.  MasaccJiio  (1402-43), 
to  whom  was  opened  the  secret  of  the  chiaro  scuro,  returned  again  with  joy 
to  beautiful  nature,  and  to  the  grand  thoughts  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  tradi- 
tions. When  Leonardo  (1452-1517)  had  profoundly  developed  the  laws  of 
the  art,  and  even  in  his  Lord's  Supper  (the  heads  of  the  apostles  in  Weimar) 
had  combined  the  charm  of  the  supernatural  with  exalted  individual  beauty, 
Fra  Bartolomeo  (1469-1517)  nobly  and  clearly  delineated  scenes  from  sacred 
history  with  devout  conscientiousness,  and  in  attractive  coloring.  Finally 
Michael  Angelo,  by  his  gigantic  power  and  thorough  knowledge  of  nature, 
became  the  painter  of  the  Old  Testament,  because  no  subjects  seemed  wor- 
thy of  his  master  pencil  but  the  prophets  of  olden  time  and  the  tremendous 

j?)  Rive,  Essai  sur  Tart  de  verifier  Tage  des  miniatures  peintes  dans  les  manuscrits.  Par 
1782.  f. 

20 


306  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

scenes  of  the  Last  Judgment.  Even  the  Lombardic  scliool  had  its  origin  in  the 
Church.  But  although  Montegna,  occasionally  with  sacred  earnestness,  and 
Bellini,  with  cheerful  loveliness,  have  given  us  "pictures  of  heavenly  and 
saintly  forms,  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  this  school  are  brilliant  repre- 
sentations of  attractive  sensuous  beauty  and  republican  glory.  In  Germany, 
a  national  school  of  Christian  painting  was  formed  at  first  on  the  Lower 
Ehine,  and  afterwards  at  Nuremburg,  whose  subjects  were  generally  taken 
from  the  common  traditions,  but  with  a  decided  preference  for  those  of  a 
typical  and  allegorical  nature.  The  very  first  effort  it  put  forth,  in  the  cathe- 
dral picture  of  the  patron  saint  of  Cologne  (1410),  seemed  like  a  new  crea- 
tion. The  masters  of  this  school  are  the  two  brothers  Van  Eylc  (about 
(1366-1470)  and  Albert  Durer  (1471-1528),  each  devotedly  attached  to  sub- 
jects taken  from  sacred  history  and  from  nature.  They  all  excelled  in  the 
use  of  a  beautiful  indestructible  coloring,  and  labored  within  the  limits  of  a 
contracted  and  rather  beautiful  yet  appropriate  reality,  which  in  their  hands 
became  exalted  as  the  type  of  the  celestial.  The  two  first  were  poetical  and 
graceful,  the  last  was  more  judicious,  fond  of  common  scenes,  but  fanciful 
and  inexhaustible  not  only  in  his  power  of  invention,  but  in  his  diligence  in 
execution,  and  was  scientifically  acquainted  with  all  the  treasures  of  art  in 
the  Netherlands  and  in  Italy.  (A)  The  simplicity  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  art 
was  still  preserved  in  the  purest  form  in  Umbria,  by  means  of  the  spirit  and 
the  patronage  which  proceeded  from  Assisi,  although  its  rigid  sublimity  had 
become  somewhat  softened  and  tender.  Thus  was  it  with  the  works  of  Pe- 
rugino  (1447-1624),  in  the  beautiful  sphere  to  which  he  confined  himself, 
until  he  condescended  to  betray  his  art  for  money.  Thus  also  was  it  with 
respect  to  Francisco  Francia  (1450-1518),  who  in  spirit  belonged  to  this 
school,  and  correctly  delineated  the  ancient  forms,  while  he  gave  to  them  the 
most  delicate  blending  of  colors.  Thus  also  was  it  with  Raphael  (1483-1520), 
who  in  Umbria  combined  the  rigidness  of  ancient  Christianity  with  a  proper 
delicacy  of  feeling,  in  Florence  found  liberty  fully  to  gratify  his  ardent  love 
of  nature,  in  Rome  imparted  the  beauty  of  nature  to  Christian  ideals,  and  in 
his  own  bosom  found  a  correspondent  sublimity  of  conception  while  gazing 
upon  the  prophets  of  Angelo.  The  Madonnas  of  his  youth  are  full  of  sad- 
ness and  presentiment,  those  which  he  executed  in  Florence  of  simple  per- 
fect happiness,  and  those  of  the  Sistine  chapel  have  an  expression  appropriate 
to  the  virgin  queen  of  heaven.  The  Bible  in  the  hands  of  this  great  painter 
of  the  Church  became  a  series  of  pictures,  and  in  the  Stanzas  of  the  Vatican 
he  has  given  perpetuity  in  the  world  of  art  to  the  gorgeous  vision  even  then 
beginning  to  vanish,  according  to  which  the  papacy  was  the  central  point  of 
all  ecclesiastical  and  spiritual  life,  (i)  Even  his  other  purely  secular  produc- 
tions were  adjusted  to  the  same  exalted  position,  and  the  adventures  of  the 
Olympic  deities  were  conformed  to  the  spirit  of  the  age  of  the  papal  Medici, 
and  exhibited  all  the  embellishments  of  the  most  exuberant  fancy.  But  in 

h)  G.  F.  Waagen,  Hubert  u.  Job.  v.  Eyck.  BrsL  1822.  A.  Weisae,  A.  Durer  u.  s.  Zeita.  Lpz. 
1819.  J.  Heller,  d.  Leben  u.  d.  Werko  A.  Dlirers.  Lps.  1S31.  Only  2  vols.  In  8  Abtb,  B.  Stark,  A, 
Durer.  (Germania.  1851.  p.  625ss.) 

i)  G.  Bellori  Descr.  delle  imagine  dipinte  da  Eafaello  nclle  camere  del  Vaticano.  Eom.  1895. 
\R.  Duppa,  Life  of  Raphael.  (Bogue's  Eur.  Lib.)  Lond.  1847.  8-] 


CHAP.  IIL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  263.  SAINTS.    CANONIZATION.  307 

the  work  which  enlisted  his  last  and  dying  energies,  he  appears  to  have 
caught  a  glimpse  of  Christ  in  his  future  glory.  (&) 

§  268.     Worship  of  the  Saints, 

The  confidence  reposed  in  the  goddess,  who,  either  as  a  bride  or  as  a 
mother,  was  supposed  to  have  all  power  in  heaven,  was  at  this  time  so  great 
that  the  dominion  of  the  world  seemed  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  vast  female 
fiof  (Kunkellehn),  and  it  was  no  longer  a  captious  jest  when  it  was  said  that 
the  virgin  queen  was  every  day  annoyed  with  all  kinds  of  importunities,  (a) 
In  Poetry  and  in  the  Imitative  Arts  she  was  represented  as  the  Christian 
counterpart  of  the  Siren  of  Venus,  and  of  Mother  Earth,  although  nature 
was  frequently  unconsciously  adored  in  her.  The  interest  felt  in  particular 
localities  for  those  relics  which  had  for  the  most  part  been  brought  home  by 
the  crusaders,  gave  occasion  for  a  continual  multiplication  of  saintly  legends, 
embracing  many  newly  invented  adventures.  A  collection  of  these  was 
made  by  the  Dominican,  James  de  Voragine  (d,  1298),  and  not  so  much  on 
account  of  the  literary  contributions  of  the  author  as  of  the  popular  elements 
it  embraced,  and  the  summary  of  saints'  days  in  the  year  which  it  presented, 
it  was  used  in  all  parts  of  the  Western  Church  under  the  name  of  the  Golden 
Legend.  (5)  Some  enlightened  teachers  indeed  feared  that  the  continually 
increasing  worship  of  saints  would  produce  a  forgetfulness  of  God,  but  the 
Church  not  only  inculcated  a  confidence  in  the  prayers  of  saints,  but  an  imi- 
tation of  their  virtues.  The  personal  relations  of  particular  patron  saints  to 
individual  families  and  guilds  which  had  the  care  of  their  sacred  things,  gave 
occasion  to  various  rival  interests  in  their  behalf,  and  to  promote  their  re- 
spective glories  by  means  of  the  arts.  The  effect  of  this  was  sometimes 
highly  favorable  to  an  increase  of  this  saintly  piety.  The  creation  of  new 
saints  was  dependent  upon  a  very  difficult  and  expensive  process  at  Rome. 
In  some  cases  where  the  claims  for  a  canonization  were  not  made  out,  a  bea- 
tification was  provisionally  granted.  The  right  which  the  popes  had  reserved 
exclusively  to  themselves  with  respect  to  these  matters,  was  sometimes  exer- 
cised by  the  great  councils.  The  halo  of  sanctity  was  a  mark  of  nobility, 
and  the  badge  of  an  order  which  encouraged  the  highest  services  by  a  reward 
in  the  humblest  form  for  the  present  life,  but  eternal  in  another.  The  mere 
possession  of  a  high  ecclesiastical  position  was  not  ordinarily  enough  to  con- 
fer any  special  title  to  this  honor.  But  even  the  saints  of  this  period  present, 
no  very  exalted  specimens  of  genuine  human  excellence,  since  their  merit 
consisted  rather  in  strange  and  diversified  exhibitions  of  the  power  of  faith  in 
extreme  self-denials,  and  in  sacrifices.  The  influence  of  the  monastic  orders 
was  sufficient  to  obtain  the  canonization  of  a  few  monks,  whose  scientific  in- 
vestigations were  especially  characterized  by  the  ecclesiastical  spirit.  It  was 
generally  held  that  no  one  should  be  canonized  unless,  either  during  life  or  by 
his  dead  body  he  had  wrought  some  miracles,  as  divine  announcements  of  his 

*)  J.  D.  Passavant,  Eaf.  v.  Urbtno.  Lps.  1889.  2  vols. 
a)  Erasmus,  Peregrinatio  religionis  ergo.  Amst  1655.  p.  855s. 

&)  Lcgenda  aurea  s.  Hist.  Lombardica.  Argent  1479.  £  &  often.  «d  Th.  Gratsse,  Dresd.  et  Lps.  lS46aa 
Translated  into  all  the  Western  languages. 


308  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTOKY.    TEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517 

sanctity.  Nicolas  wn  der  Flue,  on  the  Alps,  appears  as  an  instance  of  a  pecu- 
liar class  of  saints,  similar  to  those  of  the  Thebais.  After  having  performed 
the  duties  of  a  hnsbandman,  a  father,  a  warrior,  and  a  judge  in  his  native 
land,  he  became  possessed  with  an  intense  longing  to  spend  his  life  with  God 
in  the  solitude  of  the  forest.  A  light,  like  a  sharp  knife  pierced  his  spirit, 
and  henceforth,  during  twenty  years  (1467-87),  he  lived  entirely  with  God, 
and  with  no  sustenance  except  what  he  obtained  from  his  communion  with 
God.  His  humble  silence,  however,  could  not  save  him  from  the  suspicions, 
nor  the  pious  veneration  of  his  fellow-men.  In  consequence  of  the  former 
the  miracle  of  the  spirit  seemed  confirmed,  and  in  consequence  of  the  latter 
he  became  the  counsellor  and  arbitrator  of  the  neighboring  shepherds.  "When 
the  freedom  of  the  Swiss  confederacy  was  endangered  by  dissensions  among 
its.  members  (1481),  harmony  was  restored  by  the  presence  and  authority  of 
Brother  Glaus,  (c)  Under  the  guidance  of  their  confessors  women  became 
saints.  In  Germany,  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  a  king,  and  full  of  grief  that 
she  could  not  die  a  virgin,  though  the  wife  of  a  prince,  sustained  herself  by 
the  profits  of  her  own  toil,  and  turned  the  Wartburg,  so  recently  the  abode 
of  worldly  pomp  and  music,  into  a  hospital.  In  her  widowhood  she  solemnly 
renounced  her  own  will  and  all  the  world,  that  she  might  devote  herself  to 
the  care  of  leprous  persons,  and  died  (1231)  while  young,  beautiful,  and  glow- 
ing with  a  saintly  love.  The  stern  priest,  under  whose  perverted  counsels  she 
thus  fell  a  sacrifice,  delighted  in  the  hope  that  all  remnants  of  earthly  feeling 
had  been  slain  within  her  spirit,  and  announced  at  Rome,  with  many  sworn 
witnesses,  her  ardent  piety,  the  radiance  of  her  countenance  in  prayer,  and 
the  miraculous  cures  which  she  had  effected.  Her  apotheosis,  as  of  an  ideal 
of  charity,  was  celebrated  as  early  as  in  the  year  1236,  a  lofty  monument  of 
German  architecture  spans  her  grave  at  Marburg,  (d)  and  in  the  legend  the  saint 
has  obtained  so  much  grace,  that  even  her  timid  prevarication  miraculously 
became  a  truth.  In  Italy  we  find  Catharine  of  Siena,  the  daughter  of  a 
dyer,  who  grew  up  among  the  sacred  services  of  the  Dominicans.  When  a 
child  she  was  accustomed  to  kiss  the  very  footsteps  of  these  pious  men.  She 
could  never  be  satisfied  with  self-denials  and  tortures,  and  at  a  later  period 
indulged  in  the  use  of  no  nutriment  but  that  which  she  derived  from  the  ele- 
ments of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Jesus  Christ  himself  condescended  to  pay  the 
child  a  friendly  visit,  wearing  his  triple  crown,  and  gradually  either  alone  or 
in  the  company  of  a  few  saints  his  visits  and  conversations  became  more  fre- 
quent, until  they  became  daily  occurrences.  Finally  he  solemnly  betrothed 
the  virgin  to  himself,  by  conferring  upon  her  a  ring,  and  took  from  her  side 
her  heart,  and  substituted  his  own.  Such  at  least  was  the  statement  which 


c)  Widmer,  das  Gottl.  in  ird.  Entwickl.  nacbgewiesen  im  Leben  Nik.  v.  d.  FL  Luz.  1819.    Su 
singer,  Bruder  Klaus  u.  s.  Zeitalt  Luzern.  1827.  (G.  Gorres)  Gott  in  d.  Gescb.  Munich.  1831.  H.  1. 
A  book  imputed  to  him  on  voluntary  seclusion  (Philos.  mystica.  Neost  1618.  4.)  is  not  genuine. 

d)  I.  Conradi  Marpurg.  Elis.  vidua.  Ep.  Examinatorum  miracc.  ad.  Dom.  Papam.  (Kucheribecher, 
AnnaL  Hass.  Marp.  1735.  Collect  IX.)     Theodoricus  Thuring.  (of  Apolda)  de  8.  Elisab.  (Caniaii 
Lectt  ed.  Basn.  Th.  IV.)    Greg.  IX.  Canonizatio  8.  Elis.  viduae.  (Bnllar.  Eom.  Th.  L  p.  104.— 
II.  K.  W.  Justi :  Elis.  d.  Heil.  Zur.  1797.    Montalembert,  Hist  de  8.  Elis:  de  Hongrie.  Par.  (1836.) 
1837.  2  Th.  mit  Anm.  v.  Stddler,  Aach.  1836.      [C.  Kingsley,  The  True  Story  of  Elizabeth  of  Hun- 
jary,  or  tho  Saint's  Tragedy.  Lend.  1852. 12.] 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  26S.  CATHAEINE  OF  SIENA.  309 

she  made  to  her  father  confessor.  It  is  possible  that  the  interest  of  the  order 
may  have  had  some  influence  in  the  result,  but  it  is  certain  that  this  lowly 
maid  was  finally  adored,  not  only  by  this  powerful  order,  but  by  nearly  the 
whole  of  Italy.  Compelled  to  spend  much  of  her  time  in  the  -midst  of  secu- 
lar employments  she  frequently  fell  into  a  trance.  She  was  finally  induced 
to  abandon  the  luxury  of  this  contemplative  kind  of  life,  and  of  her  attend- 
ance upon  couches  of  loathsome  disease,  that  she  might  devote  herself  to  the 
work  of  composing  the  strifes  which  then  existed  in  Italy  and  in  the  Church. 
She  exhorted  Gregory  XI.  to  enter  upon  another  crusade,  effected  peace  be- 
tween him  and  the  Florentines,  urged  the  return  of  the  papacy  to  Kome,  was 
used  as  an  instrument  in  the  quarrels  of  the  mendicant  friars,  and  finally  died 
at  Rome  (1380)  the  saint  of  the  Roman  papacy  in  its  dissensions,  and  pas- 
sionately longing  to  meet  her  espoused  Lord.  In  consequence  of  the  un- 
friendly feelings  of  the  Franciscans  with  respect  to  her,  she  was  not  canonized 
until  a  long  period  after  her  death,  and  even  then  this  office  had  to  be  per- 
formed (1461)  by  her  own  fellow-citizen,  Pius  II.  (e)  The  only  saint  France 
could  claim  during  this  period,  since  she  only  effected  the  deliverance  of  her 
country,  and  met  with  a  tragical  end,  was  never  recognized  by  her  age,  but 
was  burned  as  a  witch  (May  30,  1431).  (/) 

§  269.    Miracles  and  Magic. 

Pelliccia,  de  superstit  medii  aevi.  (Opp.  Basan.  vol.  IV.)  Meiners,  AbergL  c«er  schol.  Jahrh. 
(Hist.  Vergleich.  d.  Sitten  des  MA.  vol.  III.)  [Walter  Scott,  Demonology  &  Witchcraft  Lond.  1S30. 
New  York.  1831.  G.  G.  Horst,  Zauber  Bibliothek,  &c.  Mainz.  1826.  6  vols.  8.  For.  Quart.  Rev.  (in 
Littell's  Museum.)  1830.  E.  Saloerte,  Hist,  of  Magic,  &c.,  transl.  by  A.  T.  Tfiompson,  Lond.  1841. 
New  York.  184T.  2  vols.  12.  W.  C.  Dendy,  Phil,  of  Mystery.  New  York.  1845. 12.] 

The  intelligence  of  this  age  sometimes  imposed  limits  upon  the  enthu- 
siasm which  delighted  only  in  supernatural  revelations,  and  assumed  higher 
ground  than  the  popular  faith,  since  it  occasionally  tore  the  mask  from  de- 
ception, or  proposed  to  the  legend  some  questions  with  regard  to  its  veracity. 
Bloody  Hosts  were  not  generally  regarded  as  miracles,  though  none  could 
then  explain  them  on  scientific  principles.  And  yet  Birgitta's  revelations 
were  solemnly  confirmed  (a)  at  Constance  and  at  Basle,  and  the  people  cried 
out  "A  miracle!"  when  the  mendicant  friar  saw  the  blood  of  Christ  flow 
down  the  crucifix  erected  for  absolution.  (5)  Numerous  pilgrims  and  beggars, 
as  well  as  immense  wealth  and  treasures  of  art  were  collected  at  Loretto,  on 
account  of  the  legend  of  the  fourteenth  century,  respecting  the  house  of  the 
divine  Virgin,  which,  having  been  consecrated  as  a  temple  by  the  apostles, 
had  been  removed  by  angels  from  Nazareth,  after  the  loss  of  the  Holy  Land, 

e)  Acta  SS.  April,  vol.  III.  p.  853ss.  Her  Letters,  conversations,  and  revelations  are  edited  in 
Italian,  by  Gigtt,  Sien.  ITOTss.  5  Th.  4  comp.  Fabric.  Bibl.  med.  et  inf.  Lat  Th.  I.  p.  863s.  Proces- 
sus  contestationum  super  sanctitate  et  doctr.  B.  Oath.  (Martene,  ampL  Col.  Th.  VI.  p.  123Tss.) 

/)  Proces  de  condamnation  et  de  r6habilitation  de  Jeanne  d'Aro  dite  la  Pucelle,  suivis  de  tous  les 
documents  hist,  par  Jules  Quic7ierat,  Par.  1841-9.  5  vols.— K.  Hose,  d.  Jungf.  d.  OrL  (Neuo  Prophe- 
ten.  Lpz.  1851.)  \J.  M.  Evans,  Story  of  Joan  of  Arc.  Philad.  1830.  Anon.  Memoirs  of  Jean  d'A.  & 
Hist  of  her  times.  Lond.  1824.  2  vols.  12.] 

a)  Gerson,  Fr.  de  probatione  sj'jituum.  (Opp.  vol.  L  P.  I.  p.  37.)  Tr. :  de  distinctione  verar. 
Hsionum  a  falsis.  (7&.  p.  43.)  Hardt,  Const  Cone.  vol.  III.  P.  III.  p.  28ss.  vol.  IV".  P.  II.  p.  89s. 

V)  According  to  George  of  Anhalt,  Lvscher,  Kef.  Acta,  vol.  L  p.  385. 


310  MEDIAEVAL  CHTJKCH  HISTORY.  PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

and  after  many  wanderings  had  found  a  permanent  abode  at  Loretto  (1295).  (c; 
Mysterious  arts  to  ascertain  the  future  had  never  been  entirely  discontinued. 
Astrology  had  been  raised  by  the  influence  of  the  Saracens  to  the  dignity  of 
a  science,  and  sometimes  had  an  officer  at  court  appointed  to  attend  to  its 
interests.  White  magic  was  tolerated  by  the  Church.  But  the  unfriendly 
spirit  shown  by  the  advancing  intelligence  of  the  age  toward  superstition, 
harmonized  with  the  suspicion  of  the  vulgar  that  the  ordinary  limits  of  hu- 
manity can  seldom  be  passed  without-  Satanic  art.  The  same  spells  which 
the  Church  used  for  the  deliverance  and  exaltation  of  souls  were  supposed 
to  be  employed  by  the  infernal  powers  in  like  manner,  for  their  destruction. 
The  horror  felt  in  the  depths  of  our  own  nature  for  such  arts  has  been  gen- 
erally expressed  in  the  arbitrary  symbols  which  superstition  has  invented. 
Yet  in  the  Italian  legend  of  the  enchanter,  Virgil,  we  have  not  only  the 
unconscious  prophet  of  Christianity  who  was  lamented  by  Paul,  but  the  skil- 
ful employment  of  the  black  art  in  the  performance  of  wonderful  feats,  and 
in  the  construction  of  buildings.  In  the  Norman  Merlin  also,  is  set  forth  a 
shadowy  counterpart  of  the  divine  Saviour,  when  the  wild  impulses  he  derived 
from  his  demoniac  origin  are  contrasted  with  the  graceful  humanity  he  in- 
herited from  his  mother.  In  the  German  story  of  Faust,  the  representative 
and  compiler  of  all  the  magic  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  that  of  his  younger 
brother  of  a  more  southern  clime,  Don  Juan,  is  exhibited  the  ruin  of  the 
most  richly  endowed  genius,  when  it  is  determined  by  the  aid  of  infernal 
powers  to  exceed  the  limits  God  has  assigned  to  human  knowledge  and  enjoy- 
ment, (d)  The  truth  of  this  popular  faith  in  covenants  and  unlawful  inter- 
course with  the  devil  was  finally  conceded  by  the  Church,  and  those  who 
were  supposed  to  be  guilty  of  such  things  were  arraigned  before  the  eccle- 
siastical tribunals  as  traitors  against  divine  majesty,  (e)  Sometimes  those  who 
addicted  themselves  to  the  black  art  were  burned  by  the  direction  of  the 
Church,  but  frequently  the  imputation  of  sorcery  was  derided  as  a  mere  su- 
perstition. On  hearing  that  witches  and  wizards  practised  their  arts  in  Ger- 
many to  the  serious  injury  of  both  property  and  life  among  the  people, 
Innocent  VIII.  revived  (1484)  the  laws  against  magic  in  the  widest  sense 
implied  in  the  popular  faith,  (/)  and  appointed  two  judges  of  witches  foi 
Upper  Germany,  who  compiled  a  manual  for  the  trial  of  witches,  as  remark- 
able for  its  learning  as  for  its  superstition  and  impurity,  (g)  Then  commenced 
a  process,  during  which  the  popular  faith,  avarice,  and  the  new  modes  of  evi- 
dence required  by  the  penal  law,  consigned  thousands  of  witches  to  the 
flames.  The  injuries  which  they  were  accused  of  inflicting  were  generally 
confined  to  the  most  trifling  matters  of  ordinary  life,  and  no  witch  appears 

c)  BapUsta  Mantuanus,  Ecc.  Lauretanae  Hist  (Opp.  Antn.  1576.  vol.  IV.  p.  216ss.)    Martonelli 
Teatro  istor.  della  S.  Casa  Naz.  Rom.  1732.  2  vols.    Treated  polemically :  Vergerii  L.  de  Idolo  Lanr. 
(Opp.  adv.  Papatum.  Tub.  1563.  4  Th.  I.)  Ingol.  1584    Bernegger,  Hypobolimaea  Mariae  deiparae 
camera.  Argent.  1619.  4    Apologetically :  Turriani  Eesp.  ad  capita  argum.  Vergerii  haeretici.  Ingol. 
1584  4     Turselini  Lauretana  Hist  Mog.  1599.  Yen.  1727. 

d)  J.  Gorres,  die  deutschen  Volksbucher.  Heidelb.  1S07.  p.  207ss.    C.  L.  Stieglilz,  Sage  v.  Jlaust 
(Raumtir,  Hist  Taschend.  Lpz.  1834)  Comp.  Jahrb.  £  wiss.  Kritik,  1834  N.  25.   [TF.  Godwin,  Lives 
of  the  Necromancers,  New  York.  1835. 12.]       <?)  According  to  Gen.  6. 1-4    Exod.  22,  la 

/)  Hauler,  Bibliotheca.  St  I.  p.  Iss. 

g)  (Jao.  Sprenger  et  Heinr.  Institor.)    Malleus  Maleficarum.  Col.  1489.  4  &  often. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  2G9.  WITCHCRAFT.    §  270.  DISCIPLINE.          3 1 1 

ever  to  have  become  wealthy  by  her  arts.  Actual  crimes  were  never  legally 
proved.  Some  may  have  been  induced  by  the  popular  superstition,  by  som- 
nambulistic states,  .and  by  narcotic  salves,  to  form  criminal  desires,  and  to 
regard  themselves  as  witches.  But  in  general  the  violence  of  tortures,  and 
the  various  illegal  processes  of  investigation  were  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
confession  of  unnatural  crimes,  without  supposing  them  real.  (Ji)  But  no 
persons  ventured  to  express  doubts  with  respect  to  the  propriety  of  such  pro- 
ceedings, except  on  very  rare  occasions,  and  in  the  most  guarded  manner,  (i) 
The  picture  drawn  of  the  Witch's  Sabbath  is  only  a  copy  of  the  fantastic 
representations  often  given  of  the  assemblies  of  heretics.  The  process  against 
witches  now  supplied  the  place  of  that  which  had  formerly  been  employed 
against  heretics.  It  was  only  in  Germany,  England,  and  Scandinavia,  that 
the  nation  generally  became  enlisted  in  its  behalf.  The  bulls  of  Alexander 
and  Leo  against  magicians  and  poisoners  in  Lombardy,  appear  to  have  been 
directed  against  some  remnants  of  the  Manichaeans.  (&)  As  all  nature  was 
believed  to  be  subservient  to  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  to  have  a  share  in  the 
blessings  of  the  Church,  many  thought  proper  sometimes  to  defend  themselves 
even  against  noxious  beasts  by  exorcism  and  excommunication.  (I) 

§  270.     Church  Discipline  and  Indulgences.     Cont.from  §§  66,  202. 

The  Ban  and  the  Interdict  had  now  lost  their  power,  in  consequence  of 
the  abuse  which  had  been  made  of  them.  The  popes  were  therefore  com- 
pelled in  their  political  contests  to  sharpen  their  spiritual  weapons,  by  abol- 
ishing every  right  previously  recognized  among  enlightened  and  Christian 
nations.  Clement  V.  and  Sixtus  IV.  declared  the  Venetians  infamous  and 
outlawed,  even  to  the  fourth  generation,  (a)  In  the  thirteenth  century  the 
popes  introduced  the  annual  practice  on  the  day  before  Good  Friday  (in  coena 
Domini),  when  absolution  was  especially  bestowed  before  the  altar,  of 
solemnly  pronouncing  sentence  of  excommunication,  in  a  form  not  then  inva- 
riable, against  the  whole  host  of  heretics  and  wicked  persons  of  all  kinds, 
then  so  constantly  increasing.  (&)  The  discipline  of  the  Church  had  become 
exceedingly  lax,  in  consequence  of  the  vast  number  of  the  mendicant  friars, 
and  the  preachers  of  indulgences.  The  prerogative  by  which  the  popes  pro- 
fessed to  remit  all  ecclesiastical  punishments  became  so  much  extended  that 
they  finally  possessed  the  complete  power  to  forgive  all  sins.  This  was  de- 
rived from  the  doctrine  which  taught  that  the  merits  of  Christ  and  the  saints 
(Thesaurus  supererogationis  perfectorum)  were  so  abundant,  and  the  unity 

7i)  2i.  Remigii  Daemonolatria.  Lugd.  1595.  4.  Frkf.  1598.— ITauber,  Bibliotheca,  acta  et  scripts 
magica.  Lemgo.  1789ss.  86  St  W.  O.  fioldan,  Gesch.  d.  Hexenprocesse.  Stutts?.  1843.  C.  G.  v.  Wach- 
ter  in  8.  Beitr.  z.  deutschen  Gesch.  insb.  z.  Gesch.  d.  Strafr.  p.  81.  277ss.  Comp.  Grimm^  deutsche 
Mythol.  p.  579ss. 

i)  Ulr.  Molitor,  de  Lamiis  et  pythonicis  mulierib.  Col.  14S9.  Strasb.  1575.  4  J.  Wier,  de  praesti- 
giis  daemonum.  Bas.  1563.  &  often. 

k)  Hauber,  St.  III.  p.  151ss.  St.  V.  277ss. 

0  Ilemmertin,  Tr.  de  exorc.  et  adjurationib.  c.  animalia  bruta  (about  1451).— &  Prix,  Eapport  et 
r6cherches  sur  les  proces  et  jugem.  relatifs  aux  animaux.  Par.  1829. 

.a)  Itaynald,  ad  ann.  1309.  N.  6.  ad  ann.  1482.  N.  13ss.  Comp.  Muratori  vol.  VIII.  p.  1151. 

&)  Larnbertini  de  Festis.  P.  I.  c.  196.  Raynald.  ad.  ann.  1411.  N.  1.  (Le  Bret)  Gesch.  d.  Bull* 
In  Coena  Domini  (Stuttg.)  1769s.  4  vols.  4. 


312  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECFI  HISTORY.    FEU.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

of  the  mystical  body  of  the  Church  was  so  perfect,  that  she  had  power  tc 
dispose  of  those  merits  according  to  the  wants  of  men.  (c)  Even  the  indul- 
gences of  the  year  of  Jubilee  were  sent  beyond  the  Alps,  and  when  divines 
were  debating  whether  the  pope  had  power  of  absolving  souls  in  purgatory, 
the  bulls  of  indulgence  issued  by  Alexander  and  Leo  soon  decided  the  ques- 
tion, (d)  Ever  since  the  papal  chair  had  sustained  some  severe  shocks,  the 
popes  had  opened  such  a  shameless  trade  in  indulgences,  that  those  who 
farmed  and  dispensed  them  paid  little  attention  to  the  repentance  and  reforma- 
tion which  had  always  been  demanded  by  the  Church  as  conditions  of  for- 
giveness. The  indulgence  was  disposed  of  as  all  that  was  needful  for  recon- 
ciliation with  God,  even  for  yet  future  and  intended  offences.  Grave 
ecclesiastical  letters  on  the  unlawful  use  of  butter  were  harmless.  Some 
indulgences  were  granted  to  obtain  funds  for  the  erection  of  inland  churches, 
hospitals,  and  even  secular  establishments  of  general  utility.  A  large  portion 
of  the  revenue  was  consumed  by  the  preachers  themselves,  but  the  final 
receptacle  was  the  treasury  of  the  pope.  Just  as  the  profits  of  all  money  for 
indulgences  had  been  formerly  devoted  to  the  crusades,  they  were  now  ap- 
propriated to  the  Turkish  war,  or  to  the  erection  of  St.  Peter's  church.  A 
general  rumor,  however,  prevailed,  that  Leo  X.  had  promised  a  part  of  the 
money  so  basely  obtained  from  Germany,  to  his  sister,  (e)  It  was  in  vain 
that  the  people  remonstrated  against  these  extortions  and  immoralities,  and 
some  of  the  princes  either  forbade  the  preachers  of  indulgences  to  enter  their 
dominions,  or  deprived  them  of  the  revenues  they  had  collected.  Literary 
men  directed  the  shafts  of  their  ridicule  against  these  hawkers,  and  even 
expressed  some  doubts  whether  the  tickets  they  bestowed  would  be  respected 
by  the  great  Judge  of  all.  The  more  earnest  class  of  preachers  were  also 
indignant  and  zealous  against  a  trade  which  involved  the  murder  of  the  souls 
of  men.  (/) 

§  271.    Flagellants  and  Dancers. 

(Jac.  Soileau)  Hist  Flagellantium.  Pnr.  1700. 12.  Schoettgen,  de  socta  Flag.  Lps.  1711.  Forst- 
emann,  die  chr.  Geisslergesellscbaften.  Hal.  1828.  ffihnike,  fi.  Gelsslergesellsch.  u.  verbrud,  dieser 
Art  (Zeitschr.  f.  hist  Th,  1833.  vol.  IIL  8t  2.y-ffecker  die  Tanzwuth.  Brl.  1882. 

A  system  of  penance  and  fleshly  mortification  by  scourging  (disciplina)  in 
the  closet,  was  especially  recommended  by  Damiani,  and  extensively  encour- 
aged by  the  mendicant  orders.  But  all  at  once  appeared  long  processions  of 
penitents,  who  went  about  day  and  night,  naked  down  to  the  waist,  with 
heads  covered,  singing  penitential  psalms,  and  whipping  themselves  until  the 
blood  flowed.  This  peculiar  mode  of  contrition  commenced  in  Perugia 
(1260),  and  soon  spread  over  nearly  all  Italy.  In  the  struggle  between  the 

c)  Alex.  Hales,  Summa,  P.  IV.  Qu.  28.  Art  Is. 

d)  Alex.  Hales,  P.  IV.  Qn.  23.  Art  2.     Thomas,  Suppl.  ad  Summ.  P.  III.  Qu.  71.  Art    10.     Tri- 
tium. Chron.  Hirsaug.  vol.  II.  p.  535.— Amort.  1.  c.  vol.  L  p.  96.  209.  vol.  II.  p.  283. 

e)  M.  Villani  VI,  14.    Guiociardini  L  XIII.  p.  396. 

/)  Appellatio  pro  parte  prince.  Norimb.  a,  1460.  interposita.  (Senckeriberg,  SeL  jar.  et  hist  Frcf. 
1738.  vol.  IV.  p.  878.)  Wessdi  adv.  indulgentias  Dsp.  (Walch,  Mon.  medii  aeri,  voL  L  p.  111.)  Ber- 
thold,  edit,  by  Kling,  p.  884.  Loscher,  Bet  Acta,  voL  L  p.  855ss.  Eapp,  Samml.  einiger  z.  AbL 
gehor.  Schriften,  Lps.  1721.  Veeaenmeyer,  z.  Gesch.  d.  Ablasswes.  kurz.  vor.  d.  Ee£  (KHist  Archiv 
1S25.  vol.  III.  St.  4.) 


CHAP.  IIL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  2T1.  FLAGELLANTS.    DANGERS.  313 

Guelplis  and  the  GMbellines  this  country  had  been  more  than  ordinarily  filled 
with  vices  and  crimes,  and  the  people  now  seemed  to  have  been  siezed  by  a 
penitential  paroxysm,  and  to  celebrate  a  general  season  of  reconciliation  with 
God.  (a)  A  few  of  these  processions  crossed  the  Alps,  and  were  there  rather 
objects  of  astonishment  than  of  imitation.  But  when  the  llacTc  death  came 
from  Asia  and  passed  through  Europe  (1348),  even  in  Germany  every  place 
was  startled  by  the  scourging  processions  of  the  brethren  of  the  cross,  whose 
doleful  songs  were  especially  directed  to  Christ,  entreating  him  by  the  recol- 
lection of  his  own  sufferings,  and  from  a  regard  to  their  repentance,  to  stay 
the  progress  of  the  plague.  (5)  These  scenes  were  repeated  as  often  as  the 
people  were  visited  by  national  calamities,  or  there  appeared  to  be  a  call  for 
an  unusual  degree  of  penitence.  A  number  of  these  scourging  processions 
passed  through  Southern  Europe,  near  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  under  the  direction  of  the  Dominican,  Vincentius  Ferreri,  a  Span- 
iard, whose  eloquence  was  so  powerful  among  different  nations,  in  exciting 
men  to  a  religious  earnestness,  that  the  gift  of  tongues  seemed  to  have  been 
restored  in  him.  (c)  At  first  the  popes  were  in  favor  of  this  movement,  because 
they  hoped  it  might  stimulate  the  energy  of  the  ecclesiastical  party  against 
the  Ghibellines.  But  when  the  scourge  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  more 
efficacious  than  all  ecclesiastical  penances  and  means  of  grace,  the  hierarchy 
became  displeased  with  it.  Clement  VI.  declared  himself  opposed  to  an 
•enthusiasm  (1349)  which  threatened  the  subversion  of  all  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  order,  (d)  and  finally  Vincentius  himself  yielded  obedience  to  the  dissua- 
sive admonition  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  (e)  This  unfriendly  disposition  of 
the  Church  induced  some  societies  of  Flagellants  to  assume  a  hostile  position 
toward  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  In  Thuringia  a  company  of  them  which 
had  been  condemned  to  the  flames  by- the  inquisition  (after  1414),  denounced 
the  clergy  as  Antichrist,  rejected  the  use  of  the  crucifix  and  of  images,  and 
the  invocation  of  saints  in  worship,  and  substituted  the  baptism  of  blood  by 
the  scourge  for  all  ecclesiastical  sacraments.  (/")  The  same  kind  of  sensuous 
devotion  by  means  of  convulsions  of  pain  or  pleasure,  was  practised  by  bands 
of  Dancers  in  a  few  towns  along  the  Khine  (1374,  1418).  This  epidemic  was 
treated  in  Strasburg  as  a  demoniacal  possession,  against  which,  invocations 
were  made  to  St.  Vitus.  (g) 

a)  Monachi  Patamni  Chron.  (Muratori  vol.  VIII.  p.  712s.) 

&)  After  Closner's  Chronik:  Q.  Schmidt,  Lied  u.  Predigt  d.  Geissl.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1837.  It.  4.) 
L~  ScJmeegans,  le  grand  pelerinage  des  flagellants.  Strasb.  1837.  Freely  revised  by  Tisc7wndorf,  Lps. 
1840.— Ifecker,  d.  schwarze  Tod.  im  14.  Jabrh.  Brl.  1832. 

c)  Ludwig  Heller,  Vine.  Ferr.  nacb  s.  Leben  u.  Wirkem.  Brl.  1S30.    Comes  de  ffoJienthal-Staed- 
teln,  de  Vine.  Ferr.  Lps.  1839;  4. 

d)  Trithe-,nii  Chron.  Hirs.  IL  p.  209.    Raynald.  ad  ann.  1349.  N.  20. 

e)  Gerson,  Ep.  ad  Vine.  (Opp.  vol.  n.  p.  658.)  Tr.  contra  sectam  flagell.  se.  (76.  p.  660.) 

/)  Ilardt,  Const  Cone.  vol.  I.  p.  126.  Cornp.  E.  Stumpf,  Hist,  flagell.  praecipue  in  Thuringia.  17SO. 
(Forstemanns  Neue  Mitth.  a.  d.  Gebiete  hist  antiq.  Forsch.  vol.  II.  H.  1.) 

g)  Notices  of  Eadulphus  de  Eivo,  in  the  Limpurgian  and  Alsatian  Chronicle  in  Forstemann,  p. 
224ss.  &  Hecker. 


314  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTOET.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  121 6-1 51 T 


§  272.    Morals  of  the  Clergy. 

Avignon  and  Rome  had  now  received  the  names  of  Sodom  and  Babylon, 
and  it  was  reported  that  in  those  places  Christianity  was  of  no  other  benefit 
than  as  a  profitable  fable,  (a)  The  most  exalted  and  wealthy  stations  in  the 
Church  were  regarded  merely  as  livings  belonging  to  certain  persons  by  birth, 
or  easily  to  be  purchased,  and  those  who  occupied  them  followed  the  exam- 
ple of  the  Eoman  court,  by  devoting  themselves  wholly  to  worldly  interest. 
Public  services  were  for  the  most  part  administered  by  an  ignorant  and  low 
minded  rabble,  from  which  no  one  could  ever  expect  to  raise  himself  by  the 
most  meritorious  exertions  for  the  good  of  the  Church.  (6)  The  clergy  were 
also  corrupted  by  secret  lewdness,  for  the  practice  of  which  the  spiritual  office 
itself  was  made  subservient,  or  by  concubinage,  to  which  they  were  often 
urged  by  their  congregations  for  the  safety  of  the  people,  and  for  which  they 
were  taxed  by  their  bishops,  (c)  During  the  various  reformations  projected 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  it  was  sometimes  proposed  that  the  honor  of  the 
priesthood  should  be  redeemed  by  restoring  to  them  the  rights  of  nature. 
But  even  liberal-minded  prelates  acknowledged  that  such  a  measure  would  be 
the  commencement  of  a  revolution  in  all  hierarchical  relations,  (d)  Hence, 
while  the  most  unscrupulous  portion  of  the  clergy  compensated  themselves 
by  indulgence  in  base  and  scanty  pleasures,  those  who  were  serious-minded 
arid  anxious  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  Church,  and  by  good 
works  attain  a  seat  in  heaven,  were  borne  down  by  their  burden,  and  made 
uneasy  on  account  of  doubts  respecting  their  salvation.  The  sentiments  of 
the  people  with  reference  to  the  clergy  wavered  between  habitual  reverence 
and  an  involuntary  feeling  of  contempt  Sometimes,  however,  the  popular 
indignation  against  the  sins  and  privileges  of  the  clergy  broke  forth  into  open 
violence.  The  literary  portion  of  the  laity  put  into  circulation  heavy  accusa- 
tions and  bitter  satires  against  the  clergy,  (e)  Even  in  some  books  cf  pictures 
were  represented  many  scenes  from  the  lives  of  the  prelates,  in  contrast  with 
others  taken  from  the  humble  lives  of  Christ  and  his  apostles.  But  in  this 
way  the  Christian  spirit  maintained  its  rights,  or  at  least  preserved,  in  the 
midst  of  the  Church  a  full  liberty  sternly  to  reprove  such  enormities ;  and 
there  were  not  wanting  even  in  the  great  councils,  some  preachers  of  repent- 
ance, who  held  up  a  faithful  mirror  in  which  the  Church  could  recognize  its 
own  distorted  features.  (/)  There  were  always  many  among  the  clergy  wor- 
thy of  a  better  age,  who  felt  the  disgrace  of  their  times,  and  to  whom  it  was 


«)  Petrarca,  Epp.  sine  tit  Lib.  (Lngd.  1621.)  Ep.  10. 18.   Nic.  de  Clemangis,  de  ruina  Ecc.  c.  27 
1)  Oresmius  coram  Urbino  V.  (Flacii  Cat  test  ver.  N.  106.) 

c)  Cone.  Palentin.  a.  1322.  c.  7.  (Mansi  Th.  XXV.  p.  703.)    Nic.  de  Clemangis  c.  22.—  77ieiner 
erzw.  Ehelosigk.  vol.  II.  p.  591ss. 

d)  Gerson,  Dial  sophiae  et  naturae  super  caelib.  (Opp.  voL  II.  p.  617.)    More  slightly:  Pius  II 
(Platina  p.  645.) 

e)  Many  of  these  by  the  Troubadours  in  Diets,  (Zwick.  1S29.)  in  the  Fabliaux  et  contes  pnbl.  par 
M6on  (Par.  1808)  in  Flacii  Catal.  testium  veritatis,  Epp.  viror.  obscurorum.  Pasquilli  (Eleutheropol. 
1544.)  &  others. 

/)  The  discourses  of  Bemardus  Saptisatua,  Theobaldu*  &  others  in  ffardt,  Const  Cone.  Th.  I 
P.  XVIII.  p.  879ss. 


CHAP.  IIL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  2T2.  CLEEGT.    §  2T3.  PEOPLE.  315 

evident  that  so  contemptible  a  hierarchy  could  no  longer  control  the  hearts 
of  men.  (g) 

§  273.     The  Religious  Character  of  the  People.     Cont.  from  §  200. 

The  gradual  transformation  which  had  taken  place  in  the  character  of  the 
.  people  did  not  publicly  manifest  itself  until  near  the  close  of  this  period. 
Superstition  was  not  yet  eradicated,  but  the  enthusiasm  and  poetic  fervor  it 
had  displayed  in  former  times  had  gradually  disappeared,  and  the  exuberance 
of  fancy  which  had  been  enlisted  in  its  service  now  gave  way  before  the 
efforts  of  the  understanding.  These  had  been  awakened  to  the  highest  inten- 
sity by  the  exigences  of  the  real  world,  and  in  order  to  obtain  the  comforts 
of  life.  Not  only  had  the  morals  of  the  people  been  endangered  with  re- 
spect to  individual  actions,  but  the  very  principles  on  which  they  were  founded 
had  been  changed  by  the  free  sale  of  indulgences.  Still  the  Christian  spirit 
and  the  common  sense  of  the  people  always  returned  again  to  the  great  ele- 
ments of  moral  truth.  Literature  and  science  then  reviving  in  great  vigor, 
were  generally  clothed  in  a  learned  dress,  and  confined  to  the  Latin  language. 
The  people  were  not  prepared  to  enjoy  the  benefit  of  the  new  art  of  print- 
ing until  they  had  learned  to  read.  While  the  lower  clergy  remained  so 
ignorant,  it  was  needless  to  employ  any  special  art  to  retain  the  people  in  that 
state  of  pupilage  without  which  no  hierarchy  will  be  tolerated,  and  yet  we 
find  some  institutions  like  the  censorship  of  the  press,  the  inquisition,  and  the 
limitations  imposed  upon  the  use  of  translations  of  the  Bible,  which  clearly 
evince  an  intention  of  keeping  the  people  in  a  degraded  condition.  The 
proofs,  however,  which  we  possess,  that  the  people  were  generally  ignorant 
and  corrupt,  (a)  refer  principally  to  Northern  Germany,  and  to  the  lowest 
classes.  The  best  domestic  chaplains  were  the  mothers,  (5)  and  knowledge,  not 
sincerity  or  strong  religious  feeling,  was  wanting.  It  was  night,  but  in  many 
respects  a  sacred  night.  Knighthood,  and  consequently  the  true  basis  of  an 
aristocracy,  had  been  undermined  by  the  use  of  gunpowder,  the  legal  consti- 
tutions of  the  several  states,  and  the  new  power  of  the  commercial  classes. 
Even  the  poetry  of  chivalry  had  been  exchanged  in  the  schools  which  the 
Master-singers  who  lived  near  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  held  in 
the  different  cities,  for  lays  which  related  more  to  the  ordinary  lives  of  the 
middle  and  laboring  classes.  The  popular  elements  contained  in  the  ancient 
poetry  were  made  more  prominent,  and  modern  improvements  were  added  to 
them  as  in  the  Low-German  fable  of  Reynard  the  Fox.  During  the  strug- 
gle then  in  progress  between  the  Church  and  the  State,  a  third  estate  had 
been  gradually  formed  by  the  side  of  the  nobility  and  the  clergy,  which  had 

g)  After  Gerson,  Theod.  a.  Niem,  and  especially  Nic.  de  Clemangis,  de  ruina  Eccl.  (Hardi, 
Const  Cone.  vol.  I.  P.  III.) 

a)  Collected  in  the  first  chapters  of  the  Histories  of  the  Eeformation.  e.  g.  El.  VejelU  Hist  et 
necessitas  reform,  ev.  Ulm.  1688.  Loscfier,  Eef.  Acta,  vol.  I.  p.  109ss.  Spieker,  Luther,  vol.  I.  p.  STss. 
61ss.  Bretachneider,  Luthers  Schilder.  d.  sittl.  Verd.  Detitschl.  (Eef.  Alman.  1817.  p.  212ss.)  [His- 
tories by  Ranke  (transl.  by  Mrs.  Austin),  Waddington,  Stebbiny,  Soames,  Scott,  D^Aubigne,  and 
others.]  On  the  other  side  Betr.  u.  d.  Zust  d.  K.  im  15.  u.  Anf.  16.  Jahrh  in  Bezug.  a.  d.  Nothw , 
einer  d.  Grundl.  d.  K.  verletzenden  Eef  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1S31.  P.  4.) 

H)  Predigten  d.  Fursten  Georg  v.  Anhalt  Witt  1555.  p.  289. 


816  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

become  acquainted  with  the  pleasures  of  mental  freedom  and  of  civilization. 
In  Italy,  especially,  where  the  doctrines  of  the  Ghibelline  party  were  com- 
mon, where  classical  studies  were  cultivated,  and  the  papacy  was  seen  in  its 
corruptions  at  home,  this  class  became  indifferent  to  the  Church,  and  some- 
times to  Christianity  itself,  though  it  condescended  to  allow  the  popular  re- 
ligion to  remain  unmolested,  (c)  In  Germany,  especially,  a  healthy  energy 
Btill  remained,  and  many  had  tasted  of  intellectual  freedom  in  consequence  of 
the  municipal  liberties  they  had  acquired.  Such  were  therefore  prepared  to 
repel  every  unlawful  aggression  which  might  be  made  upon  them  in  civil  or 
ecclesiastical  affairs. 

§  274.    Survey  of  the  Monastic  Life.     Vont.  from  §  265. 

.  The  more  ancient  orders  lived  in  retirement,  some  of  them  strictly  observ- 
ing their  original  severity  of  discipline,  but  most  of  them  in  the  enjoyment 
of  great  wealth.  Frequently  scarcely  a  semblance  of  their  original  rule  re- 
mained, and  sometimes  vows  were  made  by  the  members  that  they  would  not 
regard  it.  The  convents,  in  some  instances,  became  places  of  the  most  shame- 
less lewdness,  and  the  most  unnatural  crimes  were  concealed  within  their 
walls.  Various  attempts  at  reform  were  therefore  made  during  the  fifteenth 
century,  especially  at  Constance  and  Basle,  and  were  partially  carried  to  a 
successful  issue  by  the  right  or  wrong  means  used  by  the  ecclesiastical  depu- 
ties, the  bishops  and  the  local  princes ;  but  they  were  generally  repelled  by 
those  who  resided  in  the  convents,  sometimes  with  subtilty  and  insolence,  and 
sometimes  with  powerless  desperation,  (a)  A  careful  system  of  legislation 
respecting  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  private  members  of  the  orders  was 
gradually  perfected  in  the  decretals.  (J)  The  prohibition  issued  at  the  fourth 
Council  of  Lateran  (§  204)  was  not  sufficient  to  prevent  a  monastic  commu- 
nity from  sometimes  gathering  around  some  extraordinary  master  spirit,  or 
from  being  gradually  and  imperceptibly  formed  where  persons  of  like  dispo- 
sitions were  brought  into  contact.  These  peculiar  associations  generally  found 
some  pope  who  could  be  induced  to  recognize  them  as  incorporate  commu- 
nities. The  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  age  which  had  called  into  exist- 
ence and  given  such  success  to  the  mendicant  friars,  induced  many  to  follow 
their  example ;  but  for  want  of  some  effective  and  prominent  character  in  the 
commencement,  they  could  never  attain  important  form  or  influence.  Inno- 
cent IV.  (1245),  to  console  the  Carmelites  for  the  loss  of  the  Holy  Land,  con- 
ceded to  them  the  privileges  of  mendicant  friars,  (c)  Alexander  IV.  (1256) 
conferred  the  same  privileges  upon  the  Augustinian  Hermits,  whom  ha 
gathered  together  from  various  scattered  associations  of  monks,  and  united 
under  the  rule  of  Augustine,  (d)  Martin  V.,  after  exhibiting  many  tokens 


c)  Kapps,  Ref.  Urk.  voL  II.  p.  807.  499.  Herike,  Freigeisterei  u.  Atheismus  in  ItaHen.  Anh.  z 
Uebers.  v.  Tillers,  u.  d.  Kef.  p.  469ss. 

a)  Instar  omnium :  Jo.  JBusch  (d.  1479)  de  reform,  monasteriorum  quorundam  Saxon.  (Leiln 
Scrr.  Brunsu,  vol.  II.  p.  476.  806ss.) 

1)  Greg.  Ill,  31.  Sext.  Ill,  14.    Clem.  Ill,  9.    Extr.  comm.  Ill,  8.  &  others. 

c)  Bullarium  Carmelitanum.  Rom.  1715ss.  P.  I.  p.  4ss. 

d)  Bullarium  Rom.  vol.  I.  p.  110.  A  eta  S3.  Febr.  vol.  IL  p.  447. 


CHAP.  IIL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  274.  CONVENTS.    §  275.  BEGHINES,  317 

of  his  dislike  toward  them,  granted  similar  privileges  to  the  Sermtes  (Servi  b, 
Mariae  Virg.),  an  order  which  originated  (1233)  in  a  religious  excitement 
among  some  gentlemen  belonging  to  the  principal  families  of  Florence,  and 
which  was  intended  to  celebrate  the  honors  of  the  divine  Virgin  and  her  sor- 
rows. 0)  Colombino,  while  perusing  the  lives  of  the  saints  was  excited  to 
renounce  the  highest  power  in  the  government  of  Siena  for  the  most  menial 
occupations,  and  founded,  in  accordance  with  the  rule  of  Augustine,  the  order 
of  the  Jesuites,  (/)  which  was  confirmed  by  Urban  Y.  (1367)  as  an  order  of 
mendicant  lay  brethren,  but  was  abolished  by  Clement  IX.  (1668)  as  wealthy 
padri  del' acquavite.  'Finally  Francisco  de  Paolo  (d.  1507),  whose  life  is 
represented  to  have  been  a  monstrous  caricature  of  the  life  of  Jesus,  founded 
an  exaggerated  resemblance  of  the  order  of  the  Minorites,  in  that  of  the 
Minimi,  incorporated  by  Sixtus  IV.  (1474)  and  confirmed  with  a  gradual 
enlargement  of  their  rule  by  Alexander  VI.  (1492,  1501),  and  Julius  II. 
(1506).  (ff)  In  Spain  and  in  Italy  there  were  certain  hermits,  who  were  united 
in  congregations,  and  assumed  the  name  of  St.  Hieronymus  (after  1370). 
Some  of  these  lived  according  to  the  rule  of  Augustine,  but  under  the  patron- 
age of  Hieronymus,  and  others  were  governed  by  a  rule  derived  from  the 
writings  of  him  whose  name  they  bore.  (Ji)  The  OUvetans  (Congr.  S.  Mariae 
montis  Oliveti)  were  founded  as  a  congregation  of  Benedictines  in  a  wilder- 
ness near  Siena  by  John  Tolomei,  in  commemoration  of  the  recovery  of  his 
sight,  and  were  recognized  by  John  XXII.  (1319).  (i)  With  the  approbation 
of  Urban  V.  (1379)  Birgitte  (d.  1373),  a  pious  seeress,  belonging  to  the  royal 
house  of  Sweden,  who  had  fulfilled  the  duties  of  a  wife  and  a  mother,  < 
founded  the  order  of  the  Eedeemer  (commonly  called  Ordo  S.  Birgittae). 
The  rule  of  this  order  required  that  there  should  be  in  each  convent  sixty 
nuns,  and  for  the  performance  of  its  spiritual  duties  thirteen  priests,  four  dea- 
cons, and  eight  lay  brethren.  All  these,  with  the  numerous  convents  of  the 
order  in  the  northern  countries,  were  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  .abbess 
of  Wadstena,  who  was  regarded  as  the  representative  of  the  holy  Virgin.  (&) 

§  275.     More  Independent  Associations. 

As  early  as  in  the  eleventh  century  some  women  in  the  Netherlands  asso- 
ciated together,  without  entering  into  any  absolute  vows,  for  the  perform- 
ance of  works  of  mercy,  and  were  popularly  named  Begliines,  or  praying 
sisters.  Their  number  increased  during  the  thirteenth  century,  when  many 
could  not  be  satisfied  without  something  more  than  a  connection  with  either 
the  general  Church  or  with  the  convents,  or  were  too  poor  to  assume  the 
veil.  A  more  honorable  kind  of  nunneries  (the  Canonissae  saeculares)  was 
also  established  for  the  noble  widows  and  the  orphan  children  of  the  cru- 
saders. The  example  of  the  Beghines  was  soon  followed  by  certain  men  who 

e)  Pauli  Florent.  Dial  de  orig.  0.  Serv.  (Lamii  Delia  Erud.  Th.  I.  p.  Iss.) 

/)  Acta  S3.  Jul.  Th.  VII.  p.  333ss. 

g)  Acta  S3.  Apr.  Th.  I.  p.  103ss.    JTelyot,  Th.  VII.  p.  426ss. 

h)  Holsten.  Brockie  Th.  III.  p.  43.  Th.  IV.  p.  Iss.       t)  Baynald.  ad  ann.  1320.  N.  50. 

fc)  Birgittae  revelationes,  ed.  TurrecrematO;  Lub.  1492.  Mon.  1680.  f.  &  often.  Life  in :  Vasto- 
tii  Vitis  Aquilonia  s.  Vitae  8S.  in  Scandinavia.  CoL  1623.  f.  c.  notis  Erici  £emel,  Ups.  1708.  4.  Kule 
In  Hasten.  BrocTcie  Th.  III.  p.  lOOss. 


?18  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

were  called  Beghards.  (a)  A  peculiar  class  of  these  people,  whose  office  it 
was  to  attend  upon  the  sick  and  to  bury  the  dead,  proceeded  also  (about 
1300)  from  the  Netherlands,  and  were  called  from  their  patron  saint 
Alexiani,  from  the  huts  in  which  they  resided,  Cellitae,  and  from  their  low 
funeral  chants,  Lollards  (Nollbruder).  There  was  naturally  an  intercourse 
between  these  fraternities  and  the  Tertiaries  connected  with  the  mendicant 
orders,  and  there  were  many  unobserved  transitions  from  the  one  to  the 
other.  Accordingly  after  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  they 
were  thrown  into  a  hostile  position  with  respect  to  the  hierarchy,  and  the 
suspicions  of  the  inquisition  had  been  awakened,  many  Beghines  betook 
themselves  to  the  communities  of  the  Tertiaries,  and  again,  when  the  Minor- 
ites became  involved  in  party  conflicts,  many  of  them  became  connected 
with  the  Beghards  and  Lollards,  since  these  were  regarded  as  their  compan- 
ions in  sufferings  and  hopes,  and  were  likewise  then  persecuted  as  heretics. 
But  after  the  time  of  John  XXTT.  the  popes  protected  against  the  inquisition 
those  engaged  only  in  works  of  charity.  (I)  In  the  same  country,  distin- 
guished as  the  home  of  practical  views,  was  formed  under  the  influence  of 
Gerhard  Groot  of  Deventer  (d.  1884),  a  powerful  preacher  of  repentance,  a 
society  called  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life^  which  was  composed  princi- 
pally of  clergymen  engaged  in  copying  books.  The  convent  of  regular 
canons  at  Windesheiin  (1386),  with  which  all  similar  institutions  were  con- 
nected, became  the  spiritual  centre  of  this  community.  Some  of  its  mem- 
bers remained  in  connection  with  the  parishes  where  they  resided,  and  others 
lived  in  the  houses  of  the  brethren,  supported  by  the  profits  derived  from 
their  common  occupations.  The  latter  were  bound  by  a  special  vow  to  re- 
fuse all  secular,  literary,  and  ecclesiastical  honors,  and  the  lives  of  all  were  to 
be  devoted  to  pious  exercises  and  studies,  in  which  nothing  was  to  be  allowed 
unless  it  tended  to  their  improvement.  Laymen  were  admitted  as  members, 
houses  were  also  established  for  sisters,  the  literary  education  of  the  youth 
was  conducted  on  Christian  principles,  and  the  perusal  of  the  Scriptures  in 
the  vernacular  language  was  encouraged,  but  the  grand  object  of  the  society 
was  the  cultivation  of  their  own  spiritual  happiness,  (c) 

§  2Y6.     TJie  Templars  and  the  Knights  of  St.  John.     Cont.  from  §  211. 

Raynald.  ad  ann.  1307-13.  P.  du  Puyt  Hist  de  la  condamnation  des  Templiere.  Par.  1650.  4. 
Frkf.  1665.  4,  Moldenhawer,  Process  gegen  d.  O.  d.  Tempi  a.  d.  Acten  d.  papstl.  Commiss.  Hamb. 
1792.  JRaynouard,  Monumens.  hist  relatifs.  a  la  condamnation  des  Chevaliers  du  Temple.  Par. 
1813.  in  Michdet,  Proces  des  Templiers.  Par.  1841.  4.  MaWard  d«  Chambure,  Edgle  et  statutes 
secrets  des  Temp.,  precedees  de  I'hist  de  retablissement,  do  la  destruction  et  de  la  continuation 
moderne.  Par.  1841. 

Dark  rumors  began  to  prevail  respecting  the  secret  crimes  committed  by 

a)  Mosheim,  de  Beghardis  et  Beguinabus,  ed.  Martini,  Lps.  1T90.  E.  HaUmann,  Gesch.  d.  Urspr. 
d.  belgischen  Beghinen.  Berl.  1S48.  [Monheim.  Eccles.  Hist.  Cent  XIII.  Chap.  IL  §  40.  note  r.) 

I)  Bulls  of  John  XXIL  and  Greg.  XL  1318.  1374.  and  1377.  in  Mosheim.  1.  c.  p.  896.  40L  627. 

c)  L  Lives  of  Gerhard  and  Florentius  by  Thomas  a  Kempis.  (Opp.  ed.  Sommalius,  Antu.  1607. 
4.  p.  765.)  J.  Susch,  Chronicon  Windesemense,  ed.  Rosweide,  Antu.  1621.— II.  Clarisse  (Son  and 
Father)  over  den  Geest  en  de  Denkwyze  van  Geert  Groot  (Archief  voor  kerkelije  Geschiedenis. 

1829.  voL  L  p.  355.  1830.  voL  II.  p.  347.)    Delprat,  over  de  Broederschap  van  G.  Groote.  Utrecht 

1830.  with  an  App.  by  Mohnike,  Lpz.  1840.     Ullmann,  Eeformatoren  v.  d.  Eef.  voL  II.  p.  62ss. 


CHAP.  III.    EOCLES.  LIFE.    §276.  TEMPLAES.    KNIGHTS  OF  ST.  JOHN.       319 

the  Templars.  Philip  the  Fair  commenced  an  actual  investigation  of  these, 
by  the  imprisonment  of  all  the  Templars  then  in  Trance,  for  which  he  had 
made  secret  preparation,  and  by  the  confiscation  of  their  property  (Oct.  13, 
1307).  The  charges  especially  urged  against  them  were  a  denial  of  Christ, 
adoration  of  the  idol  called  Baphomet,  and  unnatural  lewdness.  The  pro- 
ceedings before  the  royal  commission  at  Paris,  which  issued  in  the  condem- 
nation of  the  order,  were  characterized  by  the  grossest  injustice  and  illegali- 
ties. It  is  indeed  true  that  more  than  once  the  interests  of  Christendom  had 
been  sacrificed  to  the  selfish  policy  of  the  order,  and  it  is  probable  that  some 
knights  had  been  guilty  of  unnatural  vices,  that  the  order  had  become  per- 
vaded by  a  spirit  hostile  to  the  Church,  and  that  a  few  Grand  Commanderies 
had  been  indifferent  to  the  religious  controversies  of  the  day.  Nothing, 
however,  was  legally  proved  against  the  order.  It  was  evident  that  Philip 
was  eager  to  get  possession  of  the  wealth  belonging  to  the  Templars,  and  to 
break  up  the  government  which  they  had  formed  within  and  independent  of 
his  own.  Clement  V.  sacrificed  them  to  obtain  the  favor  of  the  king,  and 
this  proud  order  of  knights  could  expect  no  aid,  for  it  had  lost  the  friendship 
of  the  clergy  (a)  Even  before  the  proceedings  were  concluded,  fifty-four 
knights  were  burned  by  order  of  Philip  (May  12,  1310),  because  no  confes- 
sion could  be  extorted  from  them  by  all  the  power  of  the  rack.  As  a  matter 
of  expediency  and  not  from  regard  to  a  judicial  sentence,  the  order  was 
abolished  by  Clement  (May  3,  1312);  (5)  Its  property  was  to  have  been 
given  to  the  other  orders  of  knighthood,  but  in  France  ,the  king  firmly 
grasped  the  reward  of  his  guilt.  James  of  Malay,  the  Grand  Master  of  the 
order,  who  with  other  high  functionaries  had  been  condemned  to  perpetual 
imprisonment,  was  burned  (March  19,  1314)  because  he  publicly  denied  cer- 
tain confessions  alleged  to  have  been  made  by  him.  (c)  The  people  looked 
upon  his  death  as  that  of  a  martyr,  and  upon  that  of  the  king  and  of  the 
pope,  which  speedily  followed  it,  as  special  citations  to  the  bar  of  God.  The 
fate  of  the  expiring  order  in  the  several  countries  where  it  prevailed  was 
different,  according  to  the  justice  or  favor  shown  toward  it  by  the  princes 
and  bishops,  and  the  courage  and  unanimity  exhibited  by  the  knights  them- 
selves. Except  in  France,  they  generally  were  permitted  to  enjoy  life,  lib- 
erty, and  a  competent  support  during  life.  The  memory  of  the  sainted 
Molay,  and  a  hope  that  the  ruined  Temple  would  in  some  future  day  be  re- 
stored, was  secretly  spread  abroad  among  the  people. — The  Knights  of  St. 
John,  deprived  of  Ptolemaig  by  the  Saracens,  settled  in  Cyprus,  but  having 
conquered  Khodes  (1310),  they  afterwards  made  it  the  principal  seat  of  their 
order.  The  tragical  fate  of  the  Templars,  in  whose  guilt  they  had  partici- 
pated and  whose  rivals  they  had  been,  was  not  beheld  by  them  in  vain.  As 
they  were  generally  connected  with  the  nobility  of  Europe,  and  possessed 

a)  Nicolai  u.  d.  Beschuldigungen,  welche  dem  T.  O.  gemacht  worden.  Brl.  1782.  On  the  other 
side :  Herder,  in  the  Mcrcur.  March,  1783.  Hunter  in  Henke's  N.  Mag.  vol.  V.  p.  351ss.  Hammer, 
Mysterium  Baphometis  revelatum.  (Ftmdgrub.  d.  Ori.  1818.  vol.  VI.  pt  1.)  Raynouard  in  the 
Journ.  des  Savans,  Mars,  Avr.  1819.  Biblioth.  univ.  vol.  X.  p.  327.  XI.  p.  8. 

V)  Mansi  vol.  XXV.  p.  889. 

c)  Villani  VIII,  92.  Contin.  Chron.  Guu.  ae  Nangis  in  WAcliery  Spicil.  vol.  III.  p.  67.  Kay 
nouard  L  c.  p.  205ss. 


320  MEDIAEVAL  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

great  power  on  the  sea,  their  order  became  a  formidable  bulwark  of  Chris- 
tendom against  the  Turks. 


CHAP.  IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LITERATUEE. 

§  277.    Scholasticism.    Second  Period.    13th  Century.     Cont.  from  §  218. 

Paris  now  gave  unequivocal  evidence  that  it  had  become  the  principal 
seat  of  a  scholasticism  which  developed  its  maturity  in  intimate  connection 
with  academic  life.  The  Physics,  the  Metaphysics,  and  the  Ethics  of  Aris- 
totle were  introduced  by  the  Arabians,  and  even  Thomas  made  use  of  a 
translation  from  the  original  Greek,  (a)  The  hierarchy  were  indeed  jealous 
of  the  ascendency  of  a  heathen  philosopher,  and  attempted  (after  1210)  to 
prohibit  the  use  of  the  whole,  or  at  least  of  a  part  of  his  writings,  but  even 
the  power  of  the  Church  was  ineffectual  against  a  prevalent  intellectual  ten- 
dency of  the  age.  Through  the  influence  of  the  mendicant  friars  especially, 
this  philosopher  was  regarded  as  the  harbinger  of  Christ,  and  the  representa- 
tive of  all  natural  science,  in  accordance  with  whose  principles  the  eternal 
truth  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  may  be  proved,  and  a  systematic  con- 
nection between  them  may  be  established.  (5)  But  the  spirit  of  the  Church 
was  as  powerful  as  a  philosophy  which  was  obliged  to  direct  its  energies 
wherever  the  highest  intellectual  interest  existed.  The  Franciscan  Alexan- 
der of  Hales,  a  master  of  theology  in  Paris  (Doctor  irrefragibilis,  d.  1245),  by 
his  acute  analysis  of  all  possible  questions,  already  indicated  what  was  to  be 
the  next  form  philosophy  would  assume,  and  at  the  same  time  showed  by  his 
practical  ecclesiastical  tendencies  the  peculiar  character  which  it  then  pos- 
sessed, (c)  The  little  Dominican  Albertus  of  Bollstadt  (d.  1280),  in  the  midst 
of  his  various  academic  and  ecclesiastical  engagements,  made  a  collection  of 
all  the  knowledge  of  his  age.  From  the  Arabians  he  derived  a  knowledge 
of  nature  and  of  its  mysteries,  (d)  By  his  history  of  the  Winter  Garden  and 
of  the  Speaking  Head,  he  obtained  the  reputation  of  being  a  wizard  and  a 
man  of  the  people,  (e)  and  from  his  relation  to  his  still  greater  pupil,  the 
saint,  he  received  the  appellation  of  the  Great.  The  Dominican  Thomas 
(Count)  of  Aquino  (d.  1274),  who  taught  in  Cologne,  Paris,  Rome,  and  other 
cities  of  Italy  (Doctor  angelicus),  and  who  refused  the  office  of  archbishop  of 
Naples,  his  native  country,  may  be  regarded  as  the  highest  point  of  Scholas- 
ticism. Subtle  and  profound,  full  of  enthusiasm  in  behalf  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  as  well  as  of  philosophy,  he  made  a  powerful  effort  to  effect  a 
reconciliation  between  Aristotle,  Plato,  and  Augustine.  The  order  to  which 

a)  Jourdain,  (p.  237.)  p.  40ss.  130ss. 

1)  Jourdain,  p.  198ss.  Bulaeus  vol.  III.  p.  81.  140ss.  Launoius,  de  varia  Aristot  In  Acad. 
Par.  fortuna.  Par.  1659.  4.  ed.  J.  H.  ab  Elswich,  Vit  1720.  Acta  Philosopher.  Hal.  1720.  St  XL  p. 
716.  St  XV.  p.  369. 

c)  Summa  univ.  TheoL  in  1.  IV.  Sentt  Yen.  1475.  Col.  1622.  4  vols.  f. 

d)  After  the  Commentaries  upon  Aristotle  and  Lombardus,  consult  Summa  Theol.,  physic,  and 
astrol.  -writings,  Opp.  ed.  P.  Jammy,  Lugd.  1651.  21  vols.  t.—Rudol.  Nomomagenais  de  vita  Alb, 
Magni.  Col.  1490.  f. 

e)  Gorres:  twit  Vo.ksbuch.  p.  27ss.    Volks-  n.  Meisterlieder.  Heidelb.  1S17.  p.  208ss. 


CHAP.  IV     ECCLES.  LIT.    §  2T8.  SCHOLASTICISM.    SCOTUS.  321 

he  belonged  has  been  accustomed  to  regard  his  Summa  as  the  most  perfect 
development  of  Christian  science,  and  even  the  Church,  after  some  hesitation, 
finally  received  it  as  a  work  in  which  Christ  himself  might  find  pleasure.  (/) 


§  278.  Scholasticism.  Third  Period.  lUJi  and  15th  Centuries. 
When  the  highest  intellectual  energies  had  been  exerted  to  harmonize  the 
two  great  authorities  of  the  age,  the  only  alternative  for  science  in  its  pro- 
gress, was  to  direct  its  attention  to  the  differences  which  existed  between 
them.  But  this  struggle  with  the  internal  and  external  power  of  the  Church 
was  manifested  in  a  play  of  bold  questions  which  exceeded  the  proper 
province  of  theology,  and  although  they  were  all  so  decided  as  not  to  con- 
flict with  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  in  the  mere  proposal  of  them  intellec- 
tual freedom  was  preserved,  and  an  obscure  dissatisfaction  was  shown  toward 
the  limitations  imposed  upon  it.  The  remark  that  a  principle  might  be  true 
in  philosophy  and  yet  be  false  in  theology,  betrays  the  doubt  which  Scholas- 
ticism felt  with  respect  to  its  own  ultimate  tendencies.  The  leaders  of  this 
school  generally  came  from  those  orders  which  were  most  prone  to  disagree 
with  the  Church.  Duns  Scotus,  a  teacher  in  Oxford,  Paris,  and  Cologne 
(Doctor  subtilis,  d.  1308),  recognized  man  as  an  individual  created  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  consequently  in  his  original  condition  pure  and  free,  but 
limited  by  his  connection  with  the  world,  and  capable  of  redemption,  so  as 
to  possess  a  true  divine  intuition  only  by  the  power  of  the  Church,  (a) 
William  of  Occam,  a  teacher  in  Paris  (venerabilis  inceptor),  after  1322  the 
provincial  of  the  Franciscan  order  in  England,  and  after  1328  a  resident  at 
the  court  of  Louis  (p.  299,  d.  1347),  wielded  the  sword  of  a  free  spirit  not 
only  in  his  doctrine  but  in  his  life.  He  however  knew  no  other  way  to  res- 
cue the  absolute  doctrines  of  the  Church  but  by  asserting,  in  accordance  with 
a  new  form  of  Nominalism,  the  subjective  conditions  under  which  all  human 
knowledge  must  be  placed.  (5)  The  old  controversy  respecting  Nominalism 
was  consequently  revived,  and  although  Louis  XI.  had  proscribed  (1473)  it  as 
dangerous,  and  with  a  similar  stretch  of  arbitrary  power  had  subsequently 
(1481)  (tf)  invited  a  free  discussion  of  it,  victory  now  preponderated  in  its 
favor.  The  Franciscans,  delighted  with  the  prospect  of  opposing  the  mys- 
terious subtlety  of  their  Scotus  to  the  saintly  authority  of  Thomas,  now 
resolved  to  follow  none  but  him.  The  controversies  respecting  the  proper 
limits  of  human  freedom,  the  satisfaction  of  Christ,  and  the  sinlessness  of 
Mary,  were  only  subordinate  elements  in  the  intricate  conflict  in  which  the 
Thomists  and  the  Scotists,  the  Realists  and  the  Nominalists,  proved  the  full 

/)  Comm.  in  1.  IV.  Sententiarum.  Summa  Theol.  in  3  P.  (3  vols.  incomplete,  supplied  by  Suppl. 
e  Comm.  in  4.  1.  Sentt.)  Comment,  u.  Bucher  d.  Arist.  u.  d.  h.  Schrift,  apolog.  u.  asket.  Schrr.  Opp. 
Horn.  1570.  17  vols.  f.  and  often.  Ven.  1745ss.  28  vols.  4.—  Acta  SS.  Mart  vol.  I.  p.  655.  Touron, 
Vie  de  S.  Thomas.  Par.  1737.  4.  Bern,  de  Rubeis  de  gestis  et  Scrr.  S.  Thomae.  Ven.  1750.  f.  Kling 
u.  d.  Theol.  d.  Thorn.  (Sengler's  rel.  Zeitschr.  1833.  vol.  III.  H.  1.)  H.  IToertil,  Thorn,  u.  s.  Zeit. 
Augsb.  1846.  [Art  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  Bib.  Lit  vol.  I.  p.  1.] 

a)  Quaestiones  in  1.  IV.  Sentt  Qnesth  quodlibefales  XL  Opp.  ed.  Wadding,  Lugd.  1639ss.  12  Th. 
f.—  F.  E.  Albergoni  Kesolutio  doctr.  Scoticae.  Lugd.  1643.  Baumgarten-Crusius,  de  Theol.  Scoti 
Jen.  1826.  4. 

I)  Quaestiones  super  1.  IV.  Sentt  Centiloquium  theol.  Lugd.  1495.  f. 

c)  Bulaeus  Th.  V.  p.  706ss.    Comp.  Uttmann,  Wessel.  p.  827ss. 
21   - 


322  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1511. 

power  of  their  intellectual  and  spiritual  weapons.  (<7)  The  systematic  char- 
acter of  Scholasticism  became  much  relaxed  in  such  polemic  engagements, 
and  in  the  conflicts  of  the  schools  it  lost  its  religious  earnestness.  Its  decline 
had  already  commenced  when  it  refused  its  countenance  to  the  new  form  in 
which  science  now  made  its  appearance.  It  had,  however,  aroused  men  to 
freedom  of  thought,  given  a  rigidly  scientific  form  to  the  doctrines  of  faith, 
and  presented  the  true  questions  on  which  philosophy  should  bo  employed. 
It  had  therefore  fulfilled  its  destiny  by  giving  a  definite  form  to  the  existing 
materials.  Gabriel  Biel  (d.  1495)  is  usually  mentioned  as  the  last  of  the 
Scholastics.  He  was  the  faithful  counsellor  of  Count  Eberhard  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  high  school  of  Tubingen  (1477),  and  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  Occam  in  a  liberal  opposition  to  the  papacy.  He  was  also  much 
engaged  in  making  known  the  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  but  he  was  of  a  modest 
spirit,  and  inclined  to  favor  a  scriptural  and  practical  Christianity.  (V) 

§  279.    Mysticism.    Second  Period.     Cont.  from  §  219. 

Arnold,  Lebcn  d.  Glaublgen.  Hal  1701.  Arnoldi  Hist,  ct  dcscr.  TbcoL  mysticae.  Frcf.  1702.  p. 
292ss.  D6  Wetto,  chr.  Sittenl.  Brl.  1621.  vol.  II.  H.  2.  p.  220ss.  Ch.  Schmidt,  Essal  sur  les  Mystiques 
da  quatorzlemo  slecle.  Straab.  188C.  4  VUmann,  Eeformatoren  vor  d.  Ref.  voL  IL  p.  12588.  /'. 
Galle,  Oelstl.  Stimmen  a,  d.  MA.  Hal.  1841.— F.  Pfel/er,  deutscbe  Mystlker  d.  14  Jabrh.  Lpz.  1S45. 
vol.  I.  (the  less  Important) 

The  course  of  Scholasticism  was  always  completed  by  the  prevalence  of 
Mysticism.  It  WAS  not,  however,  until  it  had  become  much  degenerated  in 
the  wranglings  of  the  schools,  that  new  advocates  began  to  arise,  who  es- 
caped from  the  tumult  of  the  buyers  and  sellers  to  find  a  refuge  in  the  inner 
sanctuary,  and  now  defended  the  cause  of  Christian  feeling  principally  in  the 
German  language,  and  with  a  German  spirit.  There  were  two  tendencies 
distinguishable  among  them,  although  they  are  often  blended  together.  The 
first  was  a  class  of  persons  addicted  to  speculative  reveries,  and  may  be 
traced  back  to  Erigena,  Dionysius,  and  the  New  Platonists.  They  described 
the  extinction  of  all  selfishness  and  the  perfection  of  holy  love  as  an  absorp- 
tion of  the  soul  in  God,  and  more  or  less  consciously  interpreted  ecclesiastical 
dogmas  simply  as  allegories.  And  yet  so  strong  were  their  moral  and  eccle- 
siastical tendencies,  that  this  was  always  connected  with  a  recognition  of  a 
creation,  and  of  the  historical  son  of  God.  Master  Eckard  alone,  the  pro- 
vincial of  the  Dominicans  at  Cologne,  by  his  feeling  of  nearness  and  ardent 
love  to  God,  attained  such  a  giddy  height  that  he  lost  all  consciousness  of 
the  distinction  between  God  and  man,  Christ  and  the  Christian,  good  and 
evil,  and  his  memory  was  attainted  by  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals  (1329).  (a) 
John  Tauler,  a  Dominican  residing  at  Cologne  and  Strasbourg  (Doctor  sub- 

d)  Arada,  Controversiae  inter  8.  Thomam  et  Scotam  super  IV.  1.  Sentt  Col.  1620.  4    Bulaeua, 
Th.  IV.  p.  298SS.    Argentre  Th.  I.  p.  842ss. 

e)  Collcctorium  ex  Occamo  in  1.  IV.  Sentt  (Tub.  1502.  2  vols.)  Brix.  1574.  4  vols.  4  Sermrn.  de 
Temp.  Tub.  1500.  4.—  Trithem.  de  Scrr.  ecc.  c.  908.     Moseri  Vitae  Profess.  Tubing.  Tub.  1718.  4 
Decas  L    IT.  W.  Bid,  (pr.  Wernsdorf)  de  Gab.  Biel,  celeberrimo  Papista  Antipaplsta.  Vit  1719.  4 

a)  Raynald.  ad  ann.  1329.  N.  70.  Docen,  Miscell.  z.  Gescb.  d.  deut  Literat  vol.  I.  p.  ISSss.  C. 
Schmidt,  Meister  Eckard.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1839.  II.  8.)  IT.  Martensen,  Meister  Eck.  Theol.  Stadia 
Ilamb.  1842. 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIT.    §  279.  TAULEE.    KUYSBEOEK.    8TJSO.  323 

Smis  et  illuminatus,  d.  1361),  after  preaching  for  some  time  in  a  spiritual  and 
acceptable  manner,  became  convinced  by  a  layman  (Nicolas  of  Basle)  that  his 
spirit  had  never  been  truly  consecrated  to  God  by  a  complete  death  to  the 
world  and  to  himself.  He  immediately  became,  in  consequence  of  his  utter 
despair  of  himself,  a  most  awakening  preacher  to  others.  In  strange  lan- 
guage he  allured  them  to  seek  for  intellectual  poverty  as  the  true  way  to 
become  like  God,  and  invited  them  to  taste  the  delicious  pleasure  of  com- 
pletely dying  in  God.  (5)  Standing  in  no  need  of  sensible  imagery,  and  set 
at  liberty  by  God  himself,  he  preached  that  the  spiritual  and  the  temporal 
sword  should  never  be  used  in  the  place  of  one  another .;  that  in  the  con- 
flicts between  civil  princes  the  poor  innocent  people  should  not  be  placed 
under  the  curse,  and  that  if  they  were,  the  curse  would  become  a  blessing. 
It  was  not  long  before  he  himself  experienced  the  power  of  such  a  curse,  (c) 
John  Ruysbro,elc  (Doctor  ecstaticus,  d.  1381),  having  been  long  employed  in 
the  service  of  the  Church,  sought  to  find  a  quiet  retirement  in  the  Augus- 
tinian  convent  of  Gruenthal,  near  Brussels,  in  which  he  recorded  his  thoughts 
in  a  simple  and  monotonous  but  lofty  manner,  under  the  impression  that 
they  were  inspired  by  God.  He  described  the  sacred  frenzy  of  love  as 
merely  a  state  of  transition,  and  the  higher  life  as  a  perpetual  birth  of  the 
Son  and  an  everlasting  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  within  us.  He  warned 
men  against  spiritual  indolence,  recognized  the  moral  power  of  the  will,  but 
commended  mental  ecstasy  as  the  highest  state  of  existence,  because  in  ?t 
man  is  released  from  the  images  and  veils  of  his  own  being,  and  sunk  in  the 
abyss  of  divine  love,  (d}  Even  the  German  Theology  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury expended  its  principal  strength  in  discussing  subjects  relating  to  perfec- 
tion and  its  several  degrees,  the  extinction  of  Adam  and  the  formation  of 
Christ  in  us,  and  the  necessary  processes  of  becoming  human  and  divine. 
These  expressions,  however,  could  readily  have  been  adopted  by  a  simple 
pious  spirit,  as  mere  descriptions  of  that  revelation  of  an  exalted  love  of 
God  out  of  which  they  sprung,  (e)  A  transition  from  this  position  may  be 
noticed  in  the  Dominican  Henry  8uso  (d.  in  Ulm,  1365),  who  was  said  to 
have  been  named  Amandus  by  God  himself.  Even  in  his  youth  he  had  been 
remarkable  for  an  affectionate  spirit,  and  troubled  with  the  sorrows  of  every 
thing  around  him.  He  appears  in  the  character  of  a  Suabian  Minnesinger, 

&)  tfachfolgung  des  annen  Lebens  Ohristi,  Mark  d.  Seele,  &  others.  Lpz.  1498.  Augsb.  1503.  &  often. 
Works  conformed  to  the  present  forms  of  language,  and  ed.  by  Casseder,  Luz.  1823.  Unchanged 
edition  of  the  annen  Lebens  Christi,  with  Lexicon  Taulerianum  by  Schlosser,  Frkf.  1833.  von  d. 
Leiden  uns.  Ilerrn.  Sulz.  1837.  Opp.  lat  redd.  Surius,  CoL  1548.  £  Predigten.  Frkf.  1S26.  3  vols. 
Prefixed  to  these,  the  history  of  his  conversion  by  himself :  Historic' des  Ehrw.  d.  Joh.  Tauler.— 
JTeupelius,  Memoria  Taul.  instaur.  Vit  16S8.  4.  Oberlin,  de  TauL  dictione  vern.  et  myst  Arg 
1186.  4.  <7.  Schmidt,  J.  Taul.  Hamb.  1841.  liudelbach,  chr.  Biogr.  p.  ISTss.  [B.  Baehring,  J.  T 
u.  d.  Freunde  Gottes.  Lps.  1854. 12.] 

c)  Specklirta  Collectaneen  ad  ann.  1350.    Schmidt,  p.  53ss. 

d)  De  ornatu  spiritualium  nuptiarum.  Speculum  aet  salutis,  etc.  Opp.  e.  Brabantlae  germanico 
idiom  redd.  lat.  par  L.  Surium,  Col.  1555.  f.  and  often.    His  Vita  by  a  brother  Dominican  of  the 
next  generation,  revised  by  Surius.    Four  treatises  of  Eusb.  in  Low  Germ.  (ed.  by  Amswaldt.) 
Praef.  by  Ullmann,  Han.  1848.— Engelhardt  (p.  240.  n.  b.)  p.  165ss, 

e)  Teutsche  Theologia,  ed.  by  Luther,  Witt  1516.  4,  by  Orell.  Brl.  1817.  by  F.  L.  Kruger, 
Lemgo.  1822.  by  Detzer,  Erl.  1827.  by  Troxler,  S.  Gallen,  1837.  by  Viesenthal,  Berl.  1842.  by  Pfeif- 
Ser  Stuttg.  1851.  comp.  Ullmann  in  Stud.  u.  Krit  1852.  H.  4. 


324  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-151T. 

but  the  mistress  of  his  affections,  to  whom  he  devoted  himself  in  mysterious 
longings,  and  with  all  the  passion  of  youth,  was  eternal  "Wisdom.  In  pursuit 
of  this  he  tortured  himself  for  many  years,  until  his  nature  became  utterly 
wasted.  He  was  then  favored  by  God  with  still  severer  trials,  in  the  endur- 
ance of  which  he  succeeded  in  attaining  the  tranquillity  of  divine  love,  and 
became  lost  in  that  divine  nature  which  is  the  real  essence  of  all  creatures. 
His  fundamental  doctrine  was,  that  a  passive  human  being  must  be  divested 
of  the  creature,  formed  anew  in  the  likeness  of  Christ,  and  perfected  in  tho 
Deity.  There  was  a  vigorous  moral  spirit  in  his  ardent  love  which  sought  to 
save  every  thing  ruined  by  sin  around  him.  (/)  The  other  tendency  of  Mys- 
ticism was  directed  to  tho  simple  wants  of  the  heart  and  of  the  people. 
Thomas  (Hamerken)  of  Kempen,  a  canon  of  the  convent  of  Mount  St.  Agnes, 
near  Zwoll  (d.  1471),  in  spite  of  his  zeal  for  monasticism  and  the  worship  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  by  his  writings  as  well  as  by  his  private  counsels  uncon- 
sciously led  many  from  the  Roman  Church  to  the  true  Church  of  the  heart, 
by  a  quiet  communion  of  the  sonl  with  God  and  Jesus  Christ.  (0)  Tho  book 
on  the  Imitation  of  Christ,  respecting  the  author  of  which  whole  orders  of 
monks  and  nations  have  contended,  became  a  kind  of  Bible  for  the  people, 
and  in  quiet  contrast  with  the  worship  of  the  saints,  the  formal  life  pursued 
in  the  convents,  and  the  fables  of  the  Minorites,  set  forth  the  true  spiritual 
following  of  Jesus  in  the  destruction  of  all  selfishness,  and  in  the  exercise  of 
a  lovo  which  unconditionally  surrendered  itself  to  God.  (h)  This  branch  of 
Mysticism  had  a  seminary  which  was  maintained  among  the  Brethren  of  tho 
common  life. 

'      §  280.    Excesses  and  Compromises. 

From  what  is  related  of  Tournay,  it  is  evident  that  Scholasticism  had 
tho  presumption  to  imagine  that  the  very  existence  of  Christianity  depended 
upon  its  power  and  its  logic,  (a)  Scholasticism  was  accused  of  forgetting  the 
word  of  God  while  contending  about  mere  words,  of  frittering  away  the 
earnestness  of  the  Christian  life  by  its  sophistries,  of  driving  away  animation 
by  its  frigid  learning,  and  of  making  theologians  seem  like  fantastic  vision- 

/)  Life  of  H.  Suso  by  himself.  Buchlein  v.  d.  ew.  Weisbeft,  and  other  writings.— Leben  u. 
Schriften  according  to  the  old  style  of  writing  and  printing  by  Dieperibrock,  with  Einl.  v.  Gorres, 
Eatisb.  1829.  Opp.  latt  red.  SuHiu,  Col  1555.  GeistL  Bluthen.  v.  Suso.  Bonn.  1834.  C.  Schmidt, 
H.  SOBO.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1843.  H.  4.) 

fir)  Soliloquia  animae.  Exercitia  spiritualia.  nortulns  rosar.  VaTlis  Hliorum.  Hospitale  paupernm. 
Vitae  Beatorum.  Dial  Novitiorum.  Opp.  ed.  Sommalius,  Col.  1560.  4.  and  often.  AusserL  Schrr. 
Weim.  1824.  4  vols.  Sammtl.  Werke  uebers.  v.  Silbert,  Vienna.  ISSSss.  4  vols.  [Transl.  into  Engl. 
Lond.  2  vols.  12.]— Scholtz,  Th.  a  K.  sent  de  re.  chr.  exponitur.  Gron.  1839.  JB.  Bahring,  Th.  v. 
K.  Brl.  1849. 

ft)  De  imitatione  Ch.  Argent  1472.  often  and  in  various  languages  since  Fabric.  Bibl.  med.  et  inf. 
Lat  vol.  IV.  p.  214ss.  [Imitation  of  C.  new  ed.  Lond.  1849.  8.]— G.  de  Gregory,  Meraoire  sur  le 
veritable  auteur  do  1'imitation  de  J.  C.  revu  p.  le  Comte  Lanjuinais,  Par.  1827.  With  app.  by 
Weigl,  Sulzb.  1882.  SUbert,  Gersen,  Gerson  u.  Kempis,  welcher  istVrf  &c.  Vien.  1828.  G.  d« 
Gregory,  de  imit  Ch.  Aquae  Sext  1833.  Uttmann,  Eeformatoren.  voL  II.  Supplement  J.  & 
Malou,  Eecherches  sur  le  veritable  auteur.  (acad.  royale  de  Belgique.  Brux.  1848.  4  vols.  XIV.)— Se- 
cundus  tract  de  imit.  Chr.  ed.  Liebner,  Goet  1842.  Comp.  Ullmann  in  Stud.  u.  Krit  1843.  H.  1. 
[and  Baehring,  in  Stud.  u.  Krit  1850.  H.  8.] 

a)  Mat.  Paris  ad  ann.  1201.  p.  144.  But  comp.  Ifenr.  Gandavensia  L.  dc  scrr.  ecc.  c.  24, 
(Fabric.  Bibl.  ecc.  vol.  IL  p.  121.) 


CHAP.  IV.  ECCLES.  LIT.  §  260.  BONAVENTUEA.  GEBSOK     ,  325 

aries  in  the  eyes  of  other  learned  men.  With  such  views,  Gerson  and  Nicolas 
of  Clamengis  demanded  that  the  course  of  theological  studies  should  be  re- 
formed. (5)  There  was,  however,  so  much  of  truth  on  the  side  of  both 
Scholasticism  and  Mysticism,  that  the  compromise  which  had  been  effected 
between  them  could  not  be  abandoned.  This  compromise  was  attempted 
during  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Scholasticism  by  Bonaventura  (John  of 
Fidanza,  Doctor  seraphicus,  d.  1274),  and  during  its  decline  by  Gerson  (John 
Charlier,  Doctor  Ohristianissimus,  d.  1429),  but  it  was  attained  rather  in  their 
personal  lives  than  in  a  scientific  form.  Bonaventura  strictly  conformed  to 
the  rules  of  Scholasticism,  but  he  has  enlivened  its  most  subtle  definitions 
with  the  ardor  of  his  own  feelings.  His  affectionate  spirit  contemplated 
both  the  internal  and  the  external  life  as  a  mirror  of  the  eternal  reality, 
though  he  was  not  unfrequently  invited  to  the  most  extensive  spheres  of  ac- 
tivity in  the  Church.  He  is  one  of  those  exalted  forms  in  which  the  eccle- 
siastical spirit  most  complacently  exhibits  its  glories.  "We  need  not  wonder, 
therefore,  that  the  representatives  both  of  the  Eastern  and  of  the  Western 
Church  mingled  their  tears  at  his  tomb,  (c)  From  the  position  of  Mysticism, 
which  he  established  by  psychological  arguments,  and  fortified  by  sound 
logic,  Gerson  carried  on  a  powerful  conflict  in  behalf  of  the  true  peace  of 
the  Church  against  the  extravagances  of  the  hierarchy  and  the  errors  of  su- 
perstition, (d)  Raymond  de  Sabunde,  a  Spaniard,  endeavored  to  effect  (about 
1430)  a  more  perfect  union  of  these  opposite  parties  by  laying  aside  the 
formulas  then  generally  in  use.  "God  has  bestowed  upon  man  the  booli 
of  nature,  in  which  every  creature  is  a  letter  written  by  God.  This 
divine  book  and  the  Holy  Scriptures  can  never  contradict  one  another.  The 
former,  which  is  common  and  open  to  all,  is  the  primary  source  of  knowl- 
edge, is  intelligible  to  the  laity,  and  cannot  be  perverted  by  heretics.  But 
the  highest  knowledge  is  the  love  of  God,  which  is  the  only  thing  man  can 
truly  call  his  own,  to  be  offered  to  his  Creator."  According  to  this  signifi- 
cant train  of  thought,  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  construct  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church  from  materials  supplied  by  the  book  of  nature,  i.  e.  from  the  internal 
and  external  experience  of  man,  who  needs  not  an  artificial  science,  but  only 
a  higher  illumination,  (e} 

V)  GersoniiEpp.  duae  de  reform.  Theol.  (Opp.  voL  I.  p.  121. 43.)  Nio.  de  Clemangis  L.  de  studio 
Theol.  (lyAcfory,  Spicil.  vol.  L  p.  473.) 

c)  Commentar.  in  IV.  1.  Sentt  Breviloquium  (ed.  ffefele,  Tub.  1S45.)  Centiloquium.— Itinerarium 
icentis  in  Deum.  Stimulus.  Incendium  amoris.  Opp.  jussu  Sixti  V.  emend.  Eom.  1588.  8.  Th.  f.  Ven. 
175188. 13  Th.  4. 

d)  After  the  ecclesiastical  published  writings,  especially :  Considerationes  de  Th.  mystica.  Opp. 
ed.  Z,  K  du  Pin,  Antu.  1706.  5  Th.  L—Lecuy,  Essai  sur  la  vie  de  J.  Gers.  Par.  1832.  2  Th.— Engel- 
hardt,  de  Gers.  mystico  P.  II.  Erl.  1822s.  4.    Hitndeshagen  u.  d.  myst  TheoL  d.  J.  Gers.  Lpz.  1834. 
(Zeitschr.  f  hist  Th.  voL  IV.  St  1.)    Liebner,  u.  Gers.  myst  Theol.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1835.  II.  2.) 
Jourdam,  doctr.  J.  Gers.  d.  Th.  myst  Par.  1838.    Ch.  Schmidt,  Essai  sur  Jean  Gers.  Strasb.  1839. 

e)  Lib.  creaturarum  s.  Theol.  naturalis.  Argent  1496.    Latiniore  stylo  in  comp.  red.  a.  J.  Come- 
nio,  Amst  1659.  12.  Solisbac.  1852.— Montaigne,  Essais  II,  12.    D.  Matske,  d.  nat  TheoL  d.  K.  v 
Bab.  BresL  1846.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1847.  H.  4. 


326  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISEOEY.  TEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

§  281.     The  so-called  JKeviml  of  Literature. 

Meiners,  Lebensbeschrr. ,  beruhmte  Manner  a.  d.  z.  d.  Wiederh.  d.  W.  Zur.  1795ss.  5  volat 
ffeeren,  Gesch.  d.  class.  Lit  s.  d.  Wiederaufl.  d.  W.  Gott  1797.  1801.  2  vols.  //.  A.  Erhard,  Gesch. 
d.  Wiederauf  bluh.  wiss.  Bildung  vorn.  in  Dentschl.  Magdb.  1827-82.  8  vols.  F.  Kraneri  Nar.  do 
humanitatls  studior.  XV.  et  XVL  8.  in  Germ,  origine  et  indole.  Miscn.  184a  4  Editions  of  the 
modern  Classics  and  their  Commentaries  ill  Eltert.  [IT.  Hallam,  Int  to  the  Lit  of  Ear.  in  the  15. 
16.  and  17.  Centt.  Chap.  I.  &  II.  Lond.  1842.  New  York.  1847.  J.  Berington,  Lit  Hist  of  the  Mid. 
Ages.  Lond.  1846.  &  de  Stsmondi,  II.  of  Lit  in  the  South  of  Eur.  transl.  by  Roscoe,  New  York. 
1827.  2  vols.  8.] 

A  scientific  education  had  been  extensively  secured  and  diffused  by  means 
of  the  Universities.  These  were  sometimes  devoted  only  to  a  single  depart- 
ment of  science,  and  at  other  times  embraced  faculties  for  all  the  sciences. 
They  had  generally  been  founded  by  the  princes,  or  the  cities  in  whose  neigh- 
borhood they  were,  and  especially  in  Germany  they  were  all  conformed  to 
the  model  of  that  of  Paris.  The  first  of  these  was  established  at  Prague 
(1348),  and  the  last  at  Wittenberg  (1502).  But  they  were  dependent  for  all 
their  privileges  upon  the  papal  see,  and  very  readily  settled  down  in  the 
comfortable  routine  of  traditionary  learning.  The  scientific  spirit  then 
awakened  received  only  indirect  encouragement  from  these  institutions. 
The  Franciscan  Roger  Bacon  (Doctor  mirabilis,  d.  1294)  pointed  out  the 
defects  of  a  barren  knowledge  of  Scholasticism,  and  in  the  character  of  a 
prophet  of  worldly  science,  with  genial  energy  and  multiplied  experiments 
penetrated  thoroughly  into  the  mysteries  of  nature,  whose  arrangements  ho 
recognized  in  every  thing,  (a)  Dante  Alighieri  (d.  1321  in  exile  at  Ravenna), 
in  his  Divine  Comedy,  effected  a  reconciliation  of  the  claims  of  love  and  reli- 
gion, and  as  in  a  General  Judgment  of  sacred  poesy  gave  an  allegorical  repre- 
sentation not  only  of  the  state  of  the  human  mind  and  of  his  age,  but  of  the 
history  of  the  world.  "With  the  boldness  of  a  Ghibelline,  in  whose  eyes  the 
universal  authority  of  the  empire  was  as  truly  instituted  by  God,  and  was  as 
essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  world  as  the  papacy  itself,  he  denounced  the 
abuses  of  the  hierarchy,  and  on  his  own  authority  canonized  or  consigned  to 
perdition  whom  he  pleased.  A  friend  of  Virgil,  he  was  no  less  an  admirer 
of  St.  Thomas,  an  enthusiast  for  ecclesiastical  doctrines,  and  the  first-born 
son  of  the  Church  among  the  poets.  (Z>)  This  great  work  of  modern  genius, 
which  he  composed  in  the  language  of  the  people,  but  with  a  perfection 
worthy  of  the  best  of  the  ancient  writers,  awakened  a  spirit  which  could 
appreciate  and  confide  in  those  writers  also.  The  age  was  in  fact  now  fully 
prepared  for  a  revival  of  the  great  works  of  antiquity.  Although  tho 
classics,  especially  the  Roman,  had  never  been  entirely  forgotten,  the  true 
spirit  which  pervaded  them  had  not  been  perceived,  and  the  language  in 

a)  Opus  majus  (1266.)  ed.  Sam.  Jebb,  Lond.  1783.  f.  comp.  BammL  merkw.  Lebensbeschrr.  Hal. 
1757.  vol.  IV.  p.  616ss. 

b)  Comp.  Dantis  Epp.  c.  notis  ed.  C.  Witte,  Patav.  1S27.    Baumgarten-Crusius  de  Dantis  doc- 
irina  theol.  (Opp.  p.  827ss.)    Ozanam,  Dante  et  la  phil.  cath.  au  18  siecle.  Par.  1839.  Munst  1844. 
L.  R.  Arndt,  de  Dante  scritpore  Ghibellino.  Bon.  1846.    Schrr.  of  ScJdosser,  1824  u.  1880.     Witte, 
1831.    Blanc  in  d.  Encykl.  voL  XXIII.    Phitalethes  (John,  Duke  of  Saxony),  1839ss.    GoscJiel, 
Artaud,  1842.    F.  X.  Wegelt,  Dante's  Leben  n.  Werke,  kulturgesch.  Jena.  1852.   [Scfilegel,  Hist,  of 
Lit  New  York.  1844.    H.  Stebbings,  Lives  of  the  Ital.  Poets.  Lond.  1882.  3  vols.  8.    C.  Balbo,  Lifo 
and  Times  of  Dante,  from  the  Ital.  by  Bunbury,  Lond.  1851.  2  vols.  8.] 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIT.    §  281.  HUMANISTS.  327 

which  they  were  written  had  become  quite  destroyed.  Petrarch  (d.  1374) 
was  the  first  who  turned  with  a  congenial  spirit  to  the  ancient  authors,  and 
even  if  his  imitations  be  regarded  as  unsuccessful,  he  was  certainly  trained 
by  them  until  he  became  a  general  spokesman  in  the  affairs  of  Italy,  and  of 
the  human  heart,  (c)  Boccaccio  (d.  1375)  labored  in  the  same  field,  and 
brought  back  to  Western  Europe  the  gods  of  ancient  Greece.  He  was  pub- 
licly appointed  to  expound  the  writings  of  Dante,  wrote  the  first  polished 
prose  in  the  language  of  the  people,  and  was  allowed  to  exercise  his  wit  at 
the  expense  of  the  monks,  of  good  morals,  and  probably  also  of  Christianity 
itself,  (d}  A  knowledge  of  Grecian  antiquity  had  beerf  introduced,  especially 
after  the  Synod  of  Florence  (1439),  by  large  numbers  of  Greeks,  who  as 
deputies  or  fugitives  became  scattered  in  all  parts  of  Italy.  These  were  gen- 
erally persons  of  only  moderate  talents,  but  they  brought  with  them  the 
inheritance  which  a  refined  antiquity  had  bequeathed  to  them  in  living  tra- 
ditions, and  they  were  therefore  received  in  the  halls  of  the  Medici  and  of 
the  Vatican  as  if  they  had  been  apostles.  The  wealth  which  had  been  pre- 
served at  home  was  now  also  brought  to  light,  the  convents  opened  their 
graves,  and  the  resurrection  of  classical  antiquity  was  now  regarded  as  a 
national  affair  by  the  whole  of  Italy,  and  as  a  solemn  festival  in  honor  of  the 
great  ancestral  world,  whose  fragments  were  recognized  not  only  under  the 
rubbish  of  centuries  and  the  ashes  of  Vesuvius,  but  even  in  the  customs  and 
dispositions  of  the  people.  To  study  these  sacred  relics  of  heathenism,  the 
youth  of  the  Western  world,  with  the  Germans  and  Hungarians  in  the  van, 
now  went  on  pilgrimages  across  the  Alps  (after  1450).  The  influence  of  this 
upon  theological  studies  may  be  observed  in  the  life  of  the  Eoman  Laurentius 
Valla  (d.  1457),  who  first  developed  the  laws  of  a  true  Latinity,  and  was 
induced  by  the  artistic  refinement  which  it  produced,  decidedly  to  pronounce 
the  scholastic  style  absurd,  by  the  philological  knowledge  it  afforded  to  ex- 
plain and  illustrate  the  original  text  of  the  New  Testament,  and  by  the  his- 
torical criticism  it  fostered  to  give  judgment  against  the  fables  of  the  hier- 
archy, (e)  The  monks  whom  he  derided  invoked  against  him  the  power  of 
the  inquisition,  but  his  fame  was  too  great  and  he  was  too  highly  esteemed 
by  the  nobility  of  Italy  to  be  reached  by  that  court,  and  he  was  silenced  only 
by  papal  confidence  and  favors.  In  fact  the  papal  court  was  by  no  means 
displeased  with  these  efforts,  the  serious  consequences  of  which  it  did  not 
anticipate.  The  bishops  beyond  the  Alps  knew  but  little  about  them,  and 
Scholasticism  could  no  longer  present  to  them  any  considerable  resistance. 
The  mendicant  friars,  who  were  attacked  with  the  greatest  severity,  and 
whose  ignorance  rendered  them  the  most  suspicious,  were  the  only  class 
which,  especially  in  Germany,  were  bold  enough  to  accuse  the  new  literary 

c)  Africa  Epistolae  (Opp.  Bas.  1554. 1581.  Lngd.  1601.  2  vols.  f.)  Sonnetti,  Canzoni,  Trionfi.— <?. 
F.  Fernow,  Franc.  Petr.  Lpz.  1818.    [7*.  Campbell,  Life  of  P.  Lond.  2  vols.     Wollaston,  Life  of  P 
transl.  from  the  Ital.  Lond.  8vo.    Mrs.  Dobson,  Life  of  P.  from  the  French.  Philad.  1S17.  8.] 

d)  De  genealogia  Deor.  1.  XV.  Bas.  1532.  f.    Decamerone.  [Decam.  transl.  in  Engl.  4.  vols.  12 
Lond.  1S22.] 

e)  Elegautiarum  latinae  linguae  1.  VI.  Dialectice  1.  III.  Annott  in  N.  T.  (ed.  Erasmus,  Par. 
1505.  f.  rep.  Remus,  Amst  1631.)    De  ementita  Constantini  donatione.  (Opp.  Bas.  1540.  1543;  f.)— 
D.  h.  Gericht  u.  L.  Valla.  (Paulus,  Beitr.  z.  K.  u.  Eef.  Gesch.  Brem.  1837.  p.  315ss.) 


328  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-151T. 

improvements  of  heresy  on  account  of  their  heathenish  and  schismatical  ori- 
gin. The  Ghibelline  party  in  Italy  was  distinguished  for  the  interest  which 
in  various  ways  it  showed  in  pagan  antiquity.  The  new  school  of  Peripa 
tetics,  in  opposition  to  the  scholastic  Aristotle,  declared  that  the  theory  of 
the  universe  maintained  by  the  ancient  Greeks  was,  to  say  the  least,  a  philo- 
sophical truth,  and  Pomponazzo  (d.  1526),  like  a  modern  Prometheus,  ven- 
tured openly  to  declare  his  conviction  that  the  immortality  of  the  soul  was 
according  to  philosophical  principles  more  than  doubtful,  although  it  might 
be  conceded  as  a  theological  truth  to  a  Church  which  could  not  dispense 
with  it.  (/)  The  Platonic  Academy,  in  the  gardens  of  the  Medici,  defended 
only  a  few  of  the  religious  ideas  peculiar  to  Christianity,  (g)  There  was  a 
kind  of  superstition  which  in  some  places  made  a  boast  of  its  attachment  to 
heathenism,  and  the  language  of  the  Iloly  Spirit  which  had  been  used  in  the 
ancient  Church,  was  now  exchanged  for  some  delicate  flourishes  of  a  pagan 
Latinity.  (7i)  Infidelity  and  superstition  were  arrayed  boldly  and  distinctly 
in  opposition  to  each  other.  In  Germany,  it  is  true,  the  disposition  to  en- 
gage in  classical  studies  originated  in  the  school  of  Thomas  a  Kempis,  and  in 
general  it  preserved  the  Christian  seriousness  of  this  source,  (i)  But  from 
the  very  nature  of  the  new  studies,  those  qualities  of  the  mind  which  have 
most  to  do  with  the  world  obtained  the  ascendency  in  the  hearts  of  such  as 
were  devoted  to  them,  and  the  common  people  seized  upon  them  as  though 
they  constituted  a  general  education  of  the  whole  individual  man  (Humanis- 
inus).  The  consequence  was  that  a  mental  revolution  was  commenced, 
which  in  its  essential  character  was  properly  named  a  restoration  of  the 
Sciences.  At  the  same  time  the  great  ocean  which  surrounded  the  world 
was  crossed,  and  a  heaven  began  to  rise  before  them,  in  which  the  earth, 
hitherto  .regarded  as  an  immovable  empire  in  the  centre,  modestly  assumed 
its  proper  position.  (&)  Now  also  Machiavelli  (d.  1530)  revived  the  ancient 
doctrine,  that  while  religion  was  of  vast  importance  for  its  salutary  influence 
upon  the  state,  the  highest  political  objects  might  nevertheless  bo  attained 
without  the  aid  of  the  Church  or  of  Christianity.  (Z)  Thus  was  formed  inde- 
pendently of  the  hierarchy  an  intellectual  power  which  had  detected  the  cor- 
ruptions of  the  Church,  and  had  lost  a  sincere  faith  in  its  assumption  that  no 
one  could  be  saved  except  by  its  offices.  Through  the  discovery  and  preva- 
lence of  the  art  of  printing  (about  1440),  which  was  almost  equivalent  to  a 
new  gift  of  tongues,  this  power  became  absolutely  indestructible  and  irre- 
sistible. 

/)  Petri  Pomponatii  L.  de  immortalitate  animae.  Bon.  1516.— Cone.  Later,  a.  1513.  (Harduin 
vol.  IX.  p.  1719s.) 

g)  Roscoe,  Lorenzo  de  Medici.  [Lond.  1846.  1  r.  in  Bonn's  Stand.  Lib.  and  Philad.  2  v.  8.] 
Sievekinff,  Gesch.  de  Plat  Acad.  zu  Flor.  Gott  1812. 

7i)  In  Pauli  II.  Vita  Platina,  p.  665s.  Cannesiua  p.  78s.  Quirinua  p.  9ss.  Erasmi  1.  XXVI. 
Ep.  34. — Walchii  Hist  crit  Lat  linguae  c.  12.  n.  8.  Bayle  under  Bembo.  Jlenke  on  Villere.  p. 
469ss.  Piper,  Mythol.  d.  chr.  KunsL  vol.  I.  p.  279sa.  [Ranke,  Hist  of  the  Popes,  vol.  L  p.  72s.] 

i)  Jfeiners  vol.  II.  808ss.  after  lienii  Daventria  illustrata.  Lugd.  1651.  4. 

k)  G.  L.  Sehulze,  Astronomia  per  Copernicum  instaurata  religioiris  et  pietatis  chr.  per.  Luth.  re- 
purgatae  egregia  adjutrix.  Budiss.  1830. 

1)  Discorsi  sopra  la  prima  Dec.  di  T.  Livio.  IL  Principe.  Storia  Fiorentina.— ScJdosser  in  his 
Zeitschr.  f.  Gesh.  u.  Lit  vol.  Y.  p.  485ss.  [SfachiaveUrs  Hist  of  Flor.  the  Prince  and  other  work* 
U-ansl.  into  Engl.  in  Bohn's  Stand.  Lib.  Lond.  1847.] 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIT.    §  2S2.  EEUCHLIN.  329 

§  282.    John  JSeuchlin.     1455-1522. 

J.  ff.  Maius,  Yita  Eeuchl.  Durlaci  1637.  Meiners  vol.  I.  p.  44ss.  E.  Th.  Mayerhoff,  Eeuch.  u. 
B.  Zeit  Brl.  1830.  Erhard  vol.  II.  p.  147ss.  [Barhani^  Eeuchlin's  Life  and  Times.  Lond.  12mo.] 

EeucJilin  (Capnio),  who  had  been  educated  in  the  study  of  the  Classics, 
and  was  a  leader  of  the  Humanists,  came  originally  from  Pforzheim.  At 
first  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Jewish  literature,  expecting  to  find 
the  mysterious  wisdom  which  had  been  promised  there.  Though  disap- 
pointed in  this,  he  obtained  a  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  which  he  succeeded  in 
diffusing  through  the  Church,  and  applied  to  the  exposition  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, (a)  From  a  scientific  spirit  as  well  as  from  private  inclination  he 
disapproved  of  the  proposition  urged  by  Pfefferkorn,  a  converted  Jew,  to 
commit  all  the  Eabbinical  books  to  the  flames,  at  least  so  far  as  they  did  not 
blaspheme  Christ.  This  was  construed  by  the  inquisitor  Hogstraten,  who 
then  presided  over  the  Dominicans  at  Cologne,  as  evidence  that  he  was 
secretly  a  convert  to  Judaism.  In  the  eyes  of  such  a  man  the  Greek  language 
was  the  mother  of  all  heresies,  and  the  study  of  Hebrew  was  an  unquestionable 
apostasy  to  Judaism.  Standing  in  the  independent  position  of  an  advocate  of 
princes  and  cities,  Keuchlin  assailed  the  theological  barbarism  of  the  Domini- 
cans with  every  kind  of  intellectual  weapons,  to  which  the  inquisitorial 
judges  had  nothing  to  oppose  but  cries  for  his  condemnation'.  (5)  The  whole 
German  people  were  witnesses  of  this  ecclesiastical  feud,  and  a  learned  class 
of  spirited  youth  under  the  banner  of  Ulrich  of  Hutten,  openly  declared 
themselves  on  the  side  of  Eeuchlin.  From  the  circle  thus  formed  proceeded 
the  Letters  of  Obscure  Men,  (c)  in  which  the  extreme  stupidity  of  the  mendi- 
cant friars,  their  general  immorality,  and  their  loud  outcries  respecting  the 
heresies  of  the  Humanists,  together  with  their  own  dog-Latin,  is  described  so 
naturally  and  truthfully  that  the  Dominicans  themselves  joined  in  circulat- 
ing the  book,  though  they  afterwards  hurled  their  anathemas  against  it  in 
vain.  The  controversy  was  at  last  brought  before  the  pope  himself,  and  de- 
cided in  favor  of  Reuchlin.  The  Dominicans  made  every  effort  to  obtain  a 
reversal  of  this  decision,  and  the  papal  court  was  not  altogether  indifferent 
to  the  threatenings  and  briberies  they  made  use  of,  but  on  the  other  hand, 
Reuchlin  was  sustained  by  the  whole  influence  of  the  emperor  and  the  em- 
pire. The  party  at  Cologne  were  finally  compelled  by  the  sword  of  Francis 
of  Siclcingen  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  suit  (1520).  The  amount  of 
these  was  only  a  hundred  and  eleven  gold-florins,  but  the  mendicant  friars 
were  themselves  overwhelmed  with  ridicule,  their  cause  was  utterly  ruined 
in  the  estimation  of  intelligent  persons,  and  Germany  had  now  proclaimed 
uO  the  world  where  she  would  stand  in  the  decisive  struggle  which  was  ap- 
proaching. 

a)  De  verbo  mirifico  1.  III.  Tub.  1514.  f.  De  arte  cabbalistlca  L  III.  Hag.  1517.  f.— De  rudimen- 
tis  hebr.  Phorcae.  1506.  f.  Bas.  1573.  f.  De  accentibus  ct  orthogr.  linguae  hebr.  Hag.  1518.  f.— Epp. 
Hag.  1514. 1519.  4. 

I)  E.  Bathsch.  ob  man  den  Juden  alle  ihre  Bucher  nehmen  und  verbrcnnen  soil.  1510.  Pfefferk. 
Handspiegel.  1511.  E.  Augenspiegel.  1511.  Deiensio  salomniatores  c.  Colonienses.  1513.  besides  other 
orig.  docc.  iu  Ifardt,  Hist.  Liter.  Eef.  P.  II. 

c)  Epp.  obscurorum  virorum.  1.  I.  Hagen.  1516.  1.  II.  Bas.  1517.  and  often,  den.  ed.  Roterrr.und, 
Hann.  1827.  2  Th.  edit,  and  expl.  by  Munch.  Lpz.  1827.—  U.  ab  Ifutten,  Triurnptms  Capnion.  1518. 


330  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTOET?    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-151T 

§  283.    Desiderius  Erasmus.    1465-1536. 

Opp.  ed.  CleHcus,  Lugd.  ITOSsa.  11  vols.  f.  Coinp.  Vitao  Erasml  by  himself  ir,  Cleric,  vol.  I 
J.  le  Clerc,  Bibl.  cholsle,  vol.  V.  p.  135ss.  voL  VI.  p.  7ss.  Jortin,  Life  of  R  Lond.  175S.  Burigny, 
Vio  d'R  Par.  1757.  Uebers.  v.  Ketch,  m.  Zus.  v.  Detike  Hal.  u.  Uhn.  17S2.  2  vols.  (Hess)  E.  v.  RotUrd, 
Zur.  1790.  2  vols.  Ad.  Muller,  Leb.  d.  R  v.  E.  Hmb.  1823.  comp.  UUmann  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S29. 
II.  1.  [Butler,  Life  of  R  Lond.  8vo.  D'Aubiyne,  Hist  of  Eef.  voL  I.  p.  USss.] 

Among  those  engaged  in  promoting  the  literary  improvement  of  this 
period  no  one  was  more  prominent  than  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam.  He  was 
the  offspring  of  a  faithful  connection,  but  one  which  never  received  the  sanc- 
tion of  a  Church  fettered  hy  monastic  prejudices.  He  was  for  some  time  a 
pupil  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  at  Deventer,  and  afterwards  a 
monk  at  Stein  (1486).  When  he  lacked  courage  to  refuse  the  monastic  vows 
he  was  released  from  them  (about  1490)  by  the  Bishop  of  Cambray,  who  was 
anxious  to  turn  his  classical  education  to  a  better  account.  Several  yeara 
were  then  spent  in  journeys  for  literary  purposes  in  France,  England,  and 
Italy,  until  he  became  settled  with  his  publisher  at  Basle  (1521).  When  a 
young  man,  and  devoted  to  literary  pursuits,  he  lived  in  a  state  of  depend- 
ence upon  the  capricious  favor  of  his  English  patrons,  and  at  a  later  period 
when  reigning  supreme  in  the  learned  world  he  refused  with  a  lofty  conscious- 
ness of  his  power,  every  office  of  dignity  both  in  the  Church  and  in  the  courts 
of  princes.  But  as  ho  was  of  a  feeble  constitution,  fond  of  case,  and  as  ho 
enjoyed  with  a  high  relish  the  elegancies  of  life,  he  was  always  delighted  with 
costly  presents  and  pensions.  He  displayed  an  astonishing  activity  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  various  subjects  then  brought  forward  in  ecclesiastical  and 
social  life,  sometimes  for  his  own  pleasure  and  sometimes  in  compliance  with 
the  wishes  of  his  patrons.  Many  classical  authors  and  ecclesiastical  fathers 
were  edited  by  him,  but  above  all,  the  original  text  of  the  New  Testament 
was  made  accessible  to  the  public,  and  the  immense  benefits  of  the  press  were 
then  realized  principally  by  his  agency,  (a)  His  character  was  not  of  the 
highest  order,  for  he  was  easily  excited  and  suspicious,  and  he  was  destitute  of 
inventive  power  or  depth  of  thought ;  but  his  common  sense  was  of  the  most 
solid  nature,  his  stores  of  knowledge  were  abundant,  he  was  never  at  a  loss 
for  the  happiest  turn  of  expression,  and  his  wit  was  inexhaustible.  The  in- 
sipid practices  of  the  monks,  the  subtle  refinements  of  the  scholastics,  tho 
weak  points  of  the  worship  of  the  saints,  the  extravagances  of  those  who 
preached  indulgences,  and  the  follies  of  every  class,  even  of  the  popes  them- 
selves, were  all  unmercifully  ridiculed  in  his  writings.  Nor  did  he  hesitate 
to  throw  suspicion  upon  the  foundation  on  which  the  whole  fabric  of  the 
hierarchy  rested,  and  to  refer  to  Socrates  as  a  saint,  although  he  reproved  the 
heathenish  tendencies  of  the  modern  Ciceronians,  and  always  appeared  ar- 
dently attached  to  the  Christianity  of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  (5)  He  was  not 
backward  to  attack  the  interests  of  many  classes,  and  when  excited  or  exer- 
cising his  wit  he  was  frequently  bolder  than  circumstances  required.  It  was 

a)  Colloquia.  Ciceronianus.  Adagia.  Moriae  encomium.  Enchir.  militis  cbr.  Ratio  verae  Theol. 
Matrimonii  chr.  institutio.  Ecclesiastcs.  Epp.  etc.  [His  Panegyric  upon  Folly  has  been  transl.  and 
publ.  in  Oxf.  1683. 12.  and  his  Familiar  Colloquies  transl  by  Bailey,  and  pubL  in  Lond.  1725.  8.] 

&)  J.  A.  Fabricii  Exerc.  de  rel.  Er.  (Opusc.  hist  crit.  lit  p.  879ss.) 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIT.    §  283.  ERASMUS.    §  284.  SCRIPTURES.  331 

therefore  not  surprising  that  nearly  every  kind  of  heresy  was  imputed  to  him. 
The  common  people,  however,  were  not  the  object  of  his  efforts,  neither  did 
he  aim  to  effect  any  very  violent  changes  in  society.  Even  to  those  who  were 
enlightened  he  only  ventured  to  hint  at  truth,  he  never  objected  to  an  in- 
trenchment  of  himself  behind  ambiguous  expressions,  and  on  all  subjects  pro- 
fessed his  readiness  to  submit  to  the  judgment  of  the  Church  should  it  even 
teach  the  doctrines  of  Arianism  and  Pelagianism.  It  was,  therefore,  no  very 
difficult  matter  for  such  a  man,  eminently  intellectual  and  distinguished 
among  his  contemporaries,  to  keep  up  a  tolerably  good  understanding  with 
the  principal  men  of  the  hierarchy,  whose  education  was  accomplished  and 
secular.  By  all  those  who  filled  the  papal  chair  during  his  life  ho  was  es- 
pecially esteemed. 

§  284.     The  Holy  Scriptures. 

In  matters  of  faith  an  indefinite  kind  of  authority  was  every  where  con- 
ceded to  distinguished  writers  among  the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  the  Scholas- 
tics and  the  Mystics.  In  the  controversy  with  the  Hussites  the  principal 
object  was  to  prove  that  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  was  dependent  upon 
that  of  the  Church,  but  all  those  who  contended  for  reform  in  the  Church 
itself,  directed  their  attention  to  tB'e  word  of  God.  During  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries,  considerable  interest  was  taken  in  a  tedious  kind  of 
Scriptural  exposition,  much  like  the  allegorical  and  devotional  method  of  an 
earlier  period,  according  to  which  each  passage  had  various  senses.  Few, 
however,  ventured  to  go  beyond  the  authority  of  the  Yulgate,  of  Hierony- 
mus,  and  of  Augustine.  Individuals  indeed,  like  Thomas,  though  ignorant 
of  the  original  languages,  and  full  of  preconceived  opinions,  nevertheless 
under  the  guidance  of  a  congenial  spirit,  sometimes  penetrated  deeply  into 
the  meaning  of  the  Scriptures,  (a)  Some  assistance  in  an  intelligent  expo- 
sition and  criticism  was  also  derived  from  the  works  of  Jews  and  heathen 
writers.  Nicolas  of  Lyra  (d.  1351),  a  Minorite,  investigated  the  literal  mean- 
ing of  the  Old  Testament  with  no  small  amount  of  Eabbinical  learning.  (5) 
The  first  printed  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  was  published  under  the  care 
of  the  Kabbins,  and  was  conformed  to  their  critical  traditions  (Masora).  (c) 
Ximenes  (after  1505)  in  the  possession  of  unbounded  means  and  opportunities, 
got  up  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in  all  the  sacred  languages,  but  the  original 
text  was  based  upon  recent  manuscripts,  and  was  corrected  by  the  Yulgate.  (d) 
The  New  Testament  had  already  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  thousands  by 
the  labors  of  Erasmus.  (»)  Valla  was  desirous  of  teaching  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate, but  Erasmus  pointed  out  its  errors,  and  endeavored  to  make  the  simple 
meaning  of  the  words  of  the  New  Testament  intelligible  to  his  readers,  and 

a)  A.  TholucJc,  de  Thoma  Aquinate  atque  Abael.  interpretibus  N.  T.  Hal.  1842.  4. 

b)  Postillae  perpetuae  in  univ  Biblia.  Eom.  1471.  5  vols.  &  often. 

c)  Soncini.  1488.  f.  Brix.  1494.  &  often. 

d)  Biblia  hebr.  chald.  gr.  et  Lat.  de  mandato  Fr.  Ximenes  de  Cisneros.    In  Complutensi  Univ. 
1514-1T.  Th.  6.  f.    Not  publicly  until  1520,  and  beyond  the  Pyrenees  in  1522.    Comp.  Htfele  (p.  294.) 
p.  120ss.    [Barrett,  Life  of  Ximenes.  Lond.  8.] 

e)  Nov.  Instrum.  Bas.  1516.  f.    With  continual  improvements  1519. 1522. 1527. 1535.    Henke  y.  (L 
Er.  Arbeiten  u.  d.  N.  T.  Anh.  zu.  Surigny  vol.  II.  p.  533ss. 


332  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  121&-151T. 

although  he  was  in  possession  of  only  a  few  manuscripts,  he  availed  himself 
of  the  labors  of  the  Greek  exegetical  writers.  "With  a  bolder  criticism  Fdber 
(Lefevre  d'Etaples,  d.  1537)  broke  through  the  custom  of  relying  upon  tho 
Vulgate,  and  although  he  fled  before  his  enemies  when  threatened  with  mar- 
tyrdom, he  prepared  the  way  for  the  triumph  of  the  gospel  in  France.  (/) 
Bonaventura's  Bible  for  ihe  poor  proposed  that  the  favorite  object  of  all 
preaching  should  be  the  contents  of  the  Scriptures,  (g)  The  opposition  of  tho 
Church  to  primitive  Christianity  was  evinced  in  the  fact  that  when  it  per- 
ceived the  almost  universal  use  of  the  sacred  writings  by  parties  hostile  to  it, 
the  hierarchy  ventured  more  and  more  decidedly  to  prevent  the  perusal  of 
the  Scriptures  in  the  language  of  the  people,  and  to  subject  every  translation 
to  an  ecclesiastical  censorship,  (h)  In  spite  of  all  their  efforts,  however,  after 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  wishes  of  the  people  and  the  power 
of  the  press  prevailed,  and  fourteen  editions  of  a  translation  in  the  High  Ger- 
man, all  founded  upon  the  Vulgate,  though  none  were  in  the  genuine  lan- 
guage of  the  people,  are  evidence  of  the  extent  to  which  it  was  used,  (i) 

§  285.     The  Doctrine  of  the  Church. 

The  introduction  of  genuine  Christianity  had  all  the  effect  of  bringing  for- 
ward a  new  law.  The  doctrine  of  the  Church  made  no  further  progress  than 
that  which  sprung  from  an  attempt  to  justify,  in  the  view  of  literary  men, 
the  corruption  of  ecclesiastical  morals  by  indulgences,  and  an  outward  for- 
mality (§  270).  From  this  proceeded  the  doctrine  that,  without  regard  to  tho 
spirit  with  which  an  ecclesiastical  observance  was  performed,  it  possessed  a 
certain  degree  of  moral  value,  and  that  man  might  be  forgiven  by  his  God  on 
account  of  his  own  works  or  of  indulgences.  It  was,  however,  argued  that  this 
reconciliation  with  God  was  primarily  founded  upon  the  original  atonement  by 
Christ,  (a)  The  Scholastics  made  justification  before  God  a  consequence  of 
love  or  of  the  faith  which  is  quickened  by  love  (fides  formata).  A*  few  Mys- 
tics made  it  the  consequence  of  faith  alone.  In  a  limited  sense  only  can  it  be 
said  that,  the  Thomuts  stood  on  the  same  ground  as  Augustine,  for  while  they 
regarded  original  sin  as  a  culpable  offence,  and  divine  grace  as  predestination, 
they  nevertheless  looked  upon  the  former  as  consistent  with  the  possession  ol 
some  remnants  of  power,  by  which  a  man  can  render  himself  worthy  of  tho 
divine  favor  (meritum  e  congruo),  and  the  latter  as  dependent  upon  the 
divine  foreknowledge.  The  Scottiste,  on  the  other  hand,  described  both  origi- 
nal  sin  and  grace  rather  as  the  invariable  condition  of  all*  men,  and  as  de- 

/)  Psalterium  Quincuplex.  Par.  1509.  In  Epp.  Pauli.  Par.  1512.  In  IV.  Ew.  Meld.  1522.  French 
Bible  after  1528,  complete  at  Antw.  1530.  t—Ch.  JT.  Graf,  Essai  sur  la  vie  et  les  ecrits  de  J.  Leftvre 
d'Et  Strasb.  1842.  K.  IT.  Graf,  J.  F.  Stapulens.  [Zeltsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1852.  H.  Is.] 

0)  Biblia  pauperum,  Praedicatoribos  pcrutllis.  1590.  4  &  often. 

h)  Innoc.  III.  1.  II.  Ep.  141.  Cone.  Tolos.  a.  1229.  c.  14  (Mansi  Th.  XXIII.  p.  19T.)  [London's 
Manual,  Toulouse  a.  1229.  c.  14]—  Usserii  Hist  controv.  de  Sc.  et  Sacris  vernacnlis.  Lond.  1690  4. 
Hegelmaier,  Gesch.  d.  Bibelverbots.  Ulm,  ITSa 

€)  First  edit  was  that  of  Mentz,  1462.— Panzer,  lit  Nachr.  v.  d.  alleralt  gedr.  deut  Bibela. 
Numb.  1774  u.  Gesch.  d.  rSm.  kath.  deut  BibeL  Nilrnb.  1781.  J.  Kehrein,  z.  Gesch.  d.  deutachea 
Bibeluebers.  vor.  Luth.  Stuttg.  1851. 

a)  Dallaeiis,  de  poenis  et  satisfactt  hum.  Amst  1G49.    [Kageribacli  Hist  of  Doctrines,  §  186.] 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIT.    §  285.  DOCTEINE.    §  286.  CASUISTRY.  333 

relopments  of  the  spiritual  world  in  the  course  of  Providence.  The  Pelagian 
tendency  was  essential  to  a  Church  which  placed  works  by  the  side  of  grace, 
and  taught  that  our  own  merits  may  exceed  the  demands  of  duty.  The  pro- 
found Thomist  Thomas  de  JBradwardina,  a  Professor  at  Oxford,  and  finally 
an  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (d.  1349),  summoned  the  whole  generation  in 
which  he  lived  before  the  bar  of  God,  to  answer  for  its  adoption  of  Pelagian 
sentiments.  His  philosophical  system  was  founded  upon  the  principle  that 
God  is  the  necessary  cause  of  every  event,  and  man  only  his  shadow.  (5)  This 
manner  of  speaking  wa-s  so  foreign  to  the  prevalent  mode  of  thought,  and 
the  delusion  with  regard  to  the  opinions  of  Augustine  was  so  general  and 
indispensable  to  the  times,  that  it  awakened  as  little  favor  as  it  did  oppo- 
sition, (c)  It  is,  indeed,  not  improbable  that  when  men  happened  to  be  ar- 
raigned under  some  peculiarly  unfavorable  circumstances,  even  trifling  depar- 
tures from  the  ordinary  opinions  of  the  Church,  were  condemned  by  the 
tribunals,  but  certainly  a  great  variety  of  opinions  were  freely  tolerated, 
particularly  with  respect  to  anthropological  doctrines  and  in  literary  discus- 
sions. The  popes  were  far  from  possessing  either  the  ability  or  inclination  to 
pronounce  any  decision  with  respeqt  to  those  controversies  of  the  schools  in 
which  great  parties  were  arrayed  against  each  other.  The  Church  seemed  to 
be  so  indifferent  respecting  all  subjects  not  connected  with  its  own  usages 
and  privileges,  that  it  was  commonly  said  that  it  would  be  safer  to  impeach 
the  absolute  authority  of  God  than  that  of  the  pope. 

§  286.    Ethics  and,  Casuistry. 

De  Wette,  chr.  Sittenl.  Brl.  1821.  vol.  II.  H.  2.  p.  116ss.  and  Lehrb.  d.  chr.  Sittenl.  Eerl  1833.  p. 
148ss.  Stdudlin,  Gesch.  d.  moralph.  Han.  1822.  p.  466ss.  &  Gesch.  d.  Sittenl.  Jesu.  Giitt.  1823.  vol.  IV. 
p.  298S9. 

Ethics  now  became  properly  a  science.  Abelard  had  already  presented 
the  principal  points  of  a  regular  moral  system  (§  220),  in  which  his  dislike  to 
a  merely  external  ecclesiastical  sanctity  and  penances,  is  made  especially  promi* 
nent.  According  to  him  sin  is  not  an  outward  act,  nor  a  thought,  nor  a 
natural  desire,  but  a  consent  to  that  which  we  think  we  are  bound  to  refuse 
from  a  regard  to  the  divine  will.  "We  truly  repent  only  when  the  pain  we 
endure  springs  from  love  to  God.  Other  methods  by  which  we  attempt  to 
make  satisfaction  for  sin  are  merely  means  of  discipline.  Those  scholastics 
who  came  after  him  generally  connected  their  ethical  system  with  their  the- 
ology, without  however,  on  that  account,  assigning  to  it  an  inferior  position. 
Thomas  was  most  successful  in  rendering  the  usages  of  the  Church  consistent 
with  the  purity  of  Christian  morals,  (a)  According  to  him  the  ultimate  ob- 
ject of  ethics  is  to  attain  a  likeness  to  God  by  means  of  the  Church,  the  con- 
templative life  is  more  exalted  than  the  active,  and  monks  and  prelates  are 
jndispensable  to  a  perfect  state  of  society.  Like  Aristotle  before  him  he 
describes  Prudence,  Justice,  Courage  and  Temperance  as  the  cardinal  virtues. 

5)  De  causa  Dei  adv.  Pel.  1.  III.  ed.  Savilius.  Lond.  1618.  f. 

c)  Argentrt  vol.  I.  p.  323ss.  With  great  probability  Gieseler  cites  on  this  subject  also  Raynald 
ad.  ann.  1372.  N.  33. 

a)  Summa,  secundae  Partis  prima  et  secunda. 


334  MEDIAEVAL  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  121G-1517. 

and  following  Augustine  he  represents  the  virtues  peculiar  to  Christianity  as 
consisting  in  faith,  hope,  and  love.  In  contrast  with  these  stand  the  seven 
deadly  sins,  with  pride  the  mother  of  them  all.  The  ethical  system  of  the 
Mystics  was  confined  to  the  delineation  of  the  means  and  degrees  by  which 
the  creature  can  die  to  self  and  awake  to  the  life  of  God.  Through  the 
influence  of  the  Humanists,  sprung  up  in  contrast  with  the  conventional 
morality  of  the  Church  and  of  the  knights,  the  idea  of  a  purely  human  ethics 
which  differed  from  the  law  tf  Christ  only  in  name,  and  had  been  already 
hinted  at  in  Thomasin  Tirtler'a  Italian  Guest  (1216s.).  According  to  this, 
constancy  of  mind  is  the  basis  of  all  virtues,  and  inconstancy  the  basis  of  all 
vices,  God  is  not  a  Judge  who  can  be  induced  by  money  to  make  wrong 
exchange  places  with  right,  good  men  will  be  happy  whether  in  outward 
prosperity  or  adversity,  wickedness  renders  those  who  commit  it  miserable, 
the  will  alone  gives  character  to  every  action,  and  God  always  loves  the  vir- 
tuous. (5)  When  this  scholastic  method  of  treating  the  subjects  of  faith  and 
law  was  applied  to  ethics,  a  science  of  Casuistry  was  formed,  for  those  espe- 
cially who  had  the  care  of  souls,  and  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  penitential 
books,  (c)  In  this  theory  of  cases  of  conscience,  the  conflict  between  duties 
and  the  ambiguities  of  particular  circumstances  were  either  invented  with  the 
most  artful  ingenuity,  or  taken  from  actual  life.  When  it  was  received  as  a 
real  counsellor  in  the  path  of  life,  the  rock  of  conscience  was  still  shaken  by 
it.  The  moral  judgment  of  the  Church  itself  appeared  to  waver.  When  in 
the  Council  of  Constance  the  Franciscan,  Jean  Petit,  was  solemnly  accused 
by  France  of  having  defended  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  for  his  assassination  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  on  the  ground  that  the  latter  was  a  tyrant  and  a 
traitor,  and  the  Dominican,  John  ton  Falckeriburg,  was  charged  by  Poland 
with  having  preached  in  behalf  of  the  German  orders,  that  the  Polish  king 
and  nation  should  be  expelled  and  massacred,  the  only  result  which  could  be 
obtained  by  all  the  eloquence  of  Gerson  was  a  general  disapprobation  of  the 
assassination  of  tyrants,  while  the  particular  crime  complained  of  and  its 
defenders  remained  unrebuked,  and  Martin  V.  refused  his  assent  to  the  con- 
demnation of  Falckenburg.  Political  considerations  and  bribery  were  doubt- 
less concerned  in  this  result,  but  the  hesitancy  of  the  Church  allowed  the 
mendicant  friars  to  place  the  sentiment  under  the  protection  of  their  doc- 
trine of  probabilities,  that  any  one  was  justifiable  in  punishing  by  his  sword 
all  those  who  were  beyond  the  ordinary  reach  of  justice,  (d) 

6)  Dcr  Wulsche  Gast  d.  Thomasin  v.  Zirklaria,  ed.  with  phiL  &  hist  obss.  by  //  Iluckert,  Qued- 
linb.  1852. 

c)  In  the  thirteenth  century,  Summa  Eaymundlana,  by  Eaym.  de  Pennaforte;  in  the  fourteenth, 
Astesana,  by  Astesanus,  Bartholina  s.  Pisanella,  by  Barthol.  de  S.  Concordia,  in  Pisa ;  in  the  fifteenth, 
Angelica,  by  Angelus  de  Clavasio,  and  others. 

d)  Gerson  Opp.  vol.  V.  II.  P.  II.  p.  886ss.   Hardt,  Const.  Cone.  vol.  IV.  p.  43983. 1555.   Dlugosei 
Hist  Pol.  Fret  1711.  f.  1.  XL  p.  87S. 


CHAP.  V.    EXTENS.  OF  THE  CHURCH.    §  287.  APOLOGISTS.  335 


CHAP.  V.—  EXTENSION  OF  THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

§  287.    Apologetics.    Islam.    Judaism. 

The  literary  defences  of  Christianity  were  principally  directed  against 
some  objections  urged  by  Mussulmen  and  Jews,  but  they  merely  justified  the 
views  of  Christians  at  the  bar  of  their  own  judgments.  Thomas  of  Aquino 
gave  utterance  to  the  rigid  views  of  the  Church  when  he  maintained  that 
she  is  the  only  judge  of  reason  and  the  only  gate  of  salvation,  (a)  The  Pla- 
tonist,  Marsilius  Ficinus  (d.  1499),  maintained  the  view  adopted  by  the  Hu- 
manists, according  to  which  God  had  revealed  himself  also  to  the  heathen, 
but  had  never  become  a  perfect  man  except  in  Christ.  (5)  Mussulmen  were 
prohibited,  under  the  penalty  of  death,  from  even  listening  to  Christians. 
Raymond  Lullus,  of  Majorca  (1236-1316),  who  had  been  startled  from  the 
poetic  dreams  of  a  gay  youth  by  the  image  of  a  suffering  Christ,  attempted 
to  overcome  the  power  of  Islam  on  the  one  hand  by  establishing  institutions 
for  philological  missions,  and  on  the  other  by  his  new  art  of  reasoning,  which 
he  supposed  was  able  to  conquer  any  mind.  "With  restless  activity  he  pro- 
claimed his  fanciful  doctrine  of  combination  to  Christians,  and  a  Triune  God 
to  the  Saracens,  and  finally  suffered  the  martyrdom  which  he  had  long  sought 
but  feared.  The  Church  long  hesitated  whether  he  should  be  regarded  as  a 
saint  or  as  a  heretic,  (c)  It  was  not  until  the  Cross  had  become  victorious 
in  Spain  that  many  Moors  and  Jews  were  induced  by  the  alternative  of  death, 
or  banishment  from  their  native  soil,  to  receive  baptism  from  their  conquer- 
ors. In  that  country,  especially,  Judaism  became  pervaded  by  the  literature 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  exceeded  even  the  learning  of  the  times.  Maimo- 
nides  (d.  1208),  by  combining  the  doctrines  of  Moses  with  those  of  Aristotle, 
gave  new  life  to  Hebraism,  and  yet  with  warm  affection  preserved  collected 
traditions.  (d)  So  decided  was  the  ecclesiastical  prejudice  against  loans  of 
money  on  interest  on  the  ground  that  it  was  usury,  that  nearly  all  the  pecu- 
niary wealth  of  Christendom  in  each  generation  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Jews,  at  that  time  scattered  in  every  country  of  Europe.  It  was,  however, 
as  speedily  lost  by  them  in  consequence  of  the  extreme  oppressions  and  vio- 
lence to  which  they  were  universally  subjected.  Wherever  a  protracted 
profit  from  them  was  regarded  as  more  advantageous  than  a  sudden  robbery, 
they  were  protected  by  the  princes  like  any  other  lucrative  possessions, 
Many  laws  were  passed  and  frequently  renewed  by  the  Church,  to  prevent 
all  dependence  of  Christians  upon  Jews,  to  destroy  all  bonds  of  affection  be- 
tween Jews  and  Christians,  to  forbid  the  employment  of  Jewish  physicians, 
and  to  nullify  all  mortgages  held  by  Jews  upon  sacred  utensils,  and  the  pro- 
perty of  the  Church.  Even  Gregory  I.  regarded  it  as  unquestionably  proper 

a)  Summa  cathol.  fidei  contra  Gentiles,  1.  IV. 

&)  De  rel.  chr.  et  fidei  pietate  ad  Laurent  Med.  (Opp.  Par.  1641.  f.  vol.  I.) 

c)  R.  Lulli  Opp.  quae  ad  inventam  ab  ipso  artem  universalem  pertinent,  C.  Jord.  Bruni  et  C. 
Agrippae  coramtr.  Argent  1598.  Acta  SS.  Jun.  vol.  V.  p.  638ss. 

d)  Especially  More  Nebochim,  Bas.  1629.  4.  Ber.  1791.  uebers.  v.  Scheyer,  Frkf.  1S30.    [J.  Town- 
ley,  Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Moses  from  the  More  Neb.  of  Maim,  with  notes,  &c.  Lond.  1828.    Lit- 
telVs  Mag.  vol.  I.  p.  233ss.  545ss.]    Seer.  Lebcn  u.  Wirken  d.  Moses  ben  Maimon.  Prag.  1835. 


336  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

to  entice  Jews  into  the  profession  of  Christianity,  were  it  only  for  the  sake 
of  their  children,  and  frequently  arrangements  were  made  for  compelling 
'  Jews  to  listen  to  discourses  for  their  conversion.  All,  however,  conceded 
that  they  should  never  be  compelled  to  profess  the  Christian  faith,  and  the 
popes  excommunicated  those  who  attempted  to  injure  these  living  witnesses 
for  the  truth  of  the  Christian  faith,  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  usual  privi- 
leges and  discipline,  on  the  ground  that  at  some  period  before  the  second 
coming  of  our  Lord  they  were  to  be  converted  to  Christianity,  (e)  But  the 
exclusive  influence  of  ecclesiastical  prejudices,  the  wealth  of  the  Jews,  and 
the  necessities  of  those  indebted  to  them,  continually  nourished  the  popular 
hatred.  The  commencement  of  the  crusades  was  remarkable  for  scenes  of 
Jewish  slaughter,  and  not  unfrequently  afterwards  the  feelings  of  the  popu- 
lace were  so  aroused  against  this  people  by  vague  rumors  of  the  crucifixion 
of  Christian  children,  of  poisoned  wells,  and  of  the  piercing  of  the  Host, 
that  in  some  cities  the  whole  Jewish  population  were  suddenly  massacred  or 
burned  at  the  stake.  Excluded  as  they  were  from  public  stations  of  honor 
and  enjoyment,  they  applied  all  their  energies  and  keen  intellects  with  almost 
convulsive  eagerness  to  the  accumulation  of  money,  by  which  alone  they 
could  possess  influence.  In  silent  bitterness  toward  the  whole  human  race, 
but  faithful  to  their  principles  even  to  death,  this  reprobate  people  of  God 
by  hundreds  gave  themselves  and  their  children  to  the  slaughter  rather  than 
to  baptism.  (/) 

§  288.    Prussia.    Lithuania.    Lapland. 

Liter,  sco  §  211.  Jtfime,  Symb.  n.  Mythol.  vol.  L  p.  79»— Dlugovti  Hist  PoL  L  X.  p.  96a.  J. 
LindenWatt,  Jahrbb.  edit  by  Voigt,  Konigsb.  1923.  p.  GOss.  834M.— ScJa/erl  Lapponia.  Frcf.  1678. 
4.  Mone,  vol.  I.  p.  21ss. 

Tfre  bishops  who,  since  the  tenth  century,  had  been  consecrated  to  carry 
the  gospel  to  Prussia,  found  nothing  but  death  there.  The  Polish  Cistercians, 
after  1207,  appear  to  have  been  more  successful.  But  when  the  converts 
were  used  by  Polish  princes  in  the  subjugation  of  the  Prussians,  they  were 
all  murdered,  and  the  Polish  provinces  on  the  border  were  reduced  to  deso- 
lation. In  this  extremity  the  order  of  the  German  knights  was  invited  to 
assist  the  distressed  Poles  (1226),  and  by  a  league  between  it  and  Poland,  the 
empire,  and  the  Koman  court,  Prussia  became  its  perpetual  possession. 
These  knights  then  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  their  enemies,  and  after 
long  and  bloody  wars  they  effected  the  conquest  of  the  inhabitants  (1230-83). 
Innocent  IY.  divided  Prussia  into  the  dioceses  of  Culm,  Pomesania,  Erm- 
land,  and  Samland.  The  bishops  were  to  have  possession  of  a  third  part  of 
all  the  land  as  an  independent  property,  but  they  soon  became  dependent 
upon  the  knightly  order,  by  which  a  refractory  bishop  of  Samland  was 
allowed  to  starve  in  prison.  («)  Every  foot  of  territory  conquered  by  the 


e)  Alexand.  III.  in  Cone.  Later,  a.  1179.  c.  26.  Innoc.  IIL  1.  II.  Ep.  302.  Comp.  Sernardi  Ep. 
322.  Thomas,  Summa.  P.  II,  2.  Qa.  10. 

/)  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Isr.  vol.  VL  VII.  &  Allg.  Gesch.  d.  Isr.  Volks.  vol.  II.  p.  307ss.  [Josfs  Hist  of 
the  Jews,  &c.  transl.  from  Germ,  by  J.  H.  Hopkins,  New  York.  1843.  Milman'i  Hist  of  Jews.  New 
York.  1830.]  Pepping,  les  Juifs  dans  le  moyen  age.  Par.  1834  Locherer,  Geist  dcr  v.  d.  Kirche  fiir  u. 
wider  die  Juden  hervorgegangenen  Verordnn.  (Jahrb.  f.  Tbeol.  n.  cbr.  Phil.  1S35.  vol.  IV.  H.  2.) 

a)  Gebser,  Gesch.  d.  Domk.  za  Konigsb.  Konigsb.  1835.  p.  204ss. 


CHAP.  Y.    EXTENS.  OF  THE  CHURCH.    §  289.  PKUS&IA.    LITHUANIA.         337 

order  was  secured  by  permanent  cities  colonized  by  Germans,  so  that  ulti- 
mately the  Prussians  were  more  properly  exterminated  than  converted.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Grand  Master  made  the  city  of 
Marieiiburg  his  permanent  capital,  and  there  were  put  forth  the  most  splen- 
did exhibitions  of  knighthood.  (&)  Soon,  however,  dissensions  arose  be- 
tween the  order  and  the  hierarchy,  the  people  whom  they  governed  were 
driven  to  despair,  one  portion  of  the  country  was  wrested  from  them  by  the 
King  of  Poland,  and  the  remainder  was  received  from  him  as  a  royal  fief 
(1466). — Jagello,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  purchased  the  hand  of  the 
heiress-apparent  to  the  throne  of  Poland  by  submitting  to  baptism  (1386). 
His  countrymen  received  each  a  white  woollen  coat  as  a  sponsor's  gift,  and 
allowed  themselves  to  be  baptized  in  troops,  all  in  each  company  receiving 
the  same  name.  But  even  in  the  sixteenth  century  heathenish  customs  main- 
tained their  place  side  by  side  with  Christian  usages. — The  sovereignty  of 
Sweden  was  acknowledged  by  the  Laplanders  (about  12Y9),  and  a  church 
was  consecrated  for  them  at  Tornea  (1335)  by  Hemming,  the  Archbishop  of 
Upsala.  After  this,  children  were  generally  baptized,  and  marriage  was  cele- 
brated by  the  priests,  but  the  natural  poverty  of  the  country  ar,d  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  families  was  so  great,  that  a  pastoral  charge  seemed  almost 
impossible,  and  the  minds  of  the  people  were  subject  to  the  magical  rites  of 
their  former  heathenism,  (c) 

§  289.     Prester  John  and  the  Mongols. 

Assemani  Bibl.  or.  vol.  III.  P.  I.  II.  Mosheim,  Hist  Tartarorum  ecc.  Hlmst  1741.  4.  Abel- 
Remusat,  M6moires  sur  les  relations  politiques  des  princes  chrdtiens  avec  les  empereurs  Mongols. 
(Mem.  de  1'Inst  de  France,  Acad.  des  Inscript  1822.  Th.  YI.  YII.)  Schmidt,  Hist  des  Mongols 
depuis  Tschinguiz-khan  jusqu'a  Timur-lenk.  Par.  1824.  [Hist,  of  the  Mongols  from  Ghenghis-Khan 
to  Tamerlane.  Amst  1853.  4  vols.] 

Near  the  commencement  of  the  eleventh  century  the  Nestorians  induced 
a  Tartarian  prince  to  profess  Christianity,  who  transmitted  to  his  successors 
the  name  (Ung-Khan)  which  has  been  rather  doubtfully  translated  into  Euro- 
pean languages  in  the  form  of  Prester  John.  In  the  popular  traditions  of 
his  own  age  he  was  a  mythical  personage,  in  which  Europe  admired  an  ideal 
surpassing  the  papacy  itself  in  its  union  of  the  royal  and  sacerdotal  power. 
A  royal  priest  of  such  an  illustrious  character,  Alexander  III.  was  very 
anxious  to  connect  with  the  Eoman  Church.*  His  glory,  however,  was  soon 
lost  in  the  confusion  created  by  the  conquests  of  Ghenghis-Khan.  Europe 
itself  was  delivered  about  the  same  time  (1241)  from  the  perils  of  the  great 
national  migration  of  the  Mongols,  not  so  much  by  the  hand  of  man  as  by 
the  power  of  God.  Mendicant  friars  were  sent  to  these  conquerors  of  Asia 
by  the  Koman  Church  and  St.  Louis  of  France.  Brilliant  hopes  had  been 
awakened  by  the  personal  favors  shown  to  individuals,  the  regard  which  a 
conquering  people  usually  entertain  for  the  deities  of  the  nation  they  wish 
to  subdue,  and  the  actual  hesitation  which  Mongolian  Deism  exhibited  in 
choosing  between  the  gospel  and  the  koran.  The  exaggerated  accounts  sent 

V)  J.  Voigt,  Gesch.  Marienb.  Konigsb.  1824. 
c)  Comp.  KheinwalcTa  Eep.  1841.  vol.  XXXIII.  p.  82ss. 
*  Baroniiis,  ad  ann.  117T.  N.  83ss. 
22 


338  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

back  by  the  missionaries  there,  filled  all  Europe  with  the  most  exalted  ex 
pectations.  Even  in  the  thirteenth  century,  however,  the  papacy  of  the 
Dalai -lama  began  to  be  developed,  and  other  Mongolian  tribes  embraced  the 
religion  of  Islam.  One  small  congregation  in  the  city  of  Peking,  over  which 
an  archbishop  had  been  consecrated  by  Clement  V.  (1307),  was  entirely  de- 
stroyed during  an  insurrection  in  China  against  the  Mongols  (1369).  The 
Nestorians  alone  succeeded  in  preserving  a  few  settlements  there, 

§  290.     The  New  World. 

Earth,  de  lot  Ca*a*,  Relation  do  la  destruicion  de  las  Indias.  1552.  4  (lat  1611  germ.  1665.  4.)- 
Robertoon,  Hist  of  America.  Lend.  1772.  and  often.  [New  York.  1S40.]  Write,  tL  Las  Cas.  (Zeit- 
echr.  t  hist  Th.  voL  IV.  Bt  1.)  Walten't  Weltk.  1885.  vol.  L  p.  67s*.  [  JF.  Irving,  Life  and  Voyages 
of  Columbus  and  his  Companions,  new  ed.  Now  York.  1848.  8  vols.] 

•  In  spite  of  the  ecclesiastical  prejudices  he  was  obliged  to  overcome,  Co- 
lumbus believed  himself  called  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  fulfil  the  word  of  the 
Lord,  predicting  that  the  gospel  should  bo  carried  to  nations  at  the  utmost 
borders  of  the  earth.  The  discovery  of  America  (1492)  and  the  circumnavi- 
gation of  Africa  (1498)  wore  regarded  as  mighty  conquests  in  behalf  of 
Christianity.  The  Indians,  however,  had  no  desire  for  a  heaven  where  they 
were  again  to  meet  their  Spanish  tyrants.  In  every  way  that  European  vio- 
lence could  devise,  they  were  forcibly  compelled  to  receive  baptism.  And 
yet  the  blessings  the  gospel  ever  carries  in  its  tram  could  not  be  altogether 
withheld  from  them.  The  Dominicans  exerted  all  the  power  of  the  Church 
to  secure  for  their  converts  the  rights  of  human  beings.  Finally  the  heroic 
sufferer  Las  Casas  (1517)  obtained  a  law  from  Charles  I.  (V.)  securing  to  the 
natives  the  enjoyment  of  their  personal  freedom,  but  it  was  purchased  by 
the  introduction  of  the  African  slave-trade. 


CHAP.  VI.— OPPOSITION  AND  REFORM. 

Liter,  before  $  223.  Flaciu*,  Catal.  testlum  veritatis.  (Bas.  1556.  Arg.  15C2.  f.)  Frcf.  1C66.  Fasclc. 
rerum  expetendarum  ac  fugiend.  cd.  OrViuinu*  Oratius,  CoL  1585.  f.  aux.  E.  Brown,  Loud.  2  vols.  f. 
Jo.  Wolf,  Lcctlones  memorab.  et  recond.  (Laving.  1600.)  Lps.  1671.  Uardt:  Const  Cone.  vol.  I.  P. 
IX.  Hist  lit  Ret  P.  III.  C.  UUmann,  Reformatoren  vor  d.  Reformation.  Hamb.  1841s.  2  vols. 
F.  A.  ffolehawen,  d.  Protest  nach  seiner  Entsteh.  Lpz.  1846.  voL  L 

§  291.     General  View. 

The  highest  forms  of  the  ecclesiastical  system  then  prevalent  had  their 
origin  in  enthusiastic  notions  and  feelings,  inconsistent  with  nature,  (a)  But 
as  all  enthusiasm  must  in  the  course  of  time  expend  its  force,  and  nature 
will  ultimately  assert  its  rights,  the  extreme  self-denials  which  that  system 
had  undertaken  and  required,  soon  became  a  false  display,  for  which  some 
indemnified  themselves  by  unlawful  and  unnatural  means,  and  others  became 
a  prey  to  idiocy  or  despair  through  their  compulsory  fidelity.  Hence,  so 
long  as  Catholicism  was  looked  upon  as  the  only  possible  form  of  the  Church, 
there  were  either  perpetual  corruptions  of  all  ecclesiastical  institutions,  or 

a)  Comp.  negel,  PhiL  d.  Rel.  Brl.  1832.  vol.  I.  p.  171ss.  ,     • 


CHAP.  VI.    OPPOS.  &  EEFOEM.    §  292.  STEDINGEBS  339 

continual  renovations  of  the  spirit,  which  either  gave  new  life  to  the  old 
forms,  or  created  new.  But  the  true  mission  of  Catholicism  in  Europe  was 
now  nearly  complete,  the  people  began  to  think  that  they  had  passed  the 
period  of  pupilage,  and  those  who  were  employed  in  political  and  scientific 
pursuits'  were  evidently  superior  to  the  hierarchy.  The  internal  spirit  which 
called  for  such  a  system  no  longer  existed,  its  abuses  had  attained  a  high 
degree  of  extravagance,  and  finally  a  painful  schism  had  become  perceptible 
in  every  part  of  the  Church.  The  necessity  of  a  reformation  was  therefore 
generally  acknowledged.  Many  felt  that  it  was  near,  and  expressed  their 
convictions  by  predicting  sometimes  the  destruction  and  sometimes  the  glo- 
rious renovation  of  the  Church.  Not  unfrequently  their  feelings  were  ex- 
hibited in  prophecies  that  God  was  about  to  raise  up  pious  doctors,  Christian 
heroes,  and  even  monks  or  hermits  for  this  work.  (£)  Two  classes  of  per- 
sons became  prominent  in  the  course  of  these  struggles  for  reform  :  1)  The 
hostile  parties  continued  from  the  preceding  period,  whose  revolutionary  ele- 
ments were  soon  almost  completely  destroyed  by  the  Church,  while  all  that 
was  true  in  them  passed  over  into  the  other  class.  2)  A, party  composed 
partly  of  a  series  of  ecclesiastical  teachers  still  deeply  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  Catholicism,  and  anxious  to  bring  it  back  to  its  original  intention,  and  to 
render  it  consistent  with  its  own  principles  and  laws,  and  partly  of  those 
who  despaired  of  any  general  reform  according  to  the  customary  forms  of 
law,  and  who  therefore  ccmmenced  the  work  in  their  own  way.  These, 
longing  for  a  primitive  Christianity  unknown  in  later  times,  had  no  scruples 
in  renouncing  all  terms  with  the  Church  of  that  day.  All  these  tendencies 
were  in  various  ways  intermingled  with  one  another,  inasmuch  as  the  Catho- 
lic and  the  Protestant  elements  were  as  yet  comprehended  in  each  other. 

I.   HOSTILE  PARTIES. 

§  292.     The  Stedingers  and  the  Heretical  Ghibellincs. 

A  tribe  of  Frieslanders  in  the  district  of  Steding,  among  the  settlements 
on  the  Weser,  succeeded  in  maintaining  the  popular  -freedom  which  origi- 
nally prevailed  in  Germany.  The  castles  from  which  the  Count  of  Olden- 
burg threatened  their  country  were  demolished,  the  tithes  which  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Bremen  demanded  of  them  were  withheld,  and  the  curse  of 
excommunication  which  the  latter  denounced  upon  them  was  disregarded. 
For  forty  years  the  count  and  the  bishops  contended  against  this  little  tribe, 
protected  only  by  the  courage  which  freedom  supplies,  and  their  country's 
morasses.  Their  heresy  consisted  not  in  the  adoration  of  a  toad,  as  was 
asserted  in  the  stupid  and  lying  accounts  sent  to  Eome,  but  in  something  far 
more  dangerous  to  the  peace  of  the  Church.  («)  It  was  the  first  triumphant 
struggle  of  the  people  against  the  nobility  and  the  priesthood,  and  therefore 
exceedingly  interesting  to  the  peasants,  who  every  where  gloried  in  it.  Gre- 

&)  Wicli/e,  Trial  IV,  30.  Apol.  Conf.  August  p.  276s.  Loscher,  Eef.  Ada.  vol.  I.  p.  145sa. 
JTottinger,  H.  ecc.  1.  XV.  p.  413.  Hageribach,  Gesch.  d.  Kef.  vol.  I.  p.  V2.  Augusti,  die  Eef.  Pny 
pheten.  (Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  u.  Statist  d.  «v.  K.  1838.  vol.  III.  p.  115ss  > 

fl)  Mansi  vol.  XXIII.  p.  823.    Raynald.  ad  ann.  123&  N.  42ssi 


340  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

gory  IX.  caused  a  crusade  to  be  proclaimed  against  the  Stedingers  as  here- 
tics  of  the  most  deadly  and  absurd  character.  Their  great  and  glorious 
struggle  was  finally  terminated  by  a  dreadful  battle  (1234),  which  only  a 
small  remnant  survived  to  submit  to  the  yoke  of  the  Church.  (5)— During 
the  contest  between  the  popes  and  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  some  sectaries 
residing  in  the  Suabian  city  of  HaH  (about  1248)  declared  the  pope  a  heretic, 
and  that  the  clergy  had  forfeited  their  power  on  account  of  their  corruptions. 
They  therefore  offered  prayer  for  the  members  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen 
as  the  only  just  and  perfect  rulers.  When  the  power  of  these  princes  Was 
broken  they  also  disappeared,  (c)  But  for  a  long  time  after  a  story  was  cur- 
rent in  various  forms  among  the  people,  according  to  which  Frederic  II. 
would  at  some  future  period  return,  or  from  his  blood  should  arise  a  mighty 
eagle  which  would  destroy  the  Roman  Church,  (d) 

§  298.    Fraternity  of  ihe  Free  Spirit. 

The  bold  aspiration  of  the  spirit  toward  God,  which  was  not  seriously 
opposed  when  it  appeared  in  all  its  indistinctness  and  benignity  in  the  sys- 
tem of  Mysticism,  necessarily  fell  under  the  judgment  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  when  it  came  out  with  scholastic  definitions,  exalted  itself  above  the 
Church  itself,  and  was  even  perverted  to  the  gratification  of  wicked  pas- 
sions. A  synod  at  Paris  (1209)  pronounced  judgment  upon  the  school  of 
Amalric,  which  combined  the  Pantheistic  doctrines  of  Erigena  with  their 
own  principles  of  reform,  which  they  announced  in  the  style  of  the  abbot 
Joachim.  They  maintained  not  so  much  that  every  thing  was  one  and  God, 
as  that  God  is  the  essence,  the  end,  and  the  object  of  every  thing  created. 
Every  pious  person  is  a  Christ  in  whom  God  becomes  man,  the  resurrection 
is  regeneration,  heaven  and  hell  are  internal  and  moral  states,  the  body  of 
Christ  is  in  the  bread  even  before  its  consecration,  just  as  God  is  in  all  na- 
ture, and  the  Trinity  is  merely  the  incarnation  of  the  Deity  in  three  different 
periods  of  the  world.  After  them  and  among  them  the  age  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  to  commence,  when  there  would  be  no  more  need  of  an  external 
Church.  They  also  maintained  that  the  pope  was  Antichrist,  that  every 
thing  done  from  love  was  pure,  since  the  Spirit  who  reigns  in  the  hearts  of, 
all  who  know  themselves  to  be  one  with  him  cannot  sin.  Amalrieh  of  Bena 
was  himself  compelled  only  to  recant  his  assertion,  that  no  one  can  be  saved 
who  does  not  consider  himself  a  member  of  Christ's  body  (1204).  The  con- 
demnation of  persons  then  in  their  graves,  by  the  Synod  of  Paris,  and  the 
connection  of  the  proceedings  with  the  name  of  Erigena,  indicate  what  must 
have  been  the  pantheistic  object  of  that  assertion.  A  treatise  of  David  of 
Dinanto  was  at  the  same  time  destroyed,  which  would  seem  from  arguments 
urged  against  it  at  a  later  period,  to  have  founded  upon  certain  Aristotelian 

Z>)  Jo.  Otton,  Catal.  Episcc.  Brem.  (Menken  voL  IIL  p.  793.)  Oregor.  IX.  ad  Archiep.  Brem. 
(Linderibrog.  p.  172.)— J.  D.  Hitter,  de  pago  Steding  et  de  Stedingis.  Vit  1751.  4.  (Berg,  Mnseum 
Duisb.  vol.  I.  P.  II.  p.  529.)  Scharling,  de  Stedingis.  Hafn.  1828.  SctOcaser,  Weltgesch.  vol.  III. 
Th.  2.  Abth.  2.  p.  127SS. 

c)  Albertus  Stadens,  ad  ann.  1248. 

d)  MoaTieim,  Vers.  e.  nnparth.  Ketzergesch.  HlmsL  1743.  p.  342ss.    Miclidsen,  d.  Eiffhauser  Kai- 
wrsagc.  (Zeitech.  f.  thuring.  Gesch.  1853.  H.  2.) 


CHAP.  VL    OPPOS.  &  REFORM.    §293.  FRATERNITY  OF  THE  FREE  SPIRIT.    341 

conclusions  the  idea  that  the  Deity  could  have  no  distinctions  in  his  nature, 
and  that  from  him  proceeded  spirit  and  matter,  (a)  Soon  after  this  holocaust 
at  Paris,  a  popular  party  with  similar  principles  made  its  appearance  on  the 
Upper  Rhine,  and,  until  some  considerable  time  in  the  fourteenth  century,  in 
some  parts  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  They  were  known  under  vari- 
ous local  appellations,  frequently  as  Beghards  and  Waldenses,  but  among 
themselves  they  were  generally  called  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free 
Spirit.  The  nature  of  their  principles  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  they  had 
their  origin  in  the  scattered  fragments  of  Amalric's  school,  in  which  their 
doctrines  had  been  advocated  in  a  systematic  form.  Their  principal  doc- 
trine, however,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  the  Pantheism  which  contains 
no  popular  elements,  but  an  opinion  which  they  made  prominent  in  all  their 
teachings,  according  to  which  it  is  the  Spirit  alone  that  makes  us  free  and 
happy.  (&)  From  this  they  inferred  that  all  outward  things  were  unprofita- 
ble, and  thus  adopted  a  sentiment  which  in  every  age  has  been  very  ambigu- 
ous in  its  application.  Some  found  access  to  God  by  breaking  loose  from 
all  earthly  objects,  but  others  gave  themselves  up  to  worldly  lusts,  on  the 
ground  that  these  could  have  no  influence  upon  the  mind,  but  might,  on  the 
other  hand,  serve  to  extricate  the  feeling  of  original  unity  from  the  artificial 
distinctions  of  society,  by  abolishing  marriage  and  the  possession  of  private 
property,  (c)  The  Picards  or  Adamites,  who  in  the  fifteenth  century  en- 
deavored to  introduce  among  the  Hussites  a  paradisiac  state  of  nature,  were 
children  of  the  same  spirit,  and  perhaps  were  externally  in  connection  with 
them.  Some  of  these  escaped  the  swords  of  the  Hussites,  and  preserved  a 
secret  remnant  of  then*  sect  in  Bohemia,  (d) 

§  294.     Order  of  the  Apostles. 

I.  Hist  Dulcini  &  Additamentum  ad  Hist  Dale.  (Muratori  vol.  IX.  p.  423.) 

II.  Mosheim,  Gesch.  d.  Ap.  O.  (Ketzergeseh.  p.  193.)  &  de  Beghard.  p.  221ss.    Scldosser,  Abal.  u. 
Dulcin.  Gotha.  1SOT.    \L.  Mariotti,  Fra  Dolcino,  An  Hist  Memoir  of,  transl.  from  the  Ital.  by  A. 
Galenga,  Lond.  1852.  8.] 

Gherardo  Segarelli,  of  Parma,  a  youth  of  a  fanatical  disposition  who  had 
been  rejected  by  the  Franciscans,  felt  called  upon  to  invite  men  back  to  the 
true  poverty  of  the  apostolic  life.  The  Order  of  the  Apostles,  which  he 
collected  (after  1260)  around  his  person,  went  about  with  their  spiritual  sis- 
ters begging,  and  proclaiming  that  the  kingdom  of  God  was  near.  The  popes 
prohibited  (after  1286)  this  new  mendicant  order,  but  they  continued  to 
assemble  with  the  Catharists  and  Fratricelli,  and  awaited  the  approaching 
downfall  of  the  papacy  according  to  the  imagery  of  the  Apocalypse.  Ghe- 
rardo was  buried  in  Parma  (1300).  The  apostolical  brethren  were  then 

a)  Cone.  Par.  Acta  in  Martene,  Thes,  Anecd.  vol.  IV.  p.  163ss.  Accounts  by  Rigordus  ad  ann. 
1209.  and  Caesarius  H&isterbac.  V.  22.  in  Mansi  vol.  XXII.  p.  SOlss.  Gerson.  de  concordia  meta- 
phys.  c.  logica,  (vol.  IV.  p.  826.)—Engelhardt,  A.  v.  Bena.  (KHist  Abb.  N.  8.)  C.  17.  ffahn,  Am.  v. 
B.  (Stnd.  u.  Krit  1846.  H.  1.)  J.  IL  Kronlein,  Am.  v.  B.  u.  David  v.  D.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1847.  H.  2.) 

&)  John  4,  23s.  Rom.  8. 

c)  Mosheim :  de  Beghardis  et  Beguin.  p.  210.  255.  H.  ecc.  vol.  IL  p.  552s. 

d)  Contemporary  accounts  in  Lenfant,  Hist  de  la  guerre  des  Hues.  voL  I.  p.  79ss.  (Comp.  Beau- 
sobre,  Diss.  sur  les  Adamites  de  Boh^me.  16.  voL  IL  p.  304ss.)    Mosheim,  IL  ecc.  p.  637s.  Brl.  K 
Z.  N.  12. 


342  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  .D.  121G-1517. 

induced  to  follow  Dolcino,  a  native  of  Milan,  and  his  spiritual  friend  Harga« 
retta.  His  prophetic  circular  Letters  recognize  indeed  the  historical  neces< 
sity  that  the  Church  should  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  wealthy  and  power- 
ful, but  maintain  that  since  the  hierarchy  had  left  their  first  love,  and 
surrendered  themselves  to  earthly  things,  it  was  now  needful  to  return  to 
the  poverty  of  the  apostles.  His  assertions,  which  probably  attained  this 
distinct  form  only  by  degrees,*  were  merely  a  compilation  of  the  heresies 
which  had  prevailed  at  an  older  period :  "  The  Roman  Church  is  the  great 
harlot  of  the  Apocalypse ;  all  the  popes  since  the  time  of  Sylvester,  with 
the  exception  of  Peter  de  Murrhone,  have  been  false  leaders ;  it  is  better  to 
live  without  vows  than  with  them ;  men  and  women  may  cohabit  without 
distinction;  perjury  is  lawful  in  opposition  to  the  inquisition;  and  the 
power  of  the  Church  is  transferred  to  the  Order  of  the  Apostles,  in  which 
alone  salvation  can  be  found."  Believing  that  the  revolution  he  expected 
was  at  hand,  and  that  the  Staufian  imperial  dynasty  was  about  to  be  re- 
stored, Dolcino  took  up  arms  against  the  inquisition,  with  something  like  a 
thousand  men  went  forth  on  a  bold  predatory  expedition,  and  finally  in- 
trenched himself  on  Mount  Zebello.  Here  he  was  surrounded  by  the  host  of 
the  crusaders  which  had  been  sent  against  him  by  the  Bishop  of  Vercelli, 
and  at  last  sank  under  the  power  of  hunger  and  the  swords  of  his  ene- 
mies (1307). 

§  295.     Termination  of  the  Earlier  Sects. 

In  the  south  of  France,  after  many  fluctuations  of  fortune,  victory  be- 
came decided  in  favor  of  Catholicism,  amid  fields  strewed  with  the  slain  and 
the  ashes  of  dwellings  (1228).  In  Italy  itself  the  Holy  Father  was  sur- 
rounded by  all  kinds  of  heretics.  The  Catharists  had  been  allowed  opportu- 
nity to  complete  a  regular  system  of  Church  polity,  and  in  Brescia  they  even 
ventured  to  destroy  some  Catholic  churches,  and  solemnly  to  excommunicate 
the  Roman  Church,  (a)  But  when  the  chief  of  the  Ghibelline  party  had 
fallen  (until  1269),  they  sunk  under  the  power  of  the  inquisition,  and  in 
consequence  of  their  own  unfaithfulness.  In  Bosnia  alone  they  succeeded  in 
maintaining  their  ascendency,  until  the  measures  of  the  government  against 
them  (after  1442)  led  to  the  subversion  of  the  empire  by  the  Turks.  (5)  In 
Milan,  some  who  advanced  the  idea  that  a  female  hierarchy  ought  to  be 
formed  on  the  ruins  of  that  which  then  existed,  because  the  Holy  Spirit  had 
become  incarnate  in  a  woman,  were  obliged  to  atone  for  their  rashness  at 
the  stake,  (c)  The  Waldenses  were  reduced  in  numbers  because  they  had 
been  burned  by  their  persecutors,  but  some  congregations  still  remained  in 
the  south  of  France  and  in  the  secluded  valleys  of  Piedmont.  The  reasons 
for  the  increase  of  heresy  were  declared  by  a  zealous  Catholic  to  be :  the 
vanity  and  the  zeal  of  heretics  of  every  condition  in  life  to  teach  and  con- 

*  This  is  sustained  by  the  milder  view  in  the  accounts  discovered  by  Bdggidini  Dole,  e  i  Pa- 
tareni.  Novara.  1838.  After  him:  J.  Krone,  Fra  Dole.  u.  d.  Patarener.  Lpz.  1844.  Comp.  Hahn  in 
d.  Stud.  d.  ev.  Geistl.  Wurtemb.  1846.  vol.  XVIII.  H.  1. 

a)  Raynald.  ad  ann.  1225.  N.  47. 

6)  Raynald.  ad  ann.  1445.  N.  23, 1449.  N.  9. 1450.  N.  13. 

c)  After  PalacTcy  :  Pescheck,  d.  Bohm.  Wilhelmine.  (Zeitschr.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S39.  H.  8.) 


CHAP.  VI.  OPPOS.  &  EEFOEM.  §  296.  D'AILLY.  GEESON.       343 

vert  those  with  whom  they  were  conversant  by  means  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, and  on  the  other  hand,  the  neglect  of  popular  instruction,  the  contempt 
for  the  Church  shown  by  its  own  servants,  and  the  unapostolic  lives  of  the 
prelates,  (d)  After  the  thirteenth  century,  no  one  who  considered  merely  the 
worldliness  of  the  Church  and  the  multitude  and  zeal  of  the  heretics,  could 
have  any  doubt  whether  the  latter  or  the  Catholics  would  obtain  the  vic- 
tory. In  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth  century  heretical  congregations 
of  almost  every  kind  were  scattered  and  broken  up.  But  it  was  only  in 
secret  that  those  forms  of  opposition  were  maintained  or  organized  which  in 
the  sixteenth  century  came  forward  under  the  name  of  Anabaptism,  when 
assailing  the  constitution  of  the  Church,  and  of  Unitarianism  when  arrayed 
against  the  doctrines  of  the  Church.  (<?)  The  victory,  however,  was  depend- 
ent partly  upon  the  hopes  which  might  be  entertained  of  a  reform  and  the 
disposition  of  the  liberal  party  then  powerful  in  the  Church  itself,  partly 
upon  the  lifeless  disposition  of  the  age,  which,  as  represented  by  the  Human- 
ists, was  satisfied  with  a  shrewd  and  selfish  smile  at  existing  e  vils,  and  finally 
upon  the  more  settled  condition  of  the  states  and  their  reconciliation  with 
Rome.  A  victory  on  the  part  of  such  heretics,  as  most  of  tlfose  were  who 
existed  at  that  period,  would  have  destroyed  for  ever  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  Christianity.  If,  therefore,  we  may  concede  that  the  Church  was 
right  in  shrinking  from  no  calamities  or  laceration  of  feeling  (/)  to  overcome 
this  first  threatened  revolution,  the  very  relation  of  such  a  victory  to  Chris- 
tianity rendered  it  evident  that  at  some  future  time  an  entirely  different 
result  might  be  expected. 

II.  REFOKM. 
§  296.  Reformation  in  the  Head  and  Members. 

"When  the  Minorite,  Alvarus  Pelagius  (about  1330),  poured  forth  his 
lamentations  over  the  low  condition  of  the  Church,  the  only  remedy  he 
sought  was  the  re-establishment  of  the  papal  authority,  (a).  About  the  close 
of  the  same  century  public  opinion  became  decided  that  the  reformation  of 
the  head  of  the  Church  must  commence  with  a  limitation  of  its  power  to 
do  mischief.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  when  every  nation  and  class  in  society 
demanded  the  reformation  of  the  Church,  when  prelates  and  popes  united  in 
the  promise  that  it  should  be  given,  and  in  fact  proclaimed  that  it  was  already 
begun  and  completed,  every  one  understood  this  indefinite  term  to  mean  pri- 
marily that  which  he  most  desired,  the  removal  of  what  seemed  to  him  most 
oppressive  and  unchristian.  Reformation  was  generally  understood  to  mean : 
the  establishment  of  Christian  morals  among  all  classes,  and  especially  among 
the  clergy,  the  abolition  of  Roman  extortion,  and  the  restoration  of  all  eccle- 
siastical institutions  to  their  original  design.  The  canon  law,  however,  was 
to  remain  untouched,  and  hence  its  meaning  was  indefinite.  Nothing  was 

d)  Append,  to  Rainerii  Summa  c.  3.  (Bibl.  Max.  vol.  XXV.  p.  263.) 

e)  Illgen,  Symbb.  ad  vitam  et  doctr.  Laelii  Soc.  ill.  P.  I.  Lps.  1826.  4.    Getser,  de  primordiii 
Anabaptistar.  Eeg.  1830. 

/)  Leo,  MAlter.  vol.  I.  p.  509s. 

a)  Summa  de  planctu  Eccl.  Ulm.  1474.  f.  &  often. 


344  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-151?. 

said  respecting  doctrine.  In  consistency  with  this  view,  those  who  gave 
expression  to  public  opinion,  especially  the  Parisian  divines,  represented  tLo 
reformation  as  essentially  connected  with  the  reconciliation  of  the  great  schism, 
The  Bishop  of  Camhray,  Peter  (PAilly  (d.  ahout  1425),  combined  all  the  efforts 
of  the  French  Church  in  the  demand  of  a  general  council,  and  although  after 
the  experience  gained  at  Pisa,  he  had  doubts  whether  any  help  could  bo  de- 
rived from  such  a  source,  (5)  he  exerted  all  his  intellectual  energy  at  Con- 
stance to  have  one  summoned.  Gerson  also  defended  the  independence  of 
the  general  assemblies  of  the  Church,  as  the  only  medium  by  which  a  legal 
and  salutary  reform  could  bo  effected,  but  maintained  that  the  only  way  in 
which  a  sound  state  of  heart  could  be  secured  was  by  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  a  better  education  of  the  people.  Accordingly,  toward  the  close 
of  his  stormy  life,  he  commenced  the  reformation  among  the  children,  (c) 
Finally,  Nicolas  of  Clamengia  (d.  1440),  believing  that  the  time  had  come  in 
which  judgment  should  begin  at  the  house  of  God,  and  having  described  the 
corruption  of  the  Church  in  language  rhetorically  extravagant,  but  in  Roman 
Latin,  and  with  graphic  distinctness,  then  waited  for  the  exaltation  of  the 
Church  by  external  means,  whenever  she  should  humble  herself,  and  amend 
her  ways.  (<T)  Hemmerlin,  a  canon  of  Zurich,  as  a  preacher  and  as  an  im- 
pressive author,  has  faithfully  represented  the  spirit  of  the  Council  of  Basle, 
but  his  aristocratic  hatred  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy  produced  his  removal 
from  public  life  to  the  prison  of  the  convent  of -Lucerne  (about  1457).  (e) 
Andreas,  Archbishop  of  Grain,  of  the  order  of  preachers,  in  his  wrath  against 
Sixtus  IV.  called,  on  his  own  authority,  a  general  council  at  Basle  (1482),  for 
the  deliverance  of  the  Church.  Although  the  old  City  of  Councils  ventured 
to  endure  an  interdict  in  his  defence,  he  was,  on  the  pope's  requisition,  im- 
prisoned, and  when  he  found  himself  forsaken  by  all  on  whom  he  had  relied, 
he  hung  himself  on  the  railing  of  the  tower  (1484).  (/)  The  more  advanced 
champions  of  reform  in  the  great  councils  sometimes  inadvertently  wont  be- 
yond the  fundamental  principles  of  Catholicism.  D'Ailly  appealed  to  the 
opinion  of  the  ancient  fathers  in  proof  of  his  position  that  councils  might  err 
even  in  matters  of  faith,  and  Gerson  advanced  the  idea  of  a  universal  Church, 
which,  under  Christ  its  sole  head,  was  the  only  Church  in  which  salvation 
could  be  found,  was  without  error,  schism,  or  sin,  and  was  consequently  very 
different  from  that  of  Rome,  (g)  The  Mystics  believed  in  the  possibility  of  a 
Reformation  springing  from  within  the  Church  itself.  Those  in  particular 
who  were  called  the  "  Friends  of  God,"  and  who  professed  to  take  refuge 
under  the  cross  of  Christ,  and  depended  upon  visions  and  secret  leaders,  must 
have  occupied  a  position  quite  ambiguous  with  respect  to  the  Church,  and 
were  full  of  bitter  complaints  of  its  degeneracy.  (K)  The  saint  of  the  North 


5)  De  difficultate  Reform,  in  Cone.  univ.  (ffardt.  vol.  I.  P.  VI.  p.  255.) 

c)  Tr.  de  parvulis  trahendis  ad  Christum.  (Opp.  vol.  III.  p.  278.) 

d)  Jf.  de  Clamengis,  de  ruina  EccL  about  1406.  (ffardt.  voL  I.  P.  III.  p.  1.)— Ad.  Munts,  Nic.  da 
Clemanges,  sa  vie  et  ses  ecrita.  Strasb.  1846. 

e)  B.  Beber,  Felix  Hemmerlin,  Zur.  1846.    Here  see  p.  18ss.  of  his  writings. 

/)  Peter  Numagen,  Gesta  Archiep.  Crayensis  (Wirceb.  1514)  in  ffottinger,  H.  ecc.  p.  XV.  p. 
E47ss.  Wurstisen,  Easier  Chronik  VI,  14.— J.  Surckhardt,  Erzb.  A.  v.  Krain  u.  d.  letzte  Concilsver- 
6-ich  in  B.  Basel.  1S52.  ff)  ffardt.  vol.  IL  P.  V.  p.  19C.  &  vol.  I.  P.  V.  p.  68. 

A)  Rulman  Merswln  (d.  13S2),  das  B.  v.  d.  neun  Felsen.  (comp.  C.  Schmidt  in  d.  Zeitschr.  f.  hist 


CHAP.  VI.    OPPOS.  &  EEFOKM.    §  296.  EEASMUS.    CUSA.  345 

when  she  visited  Home  found  the  whole  Decalogue  reduced  to  a  single  pre- 
cept, "  Bring  money ! "  and  she  therefore  predicted  a  Eeformation,  which 
should  proceed,  not  from  the  pope,  but  from  Christendom,  (i)  Gregory  of 
Heimburg  (d.  1472),  a  legal  counsellor,  even  when  excommunicated  and 
homeless,  remained  true  to  his  character,  and  with  German  sturdiness  invoked 
the  German  national  spirit,  in  opposition  to  Eoman  encroachments.  (&) 
Erasmus  perceived  that  the  only  vocation  suited  to  his  character  was,  in  the 
quiet  leisure  of  a  literary  life,  to  effect  a  reformation  of  theology,  and  thus 
prepare  the  way  for  a  peaceful  reformation  of  the  Church,  by  promoting  a 
knowledge  of  classical  and  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  and  by  cultivating  the 
faculty  of  independent  and  sober  common  sense.  But  there  were  in  the  hier- 
archy prodigious  resources  for  evading  these  calls  for  a  Reformation,  and  for 
corrupting  those  leaders  in  it  who  could  not  be  overthrown.  All  the  bold 
champions  who  advocated  it  at  Basle  gradually  submitted.  Some  of  the  more 
cautious  did  this  first,  and  all  could  do  so  with  dignity.  Nicolas  of  Cusa 
(d.  1464),  afterwards  Cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Brixen,  defended  the  supremacy 
of  the  pope  at  the  bar  of  the  very  synod  for  whose  independence  he  had  just 
been  contending.  According  to  his  metaphysical  speculations  all  the  affairs 
of  Church  and  state  were  arranged  on  the  principle  of  a  unity  before  which 
no  opposition  could  be  true.  To  the  scholasticism  of  his  day  he  opposed  his 
learned  want  of  knowledge,  to  an  absolute  faith  in  the  Scriptures  he  opposed 
the  authority  of  the  Holy  Spirit  who  had  been  given  to  men  and  had  estab- 
lished the  Church  before  the  letter  of  the  sacred  writings  had  been  composed, 
and  to  such  as  disbelieved  the  miracles  of  the  Church  he  opposed  his  own 
disinterestedness  as  a  legate  and  as  a  preacher  of  indulgences.  He,  however, 
preserved  in  his  heart  a  desire  for  a  Reformation,  and  predicted  that  the 
papacy  would  be  subverted  and  the  Church  renovated,  but  at  some  distant 
period.  (T)  At  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century  every  thing 
accomplished  for  the  Church  at  Constance  and  at  Basle  had  apparently  come 
to  nothing,  and  all  confidence  in  councils  was  given  up.  There  were  not 
wanting,  however,  even  among  the  friends  of  the  hierarchy,  some  individuals 
who  warned  them  of  the  consequences  of  this  course.  Cardinal  Julian  wrote 
to  the  pope  (1431),  "  If  all  hope  of  our  amendment  should  be  cut  off,  we  shall 
be  attacked  by  the  laity  according  to  our  deserts."  (m)  Chancellor  Mayer  of 
Mentz  wrote  (145V)  to  Aeneas  Sylvius :  "  The  German  nation,  once  the  Queen 
of  the  world,  but  now  a  tributary  handmaid  of  the  Roman  Church,  begins  to 
arouse  herself  as  out  of  a  dream,  and  is  resolved  to  throw  off  the  yoke."  (ri) 


Th.  1839.  P.  2.  p.  61ss.)  Plaintes  d'un  Laique  allemand  sur  la  decadence  de  la  chrtStiente  (1356.)  opus- 
cule publie  p.  Ch.  Schmidt,  Strasb.  1840.  4  Eohrich  d.  Gottesfr.  u.  Winkler  am  Oberrhein.  (Zcitschr. 
f.  hist.  Th.  1840.  P.  1.)  0.  Schmidt,  Tauler,  p.  161ss. 

i)  Birgittae  Eevelatt  in  Wolfii  Lectt.  memor.  vol.  II.  p.  670ss. 

k)  Admonitio  de  iujustis  usurpatt  Paparum  Eom.  ad  Imperator.  Eeges  et  Prince,  chr.  s.  Confuta- 
tio  priinatus  Papae.  (Goldast,  Monarch.  S.  E.  Imp.  vol.  1.  P.  55Tss.)  &  others.  Comp.  Ilagen  in  d. 
Braga.  Heidelb.  1839.  vol.  II.  p.  414ss.  Ullmann,  Eeformat  vol.  L  p.  212ss. 

1)  De  cath.  concordantia.  De  docta  ignorantia.  Apol.  doctae  ignor.  De  Deo  abscondito.  De  con- 
jecturis.  Epp.  VII.  ad  Clerum  et  Literates  Bohemiae.  Conjecture  de  novissimis  dieb.  (Opp.  Baa, 
1565.  3  vols.  f.)  F.  A.  Scharpft  d.  Card.  N.  v.  C.  Mainz.  1843.  vol.  I.  J,  M.  2>it3f,  N.  v.  C.  u.  d.  K, 
sr.  Zeit  Eatisb.  1847.  2  vols.  R,  Zimmermann,  Cus.  als  Vorhvufer  Leibnitzens.  Weiin.  1S52. 

m)  Rlclieril  Hist.  Concc.  gen.  Col.  1681.  I.  III.  p.  32.        n)  Wolfii  Lectt.  memor.  vol.  I.  p.  S53. 


346  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  121G-1517. 

A  literary  man  in  Germany  thought  the  Reformation  equally  impracticable 
and  necessary  at  that  time.  (0) 

§  297.    John  de  Wycliffe.    1324.— Ztec.  31,  1384. 

I.  Writings  of  J.  WicL  Lond.  1838.    IT.  Enyghton,  de  eventtb.  Angliao  usque  1395.    (Ticisden 
Scrr.  Hist  Aug.  Lond.  1652.  I)    Argentre  voL  I.  P.  2.  p.  las. 

II.  «/.  Lewis,  Hist  of  the  Life  &  Sufferings  of  J.  W.  (Lond.  1720.)  Oxf.  1320.    Rob.  Vaughan 
Life  &  Opinions  of  J.  de  W.  Lond.  (1829.)  1881.  2  vols.  [new  ed.  Lond.  1853.  4.     C.  W.  Le  Bus,  Life 
of  W.  New  York.  1838.  2  vols.    Littell's  ReL  Mag.  voL  IIL  p.  81  ss.  142ss.]    D»  Ruever  Groneman, 
Diatr.  in  J.  W.  vitam,  ingenium,  script*.  Traj.  1837.    G.  Weber,  Geach.  d.  akath.  K.  n.  Secten  in 
Groessbrit.  Lps.  1845.  vol.  I.  Th.  1.    E.  A.  Leward,  d.  Uieol.  Doctrin.  W.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1S46.  II- 
2.  4  1847.  U.  2.)    G.  V.  Lechler,  W.  u.  d.  Lollarden.  L  (7Z>.  1853.  IL  8.) 

The  papal  power  in  England  had  been  renovated  by  means  of  the  mendi- 
cant friars.  In  the  time  of  Edward  III.  parliament  enacted  that  every  one 
who  should  be  the  bearer  of  any  papal  orders  with  respect  to  ecclesiastical 
offices  should  be  imprisoned  (1350),  forbade  all  appeals  to  the  court  of  Rome 
(1353),  and  declared  that  all  rents  paid  to  the  pope  as  a  liege  lord  were  un- 
lawful (1366).  "Wycliffe  also  wrote  in  the  style  of  the  Abbot  Joachim 
respecting  the  last  times  of  the  Church,  (a)  Under  the  instruction  of  Brad- 
wardine  he  had  become  skilled  in  scholastic  learning,  and  in  both  branches 
of  the  law,  and  as  a  subordinate  member  of  the  University  of  Oxford  he  sup- 
ported that  institution  by  his  learned  tracts  in  opposition  to  the  mendicant  friars 
(after  1360),  and  defended  the  government  in  its  endeavors  to  render  itself 
independent  of  the  French  papacy.  As  &  professor  of  theology  after  1372, 
and  much  respected  as  a  realistic  philosopher,  he  was  sent  as  one  of  the 
deputies  to  Bruges  (1374-76),  to  confer  with  the  papal  commissioners  respect- 
ing a  free  appointment  of  ecclesiastical  offices  by  the  Church,  lie  afterwards 
spoke  and  wrote  against  the  oppression  of  the  Church  by  the  papacy,  against 
the  arbitrary  mode  of  excommunications  then  prevalent,  against  monasticism, 
purgatory,  and  against  the  necessity  of  auricular  confession,  indulgences,  and 
the  worship  of  saints  and  of  images.  Gregory  XI.  condemned  (1377)  nine- 
teen articles  selected  from  his  writings,  which  however  Wycliffe,  under  the 
protection  of  the  court  and  the  high  nobility,  merely  explained  in  a  milder 
and  more  definite  sense.  But  when  he  longed  to  extricate  himself  from  the 
antichristianity  of  his  own  day,  and  enjoy  the  privileges  of  a  Church  like 
that  which  Paul  had  constructed,  and  therefore  taught  that  the  Scriptures 
alone  were  worthy  of  complete  confidence  (Dr.  Evangelicus),  that  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  pope  was  derived  solely  from  the  emperor,  that  it  was 
treason  to  obstruct  appeals  from  the  spiritual  courts  to  the  king,  that  priests 
lost  all  spiritual  power  by  the  commission  of  mortal  sin,  that  tithes  and  other 
alms  should  be  withheld  from  priests  living  in  sin,  that  the  saving  grace  of 
God  was  not  connected  exclusively  with  the  priesthood  and  the  sacraments, 
and,  finally,  that  Christ  was  present  in  the  Lord's  Supper  only  in  a  spiritual 
manner ;  his  doctrines  were  condemned  at  the  Earthquake-Council  at  London 
(1382),  and  Wycliffe  himself  was  excluded  from  the  University.  He  was, 

o)  Life  of  the  celebrated  D.  Crantzii.  Hamb.  (1722.)  1729.  p.  51.    Monckelerg,  d.  theol.  Charak 
tor  d.  A.  Krantz,  Hamb.  1851. 

a)  The  last  age  of  the  Church,  1356.  Dublin.  1S40.  4. 


CHAP.  VI.    OPPOS.  &  EEFOEM.    §  297.  WYCLIFFE.    §  293.  IITJS9.  347 

however,  assured  of  his  personal  freedom  hy  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
betook  himself  to  his  own  rectory  of  Lutterworth,  where  he  had  leisure  to 
complete  his  principal  work  containing  his  Augustinian  system  of  scriptural 
scholasticism,  and  his  propositions  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church.  (5) 
His  influence  was  exerted  by  means  of  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures  from 
the  Vulgate,  his  sermons,  (c)  his  pamphlets,  and  some  poor  priests  whom  he 
sent  among  the  people,  and  many  were  known  to  be  his  adherents  to  whom 
the  name  of  Lollards  was  transferred,  but  he  produced  no  permanent  religious 
impression  upon  the  masses  of  society,  and  the  insurrection  which  occurred 
in  his  day  among  some  peasants,  in  favor  of  liberty  and  equality,  was  only 
aided  by  a  misunderstanding  of  his  doctrines.  His  views  were  principally 
received  and  promulgated  by  the  higher  classes  and  men  of  learning,  and 
hence,  no  sooner  was  the  government  hurried  into  a  sanguinary  persecution 
(after  1400)  than  all  his  adherents  were  easily  thrust  back  into  obscurity.  It 
was  with  especial  reference  to  Bohemia  that  the  anathema  of  the  Church 
against  the  views  of  "Wycliffe  was  made  so  severe  at  the  Council  of  Constance. 

§  298.    John  Huss  and  tJie  Hussites. 

I.  The  Literature  of  the  Sources  may  be  found  in  H.  v.  Aufsess,  Anz.  f.  Kunde  d.  deut.  MA.  1533. 
p.  73s.  227ss.— Hist,  et  Monumm.  J.  Huss  et  Hier.  Prag.  Nor.  (1558.)  1715.  2  vols.  t  Gerichtl.  Ank- 
lage  u.  vertheid.  d.  J.  II.  ehe  er  nach  Constanz  ging,  mitgeth.  v.  Lehmann.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S37.  P.  1.) 
Many  things  arc  in  Hardt  &  in  Aen.  Sylvii  Hist  Bohemor.  Eom.  1475.  f.  &  often.— Xrseeyna,  Calix- 
tiner,  Canzler  d.  Neust  Prag,  Diarium  belli  Huss.    (J.  P.  de  Ludewig<  Eeliquiae  Manuscc.  vol.  VI. 
Gomp.  DobrowsTcy  in  d.  Abhh.  d.  bohm.  Gesellsch.  d.  Wiss.  1788.  p.  303ss.) 

II.  J.  CocUaeus,  Hist.  Hussitar.  Mog.  1549.  f.    Z.  TlwobaU,  Hussitenkrieg.  Numb.  1621.  3  ed. 
Brsl.  1750.  3  vols.  4.    Zitte,  Lebensb.  d.  J.  H.  Prag.  1789.  f.  2  vols.    A.  Zurn,  II.  zu  Costn.  Lps.  1836. 
D.  G.  v.  d.  fforst,  de  Hussi  vita  praesertirnq.  illius  condemnati  causis.  Amst  1837.    K  de  Sonne- 
ofwse,  J.  Hus  e  le  Cone,  de  Constance.    (Les  reformateurs  avant  la  ret  voL  I.  II.)    Par.  1845. — Pa- 
lacky,  Gesch.  v.  Bohm.  1845.  vol.  III.  Abth.  1.    (J.  A.  Helfert,  Hus  u.  Hier.  Studie.  Prag.  1853.)— 
Neander,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Eel.  u.  K.  Th.  XI.  p.  830ss.— Lenfant,  Hist  de  la  guerre  des  Huss.  Amst 
1731.  2  vols.  4.  Prsb.  1783.  4  vols.  Supplement  p.  Beausobre,  Laus.  1745. 4.  [Bonnechose's  work  abovo 
referred  to  was  republ.  in  Paris  in  1S53.] 

Ever  since  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  a  few  eminent  priests  of  Prague 
who  had  been  persecuted  but  not  silenced,  as  preachers  of  repentance  (a)  and 
in  their  writings  (&)  had  contended  against  a  corrupt  clergy  as  the  Antichrist, 
and  had  endeavored  to  draw  off  the  minds  of  men  from  the  human  institu- 
tions of  the  Church  to  the  apostolic  laws,  to  the  universal  priesthood,  and  to 
a  crucified  Kedeemer.  John  Huss,  of  Hussinecz  (after  1398),  a  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  a  scholastic  realist,  and  (after  1402)  a  Bohemian  preacher  in  the 
chapel  of  Bethlehem  at  Prague,  followed  in  their  footsteps.  Toward  himself 
he  was  rigidly  severe,  but  toward  others  he  exhibited  a  friendly  disposition, 
his  reading  was  not  extensive  and  was  principally  directed  to  the  histories  of 

&)  Trialogus  (Dialogor.  1.  IV.)  1382.  (Bas.)  1525.  4  Fret  et  Lps.  1753.  4. 

c)  Engelhardt,  Wycl.  als  Prediger.  Erl.  1834, 

a)  Conr.  of  Waldhausen  i  1369.  Jan  of  Stekno,  about  1360.  Milicz  d.  1374.  J.  P.  Jordan,  d. 
Vorliiufer  d.  Hussitenth.  in  Bohmen.  Lps.  1846. 

V)  Matth.  v.  Janow,  d.  1394,  de  regulis  Vet  et  N.  Testament!  1392,  de  abominatione  &  de  anti- 
christo  are  only  sections  of  this  work,  the  last  has  been  regarded  as  a  writing  of  Huss  (Hist,  et  Mo- 
num.  vol.  I.  p.  876ss.)  Neander,  M.  v.  J.  als  Vorlaufer  d.  deut.  Eef'u.  Eeprasent.  d.  neuen  Princips. 
(Wissensch.  Abhh.  ed.  by  Jacobi.  Brl.  1851.  p.  92.)  Extracts  in  Jordan  &  Neander  (KGesch.) 


348  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORF.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-151T. 

the  martyrs,  and  his  eloquence,  though  considerable,  was  owing  more  to  his 
lofty  enthusiasm  than  to  his  natural  talents.  He  was  devotedly  attached  to 
the  Komish  Church  until,  in  consequence  of  the  intercourse  between  Oxford 
and  Prague  he  became  acquainted  (about  1408)  with  the  reformatory  wri- 
tings of  Wycliffe,  in  which  he  recognized  particular  truths  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  soon  publicly  avowed  his  admiration  of  tho  name  of  "Wye 
liffe.  His  preaching  and  his  publications  were  then  directed  against  the 
worldliness  of  the  clergy  and  the  abuses  of  the  papacy,  but  it  was  not  long 
before  his  direct  reference  to  the  gospel  led  him  to  announce  that  all  clergy- 
men possessed  equal  authority,  that  a  visible  head  was  not  needful  to  the  gen- 
eral Church,  that  the  congregations  possessed  some  special  rights,  that  tithes 
were  nothing  but  alms,  and  that  civil  authorities  had  a  right  to  confiscate  any 
property  of  the  Church  which  had  been  perverted  to  improper  uses.  As  long 
as  the  votes  of  Germans  were  most  numerous  in  the  councils  of  the  Univer- 
sity the  writings  of  Wycliffe  were  condemned  there.  But  by  appealing  es- 
pecially to  a  feeling  of  old  national  jealousy  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  the 
passage  of  a  law  (1409)  by  which  the  German  corporations  were  deprived  of 
their  privileges  in  tho  academic  republic.  In  consequence  of  this  proceeding 
the  University  lost  most  of  its  students  and  became  strictly  Bohemian,  and 
Huss,  himself,  became  an  object  of  hatred  in  all  parts  of  Germany,  (c)  "With 
him,  at  the  head  of  an  evangelical  clergy,  advanced  the  impetuous  but  learned 
knight,  Jerome  of  Prague,  who  had  just  returned  from  an  academic  crusade 
in  behalf  of  Wycliffe's  scholastic  principles.  On  the  complaint  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Prague,  Huss  was  cited  to  appear  at  Rome,  deposed  and  excommu- 
nicated as  a  Wycliffite  (1410),  but  he  appealed  to  a  pope  better  informed,  and 
in  consequence  of  his  favor  with  the  people  and  King  "Wenceslaus,  the  arch- 
bishop found  it  necessary  to  become  reconciled  to  him  (1411).  When  John 
XXIII.  (1412)  had  indulgences  offered  for  sale  to  raise  funds  for  his  crusade 
against  Naples,  Huss  boldly  preached  against  them,  and  against  the  erection 
of  the  standard  of  the  cross  in  opposition  to  professed  Christians.  The  bull 
of  indulgences  was  burned  at  tho  public  pillory  in  the  same  manner  in  which 
the  archbishop  had  burned  the  writings  of  Wycliffe,  public  tranquillity  was 
disturbed,  and  the  disturbance  was  avenged  with  blood.  The  views  of  Huss 
were  now  elevated  above  all  regard  for  the  Roman  Church,  and  he  formed  a 
conception  of  the  true  Church  as  a  communion  of  all  who  have  been  eternally 
elected  to  life,  the  head  of  which  could  not  be  the  pope  but  Christ  alone, 
since  no  earthly  dignity,  no  human  choice,  and  no  visible  sign  could  confer  a 
membership  in  it.  (d)  When  the  place  of  his  residence  was  placed  by  a  bull 
under  an  interdict  (1413),  he  retired  to  the  castles  of  his  friends,  and  preached 
to  the  people  with  great  power.  As  he  had  appealed  to  a  general  council,  to 
God,  and  to  Christ,  the  Emperor  Sigismund  summoned  him  to  Constance. 
He  freely  obeyed  this  citation,  trusting  to  his  own  orthodoxy,  and  prepared, 
if  necessary,  to  lay  down  his  life  with  joy.  He  was  soon  thrown  into  con- 
finement (Nov.  28,  1414) ;  the  Bohemian  and  the  Polish  nobility  contended 

c)  J.  T.  Held,  Tentamen  hist  illustrandis  rebus  a.  1409  la  Univ.  Pragena  gestia.  Pr»g.  182T. 
IF.  Tomet,  Gesch.  d.  Prag.  Untv.  Prag.  1S49.  p.  47ss. 

d)  Tr.  d.  Eccl.  (Hist  et  Monum.  vol.  L  p.  243.) 


CHAP.  VI.    OPPOS.  &  EEFORM.    §  298.  HTJSS  &  THE  HUSSITES.  349 

for  his  rights  in  vain,  and  the  emperor  had  nothing  but  a  blush  to  give  as  an 
apology  for  the  violation  of  his  safe  conduct,  (e)  Some  of  the  charges  alleged 
against  him  he  was  able  to  deny,  and  others  he  could  modify — he  had  never 
rejected  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  the  pope  had  been  created  by  Con- 
stantine  only  with  respect  to  his  temporal  honor  and  earthly  possessions,  a 
king,  a  pope,  or  a  bishop  in  mortal  sin  was  in  the  sight  of  God  unworthy  of 
the  name,  and  such  a  priest  could  not  properly  administer  the  sacraments. 
The  council  required  him  unconditionally  to  recant  his  opinions,  and  con- 
demned him  for  his  obstinacy,  since  he  would  make  no  concessions  except  to 
the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  or  of  reason.  (/")  A  person  of  a  different 
character  might  perhaps  have  extricated  himself  without  betraying  the  cause 
of  truth,  and  indeed  have  become  a  leader  in  the  synod.  Tlje  farewell  let- 
ters which  Huss  wrote  to  his  friends  were  full  of  heroism  and  tenderness,  (g) 
and  he  died  (July  6,  1415)  praising  Christ  and  fully  believing  that  his  cause 
would  become  victorious  at  some  future  period,  in  the  hands  of  more  power- 
ful men.  (h)  Jerome  at  first  recanted,  but  soon  recovered  his  courage,  sum- 
moned his  judges  before  the  Supreme  Judge  of  all,  and,  according  to  an 
account  left  us  by  a  philosopher,  died  with  the  fortitude  of  a  Stoic.  (i)  Theo- 
logical heresies  were  charged  against  these  men,  only  in  an  indefinite  man- 
ner, and  by  a  misunderstanding  of  their  views.  "When  we  find  that  a  liberal 
assembly  like  that  of  Constance  rewarded  these  liberal  efforts  by  martyrdom 
at  the  stake,  we  must  also  recollect  that  the  hostility  of  the  scholastic  school, 
the  hatred  of  the  Germans,  and  the  bitterness  of  the  clergy  on  account  of  the 
general  contempt  to  which  they  had  been  exposed,  all  co-operated  in  pro- 
ducing the  result.  But  the  decisive  object  which  the  hierarchical  party  had 
in  view  was  simply  to  terrify  its  opponents  by  bringing  to  the  stake  men 
whose  sentiments  were  so  similar  to  theirs ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
were  sacrificed  by  the  liberal  party  lest  it  should  expose  itself  to  the  suspicion 
of  sharing  in  their  heretical  sentiments.  But  a  large  part  of  the  Bohemian 
nation  were  seized  with  horror  at  the  cruel  deed  perpetrated  at  Constance, 
under  the  guise  of  sanctity,  and  in  a  body  they  rose  in  rebellion.  Huss  and 
Jerome  were  honored  as  martyrs,  and  the  priests  and  monks  became  victims 
to  a  most  terrible  and  sanguinary  vengeance.  A  custom  introduced  by  Jacob 
of  Misa  and  approved  by  Huss,  according  to  which  the  cup  in  the  Sacrament 
was  administered  to  the  laity,  was  now  made  the  badge  of  the  Hussite  cove- 
nant. (K)  When  Wenceslaus,  who  had  retained  possession  of  his  crown,  in 
consequence  of  the  weakness  of  his  government,  died  (1419),  and  Bohemia 
became  the  inheritance  of  his  brother,  the  emperor,  the  greater  part  of  the 
estates  refused  to  swear  allegiance  to  a  prince  who  had  broken  his  promise, 
and  they  therefore  raised  the  standard  of  civil  war  (1420).  The  Hussites 

e)  On  the  other  hand :  J.  Huss  u.  s.  Geleitsbr.  (Hist  pol.  BL  1839.  voL  IV.  H.  7.) 
/)  A.  Capperiberg,  utrum  H.  doctr.  fuerit  heretics  et  merito  anath.  prescripts?  MonasL  1834 
g)  Briefe  d.  J.  H.  zu  Konstanz.  Nach.  d.  bohm.  TJrtexte  ed.  by  F.  Mikowec.  Lps..l849. 
A)  Hist  et  Monn.  vol.  I.  p.  33ss.  vol.  II.  p.  515ss.— Mansi  an  vere  de  Luthero  vaticinatus  sit  Ilusa 

(Verm.  Abhh.  BrsL  1821.  p.  157ss.) 

i)  Poggii  Ep.  ad  Aretin.  (el.  Orelli.  Tur.  1835.    Hardt  Th.  III.  p.  64ss.)  Hist  et  Monn.  Th.  1L  p 

522S8.— L.  Heller,  H.  v.  Prag.  Lub.  1835. 

Jo)  Martini  Da.  de  Jac.  de  Misa.  Altd.  1753.  4.  conf.    Sohreiber,  de  Petro  Dresdcnsi.  Lps.  1673.  4. 


350  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

were  divided  into  two  parties,  of  which  the  milder,  called  Calixtines  (Utra- 
quists),  reduced  their  demands  to  four  articles  :  the  privilege  of  freely  preach- 
ing the  word  of  God,  the^  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  hoth  forms, 
the  return  of  the  clergy  to  the  apostolic  life  of  poverty,  and  the  right  of  the 
congregation  to  punish  all  mortal  sin.  The  other  more  rigid  party,  called  the 
Titborites,  claimed  to  be  the  true  elect  of  God,  rejected  unconditionally  all  the 
principles  of  the  Church  which  could  not  be  proved  from  the  Scriptures, 
expected  in  a  short  time  the  second  advent  of  Christ,  and  under  their  infatu- 
ated leader,  Ziska,  carried  on  a  war  of  extermination  against  the  neighboring 
nations.  After  the  death  of  Ziska  (1424),  his  place  was  filled  by  a  monk 
whose  name  was  Procopius,  but  as  many  of  the  troops  looked  upon  the  loss 
of  their  general  as  irreparable,  they  called  themselves  Orphans.  Although 
these  parties  were  opposed  to  each  other  they  became  united  when  a  common 
danger  threatened  them.  Every  army  sent  against  them  by  the  emperor  or 
the  papal  legates  was  beaten,  being  composed  only  of  mercenaries  under  the 
name  of  crusaders,  and  opposed  to  a  people  whose  wrath  had  been  power- 
fully awakened.  The  conquerors  were  now  in  the  most  cautious  manner 
summoned  to  appear  before  the  Council  at  Basle.  After  much  debate  the 
Calixtines  came  to  an  agreement  (1433)  respecting  their  articles,  and  it  was 
agreed  that  the  word  of  God  should  be  regularly  preached  under  the  direc- 
tion of  spiritual  superiors,  that  the  Lord's  Supper  should  be  administered 
under  both  forms  by  the  special  authority  of  the  council,  that  the  property 
of  the  Church  should  be  managed  by  the  clergy  according  to  the  usages  of 
the  fathers,  and  that  mortal  sins  should,  as  far  as  possible,  bo  punished  by 
the  civil  magistrates  according  to  law.  The  Taborites  and  Orphans,  who  re- 
garded this  compromise  with  contempt,  were  overcome  (May  80,  1434)  at  the 
battle  of  Prague,  and  Bohemia  became  subject  to  the  emperor  by  a  treaty 
formed  at  Iglan  (1436),  by  which  religious  and  political  liberty  were  secured 
to  the  people  on  the  basis  of  the  compromise  with  the  council.  But  this 
treaty  was  in  many  ways  violated  in  favor  of  the  Catholics,  who,  after  the 
dispersion  of  the  Taborites  were  a  sufficient  match  for  the  Calixtines  alone. 
On  the  death  of  Sigismund  (1437),  when  the  nation  were  called  upon  to 
choose  a  successor,  controversies  respecting  the  succession  sprung  up,  and 
civil  wars  were  prosecuted  with  no  decisive  results,  until  at  the  Diet  of  Kut- 
teriberg  (1485)  a  religious  peace  was  established  by  King  "Wladislaus,  which 
secured  the  Catholic  and  Calixtine  parties  in  the  possessions  which  they  then 
held.  So  long,  however,  were  the  Hussites  agitated  by  political  storms  that 
ultimately  none  of  their  advantages  remained,  except  the  outward  form  of  the 
cup  in  the  sacrament,  and  recollections  of  former  glory. 

§  299.     The  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren. 

KocJier,  die  3  vorn.  Glanbensbekennt  d.  B.  Brud.  FrkC  u.  Lpz.  1742.  J.  Camerarii  hist  narra- 
tio  de  fratrum  orthod.  ecclesiis  in  Boh.  Moravia  et  Pol.  (about  1570.)  Heidlb.  1605.  FrcC  1625.  J. 
Comenii  Hist,  frat  Bohemor.  (Amst  1660.)  c.  praef.  Buddei.  HaL  1702.  4.  Lochner,  Entstch.  u. 
erste  Schicksale  der  Brudergem.  in  B.  u.  M.  Numb.  1S32.  A.'J£oppen,  d.  KOrdnung  u.  Disciplin.  d. 
alten  huss.  Bruderkirche.  Lps.  1845. 

A  small  band,  composed  principally  of  remnants  of  the  Taborites,  but 
mollified  by  necessitous  circumstances,  became  dissatisfied  with  the  conces 


CHAP.  VI.    OPPOS.  &  KEFOEM.    §  299.  BOHEMIANS.    §  300.  WESSEL.         35  1 

sions  made  to  the  Catholics,  and  the  low  state  to  which  the  evangelical  spirit 
had  declined,  and  therefore  separated  themselves  from  the  Calixtines  (after 
1450).  Their  congregations  were  prescribed  on  the  eastern  horders,  but  soon 
became  numerous  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Poland,  in  spite  of  severe  perse- 
cutions. Their  first  bishops  received  ordination  from  the  Waldensian  bishops, 
and  several  remnants  of  the  Waldenses,  with  other  pious  and  peaceable  per- 
sons, were  received  into  their  community.  They  were  generally  poor,  quiet, 
well  versed  in  the  Scriptures,  and  divided  into  three  classes  in  regular  grada- 
tions, called  Novices,  Proficients,  and  Perfect.  They  rejected  the  saints  and 
prelates  of  the  Catholic  Church,  taught  that  there  was  a  mystical  connection 
between  the  body  of  Christ  and  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  did  not 
pretend  to  be  the  only  saving  Church,  but  only  members  of  it,  and  by  an 
ecclesiastical  discipline  like  that  of  the  first  centuries,  maintained  a  habit  of 
life  rigidly  moral,  spiritual,  and  pious,  though  in  many  respects  contracted  in 
its  objects. 

§  300.  Learned  Precursors  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany. 
Nearly  all  the  subjects  which  so  powerfully  agitated  the  world  during 
the  conflicts  of  the  next  century,  were  more  or  less  discussed  by  learned  men 
in  the  midst  of  the  general  opposition  to  the  Church  raised  by  science  and 
piety  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  great  points  common  to  them  all  were 
the  purification  of  the  Church  by  means  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  reception 
of  Christianity  as  the  only  saving  faith.  John  (Pupper)  of  Goch,  rector  of  a 
convent  of  nuns  in  Mechlin  (d.  1475),  endeavored  to  find  Christianity  in 
those  errors  which  have  in  all  ages  been  its  snare,  viz.  the  perpetual  observ- 
ance of  the  Mosaic  law  in  some  form,  faith  without  works,  satisfaction  with 
works  without  divine  grace,  and  finally  vows  as  indispensable  conditions  of 
evangelical  perfection,  (a)  John  Wessel  (Gansfort),  originally  from  Gron- 
ingen,  but  afterwards  a  resident  successively  in  Cologne,  Louvain,  Paris,  and 
Heidelberg,  whose  mental  activity  at  last  found  congenial  employment  in  the 
stirring  excitement  of  a  counsellor's  and  a  teacher's  life  (Lux  Muudi,  Mag. 
contradictionum,  d.  1489),  has,  in  the  style  of  the  Scholastics  and  Humanists, 
conceived  of  Christianity  on  a  basis  of  mysticism,  and  regarded  it  as  some- 
thing entirely  spiritual,  wholly  confined  to  a  man's  own  heart  and  God.  His 
expressions,  therefore,  with  regard  to  ecclesiastical  institutions  are  generally 
very  limited,  and  formed  with  a  careful  exclusion  of  all  reference  to  doc- 
trines. "  The  Holy  Scriptures,  God's  own  abbreviated  word,  is  the  living 
source  of  all  true  faith ;  the  Church  is  based  upon  a  compact ;  there  is  a 
general  priesthood  of  the  rational  universe ;  faith  i$  to  be  reposed  only  in  an 
orthodox  pope,  and  not  in  every  council ;  sins  can  be  forgiven  by  none  but 
God ;  excommunication  has  only  an  external  influence ;  indulgences  refer 
only  to  ecclesiastical  penalties ;  repentance  is  internally  complete  through  the 
righteousness  of  Christ  and  God's  free  grace,  when  we  are  sincerely  grieved  for 
our  sins ;  the  true  satisfaction  for  sin  is  a  life  in  God ;  and  purgatory  is  noth- 
ing but  the  purifying  influence  of  a  longing  after  God."  (b)  His  friend  John 

a)  De  libertate  chr.  ed.  C.  Grapheus,  Antu.  1521.  4.    De  quatuor  *rrorib.  Dial,  in  Walch,  Mon. 
medii  aevi.  vol.  L  Fasc.  4.  Comp.  WalcKa  Vorr.  p.  XIIIss. 

V)  A  collection  of  his  thool.  treatises :  Farrago  Wesseli  (1521.)  Witt  1522.  and  often.   Later  praef 


352  MEDIAEVAL  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-151 T. 

(KucnraUi)  of  Wesel,  a  professor  in  Erfurt,  and  a  preacher  in  Worms,  stand- 
ing on  the  ground  of  the  rigid  Augustinian  theology,  made  an  assault  upon 
the  received  system  and  usages  of  the  Church.  If  the  names  of  all  the  elect 
are  inscribed  from  eternity  in  the  book  of  life,  he  inferred  that  no  excommu- 
nication could  ever  blot  them  out,  no  absolution  could  insert  any  in  addition 
to  them,  and  no  observation  of  merely  human  statutes  with  which  the 
Church  is  burdened,  could  raise  them  to  a  higher  rank.  As  long  as  propo- 
sitions like  these  were  not  addressed  to  the. people,  they  could  be  tolerated 
under  favorable  circumstances  as  learned  doctrines  in  the  schools.  But  John 
of  Wesel,  who  glorified  Christ  although  he  despised  the  pope,  was  accused 
by  the  Dominicans  of  Mentz,  was  compelled  to  recant  when  old  and  sick, 
and  was  finally  imprisoned  in  a  convent  (1479)  until  he  was  set  at  liberty  by 
death  (1481).  (c) 

§  301.    Jerome  Savonarola. 

I.  Trattato  circa  il  regiinento  dl  Fircnze.  Fir.  1491  ed.  6.  1847.    Compcndlo  di  rivclazloni.  Fir. 
1495.  4.  (Comp.  re  veil.  Flor.  1495.  4.)    De  simplicitate  vitoo  chr.  Flor.  1496.  4.    Trlumplms  crucis. 
Flor.  1497.  4.    Expos,  in  Psalmum:  Mlserero  mcL  Flor.  1498.  4.  and  often,  especially  sermons  and 
letters.     Catalogue  in  Meier,  p.  893ss.— Eoman  view :  Burchardi  Diarinm.  (Eccard  vol.  II.  p. 
2087ss.    Paulus,  Beitrr.  z.  D.  K.  n.  Eel.  Gcsch.  Brem.  1887.  p.  281ss.)    Apologetical :   J.  F.  Pioui 
de  Mirandula,  Vita  Patris  II.  8av.  1580.  (with  other  orig.  Docc.)  ed.  J.  Quetif,  Par.  1674  8  vols.  12. 
Pad/.  Burlamacchi,  Vita  del.  P.  Sav.  ed.  Mansi  in  Baluzii  Misccll.  Luc.  1761.  f.  vol.  L  (Burlamac- 
chi,  d.  1519.  Mansi  has  edited  only  the  hyperorthodox  revision  by  Bottoni,  which  was  not  made  till 
1527.    I  have  sought  in  vain  at  Florence  for  the  original  text  not  longer  ago  than  1852,  numerous 
Codd.  in  the  Bibl.  Magliabecchiana,  contain  the  simple  text  of  Mansi  with  only  unimportant  varia- 
tions.)   In  connection  with  Gen.  Hist :   Guicciardinl  1.  III.  p.  99ss.    Macchiavelli:  Discorei  I, 
11.  45.    Principe  c.  6.    Comminea  VIII,  2. 19. 

II.  Buddeua  de  artib.  tyran.  Sav.  Jen.  1690. 4  with  his  later  Eetractatio.  (Parerga  hist  Jen.  1719.) 
/•'.  W.  P.  v.  Ammon,  Grundz.  d.  TheoL  d.  Sav.  (Winer's  krit  J.  1828.  vol.  VIIL  II.  8.)    Jiudelbach, 
Ilier.  Sav.  u.  s.  Zeit  Hamb.  1885.    K.  Meier,  Gir.  Sav.  BrL  1886.    K.  ffaset  Sav.  (Neue  Propheten. 
p.  97.)    [R.  li.  Madden,  Life  and  Mart  of  J.  Suv.  Lond.  1853.  2  vols.  8.] 

After  a  perjod  of  literary  Activity  in  a  convent,  the  Dominican  Savona- 
rola became  known  as  an  impressive  preacher  of  repentance  in  Florence 
(after  1489).  He  reproved  the  sins  of  great  men  as  freely  and  as  faithfully 
as  those  of  ordinary  men,  and  predicted  that  divine  judgments  were  about  to 
break  forth  upon  Italy,  but  that  a  great  purification  of  the  Church,  proceeding 
from  Florence,  should  follow  from  these  severe  troubles.  He  also  predicted 
the  approaching  ruin  of  the  house  of  the  Medici,  and  the  march  of  a  foreign 
king  across  the  Alps,  to  chastise  the  tyrants  of  Italy  and  to  reform  the 
Church  with  the  sword.  Accordingly,  Lorenzo  Medici  died,  Charles  VIII. 
advanced  (1494)  across  the  Alps,  and  the  sons  of  Lorenzo  were  banished 
from  Florence.  After  this  partial  fulfilment  of  his  prophecies,  and  when  the 
people  by  his  advice  had  seized  upon  the  government  of  the  republic,  the 
state  was  entirely  dependent  upon  his  counsel,  although,  he  never  interfered 
with  the  details  of  the  administration.  He  looked  upon  a  government  by 

by  Luther  in  his  W.  by  Walcli,  vol.  XIV.  p.  219.  Opp.  Groning.  1614.  4.— G.  Z7.  Goese,  de  Jo.  Wess 
Lub.  1719.  4.  G.  Muurling,  de  Wesseli  Gansfortii  cum  vita,  turn  meritis  in  praepar.  sacrornm  emen- 
datione  in  Belgio  sept.  P.  I.  (Vita.)  Traj.  ad  Eh.  1831.  C.  Ullmann,  J.  "Wessel,  ein  Vorgfinger  Luth. 
Hamb.  1834.  Die  2  umg.  A.  in  d.  Eeformatoren  vor  d.  Eef.  vol.  II. 

c)  His  treatise  adv.  indnlgentias  in  Walch,  1.  c.  Fasc.  I.  p.  111.  Legal  documents  relating  to  his 
trial  in  Argentre  vol.  I.  P.  II.  p.  891ss.  Uttmann,  vol.  I.  p.  367*. 


CHAP.  VI.    OPP03.  &  EEFOEM.    §  301.  SAVONAEOLA.  353 

tho  people  as  most  appropriate  to  such  a  place  as  Florence,  and  he  advised 
that  it  should  be  a  spiritual  community,  established  upon  the  principles  of 
the  fear  of  God,  true  patriotism,  and  peace  among  all  its  citizens.  From  his 
pulpit  he  commenced  a  great  moral  reformation.  His  system  of  faith  was 
founded  upoft  that  of  St.  Thomas,  though  it  deviated  somewhat  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Mystics,  and  was  animated  by  the  spirit  of  the  Scriptures.  Of 
course  he  had  no  hope  of  salvation  from  the  saints,  nor  from  his  own  works, 
but  his  whole  trust  was  in  the  grace  of  God.  Although  he  declined  the 
dangerous  appellation  of  a  prophet,  he  derived  his  predictions  from  a  pro- 
phetic spirit  nourished  by  the  Scriptures,  and  he  believed  that  in  his  conclu- 
sions he  could  no  more  be  mistaken  than  that  God  himself  could  err.  Alex- 
ander VI.,  wounded  in  various  ways,  and  threatened  with  a  council, 
endeavored  to  silence  the  terrible  prophet  at  first  by  brilliant  promises,  and 
afterwards  by  sending  him  a  crafty  summons  to  Eome  (July  21,  1495).  Sa- 
vonarola excused  himself  on  the  ground  that  he  could  not  at  that  time  be 
absent  from  Florence.  Many  Florentines  were  offended  at  the  rigid  morality 
which  in  its  enthusiasm  held  a  carnival  with  the  works  of  luxury  and  art, 
and  consigned  them  to  an  auto-da-fe.  The  noble  families  were  chagrined  at 
the  ridiculous  manner  in  which  the  government  was  conducted  by  a  monk 
and  the  people.  An  attempt  to  restore  the  Medici  was  expiated  with  the 
heads  of  its  authors,  in  the  midst  of  legal  forms  before  unknown.  The 
sturdy  confidence  which  Savonarola  reposed  in  the  King  of  France,  brought 
the  city  of  Florence  into  a  dangerous  political  condition,  and  the  retreat  of 
the  king  gave  a  ridiculous  aspect  to  his  prophecies.  Already  was  his  influ- 
ence over  the  minds  of  the  people  abated,  when  he  was  forbidden  by  the 
Eoman  authorities  to  enter  the  pulpit  (Oct.  1496).  As  he  would  not  allow 
the  word  of  God  which  burned  within  him  to  be  smothered,  he  was  excom- 
municated (May  12,  1497).  He  regarded  such  a  prohibition  as  utterly  void 
when  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  love,  and  concluded  to  appeal  from  the  earthly 
to  the  heavenly  Pope.  He  therefore  continued  to  preach  to  the  people, 
assuring  them  that  his  cause  would  be  triumphant  though  he  himself  should 
suffer  martyrdom.  The  Franciscans  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  the 
opposition  to  the  Dominicans  of  his  convent  of  St.  Mark,  the  people  became 
excited  at  the  disappointment  which  their  curiosity  had  received  when 
assembled  to  witness  a  divine  trial  of  his  claims  by  the  ordeal  of  fire,  for 
which  neither  of  the  champions  had  any  inclination  or  confidence,  and 
finally  the  city  was  threatened  with  a  papal  interdict.  The  convent  of  St. 
Mark  was  attacked  by  a  mob,  a  few  of  Savonarola's  adherents  were  struck 
down,  and  he  himself  was  thrown  into  prison.  An  extraordinary  court  of 
justice  compelled  him  to  confess  on  the  rack  that  he  had  played  the  part  of 
a  prophet  from  motives  of  ambition.  Condemned  by  the  judgment  of  the 
pope  as  a  heretic,  and  by  the  voice  of  the  Signoria  for  crimes  not  specified, 
he  piously  submitted  himself  to  death,  and  between  two  brothers  of  his 
order  was  burned  at  the  gibbet  (May  23,  1498).  Even  the  politic  Secretary 
of  State  in  Florence  considered  it  becoming  to  speak  of  such  a  man  with 
reverence.  His  portrait,  with  the  halo  of  sanctity,  painted  by  Fra  Bartolo* 
meo,  is  suspended  in  the  gallery  of  St.  Mark  even  to  the  present  day. 

23 


354  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

CHAP.  VIL— THE  GREEK  CHURCH. 

§  302.    Arsenius. 

G.  Fachymeres  III,  10. 14. 19ss.  IV,  IBS.  VII,  22.    Niceph.  Gregoras  III,  1.  IV,  Iss.  VII,  9.- 
Engelliardt,  die  Areenlaner  u.  Hesychasten.  (Zeitscbr.  f.  blst  Tb.  1888.  vol.  VIIL  II.  1.) 

A  complete  re-establishment  of  the  monarchy  had  been  prevented  by  the 
introduction  of  an  arrangement  resembling  the  feudal  system,  and  by  the 
formation  of  an  independent  nobility,  composed  of  those  families  which  were 
contending  against  the  occupation  of  the  country  by  the  Latins.  The  Church 
regarded  itself  as  the  moral  power  by  which  the  unity  of  the  nation  was  to 
be  preserved  and  the  empire  was  finally  to  be  restored.  But  when  Michael 
Palaeologus  actually  set  up  the  imperial  authority  in  Constantinople  (1261), 
he  had  the  lawful  heir  to  the  throne,  John  Lascaris,  deprived  of  his  sight. 
For  this  act  the  patriarch  Arsenins  pronounced  sentence  of  excommunication 
against  the  emperor  (1262),  who  was  compelled  by  the  murmurs  of  the  peo- 
ple to  promise  compliance  with  every  penance  required  of  him.  But  when 
the  patriarch  demanded  that  he  should  lay  aside  the  purple  which  he  had 
unlawfully  seized,  the  emperor  retaliated  the  ecclesiastical  Bann  with  a  civil 
banishment.  He  also  succeeded  in  gaining  over  a  synod  to  his  purposes,  by 
which  Arsenius  was  deposed  (12GG),  on  the  ground  that  his  election  and  his 
administration  had  been  irregular.  Only  three  gold  pieces  which  had  been 
earned  by  transcribing  the  Psalms  were  found  in  the  episcopal  treasury. 
Even  when  banished  to  a  desert  island,  and  with  his  last  breath,  the  deposed 
patriarch  rejected  the  prayer  of  the  emperor  to  be  reconciled  to  the  Church. 
The  next  patriarch  was  obliged  to  yield  to  the  popular  displeasure.  Michael 
then  succeeded  in  having  a  popular  saint  consecrated  as  patriarch,  by  whom 
the  restoration  of  the  emperor  to  the  communion  of  the  Church  was  finally 
effected  (1268).  But  an  influential  party  of  monks  called  Arsenitcs  persisted 
in  rejecting  the  emperor  and  his  patriarch.  This  dangerous  schism  was  not 
healed  until  Andronicus  caused  the  dead  body  of  Arsenius  to  be  deposited  in 
the  holy  place,  and  the  wrong  which  had  been  committed  against  him  was 
atoned  for  by  a  penance  imposed  upon  the  whole  nation  (1312). 

§  303.     Tht  Light  of  God  and  Philosophy. 

I.  Among  contemporaries,  for  Barl.  Niceph.  Gregoras  XI,  10.  Against  him,  Jo.  Gantacuzen.  II, 
80ss.  (Both  in  the  Corp.  Scrr.  Byz.  Bonn.  1828sa.  P.  XIXs.)    Documents  in  Mansi  vol.  XXVs. 

II.  Petavius,  de  theoL  dogmatib.  voL  1. 1.  L  c.  123.    EngeVuirdl,  de  Hesych.  Erl.  1829.  4. 

Mount  Athos,  with  its  dark  forests,  in  which  tradition  says  no  creature  of 
the  female  sex  can  exist,  and  looking  far  out  upon  the  sea,  had  become,  after 
the  ninth  century,  covered  with  monasteries.  These  constituted  a  republic 
made  up  exclusively  of  monks,  from  which  the  Eastern  Church  was  supplied 
with  bishops,  (a)  In  this  place  Barlaam,  a  classically  educated  monk  from 
Calabria,  found  monastic  saints  who  thought  they  could  attain  while  yet  in 
the  body,  by  a  perfect  cessation  of  corporeal  life,  an  intuition  of  the  divine 


a)  J.  P.  Fallmerayer,  Fragments  a,  d.  Orient  Stuttg.  1845.  vol.  II.    Comp.  Eustathius  v.  Thos- 
ealonich,  u.  d.  Moncbsstaud.  from  the  Greek,  by  G.  L.  F.  Ta/el,  Tub.  184T. 


CHAP.  VII.    GREEK  CHURCH.    §  297.  LIGHT  OF  GOD.    §  298.  UNION.       355 

Light  and  Essence.  The  method  they  adopted  appears  to  have  produced  a 
kind  of  magnetic  clairvoyance.  "When  Barlaam  ridiculed  these  Quietists  ('Ho-v- 
xaa-Tai)  as  navel- gazers  COfK^uXo^u^oi),  Gregory  Palamas  maintained  that 
the  divine  light  might  be  intuitively  contemplated,  and  referred  to  the  newly 
created  light  which  surrounded  our  Lord  on  Mount  Tabor.  Barlaam  rejoined 
that  nothing  but  God  could  be  uncreated,  and  consequently  that  his  opponent 
had  made  out  that  there  were  two  Gods.  A  synod  convened  in  Constantino- 
ple (1341)  decided  in  favor  of  the  monks  of  the  sacred  mount,  and  Barlaam 
passed  over  into  Italy  and  to  the  Koman  Church.  At  Constantinople  the 
controversy  was  carried  on  with  reference  to  various  pointed  questions,  and 
with  many  interferences  from  the  court,  until  it  reached  the  conclusion 
(1350) ;  that  God's  essence  and  energy  were  distinguishable;  that  there  is  an 
uncreated  energy,  like  the  light  on  Tabor,  which  is  inseparable  from  God, 
and  that  this  was  denominated  Deity  by  the  fathers,  although  it  is  subordi- 
nate to  the  divine  essence.  Platonism,  whose  gospel  was  proclaimed  by  Ge- 
mistus  Pletao  at  the  time  of  the  Synod  of  Florence,  generally  maintained  its 
pious  trust  in  opposition  to  the  worldliness  of  Aristotle,  but  its  rascal  prin- 
ciples were  deeply  fixed  in  an  affectionate  attachment  to  Greek  antiquity.  It 
was  therefore  accused  of  being  a  new  form  of  heathenism  by  those  who  de- 
fended Aristotle,  whose  system,  on  the  other  hand,  had  now  become  adapted 
to  the  requirements  of  the  Church.  (5) 

§  304.    Attempts  at  Union.     Cont.  from  §  235. 
Leo  Allatius,  Graccia  orthod.  Rom.  1662. 1669.  2  vols.  4, 

While  the  Latins  possessed  the  imperial  authority,  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  two  Churches  was  impossible,  on  account  of  the  political  abuses 
of  which  the  Greeks  complained,  and  the  exorbitant  demands  of  the  domi- 
nant Church.  But  when  Constantinople  again  became  the  capital  of  the 
Greek  empire  and  of  the  Greek  Church,  the  emperors  ware  anxious  to  effect 
a  reconciliation,  or  at  least  the  semblance  of  one,  because  during  the  thir- 
teenth century  they  were  apprehensive  of  another  crusade  from  the  West, 
and  after  the  fourteenth  century  they  were  desirous  of  aid  against  the 
Turks.  At  the  Council  of  Lyons  (1274),  therefore,  Michael  Palaeologm 
allowed  his  representatives  to  subscribe  the  Roman  confession  of  faith,  reserv- 
ing only  the  old  established  usages  of  his  Church,  (a)  and  at  the  Synod  of 
Florence  (1439)  the  union  of  the  two  Churches  was  consummated  by  the 
Greek  emperor  and  the  Patriarch  himself.  (5)  But  the  people  were  entire 
strangers  to  any  such  union,  and  when  the  throne  of  the  Palaeologi  was 
threatened,  the  popular  party  betook  themselves  to  the  Comneni  at  Trebi- 
zond.  The  learned  men  on  the  Greek  side  defended  their  Church  by  proving 
its  agreement  with  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  and  those  of  the  Latin  party  de- 
ft) Plet7u>,  de  Plat,  atque  Arist.  phil.  differentia.  Par.  1541.  Georg.  Trapezunt.  Compar.  Ar.  et 
Plat  Ven.  1528.—  W.  Gass,  Gennadius  u.  Pletho.  Bresl.  1844.  'The  2d  part  contains  both  treatises. 
a)  Raynald.  ad  ann.  126T.  N.  72ss.  Mansi  voL  XXIV.  p.  60.  67ss. 

&)  Labbei  et  Cossartii  Concc.  voL  XIII.  p.  SlOss.  Sylv.  Sguropuli  vera  Hist  unionis  non 
verae  inter  Gr.  et  Lat  s.  Cone.  Flor.  narratio.  Gr.  et  Lit  ed.  R.  Creygltton,  Hag.  Com.  1660.  4  On 
the  other  side  Leo  Allat.  Rom.  1665.  4. 


356  MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  IV.    A.  D.  121&-15I7. 

fended  theirs  after  the  example  of  St.  Thomas,  (c)  by  forged  original  docu- 
ments and  false  constructions  of  the  Greek  fathers.  Once  more,  when  the 
Turkish  bastions  had  been  already  erected  against  the  walls  of  Constantino- 
ple, a  reconciliation  was  celebrated  in  December,  1452,  and  a  Koman  cardinal 
legate  held  mass  in  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia.  But  the  only  effect  of  this 
was  that  the  consciences  of  the  people  were  fretted,  and  their  love  was 
alienated  from  the  emperor  himself.  The  only  true  union  of  the  Churches 
took  place  in  the  social  circle  of  the  Platonist  Cardinal  Bessarion  (d.  1472), 
Archbishop  of  Nicaea,  who,  after  the  Synod  of  Florence,  abandoned  a  cause 
which  he  regarded  as  desperate.  By  his  interest  in  the  cause  of  his  na- 
tive land  and  her  exiled  children,  he  subsequently  proved  that  he  was  not 
a  deserter,  but  a  mediator  between  two  nations  and  two  mental  king- 
doms, (d) 

§  805.    End  of  the  Greek  Empire. 

After  Phranta,  Ducoa,  and  others,  Orwiu*  TarcoX3raecla,  BBS.  1584.  t    J.  v.  Hammer,  Gescb. 
d.  oemtn.  Reicha.  Pesth.  1827M.  voL  L  i\  60fas.  voL  IL      . 

Abandoned  by  "Western  Europe,  after  one  more  glorious  struggle  on  May 
29,  1453,  New  Rome  was  stormed  by  the  Turks,  and  the  church  of  St.  So- 
phia was  desecrated  and  converted  into  a  mosque.  The  family  of  the  Palae- 
ologi  retired  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and  there  wasted  away  until  it  became 
extinct  (1460).  The  Comneni  indulged  the  vain  hope  that  they  could  obtain 
deliverance  by  the  surrender  of  Trebizond  (1462).  (a)  One  Christian  hero, 
Scanderleg,  who  had  formerly  attained  the  highest  dignities  among  the  Mo- 
hammedans, but,  late  in  life,  had  forsaken  them  all  to  become  a  Christian, 
now  effected  the  deliverance  of  Epirus,  for  more  than  twenty  years  withstood 
the  whole  power  of  the  Ottomans,  and  finally  may  be  said  to  have  been 
overwhelmed  rather  than  overcome  (1466).  (b)  His  Albanian*  became  more 
properly  the  allies  than  the  subjects  of  the  Porte,  and  generally  adopted  a 
false  kind  of  religion  intermediate  between  that  of  Christ  and  that  of  Mo- 
hammed. The  Mainots  and  the  Thieves  remained  independent  tribes  of  Chris- 
tians in  the  mountains.  The  r«mnant  of  the  Grecian  nation  was  allowed  by 
Mohammed  //.,  the  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  to  continue  under  a  mild 
form  of  servitude  and  in  the  free  enjojment  of  their  religion.  Gennadius, 
who  had  been  chosen  patriarch  by  order  of  this  sultan,  presented  to  him  the 
confession  of  faith  of  the  Oriental  Church,  in  -which  were  embraced  all  those 
important  particulars  in  which  Christianity  is  distinguished  from  Islam,  (c) 
One  half  of  the  churches  remained  in  possession  of  the  Christians  until  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  Sultan  Selim  appropriated  as 
many  of  them  as  he  thought  needful  to  the  use  of  the  Mohammedans.  The 
patriarch,  being  regarded  as  a  high  political  officer,  receives  his  confirmation 


c)  Opusc.  contra  errores  Graecorom  ad  Urban  IV. 

d)  A.  Bandini,  de  yita  et  reb.  gestis  Bess.  Rom.  1774.  4.    IT,  Hose,  Bessarion.  (HalL  EncycL 
voL  IX.) 

a)  FaUmerayer,  Gescb.  d.  Kaiserth.  TrapezuuL  Munich.  1827. 

ft)  Marinus  Barletiw  de  vita  Georgii  Castrioti  L  XIIL  Argent  1587.  t  to  be  modified  bj  Gib- 
Ion  &  Hammer.       c)  Oaea.  Abth.  II.  p.  Sss. 


CHAP.  VII.  GEEEK  CHUECH.  §  805.  TUEKISH  EULE.         357 

or  deposition  according  to  the  will  of  the  sultan.  He  has  a  permanent  synod 
of  bishops  and  notables  to  act  as  his  council  and  judicial  court,  in  connection 
with  which  he  is  the  arbitrator  and  judge  of  his  people.  The  administration 
of  justice  in  civil  matters,  and  generally  with  respect  to  minor  ofiences,  is 
performed  in  the  episcopal  courts.  These  have,  it  is  true,  no  power  but  that 
of  arbitrators,  yet  the  fear  of  being  excommunicated  by  them  is  so  great  that 
this  is  sufficient,  (d)  The  Greek  Church  was  compelled  to  share  the  depressed 
fortunes  of  its  people.  It  now  undertook  the  vocation  of  consoling  a  people 
overwhelmed  by  misfortunes,  and  of  preserving  its  own  peculiar  institutions 
until  a  brighter  day  should  dawn  upon  it. 

d\  G.  Oeib.  Barst  d.  Bechtszust  iii  Griechenland  wahrend  d.  turk.  Herrshaft,  Heldelb.  1S85. 


MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

FIFTH   PERIOD. 

FEOM  LUTHER  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA, 


For  Gen.  History:  Correspondenz  K.  Earls  Y.  ed.  by  K  Lanz,  Lps.  1344ss.  8  vols.  Guicciardim 
(p.  288).  P.  Gloria,  Hist  eul  temp.  (1493-1518.  1521-27.)  Flor.  1550s.  &  often.  D«  Thou,  Hist  su! 
temp.  (1548-1607.)  Frc£  4  vols.  t  &  often.  KhetenhiUer,  Ann.  Ferdlnandel,  2  ed.  (1578-1687.)  Lps. 
171688.  M  vols.  £  Goldcut,  Imp.  Bom.  Fret  1607.  £  t  Constt  Imp.  E.  FrcC  1615.  8  vols.  £  Koch, 
SammL  d.  Relchsabschiede.  FrcC  1747. 4  vols.  t—Sastrow,  (1505.)  Herkommen,  Geburt  u.  Lauf  s.  Le- 
bens,  ed.  by  Mohnlke,  Greifew.  1828s.  8  vols.— Robertson,  Hist  of  the  Emp.  Charles  Y.  Lond.  1769. 
8  vols.  4  ed.  by  Frost,  1  vol.  8.  New  York.  1840.  Uebers.  v.  Reiner,  Brnscb.  1792.  8  vols.  F.  v.  2?«- 
cholU,  Ferd.  L  Vienna.  1882-a  9  vols.  [S.  A.  Dunham,  H.  of  the  Germanic  Empire,  Lond.  1884-5. 
3  vols.  a  W.  a  Taylor,  Anc.  &  Mod.  Hist  New  York.  1846.  2  vols.  a  W.  Smith,  Lectt  on  Mod. 
Hist  Ac.  2  vols.  a  Lond.  1841.  W.  Jiuwell,  Hist  of  Mod.  Europe  to  1768.  8  vols.  8.  New  Nork. 
F.  Kohlrawtch,  Hist  of  Germany,  transL  by  Haas.  New  York.  1847.] 

D         §  808.     General  View. 

The  necessity  of  a  reformation,  now  universally  recognized,  was  the  prin- 
cipal legacy  bequeathed  by  the  preceding  age.  This  work  now  commenced 
among  the  people  simultaneously  in  Saxony  and  in  Switzerland.  It  was  the 
result,  not  of  literary  improvement,  though  in  connection  with  it,  nor  of  con- 
tests with  the  papacy,  although  much  of  its  success  was  owing  to  the  arro- 
gance and  the  corruptions  of  that  system,  but  principally  of  the  fear  which 
pious  persons  felt  lest  true  repentance  and  salvation  should  bo  utterly  lost 
sight  of  in  the  eager  chase  after  indulgences  and  human  merit.  It  was  not 
until  the  Reformation  was  decidedly  opposed  by  the  hierarchy,  that  the 
Church  was  compelled  by  the  inevitable  force  of  circumstances  to  divide.  It 
was  then  that  the  principle  of  Protestantism  which  had  previously  been  sub- 
ordinate, led  its  friends  to  establish  an  independent  Church,  that  Christianity 
might  there  find  an  appropriate  development.  This  was  accomplished  in 
Switzerland  in  the  midst  of  isolated  struggles  among  republican  parties,  and 
in  the  interior  of  Germany,  in  the  midst  of  learned  controversies,  solemn 
imperial  transactions,  popular  commotions,  and  mercenary  wars.  Both  re- 
forming parties  justified  their  views  by  appealing  to  the  Scriptures,  and 


§  306.  GENEKAL  VIEW.    §  307.  LITEEATUEE.  359 

expected  salvation  wholly  from  the  grace  of  God  through  Christ;  both 
seriously  misunderstood  each  other,  not  indeed  at  first,  but  at  a  very  early 
period,  and  both  were  German  in  their  national  characteristics,  although,  as 
was  to  be  expected  in  a  border  country,  the  Helvetic  Church  partook  at  an 
early  date  of  a  French  admixture.  The  Reformation  now  began  its  course 
around  the  world.  Political  interests,  foreign  to  its  true  objects,  in  some 
instances  interrupting  and  in  others  promoting  its  progress,  became  involved 
in  the  conflict,  but  the  ecclesiastical  interest  never  ceased  to  be  prominent. 
In  consequence  of  the  very  opposition  it  had  received,  Catholicism  renewed 
its  energies,  and  "Western  Europe  became  divided  into  two  great  hosts,  which, 
in  the  very  country  where  the  Reformation  originated,  contended  with  earthly 
weapons  for  the  existence  of  Protestantism/  Its  rights,  however,  were  finally 
purchased  at  the  expense  of  the  devastation  and  disunion  of  Germany.  Both 
Churches,  while  agitated  by  the  highest  excitement  of  opposition,  were  finally 
?bliged  to  leave  each  other  in  peaceable  possession  of  what  each  actually 
occupied.  The  development  of  this  contest,  and  its  results  in  the  contend- 
ing Churches,  constitute  the  central  object  of  our  history  during  this  period, 
and  supply  the  peculiar  conditions  according  to  which  the  topical  arrange- 
ment will  be  formed. 


CHAP.  I.— THE  GERMAN  REFORMATION. 

§  307.     Original  Authorities  and  Literary  History. 

A.  I.  Writings  of  the  Eeformers  §  308.  313.  Spalatini  Ann.  Eef.  (till  1543.)  ed.  by  Cyprian.  Lps. 
1718.  F.  Myconii  Hist.  Eef.  1518-42.  ed.  by  the  same.  Gotha  (1715.)  1718.— J.  Cochlaeus,  Cmtr.  do 
actis  et,  scrr.  Lutheri  1517-47.  Mog.  1549.  £  &  often.  L.  Surius,  Chronicon  1500-66.  Col.  1567.— J.  Slot- 
danus,  de  statu  reL  et  reip.  Carolo  V  Caes.  Cmtrr.  Arg.  1555.  f.  complete  1557.  &  often,  ill.  am  Ende, 
Frcf.  1785s.  3  vols.  Uebers.  v.  Stroth,  Hal.  1770ss.  4  vols.  Contin.  usq.  ad  1564.  Londorp.  Frcf.  1619. 

3  vols.  4.    [Hist  of  the  Eef.  of  the  Church.  1517-62.  from  the  Latin  of  J.  Sleidanus,  by  E.  Bohun, 
Lond.  1689.  f.] — Collections :  F.  Hortleder,  Handlungen  u.  Ausschreiben  v.  d.  Ursachen  d.  dt  Krieus 
wider  d.  Schmalk.  Bundts-Verw.  (till  1555.)  Frkf.  1617s.  2  vols.  f.  Gotba.  1645.  f.     IT.  v.  d.  Ifardt, 
Hist  litter.  Eef.  Frcf.  et  L.  1717.  f.    B.  Loscher,  vollst.  Eef.  Acta.  (1517-19.)  Lpz.  1720ss.  3  vols.  4. 
J.  Kapp,  Nachlese  z.  Eef.  Gesch.  nutzl.  Urk.  Lps.  1727ss.  4  vols.    Strobel:  Miscell.  Numb.  177Sss. 
6  Th.  Beitrr.  z/Lit  1784ss.  2  &  5  vols.    Jbhannsen,  die  Entw.  d.  Prot.  Geistes,  e.  Samml.  d.  -wich- 
tigsten  Dokumente  v.  Worms.  Edict  b.  z.  Sp.  Prot  Kopenh.  1830.     G.  G.  Neudecker  :  Urkunden  a. 
d.  Eef.  Zeit  Cass.  1836.  Actenstucke.  Numb.  183S.  Neue  Beitrr.  Lps.  1841.  2  vols.   G.  E.  Forstemann, 
Neues  Urkundenb.  z.  Gesch.  d.  KEef.  Hamb.  1842.  1  vol.  4    J.  K.  Seidemann :  Erlautt  z.  Eef. 
Gesch.  Drsd.  1844  Beitrr.  z.  Eef.  ftesch.  Drsd.  1840.  2  Th.   Vitae  quatuor  Eeformator.  Luth.  a  Mel 
Mel.  a  Camerario,  Zwingl.  a  Myconio,  Calv.  a  JBeza.  Praef.  est  Neander.  Ber.  1841.  4.    M.  Adami 
Vitae  Germanor.  Theologor.  Heidelb.  1620.— II.  P.  Sarpi,  (P.  Soave  Pol.)  1st  del.  Cone,  di  Trento. 
Londr.  1619.  f.  &  often.    Hist.  Cone.  Tridentini,  Lond.  1620.  Lps.  1690.  2  vols.  4.  &  often.    Uebers.  v. 
Rambach,  Hal.  1761ss.  6  vols.    v.  Winterer,  Hergenth.  1839.  4  vols.    Pallavicini,  1st  del  Cone,  di 
Tr.  Eom.  1646.  2  vols.  f  Mendrisio.  1836ss.  10  vols.  lat  redd.  Giattino,  Antu.  1670.  3  vols.  f.  &  often. 
Uebers.  v.  Slitsche,  Augsb.  1836.  8  vols.  Bossuet,  Hist  des  variations  des  Egl.  prot  Par.  1688.  2  vols. 

4  &  often.  1734.  4  vols.    L.  Maimbmtrg,  Hist  du  Lutheranisme.  Par.  1680.  4  &  often.    K.  Eiffel, 
KGesch.  d.  neuesten  Zeit  Mainz.  (1841ss.)  1844-7.  3  vols.—  V.  L.  de  Seckendorf,  Cmtr.  hist  et  apol. 
de  Lutheranismo.  Frcf.  et  L.  (1688.  4)  1692.  f.    Uebers.  n.  vrm.  v.  Friok,  Lps.  1714.  4.    Ausz.  u. 
Forts,  v.  Junius,  Frkf.  u.  L.  1755.  4  vols.  vrb.  v.  lioos.  Tub.  1788.  2  vols.     Tented,  hist.  Ver.  v.  d. 
Eef.  z.  Erl.  Seckend.  ed.  by  Cyprian,  Lps.  1718.  2  vols.     C.  A.  Salig,  Gesch.  d.  A.  Conf  (1517-62.) 
Hal.  1730S&  3  vols.  4     C.  J.  Planck,  Gesch.  d.  Enst  Verand.  u.  Bild.  uns.  prot  Lehrbgr.  b.  z.  Con- 
cord. Lps.  (1781ss.  3  vols.)  1791-1800.  7  vols.     Woltmann,  Gesch.  d.  Eef.  in  Deutschl.  Alt  (ISOlss.) 
1817.  3  vols.    Marheineke,  Gesch.  d.  teutsch.  Eef.  b.  1555.  (1817.  2  vols.)  1831ss.  4  vols.     C.  A.  Men* 
zd,  Eef.  Gesch.  (Neuere  Gesch.  d.  Deutschl.  12  vols.)  Brsl.  1826. 8  vols.  L.  Kanke,  deutsche  Gesch.  im 


360  MODERN  CHURCH  BISTORT.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

Zeita.  d.  Eef.  Berl.  1839-43.  8  ed.  1852.  5  vols.  &  1  cd.  6  vols.  Source* :  [Hist  of  the  Ecf.  in  Germ 
transl.  by  Mrs.  Austin,  2  vols.  8.  Lond.  1845.]  K.  ffagen,  Deutschl.  lit  u.  rel.  Verb,  iin  Eef.  Zeits. 
Erl.  1841-44  8  vote.  (2  &  8  vola. :  Geist  d.  Ref.  u.  s.  Gegensatze.)— J.  G.  Muller,  Denkw.  a.  d.  Gosch, 
d.  Ecf.  (Reliq.  alter  ZeiL  voL  8.)  Lps.  1806.  Eef.  Almanacb,  ed.  by  Keyaer,  Erf.  1S1T.  1818.  1820. 
1821.  Rotermund,  ern.  Andenken  d.  Manner  die  fur  u.  gegen  d.  Ect  Lutb.  gcarbcitet  habcn.  Broin. 
181S.  1  vol.  C.  O.  Neudecker,  Gesch.  d.  ev.  Prot  In  DeutacbL  d.  a.  unsre  Tage.  Lpz.  1844s.  2  vota. 

B.  I.  Writings  of  the  Beforuiers  $  832.  846.     V.  Anaheim,  Berner  Chronlk  till  1526.  ed.  by  Slier- 
Iin  &  Wysa,  Bern.  lS25ss.  voL  Vs.   //  BuUinger't  Ecf.  Gosch.  (till  1582.)  ed.  by  ffottingerb  Vdgell, 
Frauent  ISSSss.  8  vols.— Eef.  Cbronik  d.  Kartbaus.  Georg.  ueber*.  durcb  K.  Buxtorf,  Bas.  1348.— 
J.  G.  Fussli:  Beytrr.  z.  ErL  d.  K.  B,  Hist  d.  Schwelzerl.  ZQr.  174189.  5  vols.  Epp.  ab  Ecc.  Hclv.  He- 
fonnator.  vel  ad  eos  scr.  Tig.  1742.  J.  J.  Simler,  SraL  alt.  u.  neu.  Urk.  ZQr.  175788.  6  vols.— II.  Jfaim- 
bourg,  Hist  da  Calvinlsme.  Par.  1632.— Jfeiyfe,  Critique  g«n.  de  I'll,  da  Calv.  Eott  1CS4.  2  vols.  12.  A 
Lettrcs  de  1'autcur  de  la  Critique  K.  1685.  J.  Damage,  Hist  do  la  ReL  des  egl.  ruformecs.  (Eot  1690. 
2  vols.  12.)  Haye  1725.  2  vols.  4,    J.  J.  Uottlngtr,  holv.  KOesch.  Zttr.  IWSss.  4  vols.  4.    A.  Ruchat, 
II.  de  la  R&t  de  la  Sulsse.  (Gen.  1727*.  6  Tola.  12.)  Nyon.  1S85-8.  7  vols.   J.  de  teausolr*,  Hist  de  la 
reC  (till  1580.)  Ber.  1785.  8  vola,    L,  Win  A,  Jf.  Kirchhofer,  neuero  bclv.  KGescb.  ZQr.  1818-19.  2 
vola.— A.  Sculteti  Ann.  Ev.  rcnovaiL  Hdlb.  161S.    Gerdet:  Introd.  in  Hist  Ev.  renovati.  (1516-86.) 
Gron.  1744ss.  4  Th.  4.  Scrinium  &  Miaoell.  «d  Ref.  speot  Gron.  174Saa.  8  Th.  4.    K.  R.  Ilagenback, 
Vorless.  Q.  Wesen  u.  Gesch.  d.  R«C  Lpa.  (1884  3  rols.)  1851.    J.  //.  Merle  cTAubignt,  Hist  de  la  r6f. 
(L  16  siccle.  Par.  1885s.  4  vols.    [Hilt  of  the  Ret  of  the  IClh  cent  by  J.  II.  Merle  D'Aublgne,  transl. 
by  H.  White.  Edinb.  &  New  York.  1847-1858.  4  vols.  12.    //.  Stubbing,  Hist  of  the  Ref.  2  vols.  12. 
Lond  1S36.    G.  Waddlngton,  Hist  of  Ref.  on  the  Continent  8  vols.  a  Lond.  1841.] 

C.  de  ViUers,  Essal  sur  I'esprit  et  Hnflucnce  de  la  r6f.  de  Lath.  Par.  1802.  ed.  5. 1S51.    [Essay  on 
the  Ref.  of  Luther  by  Villers,  tnnsL  by  &  Miller,  1  vol.  12.  Phil.  1888.]  N.  <L  2  ed.  Uobers.  v. 
Cramer,  m.  Bell.  v.  Henke^  Hwnb.  (1805.)  1828.  v.  Stampeel  m.  Vor.  y.  RosenmQller,  Lps.  (ISOo.) 
IsW.—Kobelot,  do  Hnflucnce  de  la  Ref.  de  Luth.  Lyons.  1S22.  Mayence.  1828.    «/.  DoUinger,  d.  Ref. 
iliro  Entw.  u.  Wlrk.  Im  Umfange  d.  Luth.  B«kenntn.  RaUsb.  1846-8. 8  vols.— A'.  G.  Bretechneid*r,A. 
deutsche  Ref.  Lps.  1S44. 

The  events  of  ihe  Reformation  were  produced  principally  by  published 
writings,  which,  in  subsequent  times,  needed  only  to  be  collected.  The  ac- 
counts left  by  Spalatin  (d.  1545)  and  Myconius  (d.  1546)  are  valuable  merely 
as  the  testimony  of  those  who  actually  witnessed  what  they  related.  A 
more  comprehensive  picture  is  presented  in  the  work  of  Cochlaeus  (Dobnek, 
d.  1552),  although  colored  by  the  peculiar  views  of  his  party.  In  opposition 
to  his  abusive  representations  the  learned  statesman,  Sleidanus  (Philipson,  d. 
1556),  showed  by  original  documents  that  the  Reformation  was  a  work  of 
Providence,  in  which  the  whole  human  race  was  interested,  and  that  it  had 
important  relations  to  general  history.  In  the  contest  waged  against  Maim- 
lourg^s  elegant  but  malignant  representation,  Seekendorf,  on  account  of  his 
access  to  the  archives  preserved  by  the  State,  is  entitled  to  a  place  among 
the  original  authorities.  Among  the  historical  writers,  the  Reformation  has 
been  described  by  Sarpi,  a  real  Protestant  under  a  monk's  cowl,  and  by  Pal- 
lavicini,  with  all  the  advantages  ancT  the  prejudices  of  a  cardinal.  Bossuet 
has  more  particularly  noticed  the  gradual  development  and  the  human  ele- 
ments, as  well  as  the  variations  and  arbitrary  character  of  the  Reformation. 
The  work  of  Planclc  is  impartial,  but  sometimes  altogether  too  full  of  minute 
details,  while  that  of  Marheineke  is  popular,  and  yet,  in  consequence  of  its 
documentary  character,  possesses  much  of  an  antiquarian  aspect.  Woltmann 
has  bestowed  special  attention  upon  the  rights  of  those  who  were  opposed  to 
the  Reformation.  A  vast  amount  of  original  authorities,  especially  from  the 
records  of  the  German  empire,  has  been  brought  forward  in  an  intelligent 
manner  by  Rarike,  who  has  interspersed  in  his  narrative  many  admirable 
reflections,  and  in  a  style  of  almost  dramatic  interest  has  contrived  to  exhibit 
not  only  general  characters  am1  incidents,  but  the  most  insignificant  agents  in 


CHAP.  I.  KEFOEMATION.  §  308.  LUTHEB'S  YOUTH.         361 

their  utmost  efforts  against  the  more  prominent  historical  personages.  Lu- 
ther's cause  has  been  described  with  much  less  precision  by  Hagen,  as  the 
result  of  a  general  effort  at  a  compromise,  and  as  an  early  departure  from  its 
own  original  principles.  The  Helvetic  Reformation  does  not  so  clearly  pre- 
sent a  common  centre,  and  the  development  of  great  characters  in  the  midst 
of  great  events.  With  the  sympathies  of  an  actor  in  the  scenes  which  he 
describes,  Bullinger  has  simply,  clearly  and  faithfully  narrated  in  the  Chroni- 
cle of  his  own  times  and  vicinity  (1519-32)  not  only  those  incidents  which 
were  important,  but  many  which  were  of  but  trifling  consequence  connected 
with  the  glorious  transactions  of  his  native  land.  As  Bayle  had  previously 
vindicated  the  Reformation  in  opposition  to  Maimbourg's  passionate  shrewd- 
ness, so  Basnage  in  a  skilful  and  spirited  manner  defended  it  against  the  inge- 
nious declamation  of  Bossuet.  The  historical  materials  were  collected  with 
honest  diligence  by  Hottinger,  and  more  perfectly  and  more  skilfully  by  Eu- 
chat,  but  both  were  under  the  influence  of  a  powerful  party  spirit.  From  a 
position  in  which  he  happily  combines  practical  with  contemplative  views, 
Eageribach  instructs  and  consoles  the  painfully  excited  age  in  which  he  lives, 
by  holding  up  before  it  a  vivid  picture  of  preceding  times,  and  yet  preserves 
a  proportionate  representation  of  the  whole  Reformation.  In  the  lofty  and 
attractive  picture  presented  by  Merle  cPAiibigne,  the  author  seems  conscious 
of  a  perfect  agreement  with  the  reformers  in  their  theological  views,  and  yet 
avails  himself  of  all  the  resources  of  modern  literature. 

I.  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  LTJTHEEAX  CnuEon,  TILL  1532. 

Luther.  Literature :  Fdbricii  Centifolium  Luth.  Hamb.  1728ss.  2  vols.  Ukert,  L.  Leben.  Gotha. 
1817.  2  vols.  K  G.  Vogel,  BibL  Biographica  Lutherana.  Hal.  1851.  Works:  Lat  Yit  1545ss.  1  vols. 
f.  Jen.  1556ss.  4  vols.  f.  German,  Witt  1539ss.  12  vols.  f.  Jena  1555ss.  8  vols.  f.  Altenb.  1661ss, 
10  vols.  f.  ed.  by  J.  G.  Walch,  Hal.  1737-53.  24  vols.  4.  According  to  the  orig.  language  by  Ploch- 
mann  &  Irmischer,  Erl.  1826-50.  68  vols.  (Selections  by  Pfizer,  Frkf.  1837ss.  0.  v.  Qerlach,  Brl. 
1841ss.  by  Zimmermann,  Frkf.  1846s.)  Letters  ed.  by  De  Wette,  Brl.  1825-28.  5  vols.  Life :  Me- 
lancthon,  Hist,  de  vita  et  actis  L.  Yit  1546.  den.  ed.  Augusti,  Vrat  1817.  Uebers.  v.  Zimmermann 
in.  Anm.  v.  Villers,  Gott  (1813.)  1816.  J.  Mathesius,  Hist.  v.  L.  in  17  Fred.  Numb.  1565.  4.  &  often. 
M.  Anm.  v.  Bust,  BrL  1841.  The  MS.  Hist  of  Rutseberger,  u.  L.  u.  s.  Zeit  edit  by  Neudecker,  Jena, 
1850.  II.  Walch,  v.  L.  (Werke,  vol.  XXIV.)  F.  8.  Keil,  Lps.  1764.  4  vols.  4.  Schroeckh,  Lps.  1778. 
Spieker,  Gesch.  L.  u.  d.  KVerb.  Berl.  1818.  1  vol.  Gust.  Pfizer,  L.  Leben.  Stuttg.  1836.  (Audin, 
Hist,  de  la  vie  de  L.  Par.  (1838.)  1841.  2  vols.)  M.  Meurer,  L.  Leben.  a.  d.  Quellen  erziihlt  Dresd. 
(184893.  3  vols.)  1852.  M.  L.  der  deutsche  Eef.  In  bildl.  Darst.  v.  G.  Konig,  in  gesch.  Umrissen  v. 
n.  Gelser,  Hamb.  1851.— K.  Jurgens,  L.  Leben.  (1483-1517.)  Lps.  1846s.  3  vols.  [Sower,  Life  of  L. 
&  early  Prog,  of  the  Eef.  8.  M.  Michelet,  Life  of  L.  New  York,  1846. 12.  J.  E.  Riddle,  L.  &  his  . 
Times,  &c.  Lond.  1837. 12.  J.  Scott.  L.  &  the  Luth.  Eef.  New  York,  1833.  2  vols.  12.  Laicson,  Auto- 
biog.  of  L.  Lond.  16mo.] 

§308.    Luther's  Youth. 

Martin  Luther  was  born  at  Eisleben  an  hour  before  midnight  on  the  10th 
of  November,  1483.  His  father,  John,  was  a  respectable  miner  belonging  to  a 
peasant  Thuringian  family  in  Moehra,  (a)  and  afterwards  the  proprietor  of  some 
foundries  and  a  councillor  in  Mansfeld.  He  was  in  early  life  subjected  to  a 
severe  discipline.  Having  spent  some  time  with  the  Nullbrethren  at  Magde- 

a)  J.  C.  Ortmann,  Moehra  d.  Stammtort  Luth.  Salzung.  1S44.    Nobbe,  Stammb.  d.  Familie  M.  L. 
Grimma.  1346.    Comp.  (J.  C.  &  Thon,)  Schloss  Wartburg.  Dis.  1S26.  p.  143s. 


362  MODERN  CHUBCH  HISTOBY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1M8. 

burg,  and  as  a  current  scholar  (&)  at  Eisenach,  where  he  was  supported  for  a 
while  by  the  charity  of  a  matron  interested  in  his  earnest  style  of  singing  and 
praying.  With  the  view  of  preparing  himself  for  the  legal  profession  he 
became  a  student  (1501)  in  the  University  of  Erfurt,  where  his  principal 
studies  were  the  Dialectics  of  the  Nominalists  and  the  Latin  Classics.  He 
there  also  became  Master  of  Arts  and  commenced  reading  the  Physics  and 
the  Ethics  of  Aristotle.  But,  full  of  anxiety  for  the  salvation  of  his  soul, 
alarmed  by  the  sudden  death  of  a  friend,  and  haunted  by  terrors  respecting 
his  own  death,  on  the  night  of  the  17th  of  July,  1505,  he  fled  to  the  Augus- 
tinian  convent,  where,  in  spite  of  many  remonstrances  he  became  a  monk, 
and  in  1507  a  priest.  Bat  all  the  austerities  of  a  conscientious  monastic  life, 
all  the  humiliations  of  a  mendicant  friar,  together  with  the  most  intense  study 
of  the  scholastic  writers,  especially  Thomas,  Occam,  and  d'Ailly,  only 
increased  the  dejection  of  a  mind  which  had  nothing  to  do  but  to  consume  its 
energies  in  a  course  uncongenial  to  its  nature.  The  Vicar  General  of  his  order 
in  Germany,  John  of  Staupitz^  who  had  entered  into  Augustine's  doctrine  of 
faith  and  of  election,  with  all  the  ardor  of  a  sincere  love  to  God  and  man, 
now  gained  his  confidence,  foresaw  his  future  greatness,  and  strove  to  cheer 
his  spirit,  (c)  Gradually  Luther  found  consolation  by  discovering  in  the 
Scriptures,  and  in  the  writings  of  Augustine  and  Tauler,  a  doctrine  wjiich  had 
been  overlooked  by  Scholasticism  and  Monasticism,  but  which  taught  him  that 
man  is  to  bo  saved,  not  by  his  own  works,  but  by  faith  in  the  mercy  of  God 
in  Christ.  It  was  not,  however,  until  he  had  been  transferred  by  Staupitz  to 
"Wittenburg  (1508)  that  he  began  to  find  rest  in  a  more  abundant  and  unre- 
strained activity.  He  soon  discontinued  his  lectures  upon  Dialectics  and 
Physics,  turned  his  attention  to  Theology,  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  origi- 
nal languages  of  the  Scriptures,  took  delight  in  religious  disputations,  and 
finally  ventured,  though  with  great  reluctance,  to  preach.  In  1510  ho  took  a 
journey  to  Rome  as  a  pilgrim,  (d)  and  on  some  business  of  his  order.  During 
his  brief  residence  there  the  glories  of  Roman  antiquity  and  art  had  no 
attractions  for  him,  but  with  all  the  zeal  of  a  devoted  Catholic  he  visited 
every  church  and  grotto  there^  and  was  offended  by  nothing  but  the  levity 
of  the  inferior  clergy  with  whom  alone  he  then  became  acquainted.  His  call 
to  become  a  Doctor  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  the  oath  he  was  then 
required  to  take  (Oct.  18,  1512),  raised  his  thoughts  to  higher  objects  than 
any  suggested  by  his  monastic  vow.  (e)  His  conscience  now  compelled  him 
freely  to  investigate  and  make  known  the  truths  of  Christianity.  But  though 
he  preached  Christ  instead  of  the  fables  of  the  saints,  and  the  grace  of  God 
instead  of  any  merit  acquired  by  human  prescriptions,  he  was  even  then  full 
of  wrath  at  the  obstinacy  of  heretics.  (/)  His  literary  efforts  wore  directed 

[&)  Current  scholars  are  such  as  get  their  living  by  alms  as  they  wander  through  the  town  and  Ring 
and  pray  at  the  doors  of  tho  principal  citizens.] 

c)  Von  d.  Nachfolgung  des  wilL  Bterbens  Chr.  1515.    Lib.  de  exsecut  aet.  praedestinationis.  1517. 
Von  d.  holds.  Liebe  Gottes.  Lps.  1518.— G.  H.  Gotet,  de  Stanp.  Lub.  1715.  4    C,  L.  W.  Grimm,  da 
Staup.  ejusque  in  sacrorum  instaurat  meritis.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1837.  vol.  VII.  EL  2.)  A.  D.  G&uter, 
Vita  Staup.  GOtt  1837.  4.     UUmann,  Eeff.  vor.  d.  Bet  voL  IL  p.  256ss. 

d)  Jurggns,  vol.  IL  p.  269ss. 

e)  Liber  Decanor.  Fac.  th.  Vit  ed.  Foerttemann,  Lps.  1833.  p.  146.     Walch,  vol.  XVI.  p.  2061. 
/)  Juryens,  voL  JIL  p.  200s 


CHAP.  I.    EEFORMATION.    §  809.  TETZEL.    95  THESES.  363 

not  merely  against  the  Pelagian  external  holiness,  but  the  logical  forms  which 
Scholasticism  then  sanctioned,  and  these  occupied  his  attention  quite  as  much 
as  his  expositions  of  the  Scriptures,  especially  of  the  Psalms  and  of  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Eomans.  But  the  University  had  already  abandoned  Aristotle  and 
submitted  to  the  authority  of  Augustine,  (g) 

§  309.     The  Ninety-Five  Theses. 

Albert  of  Mentz  authorized  the  sale  of  indulgences  in  Germany  for  the 
erection  of  St.  Peter's  church,  on  condition  that  one  half  of  the  profits  should 
be  his.  When  the  Dominican  Tetzel  carried  on  this  trade  with  the  utmost 
effrontery  in  the  dioceses  of  Magdeburg  and  Halberstadt,  Luther  found  at  his 
confessional  that  much  injury  was  done  by  it  to  the  practice  of  true  Chris- 
tian repentance.  He  therefore  preached  against  it,  and  wrote  to  the  neigh- 
boring bishops  (a)  against  it,  but  when  he  saw  that  he  was  despised,  (5)  on  the 
eve  of  All-Saints'  Day,  151T,  he  affixed  to  the  gate  of  the  Castle-Church  of 
"Wittenberg  (c)  -ninety-five  propositions,  which  he  proclaimed  himself  ready 
to  defend  against  any  man  who  might  assail  them.  They  asserted:  That 
God  alone  could  bestow  true  absolution,  and  the  pope,  like  any  other  bishop 
and  pastor,  can  only  dispense  this  divine  absolution  to  penitents  and  believ- 
ers ;  that  absolution  might  indeed  be  beneficial,  but  could  not  be  indispensa- 
ble to  the  recipient,  nor  should  it  be  esteemed  higher  than  works  of  piety 
and  mercy ;  that  it  referred  only  to  ecclesiastical  punishments,  and  that  it 
was  then  so  much  abused  by  those  who  traded  in  indulgences,  and  was  so 
misunderstood  by  the  people,  that  if  the  pope  knew  what  was  going  on,  he 
would  prefer  to  see  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  reduced  to  ashes  than  to  have  it 
built  by  such  means. — Even  if  Luther  really  thought  that  in  all  this  he  was 
maintaining  nothing  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  the  Church  and  of  the 
papacy,  he  certainly  must  have  been  aware  that  he  had  thrown  out  a  chal- 
lenge to  the  most  powerful  prelates  and  monks. 

§  310.    Interference  of  the  Pope. 

Tetzel  now  raised  against  Luther  the  helpless  outcry  of  an  inquisitor,  (a) 
and  the  learned  Sylvester  Prierias,  a  high  officer  in  the  papal  palace,  de- 
fended the  cause  of  his  brother  Dominican  with  a  stately  indifference.  (5) 
Both  of  them,  however,  founded  all  their  arguments  upon  the  infallible  au- 
thority and  absolute  power  of  the  pope.  In  his  reply,  and  especially  in 
opposition  to  the  quotations  from  St.  Thomas,  Luther  avowed  that  he,  like 
St.  Augustine,  recognized  no  authority  as  infallible  but  that  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures, (c)  The  Dominicans  made  every  effort  to  arouse  the  people  against  him. 

C-)  De  Wette  voL  L  p.  5T. 

a)  J.  J.  Vbgel,  Leben  d.  papstL  Gnaden-Pred.  T.  Lps.  (1717.)  1727.  J.  E.  Kapp,  Schaupl.  d.  T. 
Ablasskrames.  Lps.  1720.  and  Samml.  hierhergehor.  Schrr.  Lps.  1721.  F.  G.  ffofnumn,  Lebensb.  T. 
Lps.  1844.  Z>)  Jurgens  voL  III.  p.  463ss. 

c)  Dispute  Dr.  M.  Lather!  pro  declarat.  virtutis  indulgentiar.  Printed  in  Loscher  vol.  I.  p.  4SSsa. 
Walch  vol.  XVIII.  p.  254ss.  Comp.  Walch  voL  XVII.  p.  170& 

a)  Loscher  voL  I.  p.  484.    Wimpina  in  favor  of  Tetzel. 

b)  bial.  in  presumptuosas  Luth.  conclusiones  de  potestate  Papae.  (Loscher  vol.  II.  p.  llss.) 

c)  Eesp.  ad  Prier.  (Loscher  vol.  II.  p.  8S9ss.) 


364  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

But  in  spite  of  all  their  endeavors,  his  well-tempered  discourses  and  writings 
convinced  the  people  that  what  he  had  taught  them  respecting  repentance 
and  the  abuses  of  indulgences  was  true,  (d)  His  theses  flew  with  astonishing 
celerity  into  every  part  of  Germany,  and  were  commended  by  many  honest 
and  learned  persons,  but  the  silence  or  the  displeasure  of  the  prelates  lay 
heavily  upon  him,  and  he  became  alarmed  at  the  consequences  of  what  he 
feared  might  be  his  own  rashness.  But  in  the  midst  of  all  his  internal  and 
external  conflicts,  the  conviction  became  more  and  more  settle.d  in  his  mind 
that  he  was  contending  not  for  his  own  cause,  but  for  that  of  Christ,  and 
that  while  he  was  at  peace  with  his  beloved  Redeemer,  he  had  nothing  to  hope 
for  or  to  fear  from  the  world.  («)  He  himself  had  sent  a  copy  and  a  defence  of 
his  theses  to  pope  Leo  X.,  (/)  accompanied  with  a  letter  in  which  he  expresses  a 
firm  consciousness  of  possessing  the  truth,  but  unconditionally  submits  his  per- 
son to  his  superiors,  (g)  He  was  summoned  (Aug.  7,1518)  to  appear  at  Home, 
but  the  Elector  of  Saxony  obtained  a  concession  that  he  should  be  examined 
in  a  paternal  manner  at  Augsburg  by  Thomas  de  Vio,  of  Gaeta,  the  cardinal 
legate.  Luther  appeared  (Oct.  1518),  under  the  safe  conduct  of  the  emperor 
and  the  city  of  Augsburg.  Cajetanus,  a  learned  scholastic  of  severe  man- 
ners, expected  to  refute  Luther's  propositions  respecting  indulgences  by  sen- 
tences from  St.  Thomas  and  the  Decretals,  but  frightened  at  this  Ger- 
man beast  with  piercing  eyes  and  strange  speculations  in  its  head,  he  soon 
bade  him  go  away  and  never  return  until  sent  for.  Luther  privately  de- 
parted on  the  20th  Oct.,  having  entered  an  appeal  to  the  pope  when  better 
informed.  As,  however,  he  soon  after  became  more  and  more  satisfied  that 
he  could  expect  no  justice  from  a  court  of  Borne,  and  when  a  Bull  had  been 
issued  which  solemnly  confirmed  the  controverted  doctrine  of  indulgences, 
he  changed  this  appeal  and  directed  it  to  a  General  Council,  (h) 

§  811.    Amicable  Negotiations. 

In  the  letter  which  Cajetan  sent  to  the  elector,  he  demanded  that  Luther 
should  be  sent  to  Rome,  or  at  least  into  banishment.  Luther  justified  his  con- 
duct before  his  sovereign  (at  Augsburg)  by  pleading  that  it  was  his  duty  to  yield 
only  to  the  truth,  entreated  that  his  master  would  not  act  towards  him  the  part 
of  a  Pilate,  and  declared  that  he  was  ready  to  wander  forth  into  exile,  (a)  But 
Frederic  the  Wise  was  personally  a  friend  of  the  people,  and  as  a  prince,  was 
distinguished  for  his  caution  and  his  piety  toward  the  Church.  (J)  Though 
he  had  once  gone  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  sepulchre,  and  expended  much 
money  in  the  purchase  of  sacred  reliques,  he  now  prohibited  the  preaching  of 
indulgences  within  his  dominions.  He  became  conscious  of  an  increasing 
attachment  to  the  evangelical  principles  maintained  in  the  writings  of  Lu- 

d)  Sermon  v.  Ablass.  u.  Gnade.  Nov.  1517.  (Ldachtr  voL  L  p.  468ss.) 

e)  Walch  voL  XIV.  p.  470.    De  Wetto  vol.  L  p.  118. 

/)  Resolutions  disput  de  virt  indulgg.  (Loscher  voL  IL  p.  183sa.) 
0)  De  Wette  vol.  L  p.  119. 

h)  Augsb.  Acta  in  Ltecher  vol.  II.  p.  436».     Walch.  voL  XV.  p.  544ss.    De  W<tto  ToL  L  pk 
142se.- Mrner,  de  colloquio  L.  c.  C^J.  Lps.  1722.  4. 
a)  De  Wette  vol.  L  p.  17488. 
&)  G.  Spalatin,  Leben  u.  Zeitgesch.  Fr.  d.  W.  (from  his  MSS.)  Jena.  1861 


CHAP.  I.    REFORMATION.    §  811.  FEEDEEIC  THE  WISE.    MILTITZ.          36£ 

ther,  although  he  was  always  undecided  and  distrustful  of  his  own  judgment  in 
spiritual  matters.  He  was  at  least  averse  to  all  violent  measures,  and  was  fearful 
of  the  injury  which  his  university  at  Wittenberg  might  sustain  should  he  sacri- 
fice its  most  distinguished  instructor,  (c)  He  therefore  replied,  that  Luther's  de- 
mand to  be  arraigned  before  an  impartial  tribunal  in  Germany  appeared  to  be 
nothing  more  than  was  reasonable.  The  pope  was  under  obligations  to  the  elec- 
tor, and  was  anxious  by  some  favors  to  secure  his  influence  to  prevent  the  Ger- 
man crown  from  being  bestowed  upon  his  grandson,  Charles  of  Spain,  by 
which  the  supreme  power  in  Italy  and  Germany  would  once  more  be  com- 
mitted to  the  same  hand.  A  Saxon  nobleman,  Charles  of  Miltitz,  and  a 
chamberlain  in  the  papal  court,  was  sent  to  Saxony  for  the  purpose  of  effect- 
ing a  reconciliation.  During  his  journey  through  the  cities  of  the  empire, 
this  legate  found  that  public  opinion  was  already  so  decided  in  behalf  of 
Luther,  that  he  acknowledged  his  utter  inability  to  take  Luther  to  Rome  at 
that  time,  even  if  an  army  were  present  for  his  assistance.  In  a  respectful 
manner  he  summoned  Luther  in  Jan.,  1519,  to  appear  at  Alteriburg.  He 
conceded  that  the  abuse  of  indulgences  was  wrong,  and  avowed  that  he  had 
already  expressed  his  displeasure  at  Tetzel,  but  he  entreated  at  the  same  tune 
that  the  Church  might  not  for  such  a  reason  be  distracted  by  a  schism. 
Luther  promised  that  he  would  maintain  silence  respecting  indulgences  as  far 
as  his  opponents  would  do  the  same  ;  that  he  would  receive  instruction  re- 
specting any  errors  into  which  he  might  have  fallen  from  any  German  bishop 
whom  the  pope  might  appoint  for  that  purpose ;  that  he  would  publish  let- 
ters in  which  he  would  admonish  all  persons  to  be  obedient  and  respectful  to 
the  Roman  Church ;  and  finally,  that  he  would  write  to  the  pope,  and  assure 
the  Holy  Father,  that  although  he  had  been  unduly  severe  in  some  of  his 
writings,  he  had  never  thought  of  infringing  upon  the  privileges  of  the  Ro- 
man Church,  (d)  Accordingly  he  indited  the  promised  letter,  in  which  his 
language  was  full  of  expressions  of  humility,  and  the  Roman  Church  Wcas 
exalted  above  every  thing  but  Christ  himself,  (e) 

§  312.     The  Disputation  at  Leipsic.    June  %1-July  16,  1519. 
Acta  colloq.  Lps.  in  Loscher  vol.  III.  p.  203sa.     Walch  vol.  XV.  p.  954ss.    Lutfi.  Account  In  De 
Wette  vol.  I.  p.  284.  290ss.  SOTss.    Melancth.  Account  in  Corp.  JKef.  vol.  I.  p.  87ss.— J.  G.  Stickel,  do 
vi,  quam  colloq.  Lips,  habuerit  ad  promov.  reform.  Jen.  1827.  C.  G.  nering,  de  disp.  Lipsiao  a.  151  tf. 
habita.  Lps.  1S39.    J.  K.  Seidemann,  d.  Lpz.  Disp.  Dresd.  1843. 

Luther  had  already  agreed  in  Augsburg  with  his  learned  friend,  Dr. 
(Mayr  von)  Eck  of  Ingolstadt,  that  the  controversy  of  the  latter  with  Carl- 
stadt  (Andr.  Bodenstein)  should  be  decided  by  a  disputation.  But  in  the 
polemical  writings  sent  forth  by  Eck,  Luther  perceived  that  he  was  himself 
the  object  of  this  treacherous  attack,  and  he  therefore  deemed  it  indispensa- 
ble that  he  also  should  take  part  in  the  debate,  (a}  The  apprehensions  of 

c)  Comp.  his  Letters  to  Duke  John,  1520-23,  in  Forstemanris  new  TJrkundenb.  vol.  I.  p.  Iss. 

d)  Loscher  vol.  I.  p.  552ss.  vol.  III.  p.  6ss.  820ss.    De  Wette  vol.  I.  p.  207ss.— Seidemann,  K.  v. 
Milt.  Chronolog.  TJnters.  Dresd.  1841.     ff.  E.  Apel,  quae  C.  Milt  c.  Luth.  Altenb.  egerit  Alt 
1852s.  2  P.  4, 

«)  De  Wette  voL  I.  p.  233ss. 

a)  Eccii  Obelisci.  Lutheri  Asterisci.  (Loscher  vol.  II.  p.  333ss.) 


366  MODEKN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

those  who  shrunk  from  the  new  agitation  were  allayed  by  their  confidence  in 
the  brilliant  talents  of  Eck,  (J)  and  the  disputation  was  held  before  a  highly 
respectable  assembly  in  the  Pleissenburg  at  Lcipsic.  At  its  commencement 
and  at  its  close,  Carlstadt  maintained  that  the  natural  man  is  totally  unable 
to  perform  any  thing  good,  and  that  even  in  a  state  of  grace  no  action  could 
be  meritorious,  (c)  He  had  Augustine,  and  Eck  had  the  ancient  fathers  and  all 
the  scholastic  writers  in  his  favor,  but  both  of  them  appealed  to  the  Scrip- 
tures. In  his  theses,  Eck  had  ventured  upon  the  assertion,  that  even  before 
the  time  of  Sylvester  the  Roman  Church  held  rank  above  all  other  churches, 
and  that  whoever  was  in  possession  of  the  chair  and  the  faith  of  St.  Peter, 
was  always  recognized  as  Peter's  successor  and  the  universal  vicar  of  Christ. 
This  declaration  was  assailed  by  Luther^  and  the  controversy  was  soon 
pressed  to  the  assertion  that  the  pope  was  not  by  divine  right  the  universal 
bishop  of  the  Church.  Luther  adduced  arguments  for  this  position  from  the 
Scriptures  and  from  history,  but  Eck  threw  upon  him  the  reproach  of  hold- 
ing to  a  Hussite  heresy,  and  urged  him  to  express  a  doubt  of  the  infallibility 
of  councils.  The  glory  of  a  victory  was  not  indeed  obtained  by  Luther  in 
this  contest,  but  the  controversy  had  now  become  universal,  and  Luther, 
finally  freed  from  all  feelings  of  sacred  awe  with  respect  to  the  Roman 
Church,  now  saw  with  astonishment  that  the  truth  had  been  uttered  long 
before  his  time,  and  that  all  the  spirits  of  opposition  had  become  collected 
within  his  bosom. 

§  313.    Melancthon.     General  Affairs. 

I.  Opp.  Baa.  154128.  5  vols.  rec.  Peucer,  Tit  1562M.  4  vols.  t    Selection  by  Kvthe,  Lpz.  1823s.  G 
vols.    Complete  e<L  begun  in  the  Corpus  Befonnator.  ed.  EretechMtder,  post  Bretscu.    Bindteil, 
Hal.  et  Brunsn.  1834-53. 19  Tola.  4.    Camerariut,  do  Pb.  M.  ortu,  totius  vitae  curric.  ot  inorto  nar- 
ratio.  Lpa.  1566.  ed.  Strolel,  HaL  1777.    AugutU,  VraL  1817. 

II.  Old  Lit  in  Stroleft  ed.  of  Camcrar.  a.  66fea.    A.  If.  Nitmeyer,  M.  als  Praeceptor  Germa- 
niae.  Hal.  1817.    M.  Facing  M.  Leben  u,  Cbaractcristtk.  Lpa,  1682.    L.  F.  Ileyd,  M.  u.  Tubingen. 
Tub.  1889.    F  Galle,  CbaracterisUk  M.  als  Tbeologen  u.  EntwickL  a,  Lehrbcgr.  HaL  1840.    K.  F. 
Matth^  M.  a.  Leben  u.  Wirkcn.  Altonb.  1841.    [F.  A.  COKA,  Life  of  P.  MeL  from  a  Lond.  ed. 
Bost  1835. 12.] 

A  young  man  accompanied  Luther  to  Leipsic,  who  brought  to  the  aid  of 
the  Reformation  vast  treasures  of  learning,  and  the  scientific  reputation  of 
the  second  humanist  of  his  age.  This  was  Philip  Nelancthon,  the  son  of 
George  Schwartzerd,  a  skilful  armorer,  at  Bretten,  in  the  Palatinate  of  the 
Rhine,  where  he  was  born  Feb.  16,  1497.  His  great-uncle  Reuchlin  was 
much  delighted  with  the  early  development  of  his  precocious  mind.  Hav- 
ing finished  his  preparatory  studies  at  Pforzheim  and  Heidelburg,  after  1512, 
he  passed  through  the  whole  course  of  the  sciences  taught  at  Tubingen,  pub- 
lished his  Greek  Grammar  in  1613,  and  after  1514  gave  lectures  as  a  Master 
of  Arts  upon  the  classics  and  the  original  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  He  was 
no  sooner  called  to  Wittenberg  than  he  declared  that  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion for  youth  must  be  improved  (Aug.  29, 1518),  and  gave  to  it  a  humanistic 
Greek  tendency.  He  soon  became  intimate  with  Luther,  not  only  on  account 

I)  Eceii  Epp.  Ep.  de  rat  studior  snor.  IngoL  1543.  4.  (Strotel,  Misc.  H.  IIL  p.  95ss.)    KoUr- 
mund,  emeu.  Andenken.  vol.  L  p.  25188. 

c)  A.  G.  Dieckho/,  de  Carolst  Luth.  de  servo  arbit  doctrinae  defensore.  Gott  1850. 


CHAP.  I.    IlEFOKMATIOtf.    §  313.  MELANCTHON.    §  814.  HUTTEN.  367 

of  the  high  esteem  which  both  felt  for  each  other,  but  because  both  were 
with  equal  zeal  laboring  to  explain  and  establish  the  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, against  which  nothing  was  looked  upon  as  of  any  avail.  He  was  gen- 
tle only  when  compared  with  Luther,  for  he  was  really  impetuous  and  easily 
excited.  He  was  timid  and  sometimes  yielding  from  his  anxiety  lest  in  the 
excitement  of  controversy  Christianity  itself  should  be  lost  sight  of,  (a)  and 
because  he  could  make  proper  allowance  for  the  position  of  an  opponent, 
while  Luther  dashed  onward  to  his  conquests  without  looking  to  the  right  or 
to  the  left.  He  had  more  learning  and  eloquence,  but  less  strength  of  char- 
acter, less  depth  of  feeling,  and  less  creative  enthusiasm  than  Luther.  The 
position  which  he  assumed,  and  which  nature  seemed  to  have  designed  for 
him  with  respect  to  Luther,  was  that  of  a  trusty  counsellor  and  assistant. 
There  were  seasons  when  he  felt  lonely  in  Saxony,  (5)  and  was  wounded  by 
Luther,  but  there  was  something  in  the  latter  which  he  reverenced  as  almost 
divine,  and  which  he  never  ventured  to  restrain,  (c)  Although 'he  was  con- 
fessedly the  first  among  the  theologians  of  his  party,  he  often  betook  himself 
fondly  to  his  classics,  and  Luther  found  it  necessary  to  hold  him  firmly  to  his 
theological  Lectures,  (d)  The  division  of  the  Church  produced  a  pang  of  the 
most  intense  grief  in  his  guileless  spirit.  (<?) 

§  314.    Appeal  to  the  Christian  Nobility  of  the  German  Nation. 

The  German  knighthood  formed  a  kind  of  third  estate,  which  took  rank 
after  the  princes  and  the  bishops,  and  was  determined  to  maintain  freedom 
for  themselves,  if  not  for  the  common  people.  At  the  head  of  this  order  in 
respect  to  power  at  that  time,  stood  Francis  of  Sickingen  (d.  1523),  a  man 
violent  in  assault,  but  a  shield  to  all  who  were  oppressed,  (a)  In  respect  to< 
intellectual  influence,  however,  no  one  was  superior  to  UlricTi  of  Hutten  (d. 
1523),  the  knight  that  never  rested,  that  never  hesitated  to  oppose  every 
form  of  injustice,  and  long  before  Luther's  appearance  had  boldly  attacked 
popes  and  monks  with  his  utmost  satirical  power.  This  bold  knight  now 
gave  his  hand  for  the  assistance  of  Luther  in  the  great  contest  with  the  king- 
dom of  Antichrist,  believing  that  in  doing  so  he  was  struggling  for  the  lib- 
erty of  Germany.  (£)  It  was  to  the  German  nobles,  many  of  whom  offered 
either  an  asylum  or  their  swords  to  the  reformer,  as  the  genuine  representa- 
tives of  his  people,  that  Luther  addressed  his  pamphlet  on  the  improvement  of 
Christian  morality,  (c)  In  the  introduction  he  pointed  out  how  the  Eomanists 
had  intrenched  themselves  against  the  Reformation  within  three  walls :  Threat- 
en them  with  the  secular  power,  they  cry  out,  "'The  spiritual  power  is  supe- 
rior !  "  Ply  them  with  arguments  from  the  Scriptures,  they  exclaim,  "  The 

a)  Corp.  Eef.  vol.  I.  p.  898.  918.        &)  /&.  vol.  I.  p.  859. 

c)  /&.  vol.  I.  p.  211.       d)  /&.  p.  606s.  677.    Ue  Wette  vol.  II.  p.  508. 

e)  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  I.  p.  1110. 

a)  Hub.  Leodii  L.  de  reb.  gestis  et  calamitoso  obitu  Fr.  do  Sick.  (Freher  vol.  III.  p.  295).  E. 
Hunch,  Fr.  v.  S.  Stuttg.  1827ss.  3  vols. 

&)  Werke  ed.  by  Munch,  Brl.  1321ss.  5  vols.  Selection  and  Trans.  Lps.  1822s.  3  vols.— L.  Schit- 
lart,  U.  v.  H.  Lps.  1791.  Mohnike,  Jugendlehen  H.  Greifcw.  1816.  Wagenseil,  U.  v.  H.  NOrnU 
1823.  K  v.  JBrunnow,  U.  v.  H.  1842s.  2  vols.  Comp.  Hist  pol.  Bl.  1839.  voL  IV.  H.  5s.  8s. 

c)  Aug.  1520.    In  Walch  vol.  X.  p.  296ss. 


368  MODERN  CHTTBCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

pope  alone  can  explain  the  word  of  God !  "  Appeal  to  a  general  council,  and 
they  reply,  "  None  but  the  pope  can  summon  or  preside  over  it !  "  He  then 
proceeded  to  break  through  these  walk  with  the  assertion  that  every  real 
Christian  belonged  to  the  spiritual  order,  and  appealed  to  the  great  body  of 
Christians  as  the  real  sovereigns  in  each  congregation,  to  whom  he  presented 
the  articles  of  the  reformation,  for  which  they  should  contend  as  for  a  na- 
tional interest.  These  were :  The  reduction  of  the  luxuriant  extravagance 
of  the  papal  court,  security  against  the  gradual  exhaustion  of  the  German 
people  by  Roman  avarice,  the  independent  appointment  of  Germans  to  eccle- 
siastical offices  in  Germany,  the  final  decision  of  all  trials  before  German 
courts,  the  abolition  of  the  servile  oaths  which  bishops  were  required  to 
receive,  the  surrender  of  all  secular  power  then  held  by  the  pope,  so  far  as 
it  was  founded  upon  pretended  donations  and  usurpations,  the  limitation  of 
the  orders  of  mendicant  friars,  the  restoration  of  the  convents  to  their  origi- 
nal design  as  simple  Christian  schools,  the  abolition  of  compulsory  celibacy, 
reconciliation  with  the  Bohemians  on  reasonable  conditions,  the  abrogation 
of  the  canonical  law,  the  discontinuance  of  the  idolatrous  homage  generally 
paid  to  Aristotle,  and  of  the  worship  of  the  saints,  and  finally  the  improve- 
ment of  the  course  of  academic  studies  and  of  popular  education.  With  the 
grief  of  a  Christian  and  the  indignation  of  a  German  heart,  the  pope  was 
here  called  to  account  for  teaching  by  his  indulgences  a  noble  and  sincere 
nation  to  practise  deception  and  perjury,  and  the  Germans  are  exhorted  to 
hunt  out  all  papal  messengers  with  their  merchandise,  and  expel  them  from 
the  country.  Indeed,  this  pamphlet  was  a  public  disruption  from  Rome,  and 
a  general  summons  to  the  nation  to  do  the  same.  With  terrible  eloquence 
the  national  feeling  was  aroused  by  a  relentless  exposure  of  all  those  indigni- 
ties which  had  been  endured  for  centuries  with  a  German  good  nature,  but 
^•liich  had  only  provoked  derision  at  Rome.  The  revolutionary  character  of 
the  reformation  was  decided  by  this  little  work.  Luther,  however,  in  the 
most  absolute  manner  declined  all  offers  of  the  sword  which  were  made  to 
him  by  the  knights.  As  the  world  had  been  created  and  the  Church  had 
been  originally  established  by  the  word  of  God,  he  had  no  doubt  that  a 
restoration  of  the  Church  could  be  effected  by  the  same  means,  (d) 

§  315.     The  Babylonian  Captivity  and  Christian  Freedom. 

Luther's  army  was  his  ever  fresh  and  always  interesting  writings,  and 
these  he  sent  forth  with  a  rapid  development  of  mental  power.  The  book 
which  he  called  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church  (a)  commences  with  an 
expression  of  thanks  to  his  opponents  for  assisting  him  so  much  in  his  attain- 
ment of  truth,  and  an  announcement  that  he  must  now  reject  what  he  had 
in  the  beginning  of  the  controversy  conceded.  In  the  course  of  the  debate 
it  had  become  evident  to  bun  that  indulgences  were  nothing  but  a  roguish 
trick  of  Roman  sycophants,  that  the  papacy  itself  was  not  even  a  human,  but 
a  devilish  institution,  that  the  cup  in  the  sacrament  belonged  to  the  people, 

d)  Seckend.  I.  §  83.  p.  193. 

a)  Oct.  6, 1520.    Opp.  Jen.  Tom.  II.  p.  250sa.     Walch  voL  XIX.  p.  Isa. 


CHAP.  I.  KEFOEMATION.  §  315.  LUTHER  ON  CHE.  FEEEDOM.      369 

that  the  mass  was  not  a  sacrifice  nor  a  good  work,  and  that  the  newly-dis- 
covered doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  or  any  view  which  asserted  a  real 
connection  between^the  consecrated  bread  and  the  divine  body,  was  not  ne- 
cessary to  faith.  The  only  sacraments  allowed  to  be  of  divine  institution 
were  baptism,  penance,  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  opposition  to  a  reliance 
upon  the  outward  Church  and  its  forms,  he  introduced  the  doctrine  of  the 
saving  power  of  faith  alone.  Christian  liberty,  therefore,  ought  not  to  be 
fettered  by  any  statutes  and  arbitrary  vows  like  those  which  required  fast- 
ings, donations,  pilgrimages,  and  monasticism.  This  declaration  he  said  might 
be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  recantation  which  had  been  demanded  of  him. 
And  yet,  at  an  interview  with  Miltitz  at  Lichtenburg  (Oct.  12,  1520),  Luther 
once  more  allowed  himself  to  imagine  that  a  reconciliation  was  possible,  (£)  and 
that  he  might  lay  a  foundation  for  it,  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  Christian  Free- 
dom, in  the  spirit  of  the  old  mystics,  exalted  above  the  pending  controversy, 
but  with  the  whole  reformation  in  his  heart,  (c)  A  Christian  man  was  repre- 
sented as  a  free  lord  of  all  things  by  a  faith  which  commits  his  soul  to  Christ, 
and  as  a  king  and  priest,  subject  to  no  law  and  dependent  upon  nothing  ex- 
ternal. And  yet  this  Christian  man  was  a  servant  of  all  things,  since  from  a 
regard  to  the  divine  will  he  endeavored  to  be  useful  to  all  around  him. 
From  kindness  of  heart,  and  not  as  a  matter  necessary  to  piety  or  salvation, 
he  might  even  comply  with  the  innumerable  mandates  of  the  pope,  just  as 
Mary  conformed  to  the  custom  of  purification,  as  Paul  circumcised  Timothy, 
and  as  Christ  paid  tribute.  Such  was  the  discourse  which  Luther  sent  to  Leo 
X.,  accompanied  with  a  letter  (d)  full  of  expressions  of  personal  regard,  but 
with  sentiments  of  a  lofty  self-respect.  He  at  the  same  time  exhorted  Leo, 
as  St.  Bernard  once  did  his  Eugenius,  to  remember  that  he  was  as  a  lamb  in 
the  midst  of  wolves,  or  as  Daniel  sitting  among  the  lions,  and  to  avoid  the 
catastrophe  which  could  not  much  longer  be  delayed,  by  a  reformation  of  his 
infected  court  and  of  the  general  Church.  The  noble  Medici  was  delighted 
with  the  fine  talents  displayed  by  brother  Martin,  but  was  disposed  to  regard 
the  whole  controversy  as  a  mere  quarrel  among  the  monks,  (e) 

§  316.     The  Fire  Signal. 

The  opinion,  however,  prevailed  at  Eome,  that  this  perilous  controversy 
could  be  annihilated  by  a  sudden  blow,  (a)  A  bull  was  issued  on  June  16, 
1520,  in  which  forty-one  propositions  taken  from  Luther's  writings  were  con- 
demned, his  works  were  ordered  to  be  burned  wherever  they  were  found, 
and  he  himself  was  excommunicated  unless  he  recanted  within  sixty  days, 
after  which  every  Christian  magistrate  was  required  to  imprison  him  and 


I)  J)6  Wette  vol.  I.  p.  496.    J.  G.  Droysen,  Eef.  Gesch.  (Zeitsch.  f.  thur.  Gesch.  1853.  H.  2.) 

c)  De  libertate  chr.  Yit  1520.  4.  (Opp.  Jen.  Th.  I.  p.  646.)   Yon  Freiheit  eines  Christenmenschen. 
Witt.  1520.  4.  (Walch  vol.  XIX.  p.  1206.) 

rf)  After  Oct.  13.  dated  back  to  Sept.  6, 1520.    Ep.  Lutheriana  ad  Leo  X.  Witt.  1520.  4.  published 
at  the  same  time  in  German.    De  Wette  vol.  I.  p.  497ss. 

e)  After  Bandelli  Gerdes,  H.  Ev.  ren.  vol.  I.  p.  205. 

a)  Literae  cujusdam  (Pirckheimer)  e  Eoma.  (Riederer,  Nachrr.  z.  K.  Gel.  u.  Buchergesch 
Mtd.  1764.  vol.  I.  p.  179ss.)    Sarpi,  H.  Cone.  Trid.  vol.  I.  p.  15s.    Pallamc.  H.  Cone.  Trid.  I,  20. 
24 


370  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1W8. 

deliver  him  at  Rome.  (5)  This  bull  was  brought  to  Germany  by  Eck  as  a 
token  of  his  victory.  The  heart  of  Luther  now  became  string  as  he  saw 
that  the  die  was  cast,  and  he  no  longer  doubted  that  the  pope  was  antichrist. 
His  works  were  burned  in  Mentz,  Cologne,  and  Louvain,  but  in  many  cities 
those  who  endeavored  to  execute  the  bull  met  with  severe  abuse,  and  in  the 
electorate  of  Saxony,  in  accordance  with  the  precedent  given  by  the  Univer- 
eity,  it  was  rejected,  (c)  Luther  published  a  pamphlet  in  opposition  to  this 
bull  of  Antichrist,  renewed  his  appeal  from  the  pope  as  from  an  obdurate 
heretic  to  an  independent  Christian  council,  (d)  and  on  the  10th  Dec.,  1520, 
at  the  head  of  a  procession  of  students,  he  went  out  of  the  city  by  the 
Elster-gate,  and  threw  the  bull,  together  with  the  book  of  the  canon  law. 
into  the  flames.  At  the  same  time  he  offered  op  thanks  for  the  burning  of 
his  own  writings,  and  declared  his  present  act  the  fire-signal  of  his  irrevoca- 
ble renunciation  of  the  papacy.  Other  books  of  his  opponents  were  also 
committed  to  the  same  flames  by  other  hands,  (i) 

§  817.     Political  delations  until  1521. 

In  the  legal  condition  in  which  the  German  empire  then  was,  common 
measures  either  for  good  or  for  evil  were  equally  difficult.  The  chivalrous 
emperor  Maximilian,  that  he  might  effect  a  reformation,  had  at  one  time 
seriously  entertained  the  strange  idea  of  becoming  a  pope  himself,  (a)  It 
was  not  therefore  consistent  for  him  to  attempt  any  thing  rashly  against  one 
who  was  contending  against  Roman  abuses.  After  his  death  (Jan.  12th, 
1519),  nothing  of  a  violent  nature  could  bo  undertaken  against  Luther  while 
the  elector  of  Saxony  was  the  imperial  regent  in  Lower  Germany.  Charles 
I.  and  Francis  I.  were  candidates  for  the  German  crown.  The  influence  of 
the  pope  was  secretly  opposed  to  France,  and  as  long  as  ho  had  hope  of  suc- 
cess he  openly  protested  against  Spain.  Frederic  the  Wise  declined  accept- 
ing the  crown  when  it  was  offered  to  him,  on  the  ground  that  the  power  of 
his  house  was  insufficient  to  maintain  it.  It  was  principally  through  his 
influence  that  Charles  was  elected.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.,  on  his  way  to 
his  first  Diet  at  "Worms,  was  saluted  with  splendid  promises  if  he  would  in 
the  spirit  of  the  German  people  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  movement 
for  the  establishment  of  a  national  Church.  His  mind,  however,  was  now 
occupied  with  preparations  to  contend  with  Francis  I.  for  the  sovereignty  of 
Italy.  The  natural  policy  of  the  pope  with  respect  to  this  contest  was  openly 
to  attach  himself  to  the  party  of  him  who  might  for  the  time  be  victorious, 
and  yet  secretly  to  support  the  vanquished.  The  conduct  of  the  emperor 
with  regard  to  Luther  depended  very  much  upon  his  interest  and  policy  in 
this  struggle.  Just  as  he  was  about  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  pope,  whose 
assistance  he  needed  in  Spain,  he  was  compelled  to  pay  deference  to  the  feel- 


&)  Exsnrge  Domine  :  Bullarum  ampl.  Col.  ed.  Coqud,  P.  IIL  voL  IIL  p.  487ss.    With 
A-nm.  in  Walch  vol.  XV.  p.  IGOlss. 

c)  Riedtrer,  Gesch.  der  durch  Public,  d.  Bulie  gegen  Loth,  erregtcn  unruhen.  Altd.  u.  Numb 
776.4 

d)  Walch  vol.  XV.  p.  178233.  1909ss.        «)  76.  p.  19258S. 

a)  Sal.  Cyprian,  de  Max.  I.  Pontiflcatum  M.  affcctante.  (Dse.  varii.  »rg.  Cob.  1755.  4.) 


CHAP.  I.    REFORMATION.    §  818.  DIET  AT  WORMS.  371 

ings  of  Frederic  the  "Wise,  who  continually  demanded  that  Luther  should 
be  tried  before  an  impartial  tribunal.  Hence  even  a  second  bull  of  excom- 
munication issued  against  Luther  (Jan.  3d,  1521),  the  object  of  which  was  to 
deprive  him  and  his  followers,  reproachfully  called  Lutherans,  of  all  the 
privileges  of  men  and  Christians,  produced  no  effect  whatever,  (5)  Spalati- 
nus,  the  learned  and  sincere  friend  of  the  elector  as  well  as  of  Luther,  (c)  at 
the  request  of  his  master  made  every  effort  to  moderate  the  rapidity  of  Lu- 
ther's course.  The  attempt,  however,  was  without  success,  and  the  reformer 
only  asked  that  his  sovereign  would  allow  him  to  proceed  at  his  own  peril, 
as  he  had  no  fear  that  the  power  of  God  would  be  impeded. 

§  318.     The  Ditt  at  Worms,  1521. 

I.  Ada  I/uth«ri  in  comitiis  Wormat  ed,  PoUicarius,  Vit  1543.  (Opp.  J«n.  vol.  II.  p.  436s.) 
Walch  voL  XV.  p.  2052ss.  vol.  XXII.  p.  2026s.    Forstemann,  new  Urkundenb.  vol.  I.  p.  27ss. 
Spalatin,  Ann.  p.  38ss.    Sleidan.  1.  III.  p.  Slss.— Cochlaeus  (Col.  1568.)  p.  55ss,    Parody :  Passio 
Martini  Luth.  secund.  Marcellum.  (Gerdesii  Monam.  vol.  II.  N.  5.) 

II.  Boye,  L.  z.  Worms.  Hal.  (1817.)  1S24.  Zimmer,  L.  z.  W.  Heidelb.  182L— Nonweiler,  Wieder- 
«rinn.  an  L.  u.  d.  Eef.  Mainz.  1821. 

The  legate  Aleander  demanded  of  the  states  of  the  empire  at  Worms, 
that  -in  order  to  carry  out  effectually  the  papal  excommunication,  Luther 
should  be  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire.  The  demand,  however,  that 
he  should  be  condemned  without  a-  hearing,  was  regarded  as  inconsistent 
with  German  usage.  The  states  made  a  distinction  between  the  opinions 
which  he  entertained  respecting  the  constitution  of  the  Church  and  those 
which  were  opposed  to  the  faith  of  their  ancestors.  "With  regard  to  the 
former,  they  were  disposed  to  deal  very  leniently  with  him  even  if  he  should 
refuse  to  retract  what  lie  had  published,  but  with  regard  to  the  latter  they 
were  willing  to  take  his  case  into  consideration,  (a)  On  receiving  a  citation 
and  a  pledge  of  safe  conduct  from  the  emperor,  Luther  came  to  Worms, 
though  he  regarded  his  situation  much  like  that  of  Huss  at  Constance.  On 
the  17th  and  18th  of  April  he  stood  before  the  emperor  and  the  imperial 
diet.  At  the  close  of  a  discreet  defence,  in  which  he  showed  why  he  could 
not  retract  what  he  had  written,  either  with  respect  to  the  word  of  God  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  against  the  ungodly  conduct  of  the  pope,  or  yet 
against  the  wicked  advocates  of  the  pope,  his  last  words  were,  u  Unless  I  am 
refuted  and  convinced  by  proofs  from  the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  by  plain,  lucid, 
and  evident  argument,  I  yield  my  faith  neither  to  the  pope  nor  to  the  coun- 
cils alone,  for  it  is  clear  as  the  day  that  they  have  frequently  erred  and  con- 
tradicted each  other.  Until  so  convinced,  I  can  and  will  retract  nothing,  for 
it  is  neither  safe  nor  expedient  to  act  against  conscience.  Here  I  stand,  I 
can  do  nothing  else ;  God  help  me !  Amen."  In  subsequent  communica- 
tions with  a  committee  of  the  princes,  when  it  was  proposed  that  he  should 
intrust  his  cause  to  the  diet  or  to  a  council,  he  remained  constant  to  hia 


Z>)  Raynald.  ad  a.  1521.  N.  Iss.     Walch  vol.  XV.  p.  2030. 

c)  Spal.  hist  Nachlass.  u.  Briefe,  ed.  begun  by  Neudecktr  and  L.  Preller,  1.  vol.  Jena.  1351. 
(§  311.  n.  &.)    Wagner,  G.  Spal.  Altenb.  1830.    Perthel,  G,  Sp,  in  .emend,  sacrr.  merita,  Jena.  1S40. 
a)  Eanke  vol.  I.  p.  876s. 


372  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

avowal  that  he  could  yield  to  nothing  but  the  Holy  Scriptures  or  to  reason- 
able argument,  and  since  the  cause  in  which  he  was  engaged  was  not  his 
own,  but  the  cause  of  God,  he  could  not  commit  it  to  the  hands  even  of  his 
dearest  friends.  (&)  The  promise  of  the  emperor  to  afford  him  a  safe  conduct 
was  sacredly  fulfilled.  On  the  26th  of  May,  when  many  of  the  states  had 
left  the  diet,  sentence  was  pronounced  against  Luther  and  all  his  adherents, 
and  permission  was  given  to  any  one  to  assault  their  persons  and  seize  upon 
their  property,  (e)  But  Luther's  heroic  confession  had  won  the  hearts  of  the 
people  more  than  ever  to  himself,  and  the  very  members  of  the  diet  who 
condemned  him  in  compliance  with  the  requirements  of  law,  presented  to 
the  same  assembly  101  articles  of  complaint  against  the  Roman  See.  (</) 

§  819.     The  Wartburg,  and  the  Tumult  at  Wittenberg,  1521, 1522. 

D«  WetU  vol.  L  1-187.— A*r*iU*i  Antonil  Ds.  de  Pttmo  Lntb.  Hal.  1698.  and  often.     C. 
Kdhbr,  Lath.  a.  d.  Wartburg.  ElMD.  179S.  4. 

On  the  4th  of  May,  while  Luther  was  on  his  journey  homewards,  he  was 
seized  by  a  company  of  horsemen,  who,  according  to  a  previous  understand- 
ing with  the  elector,  conveyed  him  to  the  fortress  of  the  Wartburg.  Here 
he  lived  under  the  name  of  Yonker  George,  often  sick,  depressed  in  spirits, 
and  lamented  in  all  parts  of  Germany  as  lost.  The  bold  publications,  how- 
ever, which  he  sent  forth  from  his  retreat  until  after  the  middle  of  summer, 
against  the  necessity  of  auricular  confession,  masses  for  the  dead,  monastic 
vows,  and  the  new  idol  of  the  archbishop  of  Mentz,  gave  unequivocal  evi- 
dence that  Luther  was  still  alive.  The  Elector  Albert  of  Mentz  humbled 
himself  under  the  severe  reproof  administered  by  the  condemned  monk,  (a) 
Meanwhile,  the  brethren  of  his  order  connected  with  a  monaster^  in  Witten- 
berg, shut  up  their  convent  and  abolished  the  practice  of  private  masses.  A 
few  of  the  priests  renounced  celibacy  and  were  married.  (Z>)  On  Christmas 
day  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered  by  Carhtadt  in  both  kinds  and  in 
the  German  language.  These  proceedings  were  approved  by  Luther  and 
tolerated  by  the  elector,  who  only  required  that  no  innovations  should  be 
introduced  until  all  had  become  united  and  satisfied  with  respect  to  them  by 
means  of  written  and  oral  discussions  and  sermons,  (c)  But  when  Carlstadt 
proceeded  so  far  as  to  disturb  public  worship,  demolish  the  images  of  the 
saints,  and  commit  other  wild  acts  of  violence,  and  when  prophets  came 
from  Zwickau  with  menaces  according  to  their  caprice  against  Church,  and 
State,  and  Science,  Luther  could  no  longer  be  restrained  by  his  friends.  In 
the  beginning  of  March,  1522,  he  left  the  Wartburg,  amused  himself  in  the 
course  of  his  journey  with  his  knightly  incognito,  (d)  and  in  the  sublime 

Z>)  nier.  Vehut,  u.  a.  Verhandl.  m.  Luther,  ed.  bj  Seidemann.  (Zeitsch.  t  hist  Th.  lS5i.  n.  1.) 

c)  Goldatt,  Constt  Imp.  voL  IL  p.  148ss.     Walch  vol.  XV.  p.  2264s.    Dated  back  to  May  S. 

d)  Walch  voL  XV.  p.  2068. 

a)  De  Wette  voL  II.  p.  112ss.     Walch  vol.  XIX.  p.  65Css. 

1)  J.  O.  Walter,  prirna  gloria  Clerogamlae  rcatitutae  Lutbero  vindicate  Neost  ad.  O.  1767.  4 
Veesenmeyer  in  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S31.  II.  \ 

c)  Corp.  Rtf.  vol.  L  p.  WO. 

d)  Helv.  Alman.  1808.  p.  119ss.    Bernet,  Jo.  Kessler,  gcnannt  Ahenarlus.  S.  OalL  1326.  p.  27s* 


CHAP.  L    EEFOEMATION.    §  820.  MEL.  LOCI.    LUTH.  BIBLE.  373 

calmness  of  one  who  felt  that  he  was  acting  by  divine  direction,  (<?)  TV  rote  an 
heroic  letter  to  the  elector  from  Borne.  He  then  preached  daily  during  a 
whole  week  in  Wittenberg,  in  behalf  of  the  supreme  power  and  liberty  of 
the  spirit,  in  those  immortal  words  of  Christian  mildness  by  which  he  won 
the  hearts  of  his  hearers  in  favor  of  a  peaceable  development  of  a  reforma- 
tion founded  upon  voluntary  conviction  and  the  evident  letter  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  (/) 

§  320.    System  of  Doctrines  and  the  Scriptures. 

The  scientific  representation  of  the  religious  principles  of  the  Reformation 
was  furnished  by  Melancthon  in  his  Theology,  (a)  a  work  which  grew  out  of  his 
Lectures  upon  the  Epistle  to  the  Eomans.  It  had  its  origin  in  that  deep  con- 
sciousness of  human  impotence  on  account  of  sin,  which  is  exhibited  in  the 
Augustinian  doctrine  of  original  sin.  For  this  sin  of  the  human  race  Christ  has 
made  complete  satisfaction  to  divine  justice.  Hence  salvation  is  to  be  found  in 
faith  alone,  *'.  e.  in  the  surrender  of  the  whole  spirit  to  Christ,  and  the  ordi- 
nances of  the  Church  and  all  kinds  of  works  are  profitable  only  so  far  as  they 
proceed  from  faith,  ,  If  this  grand  but  simple  system  of  faith  was  sufficient 
to  vindicate  the  reformation  in  the  opinion  of  literary  men,  the  opposition 
of  the  Koman  Church  to  the  word  of  God  in  the  Scriptures  was  its  most  suc- 
cessful plea  in  the  minds  of  the  common  people.  In  his  solitude  in  the 
"Wartburg,  Luther  had  translated  the  New  Testament  principally  from  the 
original  text  into  the  German  language.  After  revising  it  in  company  with 
Melancthon,  he  published  this  work  in  1522.  A  translation  of  each  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  afterwards  appeared,  in  composing  which  he 
was  assisted  by  the  counsel  of  his  friends.  It  displays  a  strong  prejudice  in 
favor  of  that  which  had  before  been  regarded  as  the  true  rendering,  but  it  is 
no  less  distinguished  for  its  extreme  conscientiousness.  They  thus  succeeded, 
in  1534,  in  printing  the  whole  Sacred  Scriptures,  a  master-piece  of  the  Ger- 
man language  and  heart,  and  forming  the  basis  on  which  were  established 
the  Scriptural  phraseology  and  spirit  of  the  people  for  many  generations.  (7>) 

§  321.     The  Diet  at  Nuremberg,  1522,  1523. 

WalcJi  vol.  XV.  p.  2504ss.    Jiaynald.  ad  ann.  1522. 

The  emperor  was  busy  in  Spain  with  his  war  against  France,  his  brother, 
the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  was  threatened  by  the  Turks,  and  at  the  head  of 
the  empire  stood  a  regency  chosen  by  the  states.  The  execution  of  the  edict, 
of  "Worms  was  therefore  left  to  the  will  of  each  state.  Leo  was  succeeded 
by  Hadrian  VL,  an  honest  native  of  the  Netherlands,  who  had  been  edu- 
cated in  the  scholastic  manner,  and  was  as  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  ne- 

e)  De  Wette  vol.  IL  p.  ISTss. 

/)  Walch  vol.  XX.  p.  6ss. 

a)  Loci  communes  rerum  theoL  Wit.  1521.  and  often.  Strobel,  Vrs.  e.  Llteraturgesch.  von  Mel. 
Loci.  Altd.  u.  Nurnb.  (1776.)  1782. 

6)  Last  edit,  with  Luther's  corrections,  1546.— Luth.  Sendbr.  v.  Dollmetschen  der  n.  8.  ( Walch 
vol.  XXI.  p.  816ss.)  Matlmius,  13th  Fred.— Panzer,  Gesch.  d.  Bibelubers.  L.  Nurnb.  (1788.)  1791. 
Marheineke,  d.  rel.  Worth  d.  Bibelubers.  L.  Brl.  1815.  JT.  Schott,  Gesch.  d.  Bibelubers.  L.  Lps. 
1835.  G.  W.  Ilopf,  Wurdlg.  d.  Luth.  Bibelverdeutsch.  Nurnb.  1817. 


374  MODERN  cnuEcn  HISTORY.  PER.  v.  A.  D.  1517-1649. 

cessity  of  a  reformation  as  of  the  heretical  nature  of  Luther's  doctrines,  (a) 
Hence  his  legate  Chieregati,  at  the  Diet  of  Nuremberg,  on  the  one  hand  do 
manded  that  the  edict  against  Luther  should  he  executed  as  though  it  were 
against  a  second  Mohammed,  and  suggested  that  the  insurrection  now 
directed  against  the  spiritual,  would  soon  be  turned  against  the  civil  rulers ; 
and  on  the  other,  acknowledged  the  necessity  of  a  reformation,  and  promised 
that  it  shopld  be  effected  in  a  lawful  manner  in  the  head  and  members  of  the 
Church.  The  estates  fastened  upon  the  second  part  of  this  communica- 
tion, and  hastened  to  bring  forward  a  hundred  articles  of  complaint  against 
the  papal  see.  (&)  It  was  owing  to  these  abuses  they  declared  that  Luther 
possessed  such  power,  and  a  general  rebellion  would  therefore  be  the  probable 
consequence  of  any  violent  measures  for  his  destruction .  They  therefore  urged 
that  a  free  Christian  council  for  the  removal  of  these  grievances  should  be 
held  within  a  year  in  some  German  city,  and  argued  that  until  it  might  be 
assembled  nothing  should  be  taught  but  the  pure  gospel,  with  mildness  and 
according  to  the  explanation  generally  received  by  the  Church.  Hadrian 
had  nothing  to  offer  at  this  turn  of  affairs  except  lamentations,  yet  he  was 
really  zealous  for  a  reformation,  and  actually  commenced  it  in  his  own  court. 
But  a  pope  who  was  obliged  to  regard  the  rights  and  wrongs  on  which  his 
own  power  was  based,  was  necessarily  more  inefficient  in  this  matter  than  a 
professor  who  had  nothing  to  think  of  but  eternal  truth  and  public  opinion. 

§  322.    Introduction  of  the  Reformation. 

The  divine  power  which  attended  Luther  received  the  co-operation  of  the 
Humanists  with  all  their  worldly  wisdom,  and  the  Reformation  was  looked 
upon  as  a  struggle  for  the  liberty  of  Germany.  Its  opponents  were  ridiculed 
as  blockheads  or  threatened  as  traitors.  Even  the  imitative  arts  came  to  the 
assistance  of  the  struggling  Church,  (a)  The  Wittenberg  Nightingale  also 
now  announced  the  opening  of  spring,  (&)  and  all  the  liberal-minded  youth 
gave  in  their  adherence  to  the  new  party,  which,  however,  professed  to  be 
merely  returning  to  the  God  of  ancient  times,  (c)  From  the  success  of  the 
movement  the  princes  expected  the  forfeited  property  of  the  Church,  the 
priests  expected  wives,  and  the  people  freedom,  (d)  It  was,  however,  the 
pure  enthusiasm  of  Luther  and  the  introduction  of  a  new  form  of  the  Chris- 
tian spirit,  which  drew  these  favorable  influences  into  his  triumphal  march, 

o)  J.  F.  Euddeits,  do  Pontiff  R.  qui  ret  frustra  tentarunt  Jen.  1718.  4.  p.  29s?.  C.  Burmann, 
Hadr.  VI.  Traj.  ad  Rh.  1727.  4.  J.  T.  L.  Danz,  Analects  criL  de  Adr.  VI.  Jen.  1818s.  2  P.  4. 

6)  Die  100  Beschwerden  d.  Deutachen  Nation,  m.  Anm,  v.  G.  M.  Weber,  Frkf.  1829.  cornp. 
JKanke  vol.  II.  p.  40ss. 

a)  Walch  vol.  XIV.  p.  21098.  voL  XV.  p.  930ss.  German  Litany :  Watch  vol.  XV.  p.  2175ss. 
Caricatures:  Sleid.l.  XVL  p.  261.  PaUavic.  I,  25.  Spieker,  p.  657.  Carnival  plays:  De  Wetl« 
vol.  I.  p.  561.  Mute  comedy :  Majus,  Vita  ReuchL  Durl.  1687.  p.  546s.  Papal  ass  and  Munich  calf: 
Walch  voL  XIX.  p.  2403.  J.  Voifft,  Pasquille,  Spottlieder,  u.  SchmSbsehr.  a.  d.  1.  Ilalfte  d. 
16.  Jahrh.  (Raumer's  hist.  Taschenbucb,  1838.  p.  820ss.)  Piper,  MythoL  d.  chr.  Kunst  vol.  L 
p.  816s. 

6)  Hans  SacJis :  Wittenb.  Nachtigall.  1523.  Dispntacion  zw.  e.  Chorherrn  u.  e.  Schuh«acher 
*524.  4.—K  J.  Kimmel,  de  J.  Sachsio,  quantum  ad  rempubl.  chriat  valuerit  restaurandam.  Gel 
1837. 

c)  Vom  alten  n.  nuen  Gott,  Glauben  u.  Ler.  1521.  4. 

d)  J.  Marx,  Ursachen  d.  schnellen  Yerbreit.  d.  Rcf.  Mainz.  1834, 


CHAP.  I.    EEFOEMATION.    §  322.  SAXONY.    HESSE.  375 

and  which  was  alone  able  to  shake  the  yet  colossal  power  of  Catholicism, 
withont  exhausting  in  the  struggle  the  strength  to  form  a  new  ecclesiastical 
establishment.  The  introduction  of  the  Eeformation  in  particular  localities 
generally  took  place  in  the  following  manner :  some  individuals  in  the  con- 
gregation, by  means  of  Luther's  writings,  were  led  to  perceive  the  inconsis- 
tency of  the  existing  state  of  the  Church  with  genuine  Christianity ;  then 
some  preacher,  probably  an  Augustinian,  possibly  a  Franciscan  monk  of  the 
same  views,  would  draw  the  multitude  after  him  ;  then  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass  would  be  discontinued  in  spite  of  much  opposition  from  the  spiritual  or 
the  secular  authorities,  and  finally,  divine  worship  in  the  language  of  the 
people  would  be  commenced,  with  a  strange  confusion,  at  first,  of  various 
usages.  The  people  were  seized  with  a  horror  of  the  papacy,  and  in  almost 
every  place  where  the  popular  will  prevailed,  as  in  the  imperial  cities,  the 
Reformation  was  triumphant.  Instead  of  guiding  these  great  popular  move- 
ments, the  princes  were  rather  borne  along  by  them.  Frederic  the  Wise  died 
(May  5,  1525)  trusting  to  the  grace  of  God  through  the  righteousness  of 
Christ.  His  brother  and  successor,  John  the  Constant,  a  mild  and  sincere 
ruler,  was  devoted  with  all  his  heart  both  to  the  cause  and  to  the  person  of 
Luther.  Philip,  the  youthful  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  after  the  Diet  of  Worms, 
joined  the  party  of  the  Eeformation,  became  a  personal  friend  of  Melanc- 
thon,  and  declared  (1525)  that  he  would  rather  part  with  his  lands  and  sub- 
jects than  to  abandon  the  word  of  God.  As  a  leader  of  his  party  he  was 
Crafty  but  at  the  same  time  upright,  fond  of  novelties,  a  pious  Christian,  and 
a  firm  friend  of  the  Bible,  but  either  independent  of  the  theologians,  or  with 
a  singular  scrupulosity  bringing  them  to  his  terms,  full  of  confidence  not  only 
in  divine  aid,  but  in  the  worldly  means  by  which  a  spiritual  revolution  was 
to  be  effected,  intelligent,  and  in  his  best  days  powerful,  (e)  In  Prussia, 
where  the  German  order  was  already  despised,  the  gospel  entered  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances.  George  of  Polentz,  Bishop  of  Samland,  hav- 
ing conducted  himself  at  an  earlier  period  of  life  as  became  a  pious  priest  of 
noble  blood,  now  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  reforming  party,  and  on 
Christmas  day,  1523,  in  the  cathedral  at  Konigsberg,  proclaimed  with  great 
joy  that  the  Saviour  had  been  once  more  born  for  his.  people.  The  Grand 
Master,  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  gave  to  all  princes  and  bishops  the  example 
of  a  successful  secession  from  the  Church  and  the  empire,  by  receiving  the 
hereditary  dukedom  of  Prussia  as  a  fief  from  the  Polish  crown  (1525).  (/)  In 
the  South,  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria,  in  consequence  of  the  spirit  which  prevailed 
in  their  university  at  Ingolstadt,  and  the  favor  of  the  pope,  enjoyed  nearly  all 
the  political  advantages  of  the  Eeformation,  and  formed  a  wall  of  defence 
for  the  old  faith,  (g)  In  the  North,  George,  Duke  of  Saxony,  was  personally 

<0  Gli.  0.  Rommel,  Philipp.  d.  Grossm.  Giesscn.  1S30.  8  vols.  Neue  Beitrr.  i.  Gesch.  Phil.  ed.  by 
Duller,  Darmst  1842.  W.  Mimscher,  Gesch.  d.  hess.  ref.  K.  Cass.  1850.  F.  W.  ITassenkamp,  hess. 
KGesch.  im  Zeita.  d.  Eef.  Marb.  1852.  vol.  I.  Comp.  Theol.  Brio.fwechsel  zw.  Phil.  v.  H.  u.  Georg  v. 
Sachsen.  (Zeitseh.  f.  hist.  Th.  1849.  II.  2.) 

/)  Condones  sncrae  G.  Polentis,  ed.  A.  R.  Gebser,  Eegiom.  1843.  4.  J.  Voigt,  Briefw.  d.  be» 
ruhmt.  Gelehrten  m.  Albrecht  v.  Pr.  KSnigsb.  1841.— Rhesa,  de  prirais  sacror.  reformatoribus  in 
Prussia.  Eegiom.  2  P.  1825  et  182T.  A.  Lambeck,  Gesch.  d.  Eef.  in  Westpr.  Thorn.  1850. 

17)  V.  A.  Winter,  Gesch.  d.  ev.  Lehre  in  u.  durch  Baiern.  Munch.  1809s.  2  vols. 


376  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

anxious  for  a  reformation,  but  one  which  should  be  founded  upon  old  catho- 
lic grounds,  and  conducted  by  the  legitimate  authorities,  and  not  by  a  clois- 
tered monk,  (h)  The  complete  accomplishment  of  the  Reformation  some- 
times occasioned  much  inconvenience  to  those  who  adhered  to  the  ancient 
Church,  and  such  as  resided  in  convents  especially  were  driven  forth  upon 
the  wide  world ;  but  in  general  the  Reformation  necessarily  triumphed  by 
the  power  of  an  unbiassed  conviction.  The  Catholic  Church,  on  the  other 
hand,  protected  all  its  established  possessions  not  only  by  calumnies  upon 
Luther's  doctrines,  but  by  a  rigorous  censorship,  by  restraints  upon  literary 
investigations,  imprisonment,  banishment,  and  other  violent  measures.  Some 
were  even  deprived  of  life.  Luther  praised  the  Lord  that  even  this  glory  of 
the  apostolic  Church  was  now  restored  to  the  world.  (/) 

§  323.  Commencement  of  the  Division  in  Germany,  1524-1526. 

Clement  VII.  perceived  the  impending  danger  and  made  every  exertion 
to  avert  it.  At  the  Diet  of  Nuremberg  (1524)  his  legate,  Campeggio,  de- 
clared that  the  list  of  grievances  which  had  been  presented  was  regarded  at 
Rome  as  the  work  of  a  few  evil-minded  persons,  but  the  utmost  that  he  could 
obtain  was  the  promise  that  the  edict  of  Worms  should  be  executed  as  far 
as  was  practicable  for  each  state  of  the  empire.  It  was  at  the  same  time 
decided  that  the  empire  itself  would  soon  after  at  a  diet  appointed  at  Speyor 
(Spire)  undertake  the  regulation  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  (a)  The  legate  also 
succeeded  in  forming  at  Ratisbon  an  alliance  between  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
the  Dukes  of  Bavaria  and  most  of  the  bishops  in  the  south  of  Germany,  by 
the  terms  of  which  an  apparent  reformation  was  accepted  of  under  his 
sanction,  and  they  agreed  not  only  to  abolish  some  of  the  grossest  ecclesias- 
tical abuses,  but,  by  a  decree  of  July  6th,  1524,  to  exclude  the  Wittenberg 
innovations  from  their  respective  countries,  and  sustain  each  other  in  every 
danger  which  might  result  from  such  a  course.  (&)  The  emperor  wrote  letters 
threatening  all  who  would  not  execute  the  edict  of  Worms,  and  forbade  the 
assembly  at  Speyer.  At  a  diet  held  at  Dessau  (June  26, 1525),  the  opponents 
of  the  Reformation  among  the  princes  of  Northern  Germany  also  consulted 
about  the  attitude  which  they  could  most  properly  assume  in  opposition  to 
the  Lutheran  heresy,  but  the  extent  of  the  danger  from  this  meeting  was 
much  exaggerated,  (c)  In  consequence  of  these  proceedings  the  Landgrave 
of  Hesse  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony  met  together  at  Gotha  and  pledged  them- 
selves to  assist  each  other  with  all  their  power  against  every  assault  on  ac- 
count of  the  word  of  God.  The  original  document  was  ratified  at  Torgau, 


h)  A.  M.  Schultze,  Georg  u.  Luth.  Lps.  1834.  L.  Fischer,  H.  Georg,  Luth.  u.  d.  verjagten  Lelp- 
siger.  Lpe.  1839.  Seidemann,  <L  Ret  Zelt  in  Sachsen,  1517-39.  Dresd.  1846. 

i)  Walch  vol.  XXI.  p.  89ss.  9488. 173ss.  Rabus,  Hist  d.  Heiligen,  Auserwahlten  Gottes  Zengen 
zu  diesen  unscrn  letzten  zeytten.  Strassb.  1554  verm.  1571.  2  vols.  f.  Acta  martyrum,  qni  hoc  eaec. 
in  Gallia,  Germ.  Angl.  Flandria  ct  Italia  constans  dederunt  nomen  Ev.  Gen.  1556.  Jfeckel,  die  Miir- 
tyrer  d.  ev.  K.  Numb.  1828. 

a)  Pallavic.  II,  10.     Walch,  voL  XV.  p.  266698.    Ranke,  vol.  IL  p.  Ills. 

l~)  Walch,  vol.  XV.  p.  2699SS.  Strobel,  Misc.  8L  II.  p.  109ss.  Goldast.  ConstitL  Imp.  vol.  II L 
p.  48788. 

c)  De  Wette,  voL  III.  p.  22.    Seidemann  d.  Dess.  Bundn.  (Zeitscb.  f..bist  Th.  1847.  H,  4) 


CHAP.  I.    EEFOEMATION.    §  323.  TOEGAU.    §  324.  HENEY  VIII.  377 

(March  4,  1526.)  (d)  This  confederation  was  soon  after  strengthened  by  the 
accession  of  Luneburg,  Anhalt,  Mansfeldt,  Prussia,  and  Magdeburg,  but  it 
always  remained  rather  vacillating  and  undetermined,  for  Luther  was  exceed- 
ingly displeased  that  any  one  should  set  himself  in  opposition  to  the  emperor, 
or  think  of  defending  the  almighty  word  and  providence  of  God  by  carnal 
weapons  and  worldly  policy,  (e) 

§  324.     The  King  and  the  Theologian. 

Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who  coveted  the  reputation  of  a  theologian  and 
an  ecclesiastical  knight,  either  wrote  or  caused  to  be  written  in  his  name,  a 
defence  of  the  seven  sacraments,  (a)  in  the  course  of  which  he  even  impeached 
Luther's  sincerity.  So  highly  was  this  royal  production  extolled  at  Rome 
that  it  was  declared  that  no  one  could  have  composed  it  without  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  it  was  placed  in  the  same  rank  with  the  writings 
of  St.  Augustine.  But  Luther,  conscious  that  he  was  contending  for  a  Mon- 
arch in  whose  presence  all  earthly  sovereigns  must  stand  confounded,  hurled 
his  words  of  wrath  at  the  King  of  England,  and  hesitated  not  to  call  the 
royal  disputant  a  liar  and  a  knave.  (&)  In  the  midst  of  such  a  storm  the  king 
soon  found  that  he  was  never  intended  for  a  theologian.  Some  years  after- 
wards, through  the  influence  of  the  Danish  king,  Luther  became  elated  with 
the  hope  that  Henry  might  be  induced  to  decide  in  favor  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. He  therefore  became  so  regardless  of  his  manly  dignity  while  seeking 
only  the  interest  of  his  cause,  that  he  wrote  an  humble  apology  to  the  king, 
and  offered  to  recall  his  offensive  language.  Henry  made  use  of  this  letter 
publicly  to  mortify  Luther,  who  found  it  difficult  to  regain  the  lofty  tone 
which  he  had  first  used  with  respect  to  the  scandalous  lampoon  of  the  King 
of  England,  (c) 

§  325.     The  Peasants'  War.     1524,  1525. 

I.  Literature  of  the  orig.  Documents :  IT.  v.  Aussess,  Anz.  f.  Kunde  <L  dt.  Mittelalt.  1S33.  p.  301s. 
Collections:  Walch,  vol.  XVI.  p.  5ss.  vol.  XXI.  p.  149ss.     Tentzel,  vol.  II.  p.  331ss.    Kapp,  Nachl. 
vol.  IV.  p.  561ss. 

II.  Sartoriut,  Gesch.  d.  dt  BK.  Brl.  1795.     J.  Ch.  Schmicl,  BK.   (Hall.  EncykL  vol.  VII.) 
ScJireib&r,  Bundschuh.  Freib.  1825.     Oechsle  Beitr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  BK.  ill  d.  schwab.  frank.  Granzl. 
Heilbr.  1830.     WacTusmuffi,  d.  dt  BK.  Lpz.  1834     W.  Zimmermann,  allg.  Gesch.  d.  grossen  BK. 
Stuttg.  1841-8.  3  vols.   C.  I&gel,  z.  Gesch.  u.  Beurth.  d.  dt  BK.  (Allg.  Monatech.  f.  Wiss.  u.  Lit  1852. 
July  s.) 

The  conspiracy  of  the  nobility  against  the  spiritual  and  secular  princes, 
which  had  sought  to  strengthen  and  vindicate  itself  by  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation,  had  finally  been  put  down  by  the  overthrow  of  Sickingen.  (a) 
But  the  long  cherished  discontent  of  the  oppressed  peasantry  which  had  al- 
ready broken  forth  on  different  occasions,  (Z»)  took  occasion  from  a  misunder- 

rf)  ffortleder,  VIII,  2-6.        e)  Eapp.  vol.  II.  p.  571ss.    De  Wette,  vol.  III.  p.  454ss.  52«ss. 
«)  Adsertio  VII.  Sacrr.  adv.  Luth.  Lond.  1521.    Walch,  vol.  XIX.  p.  158. 
Z>)  Contra  Henr.  Eegem  Martinus  Luth.  1522.    Walch,  vol.  XIX.  p.  295. 
c)  De  Wette,  vol.  III.  p.  23ss,    Walch,  vol.  XIX.  p.  468ss. 

«)  Rommel,  vol.  III.  Abth.  I.  p.  282ss.    RanJce,  vol.  II.  p.  Slss.  Hist  pol.  El.  1S39.  vol.  IV 
H.  9-12. 

V)  Wachsmutk,  Aufstande  u.  Kriege  d.  B.  im  MA.  (Kaumers  hist  Taschenb.  1S34.) 


378  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  Y.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

standing  of  some  sermons  on  Christian  liberty  and  the  powerful  popular 
movements  connected  with  the  Reformation,  to  rise  in  open  rebellion  against 
the  secular  and  spiritual  nobility,  that  they  might  secure  their  rights  as  Chris- 
tians and  as  men.  This  took  place,  too,  at  a  time  in  which  an  evangelical 
preacher  condemned  not  only  all  loans  upon  interest,  and  the  possession  of 
wealth,  but  the  owning  of  any  permanent  property  as  inconsistent  with  Chris- 
tianity and  the  word  of  God.  (c)  Its  first  appearance  was  in  Suabia  (1524), 
but  soon  extended  to  Franconia,  and  along  the  Ehino  to  Thuringen  (1525). 
These  peasants  in  justification  of  their  course  appealed  to  their  12  Articles,  (<Z) 
the  Scriptures,  and  the  writings  of  Dr.  Luther.  In  tho  opinion  which  Mc- 
lanctJion  expressed,  the  articles  of  tho  peasantry  were  condemned  without 
reserve,  and  the  people  were  enjoined  unconditionally  to  obey,  and  to  submit 
to  their  grievances  without  resistance,  (e)  But  Luther  had  a  heart  which 
sympathized  with  the  sufferings  of  tho  people.  In  his  exhortations  to  peace 
he  acknowledges  that  most  of  their  articles  were  reasonable,  and  admonishes 
the  princes  as  well  as  the  peasants  to  concede  whatever  was  equitable.  (/) 
But  when  the  latter  maintained  their  cause  with  fire  and  slaughter,  proceeded 
to  the  bold  design  of  completely  remodelling  the  government  of  the  empire, 
received  as  their  leaders  enthusiastic  persons  like  Thomas  Munzer,  who  in  tho 
character  of  a  prophet  with  the  sword  of  Gideon,  and  in  the  terrific  language 
of  the  Old  Testament  proclaimed  universal  equality  ;  when  they  introduced  a 
community  of  goods  and  published  abusive  libels  upon  what  they  called  the 
unspiritual  and  luxurious  carnality  of  the  people  of  "Wittenberg,  (y)  Luther's 
wrath  was  inflamed,  and  fearing  that  the  purity  of  his  cause  might  be  pol- 
luted and  confounded  with  tho  abominations  of  this  rebellion,  he  enjoined,  in 
his  pamphlet  against  the  plundering  and  murderous  peasants,  (K)  that  they 
should  be  slaughtered  like  so  many  mad  dogs.  The  advice  was  literally  fol- 
lowed by  the  princes  of  both  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  parties.  But 
even  this  did  not  prevent  tho  enemies  of  spiritual  liberty  from  ascribing  to 
it  those  abuses  which  were  committed  in  its  name,  and  the  people  .imagined 
that  they  saw  in  Luther's  exhortation  to  engage  in  this  crusade  against  the 
peasants  more  of  the  courtier  than  of  the  popular  reformer,  (i)  It  was  at 
this  time  that  an  element  which  had  sprung  up  in  Luther's  mind  after  his 
return  from  the  "Wartburg  became  decided,  and  gave  a  character  to  the  whole 
future  progress  of  the  Reformation.  In  connection  with  the  importance  of 
the  inner  life  and  of  faith,  was  introduced  the  necessity  of  an  external 
Church,  the  bold  process  of  demolition  was  modified  by  a  regard  for  history, 
and  amid  the  ruins  scattered  around  them,  the  reformers  now  commenced  the 
work  of  forming  a  new  ecclesiastical  establishment. 

c)  Strauss,  Hauptst  u.  Art  chr.  Lehr.  -wider  <L  unchr.  Wachcr  gepredigt  za  Eisenach  1523.  4. 
Strobel,  Miscell.  voL  IIL  p.  8ss.  d)  Walch,  vol.  XVI.  p.  24sa. 

e)  /&.  p.  82as.      /)  /&.  p.  53. 

0)  Foretvmann,  neues  Urkundeub.  voL  L  p.  22Sss.  Melancthon,  Hist.  Th.  Munz.  (liotfo  voL  I 
p.  203.  WalcJi,  voL  XYI.  p.  199.)— Slrolel,  Leben,  Schrr.  u.  Lehren  Tb.  M.  Numb.  1795.  Seide 
inann,  Th.  M.  Dresd.  1842. 

h)  Walch,  vol.  XYI.  p.  Olae.       i)  Ib.  p.  OOsa. 


CHAP.  L  KEFOKMATION.  §  826.  ERASMUS.  379 

§326.    Erasmus  and  Luther.     Cont.from  §  283. 

E.  LieberJcuhn,  de  Erasmi  Ingenio  et  doctr.  quid  valuerint  ad  instaur.  sacrorum.  Jen.  1836.  Cld» 
bus,  Er.  u.  Luth.  (Zeitschr.  f.  Hist.  Th.  1845.  P.  2.) 

Although  Luther  always  discovered  in  the  writings  of  Erasmus  more  of 
the  human  than  of  the  divine  element,  more  argument  for  error  than  revela- 
tion of  truth,  and  more  love  for  peace  than  for  the  cross,  with  an  humble 
admiration  of  his  talents  he  had  still  sought  (1519)  his  friendship,  (a)  In 
pleasant  but  serious  terms  Erasmus  commended  Luther's  cause  to  Frederic  the 
Wise,  for  he  could  not  but  see  its  justice  even  from  the  faults  of  its  oppo- 
nents. (5)  He  also  proposed  terms  of  compromise  in  which  the  papacy  was 
treated  simply  as  an  equal  party,  (c)  But  in  consistency  with  his  character 
he  disapproved  of  carrying  a  controversy  which  might  arouse  any  amount  of 
passion  among  the  people  so  far  as  to  threaten  a  division  in  the  Church  and 
the  empire,  and  he  trembled  for  his  literary  world  and  for  his  learned  leisure. 
But  for  these  very  reasons,  as  well  as  from  his  regard  for  higher  intellectual 
affinities,  he  maintained  silence  in  spite  of  the  solicitations  of  prelates  and 
kings,  (d)  It  was  finally  the  friends  of  the  Eeformation  themselves,  who 
sometimes  boasted  that  he  belonged  to  their  party,  and  sometimes  reproached 
him  for  what  they  called  his  cowardly  silence,  that  compelled  him  to  speak,  (e) 
In  writing,  however,  against  Luther,  he  did  not  attempt  to  defend  the  super- 
stitions of  the  mendicant  friars,  nor  the  absolute  power  of  the  pope,  but  to 
adduce  the  proof  which  Luther  had  demanded  from  the  Scriptures  of  the 
freedom  of  the  moral  will.  (/)  The  great  champion  of  intellectual  freedom, 
in  consistency  with  the  logical  requirements  of  his  system,  did  not  hesitate 
in  a  passionate  reply  to  contend  for  the  innate  bondage  of  the  will,  (g)  for  he 
disposes  of  those  Scriptural  passages  which  imply  the  freedom  of  the  will  by 
asserting  that  God  secretly  intends  the  reverse  of  what  he  expresses  in  his 
revealed  will,  and  that  the  apostles  spoke  of  such  a  freedom  only  by  way  of 
irony.  Erasmus  showed  that  such  an  assertion  was  arbitrary,  and  contrary 
to  all  scientific  rules.  (K)  But  while  Erasmus,  dreading  the  reproach  of  semi- 
pelagianism  to  which  he  was  justly  obnoxious,  concealed  and  anxiously  guarded 
his  own  views,  his  opponent  avowed  and  defended  what  he  regarded  as  infal- 
lible truth  with  bold  confidence.  Luther  therefore  appeared  to  the  literary 
men  of  his  own  party  triumphant,  and  to  the  people  the  whole  controversy 
was  completely  unintelligible.  After  this  dispute  Luther  committed  Erasmus 
to  the  judgment  of  Christ  as  an  epicurean,  an  atheist,  and  an  enemy  to  all 
religion,  (i) 

a)  2>e  Wette  vol.  I.  p.  89ss.  p.  52.  vol.  II.  p.  49s.— Vol.  I.  p.  247ss. 
V)  Spalatin,  Ann.  p.  28s.  Seckend.  Additt.  1. 1.  p.  lllss. 

c)  Erasmi  Epp.  (ed.  Cleric.)  XIII,  80.    Burigny  voL  I.  p.  386ss. 

d)  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  I.  p.  688.  692. 

e)  Erasmi  Epp.  XVIII,  23.    Corp.  Ref.  vol.  I.  p.  674—  Ulrici  ab  ffutten  Expostulatio  cum  Eras- 
mo.  Argent  1522.— De  Wette  vol.  II.  p.  489.    Unschuld.  Nachr.  1725.  p.  545. 

/)  Eraom.  de  libero  arbitrio  Diatr.  1524.    Walch  vol.  XVIII.  p.  1962. 
p)  Luth.  de  servo  arbitrio  ad  Erasm.  1525.    Walch  vol.  XVIII.  p.  2050. 
7i)  Hyperaspistes  Diatr.  adv.  servum  arb.  Luth.  P.  II.  1526s.  (Opp.  vol.  X.  p.  1249. 1835.) 
Epp.  XXI,  28. 

i)  De  Wette  vol.  III.  p.  427.  vol.  IV.  p.  497.    Walch  vol.  XXII.  p.  1612ss. 


380  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  Y.    A.  IX  1517-1648. 

§  327.    Cither's  Domestic  Life  and  his  Colleagues. 

Luther  remained  longer  than  any  of  hia  companions  with  the  prior  of  the 
deserted  monastery,  and  did  not  lay  aside  his  monk's  habit  until  some  time  in 
Dec.  1524.  His  marriage  with  Catharine  von  Bora  (June  13,  1535),  a  nun 
belonging  to  the  disbanded  Cistercian  convent  of  Nimptsch,  was  neither  the 
result  of  an  ardent  passion,  nor  a  part  of  his  policy  as  a  reformer,  but  it  be- 
longed rather  to  his  private  life,  and  in  view  of  the  disturbed  state  of  the 
times  was  entered  upon  with  some  hesitation,  but  with  little  consultation.  It 
proceeded  from  a  general  inclination,  encouraged  by  the  wishes  of  the  parents, 
for  the  happiness  of  domestic  life,  the  joys  and  the  sorrows  of  which  he  after- 
wards experienced,  (a)  Indeed  about  this  time  he  was  frequently  oppressed 
by  sickness,  and  prepared  for  a  sudden  death  by  reports  of  conspiracies 
against  his  life,  but  as  a  general  thing  he  sat  very  pleasantly  in  the  circle  of 
his  friends,  enjoying  with  a  keen  relish  not  only  the  holier  and  higher  pleasures 
of  religion,  bat  the  innocent  amusements  of  music,  song,  and  many  a  bold 
jest.  (5)  His  extreme  kindness  and  honesty  of  heart  fitted  him  to  be  the 
comforter  and  assistant  of  all  who  were  distressed.  His  moderate  circum- 
stances were  precisely  such  as  his  disposition  and  position  rendered  suitable,  (e) 
Staupitz,  who  was  in  1519  in  the  service  of  the  Cardinal  of  Salzburg,  and  in 
1522  Abbot  of  the  Benedictines  (d.  1524),  about  1521  withdrew  himself  from 
Luther,  being  alarmed  at  the  storm  raised  around  the  reformer.  Luther 
looked  upon  Staupitz  as  cold  and  pusillanimous,  but  the  man  who  first  kin- 
dled in  his  bosom  a  love  for  the  gospel  was  never  forgotten,  (d)  His  colleagues 
faithfully  assisted  him  in  his  labors :  Nicolas  of  Amsdorf  (d.  at  Eisenach, 
1565),  who  adhered  to  Luther's  words  with  Luther's  own  vehemence ;  (e) 
Justus  Jonas  (d.  at  Eissfeld,  1555),  who  had  been  a  jurist,  and  was  therefore 
appointed  provost  of  the  Castle  Church  at  Wittenberg,  an  eloquent  and 
skilful  man,  (f)  and  the  gentle  Bugenhagen  (d.  at  Wittenberg,  1558),  who,  in 
spite  of  his  Pomeranian  dialect  and  prolixity,  was  in  the  highest  degree  dig- 
nified, adapted  to  govern  a  church,  disinterested,  and  a  comforter  to  Luther 
in  evil  times,  but  entirely  under  his  influence,  (g)  These  were  all  frequently 
engaged  in  various  ways  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  beyond  the  limits  of  Saxony, 
and  were  scattered  in  the  time  of  the  German  war.  Carlstadt  for  a  long 
time  persevered  in  advocating  a  destructive  process  as  the  only  proper  method 
of  reform,  and  was  anxious  to  introduce  into  ecclesiastical  and  civil  affairs  an 


a)  De  Wctte  vol  IL  p.  646.  voL  IIL  p.  Iss.  lOss.  yet  p.  21.  Corp.  Itef.  voL  I.  p.  754s.  Walcb 
voL  XXIV.  p.  132ss.  82688.  Vewenmayer,  iL  gleichzelt  Schrr.  gegen  L.  Yerheir.  (KHist  Arch.  1825. 
voL  IIL  P.  2.)  F.  Walch,  Catfa.  v.  B.  HaL  175161  2  vols.  W.  BesU,  Gescb.  C.  v.  B.  HaL  1843.  F. 
G.  Hofmann,  K.  v.  B.  1845. 

&)  iMth.  Tischreden,  (Memoirs  of  his  friends,)  collected  by  Aurifaber.  Eisl.  1566.  f.  &  frequently 
in  zwei£  Redaction  s.  Walch  voL  XXIL  cd.  by  Forstemann  &  BindsciL  Lps.  1844-8.  [Luther's  Ta- 
ble-Talk,  Lond.  12mo.  &  with  Life  by  Surkhardt,  Lond.  8vo.]  Mictielet,  MSmoires  de  L.  6crits  pai 
lui-meme.  Par.  1835.  4  vote. 

c)  PaUavic.  IY,  14. 12.    De  Wetto  vol.  IIL  p.  495s.  voL  V.  p.  76T.    Walch  vol  XXL  p.  270.  vol 
XXIY.  p.  57s.  198SS.— Goto  do  paupertato  L.  Lub.  1719.  4     Ukert  vol.  L  p.  847ss. 

d)  §  308.  nt  &.         e)  O.  Bergner,  de  Nic.  d.  Amsd.  Magd.  171Sss.  2  Pgg.  4. 
/)  Knapp,  Narr.  de  Jnsto  Jona.  HaL  1817. 

g}  Ziete,  J.  Bugenh.  Lps.  1829.    Kraft,  de  J.  Bug.  in  res  ec-3.  meritis.  Ilmo.  183t  4 


CHAP.  I.    KEFOEMATIOK    §  328.  PROTESTATION.  381 

unconditional  adherence  to  the  obvious  and  literal  construction  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. By  such  a  course  he  necessarily  came  into  collision  with  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  approached  very  near  the  brink  of  spiritual  apostasy,  but  at  last  he 
found  peace  and  moderation  for  his  agitated  spirit  in  Switzerland  (d.  at  Basle, 
1541).  (7i)  "With  the  jurists  also  Luther  had  some  misunderstanding  for  a 
while,  on  account  of  his  burning  of  the  canon  law.  But  as  he  could  not  pre- 
vent others  from  studying  it,  and  finally  commenced  the  study  of  it  himself,  (i) 
we  find  that  even  at  "Worms  Dr.  Scfairf  came  forward  as  his  faithful  advo- 
cate. 

§  328.     Religious  Liberty  and  the  Protestation. 

The  emperor  finally  succeeded  in  destroying  the  French  army  near  Pavia, 
and  in  taking  their  king  a  prisoner.  The  latter  at  the  peace  of  Madrid  (Jan.  14, 
1526)  purchased  his  liberty,  though  on  difficult  terms,  which  he  never  intended 
to  fulfil.  Clement  VII.  soon  after  absolved  him  from  his  oath,  and  became  the 
prime  mover  of  a  confederacy  against  the  exorbitant  power  of  the  emperor. 
This,  made  the  emperor  willing  to  suspend  the  execution  of  the  edict  of 
"Worms,  but  his  brother  in  Germany  was  reluctant  at  such  a  time  to  embitter 
the  feelings  of  the  members  of  the  Catholic  league  by  such  a  step,  and  ac- 
cordingly the  diet  at  Speyer  (Aug.,  1526)  was  unanimous  in  the  decree,  that 
until  the  meeting  qf  a  general  council,  every  state  should  act  with  respect  to 
the  edict  of  "Worms  as  it  might  venture  to  answer  to  God  and  his  imperial 
majesty,  (a)  The  vile  notification  by  Otho  von  Pack,  that  the  Catholic  princes 
had  combined  together  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Protestant  powers  (1528), 
was  the  occasion  not  only  of  bringing  out  the  warlike  spirit  of  Hesse  and  of 
Electoral  Saxony,  but  of  showing  how  far  the  peace  of  Germany  itself  was 
endangered  by  the  controversies  with  respect  to  religion.  (5)  The  army  of 
the  emperor,  urged  on  by  the  zeal  of  the  Lutheran  foot  soldiers,  stormed  and 
plundered  the  city  of  Rome  (May  6,  1527).  After  many  vicissitudes  in  the 
fortune  of  the  war,  the  sovereignty  of  Italy  was  secured  to  Charles  in  the 
spring  of  1529,  and  the  pope  himself  acquiesced  in  the  arrangement.  Charles 
V.,  however,  was  obliged  to  pay  some  deference  to  the  feelings  of  his  Catho- 
lic subjects  in  his  hereditary  dominions.  A  Catholic  majority  was  therefore 
obtained  at  the  Diet  of  Speyer,  which  enacted  that  the  edict  of  Worms 
should  continue  to  be  enforced  in  those  states  which  had  hitherto  acknowl- 
edged its  authority,  but  that  no  innovations  should  be  required  in  the  remain- 
ing provinces,  that  none  should  be  obstructed  in  celebrating  the  mass,  and 
that  the  privileges  of  every  spiritual  estate  should  be  respected.  Against 
this  Recess  of  the  imperial  diet,  by  which  the  Reformation  would  have  been 
condemned  by  its  own  friends  to  a  fatal  stagnation,  Electoral  Saxony,  Hesse. 
Luneburg,  Anhalt,  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  fourteen  imperiaj 
cities,  presented  a  Protestation  (April  19,  1529)  and  an  appeal  (April  25) 

7t)  Fussli,  Lebensgesch.  A.  Bodenst.  v.  Karlst  Frkf.  u.  L.  1776.  M.  Gobel,  A.  B.  v.  Karlst  (Stud. 
u.  Krit  1841.  P.  1.) 

i)  De  Wette  vol.  III.  p.  433. 

a)  The  orig.  documents  in  Bucholte,  Ferd.  I.  -vol.  III.  p.  STlss.  Walch  vol.  XVL  p.  243sa 
Rarike  vol.  II.  p.  278ss. 

I)  HorUeder  vol.  I.  Book  II.    Ranke  vol.  III.  p.  29ss. 


382  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

to  the  emperor,  to  a  general  or  German  council,  and  to  all  impartial  Chris- 
tian judges,  not  only  on  the  ground  of  the  prior  and  clear  decision  at  Speyer, 
but  on  the  principle  that  in  matters  which  relate  to  the  honor  of  God  and 
the  salvation  of  souls,  the  authority  of  a  majority  was  not  to  be  regarded. 
This  was  done  not  only  in  behalf  of  themselves,  but  also  of  their  people,  and 
of  all  who  then  or  afterwards  might  believe  in  the  word  of  God.  (c) 

§  329.    Synod  of  Uombery,  1526.    Saxon  Church  Visitation,  1527-1529. 

The  Reformation  had  been  introduced  in  various  forms  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  different  places  where  it  prevailed.  The  jurisdiction  of 
the  bishops  had  been  in  fact  abolished,  and  yet  no  other  government  had 
been  substituted  for  it.  A  synod  was  therefore  convened  by  the  Landgrave 
at  Homberg,  composed  of  all  who  could  be  considered  according  to  the  old 
or  the  new  views  the  proper  representatives  of  the  Church  in  Hesse.  Monks 
and  prelates  were  silent  under  the  glowing  eloquence  of  the  exiled  Minorite, 
Lamlert  of  Avignon  (d.  1530),  and  a  synodal  constitution  based  upon  demo- 
cratic principles  was  adopted,  according  to  which  every  congregation  was 
competent  to  the  whole  duty  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  (a)  The  Elector  of 
Saxony,  on  the  urgent  solicitation  of  the  pastors  in  his  dominions  that  ho 
would  take  up  the  same  subject  for  their  churches,  appointed  ecclesiastical 
and  lay  commissioners,  who  formed  a  directory  for  divine  worship  and  popu- 
lar instruction  on  the  basis  of  Melancthon's  Book  of  Visitation,  (&)  the  first 
Confession  of  the  evangelical  faith.  This  had  the  effect  of  harmonizing  tho 
practice  of  all  the  churches,  evangelical  preachers  were  appointed  by  these 
commissioners  in  all  places,  and  arrangements  were  made  with  those  who 
possessed  the  titles  to  spiritual  endowments  by  which  these  were  abolished. 
Superintendents  wore  appointed  to  exercise  ecclesiastical  supervision,  and 
decide  cases  relating  to  marriage,  (c)  The  ignorance  of  the  people  and  of 
their  teachers  which  Luther  discovered  during  this  visitation  affected  him 
very  deeply,  and  reflecting  that  intellectual  freedom  can  be  endured  only  by  ail 
intelligent  people,  and  that  children  are  the  true  sovereigns  of  the  future,  he 
composed  (1529)  two  Catechisms,  in  which  divine  mysteries  are  presented  in 
simple  popular  language,  and  in  a  form  suitable  for  children,  (d)  The  eccle- 
siastical Constitution  which  was  the  result  of  this  Saxon  visitation,  became 
the  common  model  to  which  the  other  German  churches  in  the  country  were 
conformed. 

c)  J.  J.  MuUer,  Hist  v.  d.  ev.  Stande  ProL  u.  App.  Jena.  1705.  4.  J.A.IT.  Tittmann,  d.  Prot. 
d.  ev.  Stande  m.  hist.  Erlaut  Lps.  1S29.  A.  Jung,  Gesch.  d.  Eeichst.  zu  Sp.  1529.  (Bettor,  z.  Gesch.  d. 
Ref.  1830.  vol.  I.  Abth.  1.)  For  the  orig.  documents  there  quoted:  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  I.  p.  1067s. 

a)  Eef.  EccL  Hassiae.  (Sehminke,  Monn.  Hass.  Th.  IL  p.  598.)  Lamb.  Ep.  ad  Colon,  ed.  Draud, 
Siess.  1730.  4.— Martin,  Nachr.  v.  d.  Syn.  zn  Homb.  Cass.  1804.  Rommel  vol.  III.  Abth.  I.  p.  329ss. 
Bach,  Gesch.  d.  Kurhess.  KVerC  Marb.  1832.  J.  W.  Baum,  Fr.  Lamb.  Strasb.  1840.  P/iilipp's 
Hess.  KRe£  Ordnung,  ed.  by  K.  A.  Credner,  Giess.  1S52. 

6)  Unterricht  d.  Visitatoren  an  die  Pfarh.  (LaL  1527.)  M.  Luth.  Yorr.  Yuitt  1528, 4.  edit,  in  Latin  & 
German  by  Strobel,  Altd.  177T. 

c)  Kapp,  Nachlese.  roL  L  p.  173ss.    Rosenberg,  /.  d.  ersten  Kirchenvis.  BrsL  1754.  4. 

d)  Walch  vol.  X.  p.  2ss.    Augusti,  hist  krit  EinL  in  beide  H«npt-K»t  Elbrt  1824. 
moria  utr.  Cat  Luth,  Lps.  182888.  4  P.  4 


CHAP.  I.    EEFOEMATION.    §  830.  DIET  OF  AUGSBUEG.  383 

§  330.     The  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530. 

I.  Pro  rel.  chr.  res  gestao  in  coraitiis  Aug.  a.  1530.  (Cyprian,  Hist  p.  87ss.)    On  the  other  side: 
Bruck,  Gesch.  d.  religionshandl.  za  Augsb.  (Forstemann,  Archiv.  Hal.  1831.  vol.  I.  P.  1.)    A  report 
which  was  presented  at  Augsb.  1530,  contributed  by  Moeller.  (Stud.  a.  Krit  1850.  H.  3.  before  in 
Luth.  Werke  by  Walch  vol.  XVI.  p.  873.  912ss.  as  if  from  Spalatin,  comp.  Gieseler,  Stud.  u.  Krit. 
1851.  II.  2.     Walch  vol.  XVI.  p.  734es.    Forstemann,  Urkundenbuch  z.  Gesch.  d.  Eeichst.  zu  A.  Hal. 
1833-5.  2  vols.    Corp.  Bef.  vol.  II.  p.  50ss.— Chytraeus,  II.  d.  A.  C.  Eost.  1576.  4.  Lat.  Frcf.  157S.  4. 
and  often.     Coelestini  Hist.  Comitior.  Aug.  celebr.  Frcf.  ad  V.  (1577.)  1597.  £     Veesenmayer,  kl. 
Eeitrr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  K.  zu  A.  Numb.  1830.  16. 

II.  Cyprian,  Hist  d.  A.  C.  Goth.  (1730.)  1736.    Itotermund,  Gesch.  d.  zu  A.  iiberg.  Bekenntn. 
Hann.  1829.    M.  Facius,  Gesch.  d.  Eeichst  zn  A.  Lpz.  1830.    Fikenscher,  Gesch.  d.  Eeichst  zu  A. 
Nurnb.  1830.    C.  Pfaff,  Gesch.  d.  Eeichst  zu  A.  Stuttg.  1830.— G.  G.  Weber,  Gesch.  d.  A.  C.  Frkf. 
1783s.  2  vols. 

A  peace  had  been  concluded  by  the  victorious  Charles  V.  with  France 
and  Rome.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  1530  he  crossed  the  Alps,  resolved 
either  to  lead  back  to  the  Church  those  who  had  wandered  from  it,  or  to 
avenge  the  ignominy  heaped  upon  Christ.  At  his  request  the  protesting 
states  drew  up  a  statement  of  their  faith  and  of  the  abuses  discarded  by 
them.  This  Confession,  composed  by  Melancthon,  approved  by  Luther,  and 
signed  by  the  States,  presented  the  ultimate  points  to  which  they  could  go  in 
the  way  of  concession  for  the  sake  of  peace.  On  the  25th  of  June,  it  was 
read  in  German  by  the  Chancellor  of  Saxony  before  the  Diet  at  Augsburg, 
and  afterwards  committed  to  the  hands  of  the  emperor  in  Latin  and  German. 
As  the  object  of  this  paper  was  religious,  practical  and  political,  the  peculiar 
development  of  Protestantism  is  not  made  so  prominent  in  it  as  the  points 
in  which  that  system  agreed  with  the  ancient  Catholic  faith,  and  the  opposi- 
tion to  abuses  which  were  generally  acknowledged  by  all  intelligent  persons 
of  that  period.  A  few  of  the  prelates  avowed  themselves  ready  to  dip  their 
pens  in  their  own  blood  to  answer  it,  but  some  of  the  princes  and  lords  were 
brought  by  it  to  perceive  that  they  had  hitherto  been  incorrectly  informed 
respecting  the  new  doctrine,  and  the  Protestants  themselves  attained  by  it 
an  established  centre  for  their  own  unity.  By  the  command  of  the  emperor, 
a  Confutation  was  composed  by  Eck,  Faber,  Cochlaeus,  and  "Wimpina,  and 
read  (Aug.  3)  in  the  diet,  but  it  was  so  pitiful  an  affair  that  it  only  raised  the 
courage  of  the  Protestants.  On  the  22d  of  Sept.,  however,  when  the  States 
presented  their  Apology,  the  emperor  refused  to  receive  it,  and  had  a  decree 
passed  which  asserted  that  the  Confession  was  opposed  to  the  unquestionable 
principles  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  Melancthon,  offended  at  such  abuse, 
.once  more  revised  his  Apology,  and  published  it  even  during  the  session  of 
the  diet  as  an  appeal  to  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  as  well  as  to  subsequent 
times.  The  recess  of  the  diet,  passed  Nov.  19th,  threatened  after  a  brief  pe- 
riod of  indulgence  utterly  to  exterminate  the  new  sect.  The  protesting 
princes,  esteeming  the  favor  of  Christ  far  more  than  the  displeasure  of  the 
emperor,  after  presenting  their  Protest,  took  their  leave  of  the  city. 

§  331.    League  of  Smallcald  and  Peace  of  Nuremberg. 

The  danger  of  the  Protestants  became  evident  at  Augsburg.  The  impe- 
rial council,  to  which  was  committed  the  task  of  executing  the  recess  of  the 
diet,  next  commenced  a  legal  process  against  the  Protestant  States  for  Lav- 


384  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTOKY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

ing  confiscated  the  property  of  the  Church.  "When,  therefore,  the  divines 
of  Wittenberg  had  acknowledged  that  the  imperial  states  were  justified  as 
magistrates  in  protecting  their  subjects  from  unjust  aggressions,  (a)  these 
Protestant  powers  assembled  together  at  Smalkald  on  Christmas,  1680,  and 
formed  a  well-organized  league  in  1531,  for  mutual  defence  by  force  of  arras, 
embracing  the  princes  and  the  most  powerful  cities  of  Upper  and  Lower  Ger- 
many, with  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the  Landgrave  as  the  leaders  of  the 
confederacy,  (i)  All  those  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  imperial  govern- 
ment, among  whom  was  Bavaria  itself  on  account  of  its  displeasure  at' the 
appointment  of  Ferdinand  to  be  king  of  the  Romans,  placed  themselves 
under  the  protection  of  this  formidable  power.  As  the  Sultan  Solyman  was 
threatening  to  invade  Germany,  and  especially  Austria,  the  emperor  was 
obliged  to  purchase  internal  peace  and  efficient  aid  against  the  Turks  at  any 
price.  Even  his  confessor  advised  him  to  give  up  the  vain  fancy  of  saving 
men's  souls,  and  content  himself  with  winning  back  his  obedient  subjects.  (<•) 
A  religious  peace  was  therefore  concluded  at  Nuremberg  (July  23,  1532)  (d) 
through  the  mediation  of  the  Elector  of  Mentz  and  the  Elector  Palatine,  by 
the  terms  of  which  both  parties  agreed  to  abstain  from  mutual  hostilities 
until  the  meeting  of  a  general  council.  This  could  be  regarded  only  as  an 
acknowledgment  on  the  part  of  the  Catholics  that  they  were  yet  unprepared 
to  become  assailants,  and  on  the  part  of  the  Protestants  that  they  were  re- 
strained by  conscientious  scruples.  This  peace  embraced  only  those  who  had 
already  professed  adherence  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  The  emperor 
pledged  himself  that  the  suits  in  religious  matters  should  in  the  mean  time  be 
suspended. 

II.   ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  REFOBMED  CnuBon  UNTIL  1531. 

J.  v.  Mailer's  u.  B.  Glutz-Blotzhelm's  Gcschcb.  Bcbwelzer.  Eidgen.  (5  vols.)  cont  by  J.  J.  Ilot- 
tinger,  6.  7.  voL  till  1581.  ZOr.  1825-9. 

§  332.     Youth  and  Doctrine  of  Zwingle. 

L  Opp.  od.  Gualther,  (Tig.  645s.)  581.  4  vols.  t  M.  Schvler  et  J.  SchulUuats,  Tig.  1828-42.  8  vols. 
(1st  and  2<1  vols.  the  German,  vols.  8-3.  the  Lat  original,  and  the  former  In  a  Lat  transl.)  Ausz.  v.  L. 
Usterl  &  Vdgelin.  Zur.  1319s.  2  vols.  Selections  from  the  pract  Works  (and  translations  in  tbo 
Germ.)  v.  R.  Chritto/el,  Zur.  1848s.  8  vols.  Oecolampadii  et  Zwlnglii  Epp.  1.  IV.  Bas.  (1536.  f.) 
1592.  4.  Before  this  edition :  Osic.  Myconii  Ep.  de  Vita  et  obitu  Z.  Respecting  the  Letters  of  Z. : 
Arch,  t  KGesch.  1815.  vol.  IIL  8t  8. 

II.  (Nvuchder)  Z.  Lebensgescb.  Zur.  1776.  J.  C.  11(9*,  vie  d'U.  Z.  Par.  et  Gen.  Trans),  into 
Germ,  with  obs.  by  L.  Usteri,  Zur.  1811.  SnppL  in  Archiv.  f.  KG.  1818.  vol.  L  St  2.  II,  8.  U.  W. 
Kotermund,  Lcbcn  Z.  nx  Abriss  d.  schw.  Kef.  Brm.  1318.  J.  M.  Schuler,  Z.  Gesch.  sr.  Bildung  z. 
Reformator.  Zur.  1819.  Sal.  Jlets,  Ursprnng,  Gang.  u.  Folgen  d.  durch  Z.  in  Zur.  bewirkten  Rcf. 
Zur.  1S20.  4.  J.  J.  ffotiinger,  II.  Z.  n.  s.  Zeit.  Zur.  1843.  [Life  of  Zwingle,  transl.  from  Germ,  of  J. 
H.  Hess,  by  Lucy  Aiken,  8vo.  Lond.  1812.  In  Blackwood's  Mag.  for  1528.  and  Littell's  Rcl.  Mag. 
voL  II.  for  1S23.  MlscelL  of  Tract  Soc.  voL  8.  p.  289-820.  Life  of  U.  Z.  and  Sketch  of  Oecol.  pnbl. 
by  Pres.  B.  of  PubL  Philad.  18.  E.  Zetter  has  announced  a  work  on  the  theoL  system  of  Zwinglo.] 

Huldrich  Zwingli,  the  son  of  the  amman  of  Wildhaus  (b.  Jan.  1,  1484), 

a)  Walch  vol.  X.  p.  660ss.  comp.  656. 

1)  Walch  vol.  XVL  p.  2142SS.    ffortleder  vol.  I.  L  VIII,  Tss. 

c)  Briefe  an  K.  Karl  V.  v.  &  Bcichtr.  Mltgeth.  (from  the  Span.  Imp.  Archives,  by  O.  ffeine, 
Brl.  1848. 

d)  Watch  vol.  XVI.  p.  2182s*    Hortteder  vol.  1. 1, 10. 


CHAP.  I.    EEFOEMATION.    §  832.  ZWINGLE.  385 

became  versed  in  classical  learning,  and  received  a  liberal  theological  edu- 
cation in  the  city  of  Basle.  He  was  for  some  time  no  stranger  to  the  pleasures 
'of  the  world,  and  was  especially  skilful  in  playing  upon  the  lute,  but  he 
gradually  became  (after  1513)  deeply  interested  in  the  study  of  the  original 
text  of  the  New  Testament,  that  he  might  learn  the  will  of  God  from  the  divine 
word  itself.  After  spending  ten  years  as  the  pastor  of  a  church  in  Glarus,  he 
was  appointed  preacher  in  the  convent  of  Einsiedlin  (1516),  where  he  took 
occasion,  from  the  crowds  which  thronged  as  pilgrims  to  the  miraculous 
image  of  Mary,  to  preach  that  prayer  should  be  offered  not  to  Mary,  the  pure 
handmaid  of  the  Lord,  but  to  Christ  the  only  mediator.  In  consequence  of 
his  evangelical  preaching  he  was  invited  to  become  a  chaplain  at  Zurich, 
where  on  New  Year's  morning,  1519,  his  powers  of  popular  eloquence  were 
exerted  in  the  cathedral  itself  in  defence  of  the  reformation  both  in  Church 
and  in  common  life.  The  Swiss  Confederacy  was  in  legal  form  still  a  mem- 
ber of  the  German  empire,  and  at  that  time  the  recollection  of  those  glori- 
ous deeds  by  which  liberty  had  been  restored  to  their  mountains  was  by  no 
means  lost  in  the  hearts  of  the  people,  but  the  honesty  and  unanimity  of  the 
olden  times  had  already  become  much  impaired  by  numerous  enlistments  of 
the  people  as  mercenaries  in  the  wars  of  foreign  nations.  As  an  earnest  re- 
publican, Zwingle  was  zealously  opposed  to  the  oligarchy,  to  their  annuities 
from  foreign  princes,  and  to  their  trade  in  Christian  blood,  (a)  Conscious  of 
their  own  independence,  the  people  had  set  bounds  to  the  exorbitant  claims 
of  the  spiritual  courts  (p.  288).  But  the  idle  and  warlike  youth  fought  the 
battles  of  the  pope  for  his  money,  and  when  this  could  not  be  obtained, 
Julius  II.  paid  them  with  ecclesiastical  gifts  and  preferments.  In  the  fidelity 
of  his  Swiss  guards  the  vicar  of  Christ  found  a  security  for  his  body  against 
the  fickle  spirit  of  the  Eoman  people.  From  a  papal  nuncio  residing  at 
Zurich,  Zwingle  annually  received  fifty  florins,  with  which  he  purchased 
books.  Bernardin  Samson,  a  Franciscan  from  Milan,  opened  a  traffic  in 
indulgences  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps  (1518).  Zwingle  preached 
against  him,  but  the  Bishop  of  Constance  himself  persuaded  the  city  of 
Zurich  to  close  its  gates  against  him,  and  when  complaint  was  made  to  the 
pope  respecting  the  mischief  caused  by  the  traffic,  Leo  X.  promised  to  call 
the  trader  to  an  account.  Zwingle  was  acquainted  with  some  of  Luther's 
writings,  but  although  very  unlike  that  great  reformer  in  religious  profund- 
ity and  genius,  in  consequence  of  his  demand  that  every  thing  should  be  set 
aside  which  could  not  be  proved  from  the  Scriptures,  he  was  induced  by  the 
independent  study  of  those  Scriptures  much  more  suddenly  and  uncondition- 
ally to  break  loose  from  the  ancient  Church.  (5)  It  was  for  this  reason  also, 
that  although  nothing  was  dearer  to  him  than  truth,  many  errors  which  had 
long  been  perceived,  were  not  distinctly  condemned,  (c)  His  faith  mounted 
upward  in  bold  speculations,  though  it  always  returned  to  the  path  which  an 
intelligent  judgment  approved,  and  which  was  favorable  to  spiritual  im- 
provement. In  opposition  to  a  righteousness  by  mere  external  works,  he 

•   a)  Bullinger,  Keformationsgesch.  vol.  I.  p.  41  s.  4Ss.  51. 

b)  Proofs  in  Nuscheler  p.  ISTss.    Schuler,  p.  119.  833. 

c)  E.  g.  HoWnger,  H.  ecc.  p.  XVI.  P.  II.  p.  207. 
<    '      25 


386  MODERN  CHUBCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1  MS. 

also  saw  that  justification  was  to  be  obtained  entirely  through  the  merits  of 
Christ.  But  original  sin  was  in  his  estimation  a  mere  disease,  the  moral  will 
was  subject  only  to  Providence,  and  he  looked  upon  Hercules,  Socrates,  and 
the  Catos,  as  belonging  to  the  communion  of  the  blessed,  though  they  could 
be  saved  only  through  Christ,  (d) 

§  888.    Introduction  of  the  Reformation. 

Through  jZwinglc's  influence  the  great  Council  of  Zurich  gave  orders  that 
all  preachers  should  confine  themselves  to  what  was  contained  in  the  divine 
Scriptures,  but  maintain  silence  with  respect  to  non-essential  innovations  and 
institutions  (1520).  (a)  For  the  sake  of  those  who  were  opposed,  and  that  the 
truth  might  be  more  publicly  known,  he  determined  to  defend  in  the  muni- 
cipal hall  at  Zurich  sixty-seven  propositions  which  he  had  formed  against 
the  whole  external  polity  of  the  Catholic  Church.  When,  however,  he  pub- 
licly announced  them  (Jan.  29, 1528),  only  a  few  objections  wore  presented 
by  Fabcr  of  Constance.  (6)  In  a  second  disputation  (Oct.  26-28),  a  decision 
was  given  against  the  use  of  images  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  (c)  An 
easy  victory  was  obtained  for  the  Reformation  when  the  principle  was  once 
adopted,  that  every  thing  must  be  proved  by  the  Scriptures,  interpreted  only 
by  the  Scriptures  themselves.  Leo  Juda,  Zwingle's  colleague  in  office,  in  the 
spirit  of  the  Reformed  Church  translated  Luther's  New  Testament  into  the 
Swiss-German  dialect  (1525),  and  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original  text 
(till  1529).  Zwingle  looked  upon  every  local  church,  in  proportion  as  its 
opinions  were  based  upon  the  lloly  Scriptures,  as  completely  justified  in  con- 
tending against  the  whole  hierarchy.  The  Great  Council,  regardless  of  the 
protests  of  the  Bishop  of  Constance,  but  sustained  by  public  opinion,  intro- 
duced the  new  constitution  into  the  Church  (1524s).  The  established  church 
of  Appeneell,  beyond  the  Rhone,  resolved  that  preachers  who  taught  what 
could  not  be  proved  from  the  Sacred  Scriptures  should  be  denied  support 
and  protection,  (d)  Berthold  Holler  (d.  1586)  preached,  though  with  cau- 
tion, in  behalf  of  the  Reformation  in  Berne,  (e)  and  Manuel,  in  a  Carnival 
play,  exposed  to  public  derision  the  avarice  of  the  clergy  and  their  fear  of 
the  gospel.  (/)  Oecolampadius  (d.  Nov.  23,  1531),  the  learned  friend  of 
Erasmus,  and  in  ordinary  matters  a  timid  and  peaceable  man,  but  kept  in 
perpetual  agitation  in  such  stormy  times  for  his  advocacy  of  the  cause  of  his 
Lord,  was  the  principal  instrument  in  directing  the  minds  of  the  people  of 
Basle  into  the  path  of  the  Reformation,  although  a  knowledge  of  its  elements 
had  been  previously  acquired  from  the  general  perusal  of  Luther's  writ- 

d)  Com.  de  vera  et  falsa  reL  Tig.  1525.  Fidel  ratio  ad  Car.  Imp.  Tig.  1530.  4.  Chr.  fidci  brevli 
et  clara  exp.  ad  Eegem  chr.  (ed.  BuUinger.)  Tig.  1536.  De  providentia.  (voL  I.)— ZeUer,  de  theoL 
Bystem  Zw.  (Th.  Jahrb.  1853.  H.  Is.) 

a)  FwMli,  Beitrr.  vol.  II.  p.  287.    JButtinger  vol.  L  p.  82. 

I)  Conclusiones.  (Opp.  vol.  I.  p.  Is.)    Explanatio.  (/&.  p.  8ss.)    Acta  disput.  (vol.  II.  p. 
Buttinger  vol.  L  p.  84ss.  97ss. 

c)  Acts  in  Zwingle's  Works,  vol.  L  p.  539ss.    Buttinger  vol.  L  p.  126ss. 

d)  Klaarer's  account  in  Simler,  vol.  L  Part  IIL  p.  SOSss. 
«)  Kirchhofer,  B.  Haller  u.  d.  Ret  v.  Bern.  Zur.  182a 

/)  C.  GrUneisen,  Niclaus  Manuel,  Leben  u.  Werke.  Stuttg.  1837. 


CHAP.  L    EEFOEMATTON.     §  383.  BADEN.     BEENE.    BASLE.  387 

ings,  (g)  The  inhabitants  of  those  places  which  were  favorable  to  the  Catho- 
lic Church,  hoping  to  overcome  their  opponents  by  their  favorite  weapons, 
and  relying  upon  the  talents  and  skill  of  Dr.  Eck,  appointed  a  day  for  a  pub- 
lic disputation  at  Baden  (May,  1526).  As  Zwingle  had  reason  to  fear  for  his 
safety  should  he  venture  to  be  present  in  that  city,  Oecolampadius  was  the 
principal  opponent  of  Eck  in  this  disputation.  The  subjects  which  engaged 
their  attention  were  the  presence  of  Christ's  sacred  body  in  the  sacrament, 
the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  the  worship  of  saints,  the  use  of  images,  and  the 
doctrine  of  purgatory.  On  the  part  of  Eck  there  was  great  blustering, 
while  Oecolampadius  contended  only  by  arguments,  but  both  claimed  the 
credit  of  a  victory.  (Ji)  Berne  endeavored  to  keep  aloof  from  the  agitations 
of  the  controversy,  and  its  council  gave  orders  that  some  of  the  more  obvi- 
ous and  serious  abuses  should  be  removed,  and  that  preaching  should  be  con- 
formed "both  to  the  Scriptures  and  to  the  ancient  faith,  (i)  But  such  partial 
measures  were  by  no  means  adequate  to  the  exigencies  of  the  times.  No 
sooner  had  the  great  council  once  more  assumed  the  supreme  power,  than 
both  parties  were  invited  to  a  public  discussion,  which  was  attended  by  all 
the  leaders  of  the  Eeformation  in  the  country  (Jan.,  1528).  The  result  was 
so  decisive,  that  soon  after  a  public  decree  was  issued  by  the  council,  in  which 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  was  entirely  renounced,  and  the  idolatrous 
worship  of  Eome  was  abolished,  (la)  In  Basle,  the  Eeformation  became  vic- 
torious in  consequence  of  the  triumph  of  the  municipal  guilds  (1529).  (I) 
The  city  of  St.  Gall  embraced  the  evangelical  doctrine  (1528),  the  abbot 
fled,  and  the  friends  of  religion  became  organized  into  a  community  under 
the  protection  of  Zurich  and  Glarus.  (m)  For  in  Glarus,  where  it  was  de- 
cided after  a  severe  contest  that  every  congregation  should  choose  for  itself, 
the  majority  were  in  favor  of  the  Eeformation.  Schafffiausen,  after  consid- 
erable hesitation,  gave  in  its  adhesion  to  it  (1529),  and  in  Soleure  neither 
party  obtained  the  ascendency.  In  every  place  where  the  new  doctrines  pre- 
vailed, every  thing  opposed  to  them  was  rigorously  put  down.  The  altars 
were  destroyed  and  the  idols  were  burned.  In  the  Gray  League  alone  (the 
Grisons),  after  the  disputation  at  Ilantz  (1526),  the  Jaw  allowed  every  one  to 
take  his  choice  between  the  old  and  the  new  faith.  And  yet  when  Schlegel, 
the  abbot  of  St.  Luke,  contrived  a  treasonable  conspiracy  with  the  Castellan 
of  Musso  for  the  overthrow  of  the  heretics  of  Crire,  he  was  beheaded 
(1529).  (ri)  The  popes,  who  stood  in  need  of  Swiss  soldiers,  and  could  do 
nothing  against  the  will  of  a  republican  people,  preserved  for  a  long  time 
little  more  than  the  semblance  of  peace,  (o) 

g)  Grynaeus  et  Capita,  de  vita  et  obitu  Oec.  before  his  and  Zwingle's  Epp.— S.  Hess,  Lebens- 
gesch.  J.  Oek.  Zur.  1793.  J.  J.  Herzog,  d.  Leben  J.  Oek.  u.  d.  Eef.  zu  Basel.  Bas.  1843.  2  vols, 

li)  Sullinger  vol.  I.  p.  331ss.  Edit  of  the  Acts  of  the  Eeformers,  by  Murner,  (Lucerne.  1527.  4.) 
incorrectly  regarded  by  the  Eeformers  as  inaccurate.  i)  Bullinger  voL  I.  p.  llOss. 

k)  Ib.  vol.  I.  p.  805S8.  426ss.  Walch  vol.  XVII.  p.  2008.— G.  Fischer,  Gesch.  d.  Disp.  u.  Eef.  la 
Bern.  Bern.  1823.  Kulm,  d.  Eeformaloren  Berns.  Bern.  1828.  Eespecting  the  other  Jubilee  publi- 
cations: Stud.  u.  Krit.  1828.  P.  4.  p.  901ss.  (O.  L.  V.  Hatter,  Gesch.  d.  kircbl  Eev.  o.  prot  Eef.  d. 
Kantons  B.  u.  d.  umlieg.  Gegend.  Luc.  1836.  1)  Bullinger  vol.  II.  p.  85ss.  Slss. 

m)  Il>.  vol.  H.  p.  250ss.    SimZer  vol.  I.  p.  115ss.     Vernet,  Kessler,  (§  819.  nt.  <?.) 

ri)  After  Kampell  and  do  Porta:  L.  Truog,  Gesch.  d.  Ee£  v.  Graub.  Coire.  1819.  p.  29ss.  39.  Bid- 
linger  vol.  II.  p.  34s.  o)  E.  g.  Sullinger  voL  I.  p.  83s. 


388  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  151T-1W8. 

§  334.    Division  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy. 

The  evangelical  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  agitated  all  the  cantons  of  the 
confederacy,  but  the  rural  population  of  the  mountainous  districts  being  dis- 
pleased, under  the  influence  of  the  priests,  with  the  poli tical  demands  of  Z  wingle, 
were  especially  distinguished  for  their  adherence  to  the  ancient  faith.  Uri, 
Schwytz,  Unterwalden,  Zug,  and  Lucerne,  pledged  their  faith  to  each  other  in  a 
diet  at  Lucerne  (1624),  that  they  would  defend  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  but 
they  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  forbid  the  sale  of  indulgences,  to 
improve  the  manners  of  the  clergy,  to  limit  the  revenues  of  the  Church,  and 
to  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  (a)  In  those 
places  which  were  under  the  direct  government  of  the  whole  confederacy,  it 
was  impossible  to  avoid  the  clashing  of  parties.  The  burning  of  images,  and 
sometimes  even  of  monasteries,  was  of  course  exceedingly  painful  to  the 
Catholic  authorities,  especially  when  it  occurred  in  places  subject  to  their 
control.  They  therefore  took  an  oath,  that  every  one  who  treated  the  saints 
or  the  mass  in  a  contemptuous  manner  should  be  punished.  It  soon  became 
evident,  from  the  mannings  and  public  executions  they  inflicted,  that  their 
oath  was  no  idle  threat.  (6)  A  Christian  compact  was  now  formed  among 
the  Reformed  cities,  into  which  even  Strasbnrg  and  Constance  were  admit- 
ted. The  five  Catholic  cantons  also  formed  an  alliance  with  Ferdinand  of 
Austria  for  the  protection  of  the  faith.  An  irruption  was  made  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  Unterwalden,  to  sustain  an  insurrection  of  the  people  in  the  upper 
part  of  Berne  against  the  Reformation  which  had  been  forced  upon  them,  (c) 
Zwingle  now  demanded  war ;  the  cities  brought  into  the  field  a  powerful 
army,  and  the  five  cantons  purchased  peace  (June  24, 1529)  by  conceding : 
that  each  party  should  be  permitted  to  adopt  what  faith  it  pleased,  all  slan- 
derous speeches  should  be  punished,  and  in  every  congregation  under  the 
government  of  the  general  confederacy,  a  majority  of  votes  should  decide 
upon  religious  matters.  The  articles  of  compact  with  Austria  were  then  torn 
in  pieces,  and  with  respect  to  free  preaching,  general  promises  were  sufficient 
to  give  satisfaction,  (cl)  But  it  was  never  the  intention  of  the  Catholics  to 
fulfil  these  promises  in  the  sense  in  which  they  were  understood  by  the 
people  of  Zurich,  as  the  calumnies  alluded  to  were  nothing  but  the  expres- 
sion of  a  universal  feeling.  When  the  authors  of  these  calumnies  were  there- 
fore allowed  to  remain  unpunished,  the  cities  next  forbade  all  supplies  and 
intercourse  with  the  mountainous  districts,  (i)  To  save  themselves  from 
starvation,  the  five  cantons  now  betook  themselves  to  the  sword.  Against 
this  the  cities  were  not  prepared,  and  the  Catholic  host  fell  upon  an  advanced 
outpost  of  the  army  of  Zurich  at  Cappel  (Oct.  11, 1531).  Zwingle,  who,  during 
the  last  years  of  his  life,  had  been  threatened  in  various  ways,  was  full  of 
melancholy,  and  had  singular  presentiments  of  his  approaching  end.  With 
the  least  possible  confidence  in  man,  and  the  highest  in  God  and  in  his  cause, 
he  accompanied  the  standard  of  the  city  as  the  pastor  of  his  people.  Zurich 
lost  the  battle,  and  Zwingle  was  left  on  the  field,  surrounded  by  the  bodiei 

a)  Bullinger  vol.  L  p.  14288.  218ss.        I)  76.  voL  L  p.  145ss.  18288. 
c)  /&.  vol.  IL  p.  21ss.  4888.        cT)  IT),  vol.  II.  p.  168ss.  185ss. 
«)  /&.  vol.  II.  p.  83838. 


CHAP.  I.    EEFORMATIOW.    §  335.  SACEAMENTAEIAN  CONTEOVEESY.       389 

of  the  choicest  portion  of  the  friends  of  the  Keformation  in  the  city,  (/) 
The  superior  strength  of  the  cities  was  indeed  soon  after  brought  into  action, 
but  the  confidence  of  victory  and  unity  was  on  the  side  of  the  Catholic 
army.  The  religious  peace  which  was  soon  afterwards  concluded  (Nov.  16), 
recognized  the  right  of  each  canton  freely  to  make  its  own  arrangements 
respecting  its  religious  affairs,  but  in  those  portions  which  were  under  the 
general  government,  and  in  those  cantons  which  were  hitherto  undecided,  the 
old  Church  was  almost  universally  restored  by  violence,  (g) 


§  335.     The  Sacramentarian 

Walch  vert.  XVII.  p.  ISSOss.  vol.  XX.  (Setnecker  and  Chemnitz.)  Hist  d.  Sacramentsstr.  Lpz. 
1591.  4.  Ldstfiw,  complete  Hist  motuum,  between  Luth.  and  the  Ee£  Frkf.  and  Leip.  2  ed.  1723. 
3  vols.— Lud.  Lavater,  H.  controv.  sacramentariae.  Tig.  (1563.)  1672.  Zur.  1564  Hospiniani  H.  sa- 
cram.  Tig.  (1598.)  1602.  2  Th.  f.  Zur.  1611.  4— A:  Ebrard,  d.  D.  v.  h.  Abendm.  Frk£  1846.  vol.  II.  p. 
1-858. 

In  the  spirit  of  Erasmus,  and  with  a  proper  sense  of  his  own  indepen- 
dence, Zwingle  always  protested  against  being  numbered  among  the  adhe- 
rents of  Luther,  (a)  He  could  discover  nothing  in  the  Lord's  Supper  but  a 
sign  of  commemoration  and  fellowship.  Even  Luther  was  obliged  to  reject 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  together  with  the  priesthood,  (5)  but  the 
depth  of  his  sensuous  mysticism  needed  a  spiritual  presence  of  Christ's  body 
in  the  sacred  ordinance.  Carlstadt,  during  his  iconoclastic  fury,  had  put 
forth  the  assertion  that  Christ  pointed  to  his  living  body  when  he  instituted 
the  supper.  In  consequence  of  this,  a  controversy,  embittered  by  the  per- 
sonal relations  of  the  parties,  sprung  up  (after  1524)  between  him  and  Lu- 
ther, (c)  The  Swiss,  respecting  whose  position  the  divines  at  Wittenberg 
were  for  a  long  time  indistinctly  informed,  undertook  in  their  own  way  (after 
1525)  the  defence  of  the  severely-persecuted  Carlstadt.  Zwingle  translated 
"  this  is "  by  the  words  "  this  signifies,"  and  Oecolampadius  regarded  the 
bread  when  called  the  body,  simply  as  the  symbol  of  the  body.  These  dif- 
ferent views  led  to  a  dispute  between  Luther  and  Zwingle  at  the  head  of 
their  respective  parties,  (d)  The  Swiss  Confederacy  adhered  to  Zwingle,  and 
the  imperial  cities  of  Upper  Germany  were  disposed  to  do  so,  but  the  doc- 
trine of  Luther  found  a  trusty  and  influential  advocate  in  Suabia  in  the  per- 
son of  Brentz,  a  nian  who  would  listen  neither  to  the  fathers  nor  to  Aristotle, 
but  to  Christ  alone,  (e)  Luther  appealed  with  absolute  confidence  to  the 
letter,  Zwingle  to  the  sense  of  the  word  of  God.  The  first  was  boisterous 
and  sometimes  ludicrous,  while  the  latter  was  more  polished  but  bitter. 
When  Zwingle  referred  to  the  nature  of  a  body,  Luther  endeavored  to  show 

/)  Kurze  Beschr.  d.  5  kath.  Orte  Kriegs.  (Salthasar,  Helvetia,  vol.  II.  p.  186ss.)  SulUnger  voL 
III.  p.  11689.— (IT.  Gelffer)  Die  Schlacht  d.  KappeL  Zur.  1881. 

g)  Bullinger  vol.  III.  p.  247.    Hottinger  vol.  IL  Commencement 
a)  Explanation  of  the  18th  article.  1523.  (voL  I.  p.  255.) 
V)  De  Wette  vol.  II.  p.  577. 

c)  Walch  vol.  XV.  p.  2422ss.  vol.  XX.  p.  186ss.    Comp.  Gobel  in  Stud.  u.  Krit  1842.  H.  2. 
1843.  H.  3. 

d)  Zw.  Arnica  exegesis.  Tig.  1527.  4.    Luth.  Dass  die  Worte  Christi :  das  ist  m.  Leib.,  noch  fest- 
stehn.  Weder  die  Schwarmgeister.  Wit  1527.  and  others. 

e)  Syntagma  Suevicum.  1525.    Comp.  J.  Hartmann  and  K.  Jdger,  J.  Brentz.  Hamb.  1840.  voL 
.  p.  139ss. 


390  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

that  the  body  of  Christ  was  omnipresent  in  consequence  of  its  inseparable 
union  with  the  Deity,  and  the  assertion  of  his  opponent  seemed  to  him 
equivalent  to  a  denial  of  Christ.  This  controversy,  therefore,  inasmuch  as  it 
had  its  origin  in  the  peculiar  mental  character  of  these  great  leaders,  and  yet 
was  not  of  much  importance  to  the  interests  of  piety  itself,  became  finally  so 
prominent  as  to  produce  a  complete  misunderstanding  between  the  dispu- 
tants. In  vain  did  the  Landgrave  endeavor  to  effect  a  reconciliation,  re- 
minding them  that  their  common  danger  should  keep  them  united.  (/)  At 
the  meeting  which  took  place  between  them  at  Marburg  (Oct.,  1529), 
Zwingle  was  induced  by  the  strength  of  his  convictions  with  tears  to  offer 
Luther  his  fraternal  hand,  even  if  the  principal  point  of  difference  should 
remain  undecided,  but  this  was  rejected.  (?)  The  principal  points  of  their 
common  faith  were,  however,  arranged  in  fourteen  articles  on  the  basis  of 
the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  With  regard  to  the  memorable  fifteenth  arti- 
cle, which  asserts  that  Christ's  body  and  blood  are  corporally  present  in  tho 
Lord's  Supper,  both  parties  promised  to  exercise  Christian  charity  so  far  as 
the  conscience  of  each  would  permit.  The  Landgrave  now  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  league  of  the  reformed  cities  (April,  1530).  Although  Strass- 
burg,  Constance,  Meiningen,  and  Lindau  presented  their  separate  confession 
at  Augsburg  (July  11,  1580),  (h)  they  acknowledged  in  it  that  the  souls  of 
believers  were  nourished  by  the  true  body  of  Christ.  The  pliant  Martin 
Bucer  reconciled  matters  by  introducing  the  acknowledgment  of  a  presence 
of  Christ  also  for  the  hand  and  the  mouth,  (i)  By  this  means  the  cities  of 
Upper  Germany  were  induced  to  adopt  tho  Confession  of  Augsburg,  and 
enter  into  the  League  of  Smalkald.  (1531). 

III.  ESTABLISHMENT  or  THE  LUTHEBAN  Cnuucn  UNTIL  1555. 

§  336.    Articles  of  Smalkald. 

As  the  only  method  by  which  peace  could  be  secured,  the  emperor  now 
demanded  that  the  pope  should  call  a  general  council.  It  was,  however, 
feared  at  Kome  that  the  complaints  of  the  several  nations  might  in  a  general 
assembly  of  the  Church  unite  with  the  voices  of  the  Protestants,  or  that  the 
latter  might  be  so  used  by  others  as  to  compel  the  papacy  to  make  some 
general  concessions.  Clement  VII.  held  out  promises  which  were  intended 
only  to  prevent  the  calling  of  a  national  council  in  Germany,  and  Paul  III. 
sent  forth  a  call  for  a  council  in  May,  1537,  to  assemble  at  Mantua,  at  a  time 
when  such  a  council  was  hardly  possible  in  Lombardy  on  account  of  the  war 
with  France.  A  confession  was  laid  before  the  league  at  Smalkald,  signed 
(Feb.  15,  153Y)  by  the  theologians  there  present,  and  intended  to  be  pre- 
sented to  thf  general  council,  or  otherwise  to  remain  a  new  monument  of  their 

/)  De  Wette  vol.  III.  p.  465s. 

0)  Acts  In  Walch  voL  XVII.  p.  286183.  Corp.  Ref.  voL  L  p.  1095ss.  Bullinger  voL  IL  p. 
823ss.— Die  15  Marb.  Artikel  nach  d.  Orig.  veroffentl.  v.  IT.  ffeppe,  Marb.  1848.  4.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hiat 
Th.  1848.  H.  1.)— L.  J.  K.  Schmitt,  d.  Religionsgespr.  zu  Marb.  Marb.  1840. 

h)  Conf.  Tetrapolitana.  Arg.  1531.  4  (tfiemeyer,  CoL  Conff  Lps.  1810.  p.  LXXXIIL  1740«k 

t)  Walch  vol.  XVII.  p.  249188. 


CHAP.  I.    REFORMATION.    §  836.  ARTICLES  OF  SMALKALD.  391 

unanimity,  (a)  These  Articles  of  SmalTcald  were  composed  by  Luther  when 
violence  was  no  longer  to  be  apprehended,  and  reconciliation  was  impossible, 
and  they  present  the  doctrines  opposed  to  the  Romish  Church  in  the  strong- 
est terms.  In  addition  to  this,  by  request  of  the  League,  a  tract  was  pre- 
pared in  Latin  by  Melancthon,  in  which  it  was  proved  from  historical  facts 
that  neither  the  primacy  of  the  pope  nor  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  had 
been  instituted  by  divine  authority.  This  treatise  was  designed  to  be  the 
first  formal  attempt  to  justify  those  who  solemnly  renounced  all  papal  and 
prelatical  sway.  But  its  author  had  the  courage  to  subscribe  Luther's  arti- 
cles, with  the  remark  that  for  the  sake  of  general  peace,  a  superiority  over 
those  bishops  who  had  been  created  by  human  authority  might  be  volunta- 
rily conceded  to  the  pope  if  he  allowed  the  gospel  to  be  preached  in  its  purity. 
Luther,  overwhelmed  by  sufferings  caused  by  the  gravel,  left  Smalkald  with 
these  parting  words :  "  May  God  fill  you  with  hatred  for  the  pope !  He 
knows  his  people,  and  feels  like  them !  "  The  confederates  were  unanimous 
in  the  conclusion  that  they  were  bound  to  decline  a  council  which  met  in 
Italy,  and  which  contained  a  condemnation  of  their  cause  in  the  very  terms 
in  which  it  was  called  together.  (6) 

§  337.    Progress  and  Political  Power  of  tlie  Reformation. 

In  Electoral  Saxony,  John  Frederic  the  Magnanimous,  a  conscientious,  sin- 
cere, and  truly  pious  prince,  with  a  mind  somewhat  contracted,  but  heroic  hi 
purpose  and  in  endurance,  succeeded  his  father  (1532).  Philip  of  Hesse,  on 
his  own  responsibility,  but  sustained  by  the  power  of  the  Protestant  League, 
in  a  sudden  expedition  reinstated  (1534)  JJlrich,  Duke  of  Wurtemberg,  who 
had  been  driven  from  his  possessions,  which  had  been  given  to  Austria  by  the 
Suabian  League.  Ulrich's  refractory  spirit  had  in  misfortune  found  conso- 
lation in  the  gospel,  and  the  Reformation  which  had  for  a  long  time  been  kept 
down  by  violence,  after  a  little  vacillation  suddenly  became  victorious  in 
Wurtemberg  under  the  direction  of  Brentz,  a  man  who  possessed  the  same 
views  as  Luther,  (a)  A  Holy  League  was  formed  (1538)  at  Nuremberg,  com- 
posed of  the  Archbishops  of  Mentz  and  of  Salzburg,  the  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
George  of  Saxony,  and  Henry  of  Brunswick.  But  the  power  of  the  emperor 
continued  to  be  much  restrained  by  his  foreign  wars.  A  considerable  sup- 
port was  obtained  for  the  Protestant  League  in  the  Northern  kingdoms,  and 
splendid  promises  were  held  out  to  it  by  Henry  of  England  and  Francis  of 
France.  George  of  Saxony,  whose  spirit  became  every  year  more  and  more 
embittered  toward  Luther  and  the  age  hi  which  he  lived,  struggled  in  vain 
against  what  seemed  to  be  his  destiny,  for  he  was  obliged  to  leave  his  pos- 
sessions to  a  Protestant  heir.  His  brother  Henry  already  belonged  to  the 

a)  H.  Meurer,  d.  Tag.  zu  Smalk.  u.  d.  Schm.  Artikel.  Lps.  1837. 

&)  Walch  vol.  XVI.  p.  2426ss.  Corp.  JKef.  vol.  II.  p.  962ss.  9S2ss.  Aonii  Palcarii  de  Cone, 
anlv.  et  libero  Ep.  ed.  ill.  Illgen,  Lps.  1832.  4. 

a)  Sehnurrer,  Erlaut.  <L  Wurt,  K.  Ref.  u.  Gelehrten-Gesch.  Tub.  1793.  J.  C.  Schmidt  &  F.  E. 
/^ster,  Denkw.  d.  wart  u.  schwab.  Ref.  Gesch.  Tub.  1817.  (Gruneiseri)  Denkblatt  d.  Ret  in  Stuttg. 
Btuttg.  1835.  J.  JIartmann,  Gesch.  d.  Re£  in  Wurt.  Stuttg.  1835.  Hartmann  u.  Jiiger,  J.  Brents 
Hamb.  1842.  vol.  II.  L.  F.  ffeyd,  Ulr.  H.  zu  Wurt.  Tub.  1S41-4.  3  vols. 


392  MODEEN  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

League  of  Smalkald,  and  on  the  festival  of  Pentecost,  1539,  Lnther  and  tha 
Reformation  entered  the  city  of  Leipsic  in  triumph.  (&)  The  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg compelled  his  wife  to  fly  from  his  residence  that  she  might  live  in 
the  enjoyment  of  her  faith,  and  exacted  an  oath  from  his  sons  that  they  would 
cleave  to  the  ancient  faith  in  opposition  to  modern  innovations.  But  J<?a- 
chim  II.  (1535)  allowed  the  word  of  God  to  have  free  toleration  in  his  do- 
minions, and  in  1539  partook  of  the  Lord's  Supper  according  to  the  forms  of 
the  Evangelical  Church,  although  he  preserved  on  independent  position 
unconnected  with  the  League.  That  hody,  however,  was  soon  after  (after 
1545)  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  the  Electoral  Palatinate,  (c)  When 
the  bishopric  of  Naumburg  became  vacant,  Julius  ton  Pftuff,  the  provost  of 
the  cathedral,  a  learned  and  at  the  same  time  a  mild  divine,  (d)  was  elected 
by  the  chapter,  but  the  elector  could  not  resist  the  temptation  to  provide  for 
it  an  apostolic  bishop.  Nicolas  von  Amsdorf,  by  an  act  of  arbitrary  power 
was  invested  with  the  office  of  a  bishop,  but  with  the  salary  of  a  pastor,  and 
Luther  boasted  that  he  and  his  friends  had  been  guilty  of  the  sin  of  conse- 
crating a  bishop  without  chrism,  and  even  without  suet,  lard,  tar,  grease,  in- 
cense, or  coals,  (e}  An  electoral  officer  was  appointed  to  administer  the  secu- 
lar affairs  of  the  diocese.  Henry  of  Brunswick  and  the  Protestant  princes, 
assisted  by  Luther,  assailed  each  other  by  pamphlets,  in  which  all  the  pro- 
prieties not  only  of  princely  dignity  but  of  human  life  were  violated,  and  when 
Henry  threatened  Goslar,  he  was  attacked  by  Saxony  and  Hesse  with  a  pow- 
erful army,  driven  from  his  dominions  (1542),  and  finally  made  a  prisoner 
(1545).  (/)  Among  the  secular  princes  Bavaria  was  the  only  power  which 
continued  to  support  the  papacy,  and  even  there  much  difficulty  was  expe- 
rienced in  resisting  the  opposition  of  the  people  and  the  states,  (g)  Herman, 
the  Elector  of  Cologne,  commenced  with  a  Catholic  reform,  but  he  finally 
assumed  a  Protestant  position,  and  the  archbishop  was  informed  of  his  plan 
of  reformation  according  to  a  form  drawn  up  by  Bucer  and  Melancthon 
(1543).  (K)  Cardinal  Albert  of  Mentz  allowed  the  Reformation  to  go  for- 
ward in  his  Chapters  of  Magdeburg  and  Halberstadt  as  long  as  the  states 
were  willing  to  assume  the  payment  of  his  debts  (1541).  All  bishops  were 
tempted  to  go  over  to  the  Protestant  side  by  the  prospect  of  becoming  here- 
ditary princes.  King  Ferdinand  himself,  influenced  by  the  writings  of  Lu- 
ther, and  by  a  father  confessor,  who,  on  his  deathbed,  repented  of  his  whole 
ecclesiastical  life  and  actions  as  a  deception,  now  promised  to  compromise 


1}  Nolle,  Heinr.  d.  Fromme,  Lps.  1889.  G.  B.  Winer,  de  Facult.  theol.  ev.  in  Univ.  Lips,  origi- 
nib.  Lps.  1839.  4  K.  W.  Hering,  Geach.  dcr  im  Markg.  Meissen  u.  d.  dazu  gehor.  thur.  Kreise  er£ 
Eef.  Grossenhain.  1839.  U.  O.  Hasse,  Abriss  d.  meissneisch-albert.  sasch.  KGesch.  Lps.  1847.  vol.  II. 

c)  Ad.  Mutter,  Gesch.  d.  Eef.  in  d.  Mark  Brandcnb.  Brl.  1839.    J.  ScMadebach,  d.  Uebertr.  d. 
Kurf.  Joach.  z.  luth.  K.  Lps.  1840.— II.  Ailing,  H.  Ecc.  Palatinae.  (Monn.  piet  et  lit  Frcfl  1701.  4) 
B.  G.  Struve,  Ber.  v.  d.  Pfalz.  K.  Hist  Frk£  1721.  4.    K.  F.  Vierordt,  Gesch.  d.  Ee£  im  Grossh.  Ba- 
den. Karlsr.  1847. 

d)  C.  G.  Muller,  de  mentis  Julil  PflugiL  Lps.  1812. 

e)  Walch  vol.  XVII.  p.  Slss.  especially  122ss.    Forstemann^&VQ  Mitth.  hist  antiq.  Forsch.  Hal 
..335.  vol.  II.  P.  2.  (Lepsius)  Bericlit  u.  d.  Wahl  u.  Einfuhr.  Nic.  v.  A.  Nordh.  1835. 

/)  Walch  vol.  XVII.  p.  1548SS.  HortUfar  Buch,  IV.  W.  Sister,  Charakteristik  Heinr.  d.  Jung 
Marb.1845.  g)  Winter  (§  823.  nt  tf.) 

/')  M.  Deckers,  Herrn.  v.  Wied.  Erzb.  v.  KGln.  Cologne.  1840. 


CHAP.  I.    EEFOEMATION.    §  33S.    NEGOTIATIONS.    MAUEICE.  393 

matters  with  respect  to  religion,  with  the  states  at  an  imperial  diet,  and  in 
accordance  with  Luther's  counsel,  (i)  Aside  from  personal  inclinations  nothing 
but  the  necessity  of  adhering  to  Catholicism  under  which  the  House  of  Saps- 
l)urg  was  placed  on  account  of  its  connection  with  Spain,  Belgium,  and  Italy, 
was  sufficient  at  that  time  to  uphold  that  religion  in  any  part  of  Germany. 

§  338.    Negotiations  for  Peace  and  Preparations  for  War. 

Once  more  was  presented  some  prospect  of  preserving  the  Church  from  a 
division.  Divines  of  both  parties  were  appointed  by  the  emperor  at  the  Diet 
of  Ratisbon  (1541)  to  adjust  measures  for  a  peaceful  accommodation.  The 
pious  Contarini,  who  was  favorable  to  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Protes- 
tantism as  they  were  then  maintained,  had  been  appointed  legate.  («)  With 
his  approbation  a  compromise  was  proposed  by  Gravella,  in  which  it  was 
asserted  that  salvation  was  founded  upon  faith  in  the  merits  of  Christ  alone, 
and  not  upon  our  own  works  or  deserts.  The  divines  were  therefore  agreed 
with  respect  to  the  four  Articles  of  Original  Eighteousness,  Original  Sin,  Hu- 
man Liberty,  and  Justification,  which  Luther  had  always  maintained  as  the 
fundamental  principles  of  Christianity.  "With  reference  to  other  subjects  on 
which  no  agreement  was  yet  attained,  and  with  respect  to  which  the  proposed 
scheme  conceded  every  thing  which  could  be  given  up  by  the  Catholics  of 
that  period  without  renouncing  their  distinctive  character,  the  emperor  re- 
quired that  until  the  decision  of  a  general  council  could  be  obtained,  all  should 
exercise  fraternal  forbearance  toward  each  other.  The  Landgrave  and  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  were  entirely  agreed,  and  Julius  Pflug  and  Melanctlion 
were  just  on  the  point  of  extending  to  each  other  the  hand  of  reconciliation. 
But  Luther  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony  saw  nothing  in  all  these  concessions 
but  a  snare;  the  King  of  France,  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  a  reconciliation 
in  Germany,  complained  of  treachery  to  the  Church ;  and  the  legate,  threat- 
ened from  Kome  for  having  transcended  his  powers,  made  a  retrograde  move- 
ment. (5)  This  result  was  only  the  manifestation  of  opposing  principles  in 
the  person  of  their  advocates,  and  in  this  failure  of  a  reconciliation  which 
seemed  so  near,  all  became  distinctly  conscious  that  the  schism  was  irrecon- 
cilable. The  emperor  concluded  at  Crespy  (1544)  an  honorable  peace  with 
France,  and  the  Roman  King  a  five  years'  armistice  with  the  Turks.  In  the 
League  of  Smalkald  the  cities  began  to  complain  of  the  princes,  and  unkind 
feelings  were  produced  in  various  ways.  Maurice,  a  keen  ambitious  young 
man,  had  succeeded  (1541)  his  father  in  the  dukedom  of  Saxony.  Although 
he  regarded  the  Eeformation  in  the  light  of  an  historical  necessity  he  felt  no 
enthusiasm  in  its  behalf,  and  while  personally  disputing  with  the  elector  he 

i)  Ferd.  an  Luth.  1.  Febr.  1537.  in  Walch  vol.  XVL  p.  2424. 

a)  Contareni  Tr.  de  justificatione.  Par.  1571.  JSeccatello,  Vita  del  C.  Cont.  "With  his  Letters 
in:  Epp.  Begin.  Poli,  exL  Quirini.  vol.  III.— Riesling,  ad  Quir.  Ep.  de  Cont.  purioris  doctr.  de  justifc 
teste  et  confessore.  Lps.  1749. 

1)  Acta  Colloquii  in  Comitiis  Eatisponae  habiti.  (ed.  Biicer.)  Argent  1541.  4.  Acta  in  Conventu 
Eatisb.  (ed.  Melancthon.)  Wit.  1541.  4.  Comp.  Hortleder  vol.  1. 1,  37.  Walch  vol.  XVII.  p.  695ss. 
Corp.  Kef.  vol.  IV.  p.  119ss.  In  opposition  to  Bucer :  Eckii  Apol.  pro  Principibus  cath.  Ingolst. 
\\A1.—Raynald.  ad  ann.  1541.  Seckend.  Ill,  23.  fianfce,  Papste.  vol.  I.  p.  155ss.  Bretsc7meidert 
\  d.  K.  Gespr.  angef.  zu  Worms,  fortg.  zu  Eeg.  (Zeitschr.  f.  hist.  Th.  vol.  II.  P.  I.) 


394  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

abandoned  the  League  of  Smalkald  (1542),  and  secretly  pledged  himself  to 
the  emperor  that  whatever  might  be  the  issue  of  the  war,  the  imperial  au- 
thority should  in  no  respect  be  impaired,  (c)  The  Council  which  was  opened 
at  Trent  (1545)  was  rejected  by  the  Protestants.  Legal  proceedings  by  order 
of  the  emperor,  and  on  complaint  of  the  Chapter  of  Cologne,  were  instituted 
against  the  archbishop  of  that  see.  It  was  soon  evident  from  the  execution 
of  some  evangelical  preachers  in  the  Netherlands  that  he  was  in  earnest.  He, 
however,  persuaded  himself  that  his  conduct  sprung  more  from  a  reference  to 
liberty  than  to  Lutheranism,  and  to  the  property  than  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church.  Indeed,  the  complicated  condition  in  which  the  material  interests 
of  all  parties  were  placed,  stood  very  much  in  the  way  of  an  amicable  adjust- 
ment of  other  things.  But  when  it  had  become  apparent  that  the  position 
of  the  respective  parties  at  the  diet  rendered  the  adoption  of  any  general 
measures  almost  impossible,  and  when  the  decision  of  the  imperial  council 
which  treated  the  proceedings  respecting  ecclesiastical  property  as  a  mere 
matter  of  spoils,  had  been  rejected  by  the  Protestants,  it  was  evident  that 
the  empire  was  indeed  divided,  and  that  the  peaco  of  the  country  was  de- 
stroyed. 

§  339.    Luther's  Death  and  Public  Character. 

The  last  years  of  Luther's  life  were  spent  in  great  exhaustion  and  pro- 
tracted sickness.  He  was  so  much  offended  at  the  immorality  and  luxury 
which  prevailed  at  Wittenberg,  that  he  left  that  city  (1545)  and  returned  only 
on  the  urgent  request  of  the  University  and  the  elector.  He  foresaw  that 
troublous  times  were  approaching  his  native  country,  and  he  longed  to  depart 
in  peace.  His  last  days,  however,  were  illuminated  by  some  beams  of  his 
former  power,  and  he  still  indulged  in  bold,  childlike  pleasantries,  even  in  the 
midst  of  sublime  conceptions,  (a)  Having  been  invited  to  Eisleben  to  act  as 
umpire  between  the  Counts  of  Mansfeld,  he  gently  and  devoutly  fell  asleep 
on  the  night  of  the  18th  of  February,  1546.  (b)  The  sudden  changes  which 
took  place  during  his  career,  and  in  which  he  was  obliged  to  act  as  a  leader, 
produced  marked  contrasts  between  different  periods  of  his  life.  The  pope 
was  regarded  by  him  at  one  time  as  the  most  saintly,  and  at  another  as  the 
most  fiendish  father.  "When  he  was  excited  with  passion  his  feelings  changed 
in  the  most  boisterous  manner.  His  whole  life  was  devoted  to  the  promo- 
tion of  intellectual  freedom,  and  yet  he  was  zealous  in  behalf  of  the  letter. 
Eelying  wholly  upon  spiritual  influences  while  giving  laws  to  the  most  turbu- 
lent storms  of  revolution,  he  nevertheless  occasionally  advised  that  the  pope 
with  all  his  menials  should  be  cast  into  the  Tyrrhene  Sea.  (c)  His  opinions 
were  always  expressed  with  absolute  sincerity,  and  he  was  an  utter  stranger 

c)  G.  Arnold,  Vita  Maur.  (Menkqn.  vol.  II.)  Brandt,  Vindiciae  Mauritianae.  Jen.  1617.  4.  F. 
A.  v.  Langenn,  Moritz,  Herzog  n.  Kurt  zu  Sachs.  Lps.  1841.  2  vols.  H.  B.  Brandes,  Beitrr.  z.  Char- 
Rkter.  d.  H.  u.  Churf.  M.  Lps.  1853. 

«)  Especially  his  Letters  to  Catharine :  De  Wetto  voL  V.  pp.  783.  787.  789. 

I)  J.  Jond  u.  IT.  Colii  Bericht  v.  Lutheri  Absterben.  Besides  other  records  of  his  death  in  Walci 
vol.  XXI.  p.  274ss.  J.  Jonas,  Schr.  an  Job.  Fr.  u.  Luth.  Lebensende,  hrsg.  v.  Kreysslg,  Meiaa.  1847. 
—MoJinike,  L.  Lebensende.  Strals.  1817,  K,  A,  Credner,  L.  Tod  u.  Bedentung.  Frkf.  1846. 

c)  Walch  vol.  XVII.  p.  1396ss. 


CHAP.  I.  REFORMATION.  §  339.  LUTHER'S  DEATH  AND  CHARACTER.   395 

to  every  form  of  earthly  interest.  By  a  vigorous  sensuousness  of  disposition 
he  stood  firmly  rooted  in  the  earth,  while  his  head  reached  into  the  heavens. 
No  one  of  his  age  equalled  him  in  creative  power,  his  style  was  frequently 
rougher  than  even  that  rough  period  seemed  to  have  allowed,  but  in  popular 
eloquence  he  had  no  superior  in  all  Germany.  The  eagerness  and  passion 
which  he  always  felt  in  the  midst  of  his  conflicts,  supplied  him  with  the  en- 
joyment which  he  needed  in  them.  Wherever  he  discovered  injustice  he  saw 
nothing  hut  hell  itself.  His  services,  however,  did  not  consist  so  much  in  his 
destroying  and  breaking  loose  from  what  was  wrong, — for  many  others  extri- 
cated themselves  from  the  ancient  Church  with  much  more  facility  and  deci- 
sion, —as  in  his  constructive  power,  and  in  the  exuberance  of  his  warm  faith 
and  love.  And  yet  there  were  some  periods  of  great  trial  in  his  life,  when 
the  temptations  of  the  devil  made  him  fear  that  he  should  be  bereft  of  God 
and  Christ,  and  every  thing  dear,  (d)  He  had  no  hesitation  even  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  opponents  freely  to  avow  the  deliberate  conviction  of  his  heart, 
that  he  was  well  known  in  heaven,  earth,  and  hell,  as  the  chosen  instrument 
of  God  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  divine  purposes,  and  yet  this  seemed 
to  have  nothing  to  do  with  his  individual  person.  He  never  wished  to  hear  of 
Lutheran  doctrines,  (e)  and  his  sublime  confidence  in  God  never  appeared  to 
assure  him  of  his  own  deliverance  from  danger,  but  simply  to  convince  him 
that  God  was  able  to  raise  up  every  day  ten  such  men  as  Dr.  Martinus.  (/) 
The  time  in  which  such  a  man  should  be  vilified  by  absurd  reproaches,  or 
defended  by  illiberal  vindications,  has  now  passed  away,  and  he  should  be  re- 
garded, not  as  the  property  of  an  individual  party,  but  of  the  German  nation 
and  of  Christianity. 

§  340.     The  SmallcaUic  War.    1546,  1547. 

ITortted-er  vol.  II.  book  III.  and  page  1618ss.  Walch  vol.  XVII.  p.  ISlTss.  Camerarii  Comm. 
belli  Smalc.  graece  scr.  (Freher  Th.  III.  p.  457.)  Literary  hist,  of  the  accounts  of  the  war  in  UTcert 
vol.  II.  p.  196.— J.  G.  Jahn,  Gesch.  d.  schmalk.  Kriegs.  Lps.  1837. 

An  edict  was  proclaimed  by  the  diet  (July  20, 1546),  in  which  the  Elector 
of  Saxony  and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  were  declared  guilty  of  high  treason 
against  the  emperor  and  the  empire.  Although  the  emperor  was  very  care- 
ful not  to  give  his  expedition  the  name  of  a  religious  war,  Paul  III.  openly 
proclaimed  a  crusade  for  the  extermination  of  heretics,  and  called  for  offer- 
ings from  the  Church  for  this  purpose.  An  army  was  hastily  assembled  by 
the  Protestants  en  the  borders  of  Suabia  and  Bavaria,  which  was  much 
superior  to  that  of  the  emperor  posted  at  first  near  Ratisbon,  and  afterwards 
occupying  a  strong  position  near  Landshut.  But  as  many  persons  had  an 
equal  right  to  command,  and  many  things  were  presented  for  consideration, 
the  hour  for  successful  action  was  allowed  to  pass,  and  time  was  afforded  for 
the  emperor  to  collect  around  him  his  forces  from  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands. Even  then,  however,  the  forces  were  nearly  equal,  but  the  Protes- 
tant princes  shrunk  from  the  blow  which  was  to  decide  their  fate.  Just  at 
that  time  news  was  received  that  Duke  Maurice  had  taken  possession  of  the 

<f)  Walch  vol.  XII.  p.  2270s.    Matffiesius,  12.  Predigt  p.  138a. 

e)  Walch  vol.  X.  p.  420.  vol.  XV.  p.  19S9.       /)  De  Wette  vol.  V.  p.  787. 


396  MODEEN  CIIUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

Electorate  of  Saxony  under  the  pretence  of  preventing  a  similar  act  by  the 
King  of  the  Komans.  This  induced  the  elector  to  hasten  hack  to  Saxony ; 
late  in  the  fall  the  allied  army  was  disbanded,  and  one  city  after  another  im- 
plored pardon  from  the  emperor,  or  purchased  it  with  various  offerings,  until 
the  victory  on  his  side  was  by  no  means  difficult.  The  Elector  of  Cologne, 
excommunicated  by  the  pope,  menaced  by  the  emperor,  and  abandoned  by  his 
estates,  laid  aside  his  office  (Feb.  25,  1547).  (a)  By  the  commencement  of 
the  succeeding  spring  the  whole  of  Southern  Germany  had  been  reduced  to 
submission  without  a  single  blow.  John  Frederic  had  in  the  mean  time  taken 
possession  of  his  own  dominions  as  well  as  those  of  his  cousin  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Dresden  and  Leipsic,  but  he  was  not  blind  to  the  fate  impending 
over  him.  And  yet  even  in  this  extremity  the  princes  did  not  think  of  the 
only  means  of  deliverance  now  remaining  to  them,  which  was  an  appeal  to 
the  people  to  rise  in  defence  of  their  faith.  (&)  While  the  elector  was  sur- 
rounded only  by  the  vassals  and  mercenaries  which  composed  his  ordinary 
army  he  was  surprised  by  the  emperor  in  the  forest  of  Lochau  near  MuJilberg 
(Apr.  24,  1547),  and  compelled  to  run  the  chance  of  a  battle.  His  army  was 
completely  destroyed,  and  he  himself  was  taken  prisoner.  His  life  was  pur- 
chased by  the  surrender  of  "Wittenberg  and  the  abdication  of  his  crown.  The 
electorate  and  a  part  of  the  dominions  of  Ernest  were  bestowed  upon  Mau- 
rice. The  landgrave  surrendered  at  discretion  (June  19),  and  contrary  to  his 
own  expectation,  and  in  spite  of  the  security  given  by  his  son-in-law,  he  was 
retained  in  close  confinement,  (c)  The  other  members  of  the  League,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  cities  of  Lower  Germany,  now  also  submitted. 

§  341.     The  Interim. 

B'utk,  <L  dreifache  Interim.  Lps.  1721.    J.  Schmicf,  Hist  interimistlca.  HlmsL  1730.    Spieker, 
Beitrr.  z.  Gescb,  <L  Angsb.  Int  (Zeitsch.  £  hist  Th.  1851.  H.  a) 

The  emperor  allowed  of  no  interruption  of  the  forms  of  worship  adopted 
in  the  several  countries  which  he  had  conquered,  (a)  and  appeared  anxious  to 
make  good  his  previous  assurance  that  he  had  no  design  to  interfere  in  matters 
of  faith.  This  policy  may  have  originated  either  in  his  desire  to  force  the 
pope  to  enter  upon  a  general  reform,  or  in  his  conviction  that  such  subject* 
were  beyond  his  jurisdiction.  The  only  thing  which  he  demanded  was  that 
all  should  agree  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  a  general  council  at  which  he 
engaged  that  all  should  receive  reasonable  and  Christian  treatment.  But 
with  the  view  of  re-establishing  by  his  own  authority  the  unity  of  the  TVest 
ern  Church,  he  published  at  Augsburg  (March  15,  1548)  an  imperial  edict,  in 
which  directions  were  prescribed  respecting  the  way  in  which  all  mat 
ters  relating  to  religion  should  be  arranged  until  the  decision  of  the  council.  (5) 


«)  Deckers,  Herm.  v.  Wied.  p.  148ss. 

Z>)  Comp.  Rommel,  Philipp.  Urkundenb.  p.  225. 

c)  For  evidence  of  deception :  L.  G.  Mogen,  H.  Captivitatis  Ph.  Frcf.  1766.  Rommel  vol.  IV.  p. 
83088.  In  fevor  of  a  misunderstanding:  Raumer  vol.  I.  p.  547ss.  Gesch.  Eur.  Lps.  1832.  vol.  L  p, 
B47ss.  For  an  intentional  deception :  Ranke  voL  IV.  p.  40Ss&  Comp.  Rommel  in  d.  Monatbl.  « 
Allg.  Zeitung,  April,  1846. 

a)  Comp.  Bugenhagen,  Wie  es  vns  zu  Wittenberg  gegangon  ist  in  d.  vergangnen  Krieg.  1547.  4 

V)  Bielc,  p.  266ss.    Form  sacror.  emend,  a  J.  Pflugio  proposita,  ed.  C,  G.  ffiiUer,  Ljw.  1803. 


CHAP.  I.    KEFOEMATION.    §  341.  INTEEIM.    §  342.  MAUEICE.  397 

This  Interim,  which  had  been  composed  by  Julius  von  Pfiug,  with  the  assistance 
of  Agricola,  the  court  preacher  of  Brandenburg,  and  was  originally  intended 
by  the  emperor  for  the  Catholic  as  well  as  for  the  Protestant  states,  conceded 
the  marriage  of  the  clergy,  the  use  of  the  cup  in  the  sacrament,  and  some 
indefinite  constructions  of  particular  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Such 
concessions  were  regarded  by  the  emperor  as  of  vital  importance,  and  yet 
their  value  was  much  impaired  by  the  condition  that  the  property  of  the 
Church  was  not  to  be  restored  until  the  terms  were  agreed  upon  in  an  amica- 
ble settlement.  Only  two  of  the  inferior  princes  ventured  openly  to  oppose 
this  proceeding  in  the  diet  itself,  and  John,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  with  a 
lofty  earnestness  and  a  bitter  raillery,  avowed  his  disgust  at  the  noxious  com- 
pound thus  prepared  for  them,  (c)  In  many  of  the  cities  of  Upper  Germany 
the  Interim  was  carried  into  effect  by  violence  and  threats,  but  its  general 
execution  would  have  required  another  war,  and  one  too  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  people.  Those  who  had  formerly  preached  the  reformed  doctrines  were 
now  compelled  to  wander  abroad,  and  in  some  instances  they  were  perse- 
cuted, (d)  John  Frederic,  who  now  displayed  a  heroic  constancy  and  devo- 
tion in  his  confinement,  rejected  not  only  the  authority  of  the  Interim,  but 
that  of  the  council  also.  The  answer  of  Maurice,  so  far  as  it  related  to  his 
subjects  was  evasive,  but  he  exhorted  his  states  and  the  divines  to  concede  all 
that  could  be  given  up  with  a  good  conscience.  It  was  principally  in  conse- 
quence of  this  advice  that  the  Leipsic  Interim  was  drawn  up  under  the  di- 
rection of  Melancthon,  in  which  every  thing  decidedly  contrary  to  evangelical 
doctrine  was  declined,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  Catholic  ritual  was  con- 
ceded, on  the  ground  of  its  being  indifferent  (Adiaphoron).  The  power  of 
the  pope  and  of  the  bishops  was  to  be  acknowledged  so  long  as  they  used  it 
for  the  edification,  and  not  for  the  destruction  of  the  Church,  (e)  This  form 
was  accepted  by  many  of  the  states,  and  was  generally  executed  in  the  midst 
of  strenuous  opposition  on  the  part  of  many  congregations  and  pastors,  and 
at  the  expense  of  the  expulsion  or  imprisonment  of  the  latter.  Both  Inter- 
ims, however,  were  despised  by  both  Catholics  and  Protestants, 

§  342.     Maurice.     1552. 

Ilortleder  vol.  II.  book  V.  Camerarii  Or.  in  memor.  Maur.  (Merik&n,  Scrr.  rer.  Germ.  vol.  II.) 
Bartenstein,  de  bello  Imperatori  a  Maur.  illato.  Arg.  IT  10.  4.    Langenn.  (p.  394.) 

The  German  cities  still  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  foreign  merce- 
naries, the  consciences  of  the  people  were  disturbed  by  the  operation  of  the 
Interim,  or  were  threatened  by  the  action  of  the  general  council,  to  which 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  had  already  professed  his  submission,  (a)  Ger- 
many appeared  about  to  become  a  mere  province  of  Spain  by  the  accession 
of  the  imperial  prince  Philip,  which  the  emperor  now  demanded,  and  the 
word  which  the  young  elector  had  pledged  for  the  liberation  of  the  land- 

c)  Wegener,  Lebensgesch.  d.  Markg.  Johannes  v.  Br.  Brl.  1827.    His  "  Kleiner  (Satechismus  "  is 
given  by  Spieker,  p.  886ss. 

ff)  E.  g.  Hartmann,  J.  Brentz,  vol.  II.  p.  137ss.    JKanke  vol.  V.  p.  51sa. 

e)  Biek,  p.  105ss.  861ss. 

a)  Raynald.  ad  a.  1551.  N.  41s. 


398  MODEKN  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  Y.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

grave  was  entirely  disregarded.  Maurice  perceived  that  nothing  conld  ro' 
store  his  honor  in  the  estimation  of  the  German  people  but  some  bold  and 
decisive  step.  He  therefore  resolved  that  he  would  achieve  the  freedom  of 
the  empire  and  of  the  Church  by  one  bold  stroke.  A  secret  treaty  was 
formed  by  him  with  Mecklenburg,  the  Margrave  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  and 
the  sons  of  the  landgrave,  and  an  alliance  was  formed,  in  opposition  to 
the  advice  of  Melancthon,  with  France,  by  which  he  lost  the  possession  of 
Mentz,  Toul,  and  Yerdun.  ( I)  An  occasion  was  afforded  for  the  collection 
of  an  army  by  the  pretence  of  executing  the  decree  of  outlawry  which  had 
been  issued  against  Magdeburg,  then  the  home  of  Protestant  opposition. 
The  suspicions  of  the  emperor  were  allayed  with  consummate  skill.  On  the 
20th  of  March,  1552,  he  left  Thuringia,  overthrew  one  after  another  the  gar- 
risons of  the  emperor  in  the  several  cities,  and  on  the  22d  of  May  presented 
himself  before  Innspruck.  The  emperor,  though  at  that  time  enfeebled  by 
sickness,  was  obliged  to  escape  by  night,  and  the  council  fled  with  precipita- 
tion before  him.  By  the  courage  exhibited  in  this  martial  expedition,  it  was 
shown  that  the  existing  religious  innovations  could  never  be  put  down  by 
force.  In  July  (16.  29),  the  treaty  of  Passau  was  formed  under  the  guaran- 
ty of  the  empire,  (c)  by  the  terms  of  which  the  landgrave  was  set  at  lib- 
erty, the  imperial  council  was  to  be  open  to  those  who  professed  the  new 
creed,  and  a  diet  was  promised  in  a  short  time  for  the  removal  of  the  griev- 
ances with  respect  to  violations  of  the  laws  of  the  empire,  and  for  the  settle- 
ment of  religious  differences.  Only  one  clause  in  these  articles,  providing  for 
a  permanent  peace  at  least  for  all  those  who  sympathized  with  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  or  at  all  events  for  all  who  were  not  connected  with  sects  con- 
demned by  the  recess  of  the  imperial  diet,  was  seriously  resisted  by  the  em- 
peror. The  two  illustrious  martyrs  were  received  by  their  people  with  great 
joy  and  many  tears.  Maurice  now  turned  his  attention  to  an  expedition 
against  the  Turks. 

§  343.    Religious  Peace.     Sept.  25,  1555. 

I.  Lehmann,  Acta  publ.  de  pace  rel.  <L  i.  Eelchshandl.  n.  Protocolle  d.  EF.  Frkf.  (1631.  4.)  1707. 
SuppL  1709.  f. 

II.  G.  Litsd,  Qesch.  d.  EF.  Frkf.  1755.    As  to  the  spirit  of  the  EF.  (ffenkfa  Mag.  vol.  III.  p. 
596ss.)  BanJce  vol  Y.  p.  276ss. 

Maurice,  while  young  and  victorious,  fell  in  battle  (July  llth,  1558)  for 
the  peace  of  Germany.  After  numerous  hindrances,  the  promised  diet  assem- 
bled at  Augsburg.  Both  parties  were  now  convinced  by  bitter  experience 
that  no  peace  could  be  maintained  in  the  empire  without  mutual  forbearance. 
The  imperial  council  was  composed  of  an  equal  number  of  members  belong- 
ing to  the  old  and  to  the  new  faith,  all  of  whom  were  to  take  their  oath  only 
upon  the  law  of  the  empire  and  the  word  of  God.  The  right  to  reform  the 
Church  was  conceded  to  the  imperial  states,  in  spite  of  the  continual  protests 
of  the  papal  court  in  opposition  to  it,  and  it  was  agreed  that  they  should 
never  be  oppressed,  molested,  or  contemned  on  account  of  the  faith,  ecclesi- 


&)  ffortleder  voL  II.  p.  1008ss.         c)  ffortteder  voL  II.  p.  1087ss. 


CHAP.  I.    KEFOKMATION.    §  344.  CONCOKDIUM  OF  WITTENBERG.  399 

astical  usages,  or  regulations  which  they  had  established,  or  might  afterwards 
establish.  It  was  conceded  that  the  states  of  the  empire  had  a  right  to 
reform  the  Church,  although  Rome  never  ceased  to  protest  against  it.  The 
only  condition  conceded  to  subjects  was,  that  when  they  were  oppressed  on 
account  of  religion,  they  had  the  right  without  obstruction  to  leave  the 
country,  (a)  With  respect  to  individual  countries  to  which  the  Catholic 
party  were  unwilling  to  concede  religious  liberty,  the  King  of  the  Romans 
promised  to  see  that  none  of  those  states  which  had  already  professed  adhe- 
rence to  the  Augsburg  Confession  should  suffer  oppression  on  account  of  it. 
But  while  it  was  acknowledged  that  the  actual  possession  of  any  church  or 
of  any  ecclesiastical  property,  whether  by  spiritual  or  lay  persons  at  the  pre~ 
cise  time  of  the  treaty  of  Passau  was  valid,  the  Catholics  demanded  that  all 
spiritual  states  of  the  empire  which  should  subsequently  go  over  to  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  should  by  that  very  act  forfeit  all  their  offices  and  posses- 
sions. All  parties  perceived  that  the  very  existence  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  Germany  depended  upon  this.  This  article,  which  was  called  the  Ecclesi- 
astical Reservation,  because  the  states  could  come  to  no  agreement  respecting 
it,  was  proclaimed  by  the  Roman  king  as  an  actual  ordinance  of  the  diet,  (&) 
and  became  the  germ  of  future  sanguinary  contests.  The  peace  was  regarded 
as  applicable  only  to  those  who  adhered  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  and 
to  the  votaries  of  the  old  religion,  but  it  was  looked  upon  as  absolute  until 
the  several  parties  in  religion  finally  came  to  an  understanding.  The  empe- 
ror Charles  took  no  further  part  in  these  negotiations,  and  was  already  pre- 
paring to  lay  aside  his  crown  and  to  withdraw  from  the  world. 

IY.  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  REFOEMED  CHUECH  UNTIL  1564. 

§  344.     The  Concordium  of  Wittenberg.     Cont.  from  §  335. 

The  doctrine  which  had  been  especially  established  at  Strasburg,  affirm- 
ing a  true  though  a  spiritual  participation  in  the  body  of  Christ,  appeared  to 
be  consistent  with  all  the  formulae  Luther  had  used,  and  could  be  distin- 
guished from  them  only  by  the  assertion  that  such  a  participation  could  be 
enjoyed  by  none  but  believers.  On  the  basis  of  this  a  plan  was  formed  by 
Bucer  and  Capito>  by  which  they  hoped  to  effect  a  union  of  the  Swiss  and 
the  Wittenberg  divines.  They  went  personally  to  Wittenberg,  and  there 
suffered  their  orthodoxy  to  be  severely  tested.  They  finally  subscribed  a 
Concordium  composed  by  MelanctJion  (May  25,  1536),  the  phraseology  of 
which  was  so  strictly  Lutheran  that  it  could  be  reconciled  with  their  own 
faith  only  by  some  peculiar  and  private  explanation,  (a)  which  sometimes  con- 
founded together  and  sometimes  distinguished  between  the  unworthy  and  the 
unbelieving.  But  as  Luther  did  not  object  to  these  explanations,  the  Con- 
cordium was  accepted  by  most  of  the  Swiss,  and  the  different  parties  were 


a)  Rudolphi,  de  emigr.  subditorum  et  expuls.  Erl.  1756.  4. 

l>)  FricTc  (pr.  UaeberUno),  de  rcservato  ecc.  ex  mente  Pads  rel.  ejusque  effectibus  ac  fstis, 
fllmst  1755.  4. 

a)  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  III.  p.  75ss.  Elrard  vol.  II.  p.  882ss.  Nitesch,  Urkundenb.  d.  Ev.  Union. 
Bonn.  1853.  p.  (iOs. 


400  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

regarded  as  united.  (5)  But  Luther  was  convinced  that  there  was  no  real 
union,  and  as  he  felt  utterly  averse  to  the  whole  Zwinglian  school,  and  sus- 
pected Melancthon  himself,  (c)  he  6nce  more  renewed  the  controversy  in  the 
most  violent  manner.  He  was  now  fast  tending  to  the  grave,  and  he  wag 
therefore  anxious  that  his  testimony  against  these  fanatics  and  soul-destroyers 
might  he  left  unimpaired,  (d)  In  this  manner  the  schism  between  these  two 
great  parties  of  the  Reformation  was  restored,  (e)  There  is  no  apparent  foun- 
dation for  the  common  report,  that  in  his  last  days  he  felt  any  apprehensions 
that  he  had  been  too  violent  in  his  opposition  to  the  people  of  Zurich.  (/) 

§  345.     Italian  Switzerland. 

J.  Sennebier,  II.  lit  de  Geneve.  Gen.  1786.  Stuudlin  im  KHlat  Arch.  1824  vol.  II.  P.  II. 
EircJihofer,  Leben  Wilb.  Farels.  Zur.  1831s.  2  vols.  Ch.  Schmidt,  Etudes  sur  Farel.  Strasb.  1&34  4 
Ch.  Chenemere,  Farel,  Froment,  Viret  Eefonnatcure  religieux.  Gen.  1885.  Jaquemot,  Viret  E6- 
formateur  de  Lausanne,  Strasb.  1S36.  4.  ItucJiat  and  Merle  ffAubignl.  [Hist  of  the  Eef.  In  Switz. 
and  France.  New  York.  1S47. 12.  (p.  860.)  /  Spon,  Hist  of  the  City  and  State  of  Geneva,  &c.  coll. 
from  MSS.  &c.  Lond.  1687.  f.] 

The  reformed  faith  had  been  preached  after  1527  on  the  borders  of  Savoy 
and  France.  The  people  of  Geneva  regarded  the  bishops  appointed  over 
them  by  the  Dukes  of  Savoy  as  the  uniform  and  stanch  enemies  of  their 
municipal  rights.  After  many  severe  disturbances,  however,  the  influence 
of  Savoy  was  finally  overthrown  by  means  of  an  alliance  with  Berne,  the 
Reformation  was  triumphantly  successful,  and  Geneva  became  a  member  of 
the  Swiss  Confederation  (1535).  After  the  victory  of  the  people  of  Berne 
in  the  Canton  de  Vaud,  the  Reformation  triumphed  there  also,  and  subse- 
quently to  a' religious  conference  at  Lausanne  (Oct.  1536)  was  formally  intro- 
duced. At  the  head  of  this  religious  movement  stood  Farel  (d.  1565),  a 
native  of  Dauphine.  He  had  been  educated  in  liberal  studies,  but  to  only  a 
limited  extent,  under  the  instruction  of  Faber,  and  had  taken  part  in  all  the 
controversies  respecting  the  Reformation  in  the  surrounding  country.  In 
word  and  in  deed  he  may  be  said  to  have  been  an  Elias,  who,  though  often 
in  danger  of  death,  overthrew  an  ecclesiastical  system  which  he  regarded  as 
idolatry.  In  comparison  with  his  style  of  speaking,  the  vigorous  eloquence 
of  Viret  had  the  appearance  of  only  a  mild  persuasion.  The  constitution  of 
Geneva,  however,  still  continued  unsettled,  the  morals  of  the  people  disso- 
lute, the  people  themselves  uncultivated,  and  even  the  higher  degrees  of  edu- 
cation corrupt. 

§  346.    John  Calvin.    July  10,  1509-May  27,  1564. 

I.  Epp.  et  responsa.  Gen.  1576.  f.  Opera.  (Gen.  1617.  12  vols.  f.)  Amst  1671.  (1667.)  9  vols.  t 
Calvini,  JSesae,  Henr.  IV.  aliorumque  literae  quaedam.  ed.  BretschneicLer,  Lps.  1835.  L'hist  de  la 
vie  et  mort  d.  J.  Calv.  par  Theod.  de  Size,  Gen.  1564.  4  1565.  Lat  in  the  Epp.  and  often.  Epi- 
grams: Solsec,  Hist  de  la  vie  de  Calv.  Par.  1577.  and  often.  Gon.  1835.  [Beza's  Life  of  C.  transL 
by  F.  Gibson,  and  notes  by  an  Am.  Ed.  Philad.  1S86.  12.] 

6)  De  Wette  vol.  V.  p.  83ss.        c)  Walch  vol.  XVII.  p.  2529ss.  p.  2627ss. 

d)  Kurzes  Bek.  v.  h.  Sacr.  Witt  1544.  4  (Walch  vol.  XX.  p.  lOOlss.) 

e)  Corp.  Rff.  vol.  V.  p.  475. 

/)  At  first  in  the  Eesponsio  ad  narrat  Wurtemburgensinm  de  colloq.  Maulbrun.  Hdlb.  1565. 
On  the  other  side :  K.  Strobel,  die  Legende  v.  Luth.  Uebertrltt  z.  Calvinism.  (Zeitsch.  f.  Luth.  Theol 
u.  K.  1840.  H.  2.) 


CHAP.  I.  REFORMATION.  §  346.  CALVIN.  BEZA.  40  J 

IT.  Bretschneider,  Bildung  u.  Gcist  C.  u.  d.  Gonfer  K.  (Kef.  Aim.  1821.)  P.  Henry,  Leben  G 
Ilamb.  1835-44  8  vols.  [Life  of  Calvin,  transl.  from  the  Germ,  of  P.  Henry  by  H,  StebMng,  Lond. 
1852.  2  vols.  8.]  J.  A.  Mignet,  d.  Einf.  d.  Kef.  u.  d.  Vcrf.  d.  Calvinism  in  Genf.  A.  d.  Fr.  v.  Stole, 
Lpz.  1843.  [J.  Mackenzie,  Life  of  C.  Lond.  1831.  12.  T.  Smyth,  Obss.  on  the  Life  and  Char,  of  0. 
Philad.  1835. 18.  Art  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit  vol.  III.  and  VII.] 

Calvin  (Cauvin)  was  a  native  of  Noyon  in  Picardy,  and  was  always 
ardently  attached  to  France.  He  was  originally  educated  for  the  Church, 
and  even  when  a  boy  had  the  charge  of  a  congregation.  At  a  later  period 
he  acquired  some  distinction  as  a  jurist,  and  finally,  under  the  influence  of 
the  Eeformation,  became  a  theologian.  In  consequence  of  a  bold  declaration 
in  behalf  of  the  Reformation,  which  »he  made  through  the  Eector  of  Paris, 
he  was  obliged  to  become  a  fugitive  (1533),  and  published  at  Basle  his  Insti- 
tutes of  the  Christian  Eeligion,  in  which  his  object  was  to  vindicate  the 
Reformation  from  the  aspersions  cast  upon  it  in  France.  This  work  was 
even  then  complete  with  respect  to  Christian  doctrine,  but  by  subsequent 
revisions  it  became  the  noblest  scientific'vindication  of  evangelical  Augustin- 
ism  which  has  ever  been  given  to  the  world,  and  is  full  of  profound  religious 
sentiments  in  connection  with  a  bold,  relentless  carrying  out  of  his  principles 
to  their  utmost  logical  consequences.  (<z)  From  the  very  fact  of  the  abso- 
lute omnipotence  of  God  and  the  absolute  dependence  of  men,  he  inferred 
that  God  had  by  an  eternal  decree  created  some  for  salvation  and  others  only 
equally  guilty  for  destruction.  "With  respect  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  he  struck 
out  an  intermediate  sch.eme,  according  to  which  believers  spiritually  though 
really  partake  of  the  very  body  of  Christ  which  was  exalted  to  the  right 
hand  of  God.  His  representation  of  the  controversy  was  mild,  and  the  posi- 
tion which  he  gave  to  Luther  was  far  superior  to  that  which  he  assigned  to 
Zwingle.  (&)  Having  wandered  for  some  time  without  any  fixed  residence  in 
various  parts  of  Italy  and  France,  Calvin  was  authoritatively  stopped  by 
Farel  in  the  name  of  God  as  he  was  passing  through  Geneva  (1536).  As  he 
believed  himself  by  nature  too  much  inclined  to  tenderness  and  timidity,  he 
fortified  his  powerful  mind  by  a  faith  as  severe  against  others  as  himself.  He 
gradually  became  more  and  more  austere  toward  those  who  opposed  him,  and 
shrunk  not  from  making  use  of  even  the  most  formidable  measures  against 
them,  (c)  He  was  not  destitute  of  profound  sensibilities,  but  he  was  averse 
to  all  earthly  enjoyments,  indifferent  to  popular  favor,  and  exercised  a  com- 
plete control  over  the  minds  of  others  by  the  awe  inspired  by  the  simple 
power  of  a  firm  will,  and  after  a  three  years'  banishment  (1538ss.)  by  the 
terrors  of  an  ecclesiastical  discipline.  His  opponents,  the  Libertines,  were 
partly  those  who  had  succeeded  the  Fraternity  of  the  Free  Spirit  (Spirituels), 
and  had  embraced  all  the  practical  consequences  of  the  doctrine  of  a  sole 
universal  Spirit,  to  whom  all  things  and  events  were  to  be  ascribed,  (d)  and 
partly  of  those  who,  with  various  degrees  of  moral  character,  were  anxious 
to  avoid  the  heavy  yoke  of  the  Eeformation.  (e)  By  the  theocratic  power 

a)  Instltutio  chr.  religionis  ad  Keg.  Franc.  Bas.  1536.  Argent  1539.  Gen.  1559.  f.  and  oft  den.  ed» 
Tlwluck,  Ber.  1834s.  2  P.    [Transl.  into  Engl.  2  vols.  8.  Philad.  1841.  and  often.] 
Z>)  De  s.  Coena.  1545.  at  first  in  Fr.  1540.  Comp.  Henry  vol.  I.  p.  270s. 

c)  Henry  vol.  H.  p.  425ss.  485ss.  439ss. 

d)  Calv.  Instructio  adv.  fanaticam  sectam  Libcrtinorum  5i4. 

e)  Henry  vol.  L  p.  431ss. 

26 


402  MODEBN  CHUKCH  HISTOET.  PEE,  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

which  Calvin  established  over  the  state,  but  which  sometimes  wavered ;  by 
the  public  interest  which  he  awakened  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  by  the 
establishment  of  a  representative  constitution  intimately  connected  with  the 
civil  power,  he  gave  to  his  ecclesiastical  system  a  strictly  regulated  freedom. 
By  his  published  writings,  by  his  personal  counsels,  by  his  public  services, 
and  by  the  theologians  whom  he  educated,  his  influence  triumphed  over  the 
Zwinglian  school,  extended  itself  far  beyond  the  limits  of  Switzerland,  and 
subjected  even  the  people  of  Zurich  to  its  power.  (/)  Through  his  influence 
Geneva  became  a  republic,  firmly  established,  governed  by  an  oligarchy,  per- 
vaded by  an  ecclesiastical  spirit,  and  renowned  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Thither  resorted  all  who  during  that  age  were  persecuted  for  their  faith,  and 
it  became  the  acknowledged  centre  of  a  Reformed  Church,  (g)  His  work 
•was  faithfully  carried  out  by  Theodore  Beza  (1519-1605),  who  had  risen  to 
maturity  in  the  most  brilliant  circumstances  in  France,  and  as  a  promising 
Humanist  had  like  Abelard  enjoyed  at  one  period  the  highest  pleasures  of 
science  and  of  social  life,  but  had  at  last  found  safety  in  the  Reformed 
Church.  He  there  became  the  faithful  colleague  of  Calvin,  but  he  was  more 
beloved.  With  his  reformatory  views  he  combined  his  former  humanistic 
culture,  (A)  and  finally  attained  an  extensive  literary  and  ecclesiastical  influ- 
ence, which  made  him  the  patriarch  of  the  Reformation  to  the  succeeding 
generation,  (i) 


CHAP.  H.— ESTABLISHMENT    OF  A  PROTESTANT    ORTHODOXY. 

I.   LUTHERAXISM. 

ScJduaselburg,  Catalog!  Haereticor.  Frcf.  1597-9.  13  L  (7  vols.)  J.  Musaei  PraclL  in  Epit  F. 
Cone.  Jen.  1701.  4  Losc/ier,  (§  835.)  fortges.  v.  Killing,  (till  1601.)  Schwab.  1770.  4  J.  G.  Walch, 
hist  n.  theol  Einl.  in  <L  E.  Streltigkeiten.  3  ed.  Jen.  1773.  8  vols.  Planck :  prot.  Lehrbeg.  4-6  vola. 
and  Gesch.  d.  prot  Th.  v.  d.  Concordient  b.  Mitte  d.  IS.  Jahrh.  Gott  1831.  IT.  Heppe,  Gcsch.  d. 
deutschen  Protest  1555-81.  Marb.  18523.  (till  1574)  2  vols. 

§  347.     Antinomian  and  Osiandrian  Controversies. 

I.  Walch  vol.  XX.  p.  2014ss.    Corp.  Ref.  vol.  I.  p.  915ss.    Itateberger,  p.  96ss.    Fdrstemann, 
neues  Urkundenb.  voL  L  p.  291ss.— C.  L.  Nitztch,  de  antinomismo  Agr.  2  Pgg.  Vit  1804  4    (De 
diser.  revelat  Vit  1S31.  Fsc.  IL  N.  9s.)    A.  Wewetzer,  de  antin.  Agr.  Strals.  1829.  4    JK  J.  Nitzsch, 
u.  Gesetz  n.  Ev.  (Deutsche  Zeitscbr.  1851.  N.  10.)    E.  Ehcert,  de  antinomia  Agr.  Tur.  1S37.— .S. 
Kordes,  Agr.  Schrr.  moglichst  vollstandig  verzeichnet  Altona.  1817. 

II.  Acta  Osiandristica.  Kcinigsb.  1553.  4     F.  Funccii,  wahrh.  Bericht,  wie  d.  Spalt  v.  d.  Ge- 
rechtigk.  d.  GL  sich  im  L.  Preussen  erhoben.  Koen.  1553.  4.    J.  Moerlin,  Hist  d.  Os.  Schwermerey. 
(Bruschw.  1554)  \.—Hartknoch,  Preuss.  KGesch.  FrkC  1686.  4  p.  80938.    F.  C.  Baur,  Inq.  in  Os. 
de  justif.  doctr.  Tub.  1831.  4    J.  C.  Lehnerdt,  de  Os.  vita  et  doctr.  Ber.  1835.    Jbid.  Cmtt.  de  Os. 
1835SS.  4  Pgg.    K  Wilken,  Os.  Leben,  Lchre  u.  Schrr.  Abth.  1.  Strals.  1844  4 

Luther's  fundamental  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  was  quite  as 
much  opposed  to  moral  levity  as  to  ascetic  self-torture.    It  caused  the  mind  tc 

/)  Consensus  Tigurinus.  1549.  Niemeyer,  Col.  Conf.  p.  191ss.  c£  XLIss.  Comp.  Hundeshagen. 
d.  Conflicte  d.  Zwinglianismus,  Lutberth.  u.  Calvinism  in  d.  Bernischen  Landesk.  Bern.  1842. 

g)  Henke,  12  BeiL  zu  Tillers. 

h)  E.  g.  Seza,  Icones,  i.  e.  imagines  virorum  doctrina  simul  et  pietate  illustr.  Gen.  1850. 4 

i)  Fajus,  de  vita  et  obitu  Th.  B.  Gen.  1606.— ScUosser,  Leben  des  Th.  de  Bcza  n.  P.  Martyr, 
Hdlb.  1809.  J.  W.  £aum,  Th.  Beza.  Lpz.  1848-51.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  II.    LUTHEEANISM.    §  847.  AGRICOLA.    OSIANDER.  403 

penetrate  deeper  into  its  own  nature,  and  conveyed  in  itself  the  highest 
moral  earnestness  and  the  most  cheerful  energy  of  a  new  life  in  Christ.  By 
its  very  nature,  however,  it  was  liable  to  be  misunderstood  by  its  friends  as 
well  as  its  enemies.  Agricola  of  Eisleben,  after  1536  a  professor  at  Witten- 
berg, and  after  1540  a  court  preacher  in  Berlin  (d.  1566),  contended,  in 
opposition  to  Melancthon  in  1527,  and  to  Luther  in  1537,  that  in  the  sphere 
of  Christianity  the  law  of  God  had  no  place,  and  hence  that  the  gospel, 
which  killed  as  well  as  quickened,  should  be  the  only  theme  of  preaching,  (a) 
He  had  reference  to  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  justification  by  works,  and  to 
the  Mosaic  law,  which  he  confounded  with  the  moral  law,  while  Luther  had 
reference  to  the  law  expressed  in  the  Decalogue,  and  in  the  conscience  as  a 
perpetual  schoolmaster  to  bring  us  to  Christ.  Agricola  was  probably  influ- 
enced by  an  idle  vanity  as  well  as  by  this  obscurity  of  views,  but  with  all  his 
talents,  his  cheerfulness  and  popularity,  he  humbled  himself  (Z>)  when  in  an 
independent  position  before  even  the  unjust  reproaches  of  Luther,  who  con- 
tended that  such  an  onset  upon  the  divine  law  was  dangerous  to  all  moral 
seriousness,  (c)  In  this  controversy,  however,  was  involved  the  deeper  prin- 
ciple, that  man  still  possessed  sufficient  moral  goodness  to  apprehend  what  is 
best  for  him  out  of  love  to  Christ,  without  the  fear  of  the  law  or  of  hell.  In 
this  we  may  discover  its  affinity  with  various  disputes  respecting  human  works 
and  divine  co-operation,  which  have  been  several  times  renewed  since  1556, 
but  always  with  the  same  obscurity  of  views. — To  guard  against  the  danger- 
ous error  that  Christ's  merits  merely  cover  our  sinful  nature,  and  are  im- 
puted to  the  believer  in  an  external  way,  Andreas  Osiander,  the  reformer  of 
Nureraburg,  and  a  man  remarkable  for  his  Scriptural  knowledge,  maintained 
that  Christ  becomes  our  righteousness  in  his  divine  nature  and  by  dwelling 
essentially  in  the  believer,  and  in  general,  that  if  man  had  never  fallen,  the 
incarnation  would  still  have  taken  place  to  complete  the  divine  image  in 
human  nature,  (d)  He  even  succeeded  in  producing  some  kindred  expres- 
sions of  Luther,  whicli  had  been  written  in  the  spirit  of  the  old  mysticism,  (c) 
and  Luther,  who  was  aware  of  his  morbid  sensibility,  declined  any  contro- 
versy with  him.  (,/)  But  when  he  was  by  the  operation  of  the  Interim 
driven  from  Nuremburg,  and  was  placed  by  his  friend  Albert,  Duke  of  Bran- 
denburg, at  the  head  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  Prussia ;  above  all  when  he 
proclaimed  his  doctrine  in  its  boldest  contrast  with  the  theological  sentiments 
of  Luther  and  the  other  reformers,  in  which  justification  was  always  repre- 
sented as  a  judicial  sentence  of  God  with  respect  to  the  believer,  (g)  nearly 
every  Lutheran  divine  denounced  his  position  as  a  relapse  to  the  Catholic 
amalgamation  of  divine  grace  with  human  merit.  In  Prussia,  Osiander  tri- 
umphed by  driving  his  opponents  into  banishment.  After  his  death  (1552), 


a)  18  Pcsitiones.  (Forstemann  vol.  1.  p.  313ss.) 
Z>)  Forstemawn  vol.  I.  p.  849. 

c)  6  Disputationes.  1538.  40.  (Luth.  Opp.  Jen.  voL  I.  p.  SITss.) 

d)  Heberle,  Os.  Lehre  in  ihrer  fruhesten  Gestalt.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1844.  H.  2.) 

0)  Etliche  schone  Spruche  v.  d.  KechtC  d.  Gl.  d.  Ehrw.  Luther,  verdolinctscht  v.  Osiand.  Koa. 
551.  4.       /)  De  Wette  vol.  IV.  p.  486. 

g)  Disputt  IL  una  de  lege  et  evang.,  altera  de  justi£  Eeg.  1550.  4.     Von  d.  elnigea  Mittlet  u. 
Bechtf,  Bek«nntnuss.  Kon,  1551.  4, 


404  MODEBN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648 

his  son-in-law  Funck,  at  the  head  of  a  party,  sought  and  obtained  reconcilia- 
tion with  those  who  belonged  to  Melancthon's  school.  But  as  all  invasions 
of  the  civil  as  well  as  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  were  imputed  to  him 
who  controlled  the  duke's  conscience,  a  political  party  favored  by  the  Polish 
feudal  sovereign,  combined  with  his  theological  enemies  against  him.  The 
controversy  was  terminated  by  thi  execution  of  Funck  (1566),  and  the  con- 
demnation of  Osiander's  doctrines  as  an  essential  heresy.  (7i) 

§  348.    Lutherans  and  Philippics.     General  Affairs. 

The  controversy  respecting  the  Lord's  Supper  had  given  to  the  Reforina- 
tion  a  tendency  toward  the  letter  of  the  creeds.  Luther  had  foreseen  that 
this  would  become  a  pernicious  source  of  theological  quarrels,  and  yet  he 
was  among  the  first  to  commence  them.  Melancthon  was  the  personal  friend 
of  Calvin,  on  whose  breast  he  had  often  reclined  his  weary  head,  (a)  A  con- 
ciliatory impression  had  also  been  made  upon  Luther's  mind  by  Calvin's  doc- 
trine of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  both  of  these  reformers  had  a  high  esteem  for 
one  another.  (5)  But  in  the  exasperation  which  Luther  felt  in  his  last  days 
toward  the  divines  of  Zurich,  all  who  would  not  recognize  the  natural  body  of 
Christ  in  the  sacred  Supper  were  looked  upon  as  belonging  to  the  same  gene- 
ral batch.  In  the  later  editions  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  Melancthon 
unconsciously  made  some  alterations  in  accordance  with  his  own  gradual  de- 
velopment. These  were  confined  principally  to  the  tenth  article,  in  which 
every  thing  inconsistent  with  the  views  prevalent  in  Upper  Germany  was 
obliterated.  This  "  explanatory,  and  in  some  respects  enlarged  Confession '' 
of  1540,  (e)  which  even  Calvin  subscribed  as  the  deputy  from  Strasbourg, 
became  henceforth  the  general  banner  of  the  Reformation.  "Without  noticing 
any  essential  change,  men  generally  regarded  it  in  the  same  light  as  the  Ori- 
ginal confession,  until  an  express  ratification  of  it  was  called  for  at  an  assem- 
bly of  princes  at  Naumburg  in  1561.  Here  a  declaration  in  favor  of  the 
unchanged  Confession  of  Augsburg  met  with  opposition  from  the  Duke  of 
Saxony,  and  gave  occasion  to  the  reproach  that  internal  divisions  prevailed 
among  the  Protestants.  A  new  generation  of  princes  therefore  united  to- 
gether  and  put  their  seals  to  the  old  confession,  (d)  Although  the  path  into 
which  Melancthon  was  led  by  Luther  was  more  elevated  than  what  he  would 
have  followed  if  he  had  been  left  to  himself,  it  was  in  some  respects  also 
uncongenial  with  his  peculiar  temperament.  But  even  during  Luther's  last 
years,  when  he  frequently  expected  to  be  sent  from  the  University,  and  some- 
times felt  himself  subjected  by  Luther's  stubborn  and  imperious  spirit  to  a 
rather  dishonorable  servitude,  (e)  he  was  actually  exerting  a  supreme  author  • 

h)  Historic  v.  Funk  ex  actis  pubL  (Acta  Borussica.  Kiin.  1T32.  vol.  IIL  p.  217.  811.  471ss.)— Corpus 
doctr.  Prutenicum.  1567. 

a)  Henry,  Calv.  vol.  L  p.  244ss.  868.  875. 

I)  C.  H.  Pezel,  Erzahl.  v.  Sacramentstr.  Brem.  1600.  p.  137ss.  What  has  been  cited  in  Henry, 
Calv.  vol.  I.  p.  265ss.  and  in  Ebrard,  Abendm.  vol.  II.  p.  474ss.  is  more  to  be  relied  upon. 

c)  Libri  Symb.  s.  Concordia.  ed.  JIase,  ed.  8.  p.  IX.  XIIss. 

d)  G.  P.  ffoenn,  d.  v.  d.  ev.  Standen  zu  Naumb.  geb.  Convents.  Frkf.  1704,    J.  H.  Gelbke,  d 
Furstentag.  zu  N.  Lps.  1793.    Heppe  vol.  I.  p.  864ss. 

e)  Corp.  Bef.  vol.  Y.  p.  474.  476s.  498.— voL  VI.  p.  880. 


CHAP.  II.    LUTHEEANISM.    §  848.  PHILIPPISM.    §  349.  SYNEEGISM.         405 

ity  at  "Wittenberg.  The  hearts  of  these  excellent  men,  however,  always 
affectionately  returned  to  each  other.  (/)  When  the  storm  of  war  had 
passed  away,  the  University  was  re-established  under  the  auspices  of  Melanc- 
thon,  and  the  system  of  doctrines  which  he  had  formed,  referring  every 
thing  to  man's  moral  and  religious  wants,  was  generally  adopted.  But  so 
deep  was  the  impression  which  Luther  had  left  upon  the  spirit  of  the  age, 
that  many  could  find  salvation  only  in  the  words  and  forms  which  he  had 
sanctioned.  Hence,  when  Melancthon  was  induced  by  his  attachment  to  the 
new  elector,  and  sometimes  by  his  forgetfulness  of  his  relations  to  the  world 
at  large  in  his  extreme  love  of  literary  tranquillity,  to  seek  for  an  easy 
method  of  establishing  peace  with  the  ancient  Church  by  means  of  the  Inter- 
im, Flacius  resigned  his  professorship  at  Wittenberg  (1548),  and  in  Magde- 
burg invoked  the  spirit  of  Luther  against  Melancthon's  perfidy  to  the  Church. 
This  proscribed  city  was  then  an  asylum  for  those  divines  who  felt  oppressed 
by  the  weight  of  Melancthon's  authority,  and  who  entertained  apprehensions 
for  the  purity  of  the  Lutheran  faith.  Even  when  the  adiaphoristic  contro- 
versy had  lost  all  practical  importance,  its  agitation  still  lingered  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  question  whether  any  but  indifferent  points  were  surrendered 
in  the  Interim,  and  whether  even  indifferent  things  may  be  surrendered  to 
the  enemies  of  the  gospel,  (g)  To  maintain  an  intellectual  contest  with  the 
new  electoral  house  and  with  Wittenberg,  then  suspected  of  being  possessed 
by  a  Calvinistic  devil,  and  to  constitute  a  fortress  for  genuine  Lutheranism  in 
general,  the  University  of  Jena,  with  a  charter  from  the  emperor  and  the  bless- 
ing of  heaven,  was  founded  (1548-58)  by  the  sons  of  John  Frederic,  who 
in  troublous  times  confided  in  the  future.  Qi)  Filled  with  anxieties  for  the 
harmony  of  the  Church,  Melancthon  was  finally  delivered  from  this  sophistic 
saeculum,  and  from  the  wrath  of  the  theologians  (April  19,  1560). 

§  349.    Synergistic  Controversy. 

Luther  opposed  to  the  requirement  of  merely  external  works  made  by 
the  Koman  Church,  and  to  the  Pelagian  notion  of  the  merit  of  human  acts, 
the  doctrine  that  good  works  were  not  indispensable  to  salvation.  To  pre- 
vent the  abuse  which  might  be  made  of  this  assertion,  Melancthon  asserted 
in  his  revised  Confession  of  1535,  that  good  works  were  truly  necessary,  but 
in  no  respect  meritorious.  Such  an  expression  had  been  disapproved  of  by 
Luther,  and  when  it  was  afterwards  incorporated  in  the  Interim,  it  was  capa- 
ble of  an  interpretation  favorable  to  the  necessity  of  good  works  in  the 
Catholic  sense.  Hence,  in  opposition  at  first?  to  Major,  who  used  it  to  sup- 

/)  Luther  in  the  Praef.  to  the -1st  vol.  of  the  "Witt  Opp.  and  in  his  last  Letters,  Mel.  in  his  Testa- 
ment of  1540.  (Corp.  Ref.  vol.  III.  p.  825.)  and  in  his  Funeral  Disc. 

g)  Wieder  d.  schnoden  Teufel,  d.  i.  wider  des  Interim  durch  Carolnm  Azariam.  1549.  4.  Flacii 
Scrr.  c.  Interim  et  adiaphora  edita.  Magdb.  1550.  Comp.  Biek  and  Schmid.  (§  841.)— On  Luther's 
side :  Rateeberger,  Hist  arcana,  given  by  Arnold  in  his  KGesch.,  and  last  by  Strobel,  Altd.  1774,  a 
falsification  of  the  genuine  work  of  the  Physician  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  On  the  Philippist  side : 
J.  Major,  Synodus  avium.  (Scripta  publ.  Acad.  Witt.  voL  III.  Epit  by  a  E.  Schwars,  in  Zeltsch.) 
f.  unirte  K.  1835.  N.  18. 

7i)  Melancth.  Briefw.  u.  d.  Grundung  d.  Univ.  Jena,  zusammengest  v.  H.  Weissentofn,  Jena. 
1848. 


406  MODEEN  CHUKOT  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  151M648. 

port  the  Interim,  Amsdorf  maintained  that  justification  by  mere  grace  was 
in  this  way  denied,  and  as  long  as  the  nature  of  good  works,  and  the  kind  oi 
connection  which  they  must  necessarily  have  to  salvation,  was  not  defined, 
he  succeeded  in  proving  with  Paul  that  good  works  were  pernicious  to  salva- 
tion, (a)  just  as  he  afterwards  asserts  the  same  thing  of  human  learning.  (5) 
This  obscurity  of  thought  and  bitterness  of  feeling  was  only  increased  at  a 
religious  conference  at  Alteriburg  (1568).  (c)  Luther  had  at  one  time  boasted 
much  of  the  absolute  omnipotence  of  God,  and  did  not  shrink  from  absolute 
predestination  as  the  necessary  inference  from  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of 
original  sin.  But  Melancthon,  that  he  might  avoid  at  the  same  time  the  ter- 
rors of  this  doctrine  and  those  of  Pelagianism,  began  to  maintain  in  1535,  in 
more  and  more  decided  terms,  that  in  conversion  the  will  of  man  consented 
and  conspired  with  the  grace  of  God.  Luther  had  been  silent  upon  this 
'subject,  for  his  own  heart  was  a  witness  to  him  against  his  system,  and  in 
behalf  of  the  universality  of  divine  mercy.  In  the  Interim,  this  Synergism 
was  incorporated  as  a  concession  to  the  Catholic  Semi-Pelagianism.  A  work 
having  been  published  at  Leipsic  by  Pfeffinger  in  favor  of  this  synergistic 
doctrine,  Amsdorf  publicly  opposed  it.  (d)  The  professors  at  "Wittenberg 
were  obliged  to  defend  Pfeffinger's  party.  On  the  other  hand,  those  at  Jena, 
led  on  by  Flacius,  took  up  the  controversy  and  endeavored  to  prove  that  the 
natural  man  could  never  co-operate  with  the  divine  influence  in  the  heart, 
but  was  always  in  opposition  to  it.  In  accordance  with  the  sentiments  of 
this  party,  a  confutation  of  all  the  heresies  which  then  survived,  and  espe- 
cially of  Synergism,  was  sent  forth  for  the  acceptance  of  the  evangelical 
states,  with  the  authority  of  the  ducal  court,  (e)  But  even  at  Jena  there  was 
a  party  favorable  to  this  Synergism,  and  Victorine  Strigeliw,  its  leader,  was 
violently  thrown  into  prison.  (/)  By  various  solicitations,  however,  the 
court  was  induced  to  allow  a  disputation  to  be  held  at  Weimar  between  * 
Strigelius  and  Flacius  (1560).  (?)  In  opposition  to  the  inquisitorial  tribunal 
of  Flacius  at  Jena,  a  ducal  consistory  was  established  at  Weimar,  to  which 
was  committed  the  censorship  of  the  press  and  the  exclusive  right  of  excom- 
munication. When  the  party  of  Flacius  in  the  name  of  Christ  complained 
of  this  subjugation  of  the  Church,  demanded  that  the  liberty  of  the  press  as 
a  divine  right  should  be  restored,  and  in  their  appeals  to  the  people  opposed 
with  increasing  violence  this  papacy  of  the  princes,  (li)  they  were  banished  from 

o)  Dass  die  Propositio:  gate  Werke  sind  z.  Beligk.  schfidlicb,  eine  rechte  chr.  Prop,  sei,  durch  d. 
h.  Paullum  u.  Lutherum  gepredigt  Without  place.  1569.  4 

6)  Wie  christlich  u.  treulich  Hesshus.  m.  d.  H.  Schrift  u.  mir  handelt  Magdeb.  1564.  4 

c)  Acta  colloquii  Altenb.  Lps.  1570.  t—Lober,  ad  H.  coll.  Altenb.  animadvv.  Alt  1776.  4.    Ma- 
joris  Opp.  1569.  8  vols.  f.  with  antobiog.  in  the  1st  vol. 

d)  P/efflnger,  Propos.  de  lib.  arbitrio.  Lps.  1556.     Amsdorf,  offentl.  Bek.  d.  reinen  L.  d.  Ev.  u. 
Confutatio  d.  jetzigen  Schwarmer.  Jen.  1553. 

e)  Solida  ex  verbo  Dei  sumta  confutatio  et  condemnatio  praecip.  corruptelarum,  sectarum  et  erro- 
rum.  Jen.  1559.  4.  (Corpus  doct  Thuring.) 

/)  H.  Erdmann  (Pr.  J.  Gerhardo)  de  Strig^lianismo.  Jen.  1658.  Han.  1675.  4  Merz,  (Pr.  Weis- 
manno)  H.  vitae  et  controv.  Strig.  Tub.  1732.  4  J.  C.  T,  Otto,  de  Strig.  liberioris  mentis  in  Ecc. 
luth.  vindice.  Jen.  1843. 

0)  (Sim.  Musaeus)  Disp.  inter  Flac.  et  Viet  Vinariae  habita.  Brem.  1563.  4  (Unsch.  Nach.  1740.  p. 
583.)  (Flacius)  Erzahl.  \vie  d.  Streit  Victorini  endlich  geschlichtet  worden.  Without  place.  1568.  4 

7t)  Eesp.  pro  prelorum  libertate.  Jen.  1561.  and  others.— Salig  vol.  IIL  p.  630ss.  Planck  vol.  IV 
p.  61283. 


CHAP.  II.    LUTHERANISM.    §  850.  CEYPTO- CALVINISM.  407 

the  country  (Dec.  1561),  and  the  theological  faculty  was  filled  by  the  advica 
of  the  party  at  Wittenberg.  But  when  the  unfortunate  Duke  John  Frederic 
was  overthrown  (1567),  the  opponents  of  the  school  of  Melancthon  were 
once  more  triumphant.  The  friends  of  Flacius  were  recalled,  though  he 
himself  remained  in  exile.  In  the  disputation  which  he  had  held  in  Weimar, 
lie  had  been  urged  to  the  assertion  that  original  sin  was  the  very  essence  of 
man.  But  when  he  attempted  to  establish  this  extravagant  assertion,  which 
was  at  the  time  fyut  slightly  considered,  and  as  an  indefinite  expression  of 
feeling  was  by  no  means  unprecedented,  it  was  supposed  to  imply  that  either 
God  was  the  author  of  sin,  or  that  man  was  created  by  the  devil.  Hence 
even  the  former  friends  of  Flacius  became  his  bitter  opponents.  (*)  Avoided 
as  this  man  seems  to  have  been  by  the  society  of  his  day,  he  was  the  inti- 
mate friend  of  Luther,  and  possessed  the  very  spirit  of  a  Gregory.  He 
opened  the  path  to  every  kind  of  knowledge  then  regarded  as  indispensable 
to  Protestant  science,  but  expended  his  talents  upon  the  smallest  trifles  and 
the  most  useless  controversies,  and  died  at  last  in  extreme  poverty.  (Jc) 

§350.     Crypto- Calvinism.     Gont.  from  §  344. 

Losclier  and  others,  before  §  335.— Peuceri  Hist  carcerum  et  liberations  div.  ed.  Pezel,  Tig. 
IWS.—Frimel,  Witteberga  a  Calv.  divexata  et  divinitus  liberata  d.  i.  Ver.  wie  der  sacram.  Teufel  in 
Bachsenland  eingedrungen.  Witt.  1646.  4—  Waleh,  Bibl.  Theol.  vol.  II.  p.  58Sss.  Eichstadii  Nar.  de 
0  Peuc.  Jen.  1841.  4.  E,  A.  H.  Heimburg,  de  C.  Peuc.  Jen.  1841. 

Although  by  continual  conflicts  with  himself,  Melancthon  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  believing  that  the  actual  body  of  Christ  was  present  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  (a)  he  decidedly  refused  all  fellowship  with  Zwingle's  imaginary 
Christ.  (5)  By  the  suggestion  at  first  of  Bucer  (1534),  he  regarded  it  as  suf- 
ficient to  believe  that  the  whole  Christ  was  present,  and  was  imparted  in  the 
sacred  ordinance,  and  yet  he  did  not  hesitate  to  call  this,  in  the  language 
ordinarily  used  in  the  Eoman  Church,  a  communication  of  the  flesh  and 
blood  of  Christ,  (c)  He  accordingly  maintained  fellowship  with  the  divines 
of  Zurich,  (d}  even  when  Luther  had  once  more  renounced  it ;  and  as  he  was 
convinced  that  neither  Lnther's  nor  Calvin's  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  was 
an  insuperable  bar  to  a  saving  communion  with  Christ,  he  thought  he  might 
comply  with  the  suggestions  of  his  own  timidity  and  inclination,  and  allow 
both  of  them  to  continue  in  the  Church.  Hence,  when  Westphal  of  Ham- 
burg furiously  assailed  Calvin  with  the  assertion  that  the  real  incarnate  body 
of  Christ  was  present  in  the  bread, — when  he  saw  the  noble  John  of  Laski, 
who  believed  not  only  in  the  symbol  but  in  the  mystery  of  the  sacrament, 
with  his  foreign  congregation,  driven  from  England,  and  refused  an  asylum  in 
all  parts  of  Protestant  Germany  as  robbers,  poisoners,  and  martyrs  of  the 
devil, — and  when  Calvin  himself  solemnly  agreed  with  the  Confession  of  Augs- 

i)  Literary  history  in  Walch,  Bibl.  Theol.  vol.  II.  p.  597ss. 

k)  C.  Heldelin,  chr.  Predigt  u.  d.  Leiche  Hn.  Fl.  Martyrers  J.  Ch.  Frkf.  1575.  4.— (7.  If.  Lober, 
(Pr.  J.  Gerhardo)  de  Flacianismo.  Jen.  1653.  4.  J.  JB.  Hitter,  Fl.  Leben  u.  Tod.  Frkf.  u.  Lps. 
(1723.)  1725.  E.  A.  IT.  Heimburg,  de  Fl.  Illyr.  Jen.  1842.  Twesten,  FL  Illyr.  mit.  Beil.  v.  H.  Hos- 
tel, Brl.  1844.  E.  Schmid,  Fl.  Erbs.  Streit  hist.  lit.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1849.  H.  Is.) 

a)  Corp.  lief.  vol.  I.  p.  1106.        Z>)  Hid.  p.  1066. 1063. 1070. 1077. 1084 

c)  Ibid.  vol.  III.  p.  514.-vol.  IX.  p.  499.        d)  Hid.  vol.  V.  p.  842s. 


408  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-lfriS. 

burg  as  it  was  explained  by  its  own  author,  (e)  Melancthon  avoided  a  distinct 
declaration  of  his  sentiments  on  this  subject ;  (/)  and  it  was  not  until  the  doc- 
trine of  the  omnipresence  of  Christ's  body  (ubiquity),  which  had  been  hastily 
mentioned  by  Luther,  was  proposed  as  the  only  saving  basis  of  the  Holy  Sup- 
per, and  made  by  Brentz  the  law  of  the  Church  in  Wurtemberg,  (</)  that  ho 
expressed  his  disapprobation  that  such  novel  articles  in  such  provincial  Latin 
should  be  introduced  into  the  symbols  of  faith.  (A)  But  the  theological  school 
which  he  left  behind  him  thought  that  salvation  could  bo  obtained  only  in  a 
Calvinistic  sacrament,  and  was  opposed  to  another  which  looked  upon  Cal- 
vinism as  only  a  bridge  to  Mohammedanism,  and  supposed  that  their  eternal 
salvation  might  be  eaten,  and  that  a  personal  violence  was  inflicted  upon  tho 
God-man  when  the  consecrated  bread  or  wine  was  accidentally  injured,  (i) 
Those  belonging  to  the  former  school  were  sufficiently  numerous  in  Electoral 
Saxony  to  form  a  powerful  party  in  the  court  under  the  direction  of  Pcucer, 
a  learned  physician  and  a  member  of  the  elector's  privy  council.  The  effects 
of  this  controversy  in  Lower  Saxony  and  in  the  Rhenish  Palatinate  were  per- 
ceptible not  merely  in  the  theological  schism  which  it  produced  there,  but  in 
all  ecclesiastical  and  political  relations.  The  Elector  Augustus  avowed  his 
faith  in  Luther's  sentiments,  even  when  he  knew  not  precisely  what  they 
were.  The  Philippists  therefore  found  it  necessary  to  preserve  tho  sem- 
blance of  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  that  they  might  avoid  the  complaints  of  their 
opponents. .  Through  their  influence  the  elector  was  induced  to  bestow  legal 
authority  upon  a  collection  of  Melancthon's  writings,  (Jfc)  and  as  soon  as  ho 
had  attained  a  guardian  power  over  Jena,  to  expel  the  zealots  Wigand  and 
Ilesshusius  from  their  professorships  and  from  his  territories  (1673).  In  an 
anonymous  pamphlet,  which  appeared  without  the  co-operation  but  with  the 
recommendation  of  the  Philippist  professors,  Melancthon's  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  was  shown  to  be  the  only  true  one,  the  various  views  of  tho 
Lutherans  were  opposed  as  papistic,  and  the  remarkable  prosperity  which 
was  visible  in  the  Reformed  churches  in  and  around  Germany  was  pointed 
out  as  an  evidence  of  the  divine  favor  and  agreement  with  them.  (I)  The 
suspicions  of  the  elector  were  awakened  by  the  denunciations  of  the  princes 
on  account  of  this  book,  and  some  intercepted  letters  showed  that  the  object 
of  the  Philippists  was  to  draw  him  over  to  the  Calvinistic  faith.  The  re- 
ward which  the  divines  received  for  this  proceeding,  was  the  banishment  or 
imprisonment  of  themselves  and  all  who  favored  them  at  court.  Prayers 
were  offered  up  in  all  the  Saxon  churches  for  the  extermination  of  the  Cal- 
vinistic heresy,  and  a  medal  was  struck  in  commemoration  of  this  triumph 
t*f  Christ  over  human  reason  and  the  devil. 

e)  Hist  and  Lit.  In  Ebrard,  Abendm.  voL  II.  p.  63298. 
/)  Corp.  lief.  vol.  VIII.  p.  362.  vol.  IX.  p.  374. 

(/)  Confessio  et  doctr.  in  Due.  Wirt  do  vera  praesentia  corp.  J.  C.  (Acta  publ.  Ecc.  Wirt  ed. 
fyaff,  Tub.  1720.  4.  p.  334s.)  Br&nz  de  personal!  unione,  duarum  natur.  in  Ch.  1661.  4. 

h)  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  IX.  p.  1084.    Opinions  in  Fred.  III. :  Judicium  do  C.  Dom.  Heidelb.  1560. 

i)  Comp.  Heppe,  Protest,  vol.  II.  p.  8S5s.    Spiektrr,  Job.  Musculns.  (Zeitscb.  f.  hist  Th.  1849.  H.  8.) 

fc)  Corp.  doctr.  Philippicum  s.  Misnicum.  Lps.  1560.  f.  and  often. 

1)  Exegesis  perspicua  et  ferme  integra  controversiao  de  8.  coena.  Without  place  or  year.  (Ed.  by 
<he  publisher  Yogelein  at  Leips.  1574.  with  the  marks  of  a  Genevan  printer,  but  composed  by  the  Si- 
lesisu  physician  Joachim  Curaeus,  a  pupil  of  Melanctbon.)  Comp.  Heppe  vol.  IL  p.  403.  467s*. 


CHAP.  II.    LUTHEEANISM.    §  351.  ANDEEAE  FOEM  OP  CONCOED.         409 
§  351.    Efforts  at  Concord. 

JTospiniani  Cone,  discors.  Tig.  1607.  Gen.  167S.  f.    Uutteri,  Cone,  concors.  Yit.  1614.  f.  Lps. 
1690.  4.    Anton,  Gesch.  d.  C.  F.  Lps.  1779.  2  vote. 

The  Lutherans  were  now  victorious,  but  it  was  no  very  difficult  thing  for 
their  opponents  to  recover  themselves.  In  the  form  of  the  Eucharist  which 
had  been  forced  upon  the  churches,  the  sentiments  of  Melancthon  were 
represented  as  identical  with  those  of  Luther,  (a)  and  the  spirit  of  Melanc- 
thon still  reigned  in  the  churches  of  other  countries.  The  shame  which 
many  felt  on  account  of  these  internal  dissensions,  was  increased  by  the 
reproach  of  the  Catholics.  But  the  only  way  by  which  the  dogmatic  spirit 
of  that  age  could  think  of  attaining  unanimity,  was  by  a  confession  of  faith 
constructed  on  the  most  scientific  principles,  and  deciding  by  the  highest 
authority  the  controversies  then  agitating  the  Church,  and  all  others  of  infe- 
rior importance.  Jacob  Andreae,  the  indefatigable  and  pliant  but  tenacious 
chancellor  of  Tubingen,  endeavored  to  obtain  the  honor  of  completing  the 
Reformation  by  composing  such  a  work.  In  the  accomplishment  of  his  pur- 
pose he  turned  his  attention  especially  to  the  princes  of  the  several  coun- 
tries. (5)  He  was,  however,  repelled  by  both  Lutherans  and  Philippists, 
until,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  latter,  the  Elector  Augustus  became  a  leader 
in  the  affair.  After  various  assemblies  of  clergymen,  much  preparation  (c) 
and  many  corrections,  a  number  of  distinguished  divines  were  convened 
from  the  established  churches  of  different  provinces  in  a  monastery  at  Berg. 
In  the  last  revision,  performed  entirely  by  Andreae,  with  the  assistance  of 
Selnecker  and  Chemnitz,  who  had  been  educated  under  Philippistic  influ- 
ences, every  thing  which  looked  like  Philippism  was  stricken  out.  (d)  In 
this  manner,  with  the  utmost  caution  and  fear  of  exaggeration,  the  Form  of 
Concord  was  completed  on  the  28th  of  May,  1577.  The  Scriptures  are  recog- 
nized in  it  as  the  only  rule  of  faith,  but  their  entire  agreement  with  Luther 
is  presupposed.  Not  only  should  the  gospel  be  preached  as  the  only  means 
of  salvation,  but  the  law  should  be  proclaimed  as  a  terror  to  evil-doers,  for 
the  discovery  of  sin,  and  for  the  discipline  and  instruction  of  believers.  It 
concedes  that  there  are  indifferent  things  (Adiaphora)  in  religion,  but  it  con- 
tends that  in  times  of  persecution  even  they  may  be  connected  with  impor- 
tant consequences.  An  appropriate  distinction  is  drawn  between  justification 
by  faith  alone  and  the  subsequent  gradual  sanctification.  Good  works  are 
not  represented  as  indispensable  to  salvation,  but  as  the  necessary  conse- 
quences of  true  faith.  All  co-operation  on  the  part  of  man  in  the  work  of 
moral  improvement  is  denied,  but  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  original  sin  is 
set  forth  after  a  rejection  of  the  offensive  errors  of  Flacius,  in  immediate 
connection  with  that  of  the  universality  of  divine  grace,  with  no  attempt  to 

0)  Articles  of  Torgau:  Kurz  Bek.  u.  Art  v.  h.  Abendm.  Witt  1574.  4. 

1)  Jo.  Vol.  Andreae,  Fama  Andreana  reflorescens.  Arg.  1670. 12.    Le  Bret,  de  J.  A.  vita  et  mis- 
aionibus  pro  reformanda  Ecc.  Luth.  Tub.  1799.  4.    J.  C.  G.  Johannsen,  J.  A.  concordist  Thatigk. 
(Zeitsch.  f.  bist  Th.  1853.  IT.  3.) 

c)  Schwiibisch-siichs.  Concordie.  (Acta  et  scr.  Ecc.  Wurt  p.  SSlss.)  Maulbr.  Formel,  Torgischea 
Buch  (ed.  by  Semltr,  Hal.  1760.)    J. H.  Balthazar,  Hist  d.  Torg.  B.  Greifsw.  1741-4.  6th  pt 

d)  Chytraei  Epp.  Hannov.  1614.  p.  417.    Torg.  Buch,  Semler,  p.  7Sss.— #.  Queck,  de  Mart 
Chemnitio.  Jen.  1845. 


410  MODEEN  CHUBCn  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1645. 

reconcile  their  apparent  inconsistency.  Calvin's  hideous  doctrines  of  the 
Eucharist  and  of  Predestination  are  condemned,  and  the  Lutheran  doctrine 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  involving  the  omnipresence  of  Christ's  hody  by  virtue 
of  a  mutual  communication  of  the  attributes  of  his  two  natures  from  the 
time  of  his  conception,  was  sustained.  A  general  synod  for  deciding  upon 
the  new  creed  had  been  promised,  but  it  was  now  looked  upon  as  dangerous, 
and  was  finally  avoided.  The  Form  of  Concord  was  adopted  by  the  imperial 
Diet,  and  all  who  held  office  in  the  several  schools  or  churches  under  it  were 
required  to  subscribe  it.  («)  It  was,  however,  rejected  by  Hesse,  Nassau, 
Anhalt,  (/)  Pomerania,  Holstein,  (?)  Bremen,  Nuremberg,  Strasbourg,  and 
others,  on  the  ground  that  in  some  respects  it  was  too  rigid,  especially  when 
it  separated  two  much-beloved  heroes,  by  canonizing  the  one  and  making 
the  very  name  of  the  other  offensive,  and  yet  many  pastors  despised  it  be- 
cause they  regarded  it  as  too  lenient  and  too  fluctuating  in  its  meaning.  (//) 
Its  original  object  was  therefore  never  completely  attained,  and  it  became  to 
the  Calvinists  and  the  Catholics  a  convenient  object  of  ridicule,  under  the 
title  of  the  Form  of  Discord.  Even  Julius,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  had  taken 
a  deep  interest  in  this  affair  through  Chemnitz,  whose  administration  was 
characterized  by  so  many  prelatical  tendencies,  and  through  his  own  treasu- 
rer. But  his  secular  and  his  religious  interests  were  not  quite  identical,  and 
he  felt  himself  painfully  wounded  by  some  of  the  friends  of  the  Form  of 
Concord.  He  therefore  withdrew  from  the  support  of  that  Confession,  and 
neither  in  Helmstadt  nor  in  any  part  of  Brunswick  could  it  stand  by  its  own 
power,  (i)  But  besides  this  Form  of  Concord,  other  pieces  were  agreed  upon 
that  they  might  together  constitute  a  general  code  of  ecclesiastical  faith, 
viz. :  The  oecumenical  symbols  of  the  ancient  Church,  the  original  unchanged 
Confession  of  Augsburg  together  with  the  Apology,  the  Articles  of  Smal- 
kald,  and  Luther's  Catechisms.  This  Book  of  Concord,  with  a  preface,  and 
subscribed  with  the  names  of  as  many  of  the  imperial  states  as  were  of  the 
same  mind,  was  sent  forth  in  the  German  language  from  Dresden  on  June 
25,  1580,  and  ever  since  in  its  isolation  has  constituted  the  magna  cJiarta  of 
German  Lutheranism. 

§  352.    Reaction  of  Saxon  Calvinism. 

Beschr.  d.  calv.  Eotte,  die  rich  in  Sachsen  eingeschlichen.  Jena.  1591.   SammL  vennlsclit  Nachrr. 
E.  sachs.  Gesch.  Cbemn.  1767sa.  voL  IV.  V.    KiesHng,  (before  §  84T.) 

The  Philippists  in  Electoral  Saxony  were  neither  annihilated  nor  convinced 
that  they  were  wrong,  and  it  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  they  soon  ob- 
tained another  brief  victory  by  means  of  the  same  arbitrary  princely  power 
which  had  overthrown  them.  Christian  I.  (after  1586)  was  induced  by  his 
brother-in-law,  the  Elector  Palatine,  to  attempt  a  compromise  with  them. 

e)  Comp.  Johannsen,  d.  TJnterschr.  d.  C.  F.  in  Sachsen.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1847.  H.  1.) 
/)  Johannsen,  d.  freie  Protestantism,  im  Furst  Anhalt  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1846.  H.  2.) 

0)  Hid.  Schlesw.  Hoist  Stellung  z.  C.  F.  im  16.  Jhb.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1850.  H.  4.) 
h)  E.  g.  comp.  J.  Wiggers,  KGesch.  Mecklenb.  Parchim.  1840.  p.  170ss. 

1)  E.  L.  T.  HenTce,  d.  Univ.  Helmst  HaL  1838.  p.  12ss.    C.  6.  U.  Lenta,  d.  C.  F.  ira  Herzogt 
Braunschw.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1348.  II.  2.) 


CHAP.  II.    LUTHEEANISM.    §  852.  CEELL.    §  353.  HESHTJSIUS.    KEPLEE.      411 

His  chancellor,  Nicholas  Crcll,  who  then  directed  public  affairs  without  the 
counsel  of  the  nobles,  and  wished  to  be  called  neither  a  Lutheran  nor  a  Cal- 
vinist,  managed  in  such  a  way  as  gradually  to  effect  a  union  with  the  Re- 
formed Church.  All  controversial  quarrels  in  the  pulpit  were  forbidden,  the 
principal  offices  in  the  parishes  and  in  the  schools  were  filled  with  Philippists, 
exorcism  in  baptism  was  abolished  in  spite  of  the  murmurs  of  the  people,  no 
more  subscriptions  to  the  Book  of  Concord  were  obtained,  and  an  edition  of 
the  Bible  was  commenced  with  comments  in  the  spirit  of  Melancthon.  In 
the  midst  of  these  proceedings,  however,  the  young  prince  died  (1591),  and 
no  sooner  was  Duke  Frederic  "William  I.,  the  guardian  of  his  successor,  es- 
tablished in  the  regency,  than  rigid  Lutheranism  was  again  restored.  Arti- 
cles of  Visitation,  expressing  the  most  decided  opposition  to  Calvinism  and 
the  doctrine  of  predestination,  were  proclaimed  (1592),  and  all  officers  in 
Church  and  state  were  required  to  adopt  them  under  oath,  (a)  A  spirit  of  re- 
venge induced  the  nobles  to  offer  their  swords  as  instruments  of  the  rage  of 
the  divines,  and  after  an  imprisonment  of  ten  years,  Crell  was  beheaded  for 
high  treason.  (5) 

§  353.  /Spirit  and  Result  of  the  Doctrinal  Controversy. 
During  these  theological  controversies,  the  idea  became  generally  preva- 
lent that  the  principal  fruit  of  the  Reformation  was  a  clearly  defined  system 
of  doctrines,  for  the  purity  of  which  every  pastor  and  congregation  felt  respon- 
sible to  God.  Every  other  feeling  and  right  was  obliged  either  to  yield  to 
this,  or  to  identify  itself  with  it.  Undismayed  by  misfortunes,  and  hurling  his 
treatises,  sermons,  and  excommunications  against  his  enemies  at  home  and 
abroad,  Tileman  HesTiusius  was  seven  times  deposed  from  eminent  stations  in 
the  Church,  and  exiled  from  his  country.  But  the  literal  sense  >for  which  he 
zealously  contended  was  finally  turned  against  himself.  "Wigand,  who  had 
been  his  companion  in  controversy  and  excommunication  for  Christ's  sake, 
and  was  now  like  him,  and  by  his  assistance  a  Prussian  bishop,  denounced 
him  as  a  heretic,  and  overthrew  him  on  account  of  a  subtle  scholastic  formula. 
He,  however,  still  maintained  a  calm  and  dignified  consciousness  that  he  was 
struggling  in  the  service  of  his  Lord,  and  in  his  last  will  expressed  no  regret, 
except  that  he  had  not  punished  sinners  with  greater  severity,  and  had  not 
contended  against  factious  persons  with  an  intenser  zeal  (d.  1588).  (a)  Kep- 
ler (d.  1631),  who,  while  listening  to  the  harmonies  of  the  universe,  investi- 
gated the  laws  of  the  planetary  motions  that  he  might  with  devout  joy  make 
known  to  others  the  miracles  of  divine  wisdom,  and  would  rather  starve  than 
apostatize  from  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  was  driven  from  the  Lord's  fold 
as  an  unsound  sheep,  because  he  would  not  subscribe  the  articles  in  which  the 
Calvinists  were  condemned,  and  doubted  whether  the  body  of  Christ  was 
truly  omnipresent.  His  mother  also  died  in  fetters  under  the  accusation  of 

a)  Libri  Symb.  8  ed.  by  JTase,  p.  CXXVIIss.  85Tss. 

&)  JSlume,  Leichenpr.  u.  d.  castodirten  u.  enthaupteten  Dr.  N.  Cr.  Lps.  1601.  4.  His  controv. 
writings  in  Walch  vol.  II.  p.  594— Engelcken,  d.  N.  Cr.  Eost  1T24.  4.  ff.  G.  Hasse,  d.  Bedeut, 
d.  Crell'schen  Processes,  a  archiv.  Beitrr.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1848.  H.  2.)— Chr.  Gundermans 
zu  Leipzig  Klage  Pein  u.  Bekentdnis.  (satyr.  Gedicht.)  1592.  4. 

a)  J.  G.  Leuckfeld,  Hist  Heshusiana.  Quedlinb.  1716.  4. 


412  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

being  a  witch,  (J)  The  opposition  to  the  Form  of  Concord  gradually  disap- 
peared when  its  most  decided  opponents  went  over  to  the  Reformed  Church, 
but  the  schism  between  the  two  churches  became  permanent,  in  consequence 
of  the  food  which  was  then  so  plentifully  supplied  to  the  religious  passions 
of  the  people.  The  writings  of  Chemnitz  and  Hutter,  composed  in  the  spirit 
of  the  strictest  Lutheranism,  were  then  generally  esteemed,  and  supplied  tho 
place  formerly  occupied  by  the  theological  works  of  Melancthon.  (c)  Their 
ascendency  was  also  sustained  by  the  independent  authority  of  the  literature 
of  that  period.  John  Gerhard  (d.  at  Jena,  1687)  attained  the  dignity  of  a 
Protestant  ecclesiastical  Father,  in  consequence  of  a  happy  combination  of 
polemic  learning  and  quiet  devotion.  Tho  sphere  of  his  literary  and  official 
activity  was  very  extensive,  and  when  almost  every  tiling  seemed  to  be  in 
ruins  around  him,  his  talents  wore  devoted  to  the  work  of  preserving  and  au- 
thenticating what  ho  esteemed  useful  and  true,  (d)  But  the  youthful  energies 
of  Protestantism  were  much  impaired  even  in  the  midst  of  its  victories  by  these 
controversies,  and  Melancthon's  condemnation  as  a  heretic  was  felt  to  be  a  dark 
shadow  upon  the  original  principles  and  type  of  the  Reformation. 

II.  CALVINISM. 

Loscter,  (§  885.)  J.  G.  Walch,  hist  u.  theoL  Einl.  in  d.  Strcltig.  somlerlich  ausser  <1.  lutb.  K.  8 
ed.  Jen.  178888. 5  vols.  Ueppe,  (before  §  847.)  [Merle  d'Aullynt,  Spirit  of  the  Ecf.  Church,  Mis 
cell.  Writings.  New  York.  1840.  p.  245ss.] 

§  354.     German  Reformed  Church. 

After  the  violent  rejection  of  Philippism,  a  German  Reformed  Church 
sprung  up  in  the  midst  of  the  established  churches  where  it  had  prevailed, 
by  the  side  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Switzerland.  Although  it  originally 
did  not  expressly  adopt  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  and  never  received  the 
peculiar  stamp  of  Calvin's  character,  it  wore  a  Calvinistic  aspect,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  special  fellowship  with  Calvinistio  churches,  and  its  reception  of 
a  large  number  of  Calvinistic  refugees,  through  whom  its  institutions  becauio 
based  upon  the  exclusive  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  (a)  In  the  Palatinate, 
where  the  Reformation  received  its  original  character  also  from  the  influence 
of  Melancthon,  the  sovereignty  was  exercised  by  Frederic  III,  who  desired 
in  the  Eucharist  to  partake  of  nothing  but  an  entire  Christ,  with  all  his  bene- 
fits. After  the  disorders  excited  by  Heshusius'  efforts  to  establish  Lutheran- 
ism,  he  deposed  every  clergyman  (Aug.  1560)  who  would  not  accommodate 
his  views  to  those  of  Melancthon  (§  350.  nt.  A.),  and  after  the  diet  of  princes 
at  Naumburg  he  still  adhered  to  the  amended  Confession  of  Augsburg,  and 

5)  J.  v.  EreitscJiwert,  Job.  Keppler's  Leben  u.  Wirken.  Stuttg.  1831.  Comp.  Tholuck,  verm. 
Schrr.  vol.  II.  p.  3S4ss.  [Life  of  Keppler,  in  Lib.  of  Us.  Know.  Lond.  1833.] 

c)  Hutterus  redivivus,  by  K.  ffase,  1  ed.  Lps.  1848.  p.  88s. 

d)  Meditationes  sacrae,  1606. 12.  and  often.    Uebers.  v.  JT.  A.  Schmidt,  Brl.  (1827.)  1S37.    Loci 
th.  Jen.  1610-22.  9  vols.  4.  den.  ed.  Cotta,  Tub.  1762ss.  20  vols.  4.    Methodus  studii  th.  Jen.  1617.  ed. 
1 1654.    Schola  pietatis  d.  L  chr.  Unterrichtung,  was  vor  Ursachen  z.  GottseeL  bewcgen  sollen.  Jena. 
1623.  6  ed.  Nurnb.  1663.    Confessio  cath.  Jen.  1683-7.  4  vols.  4.  Frcf.  1679.  f.    Dispp.  quibus  dogmm. 
Calvinianor.  expenduntur.  Jen.  1638.  4— K  J.  Fischer,  Vita  J.  G.  Lps.  1723.    Hist  ecc.  p.  XVIL  in 
vita  J.  G.  illustr.  Lps.  1727. 

a)  Heppe,  d.  Charakter  d.  deutsch.-Eef.  K.  u.  d.  -Verb.  drs.  z.  Lutherth.  u.  Calv.  (Stul.  u.  Krtt 
1S50.  H.  3.) 


CHAP.  II.    CALVINISM.    §  854.  PALATINATE.    HESSE.  413 

introduced  into  the  churches  the  simplicity  and  chilliness  of  Switzerland 
(1562).  By  his  authority,  Ursinus  and  Olevianus  composed  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism,  which  was  soon  after  not  only  received  as  the  Creed  of  the  Ger- 
man Eeformed  Church,  but  has  been  highly  esteemed  in>  many  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  devotional  spirit  of  this  Confession  gives  prominence  to  the  doc- 
trine of  divine  Predestination  only  so  far  as  it  seemed  needful  to  console  the 
Christian  with  the  certainty  of  redemption,  and  to  that  of  the  Eucharist  only 
to  impart  an  assurance  of  communion  with  Christ,  (b)  At  the  religious  con- 
ference held  for  the  reconciliation  or  for  the  conversion  of  parties  at  Naul- 
brunn  (1564),  the  theology  of  Wiirtemberg  was  found  to  be  in  striking  con- 
trast with  that  of  the  Palatinate,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist  based 
upon  that  of  the  ubiquity  of  Christ's  body  exhibited  sufficient  power  to  divide 
the  Church,  (c)  Under  Louis  VI.  (1576)  Lutheranism  was  established,  but 
after  his  death  (1583),  the  Calvinistic  tendency  became  predominant.  The 
latter  also  triumphed  in  the  midst  of  violent  popular  commotions  in  Bremen 
(1561-81),  although  the  cathedral  was  finally  opened  (1638)  to  the  Lutherans, 
who  could  not  be  entirely  exterminated  there,  (d)  In  Anhalt,  the  ecclesias- 
tical establishment  of  the  Palatinate  was  adopted  from  attachment  to  Melanc- 
thon  (1596).  (e)  Under  a  similar  influence,  Nassau,  protesting  against  the 
monster  ubiquity  in  the  Eorm  of  Concord,  was  induced  to  adopt  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism  (1582),  and  in  consequence  of  its  relation  to  the  house  of 
Orange,  it  was  brought  to  accept  of  the  ecclesiastical  system  which  prevailed 
in  the  Netherlands  (1586).  (/)  Maurice,  the  learned  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  after  many  fruitless  efforts  to  reconcile  the  two  Churches,  compelled 
the  Lutheran  Church  to  adopt  such  improvements  (1605)  as  ultimately  brought 
them  into  the  Calvinistic  communion;  but  in  Upper  Hesse  Lutheranism  still 
prevailed,  (g)  Notwithstanding  many  disturbances,  the  established  churches 
generally  followed  the  form  of  reformation  adopted  by  their  respective  princes, 
for  no  alternative  was  allowed  their  ministers  but  either  to  preach  the  doc- 
trines embraced  by  the  civil  authorities,  or  to  leave  the  country.  John  Sigis- 
mund,  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  once  gave  his  oath  to  his  father  that  he 
would  never  forsake  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  oa  Christmas  1613,  he  re- 
ceived the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  court  church  in  Berlin,  ac- 
cording to  the  Calvinistic  ritual.  In  the  confession  of  faith  which  he  made 
(1614),  he  declares  that  in  professing  himself  of  the  Eeformed  Evangelical 
Church,  he  acted  without  regard  to  the  authority  of  human  names,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Holy  Spirit  through  the  Scriptures,  that  his  object  was  to 
sast  away  all  remnants  of  papal  superstition,  (K)  and  that  in  God's  cause  he 

Z>)  First  impression  in  German  and  Latin,  Heidelb.  1563.    Niemeyer,  Col.  Confess,  p.  LVII, 
890ss.— &  v.  Alpen,  Gesch.  u.  Lit  d.  Heid.  Cat  Erl.  1800.    Augusti  (411.)  p.  96ss. 

c)  (Ursinus)  Protocoll  d.  i.  Acta  d.  Gespr.  zu  Maulb.  Hdlb.  1565.  4.    Heppe,  Gesch.  d.  dt  Prot 
vol.  II.  p.  lisa. 

d)  Gerdes,  Hist  motuum  ecc.  in  civ.  Bremensi  temp.  Hardenbergii.  Gron.  1T56.    J.  H.  JDuntse, 
Gesch.  d.  fr.  Stadt.  Br.  Brern.  1843.  vol.  III.  p.  859ss. 

e)  Eepetitlo  Anhaltina.  15T9.     Niemeyer,  Col.  p.  612ss.    Beckmann,  Hist  d.  Furst  Anhalt 
Zerbst  ITlOss.  vol.  VL  p.  12188. 

/)  J.  H.  Steubing,  K.  u.  Ee£  Gesch.  d.  Oranien-Nass.  Lande,  Hadam.  1S04. 
g)  Heppe,  d.  Einfuhr.  d.  Verbesserungspunkte  in  Hessen.  1604-10.  Cass.  1S49. 
h)  Niemeyer  p.  LXXVII,  642ss. 


414  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTOBY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1C4S, 

wai  xiot  bound  by  his  previous  covenant.  Although  he  sought  to  indued 
otho/s  to  follow  him,  divested  the  University  of  Frankfort  of  its  Lutheran 
character,  and  abolished  the  legal  authority  of  the  Form  of  Concord,  he  only 
demanded  Christian  toleration  from  his  own  country  ;  and  yet  so  great  wan 
the  dissatisfaction  of  the  Lutheran  people  of  the  Marquisate  and  of  Prussia, 
that  however  beneficial  such  a  change  of  faith  may  have  been  to  his  foreign 
relations,  it  could  not  on  the  whole  have  been  recommended  on  the  score  of 
mere  expediency,  (i)  The  feelings  of  those  connected  with  the  Reformed 
party  were  much  more  decided,  and  those  Lutherans  who  went  over  to  it 
never  looked  upon  themselves  as  apostates,  inasmuch  as  they  still  firmly  ad- 
hered to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  (of  1540).  In  the  Religious  Peace  no 
mention  had  been  made  of  the  Reformed  Church,  but  its  members  claimed 
the  privileges  of  those  professing  a  faith  kindred  with  that  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession.  Accordingly,  in  the  negotiations  on  this  subject  at  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg  (1576),  and  under  the  influence  of  the  evangelical  spirit  of  Fred- 
eric III.,  the  Lutherans  did  not  venture  in  the  presence  of  the  Catholic  impe- 
rial party  to  repel  these  powerful  allies,  (fc) 

§  355.     The  Netherlands. 

G.  Brandt,  Hist  dcr.  Reformatie  de  Nederlanden.  Amst  (166338.)  16T7.  4  vols.  4  EngL  Loml. 
1720.  4  vols.  French,  Abstract  Amst  1780.  8  vols.  12.  D.  Gerdes,  H.  Ret  voL  IIL  Tpey  en  Der- 
mout.  Geschledenisscn  der  Nederlandsche  hervormde  Kerk.  Breda.  1819-27. 4  vols.— Correspondance 
do  Philippe  II.  snr  les  affaires  des  Paysbas,  publi6e  par  Gachard,  Par.  1843-61.  2  vols.  [Schiller, 
Revolt  of  the  Netherlands.  Now  York.  1847.  12.  T.  C.  Ch-nttan,  Hist  of  the  Netherl.  Phila<l. 
1881. 12.] 

The  Netherlands  were  inhabited  by  an  industrious  and  thriving  people, 
especially  jealous  of  their  municipal  and  provincial  rights,  and  according  to 
the  most  ancient  laws  were  regarded  as  a  fief  of  the  empire.  But  in  conse- 
quence of  a  connection  by  marriage  between  the  house  of  Hapsburg  and  the 
royal  family  of  Spain,  it  became  subject  to  the  Spanish  crown.  Such  a 
people  were  sure  to  welcome  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  way 
had  long  been  prepared  for  their  promulgation.  The"  first  step  was  taken  by 
the  general  diffusion  of  Luther's  writings,  but  as  the  people  were  more  con- 
nected with  Switzerland  and  France,  the  Reformed  faith  made  the  greatest 
progress  among  them.  Here  in  his  patrimonial  dominions,  Charles  V. 
evinced  the  strength  of  his  attachment  to  the  Church,  by  a  complete  enforce- 
ment of  the  edict  of  Worms.  Hundreds  died  in  prison  or  on  the  scaffold. 
"When  the  emperor  had  become  fatigued  with  the  cares  of  sovereignty  and 
of  life,  his  son  Philip  //.,  to  whom  he  surrendered  the  Netherlands,  and  to 
whom  all  civil  and  religious  liberty  was  equally  odious,  sent  thither  the  in- 
quisition for  the  extirpation  of  both.  The  heroes  of  the  nation  fell  beneath 
the  axe  of  the  executioner  or  the  knife  of  the  assassin.  After  enduring  in- 
credible hardships,  the  people,  with  their  swords  in  their  hands,  ventured  to 
demand  their  rights.  The  struggle  for  their  faith  was  in  some  respects  differ- 

t)  D.  H.  Hering,  hist  Nachr.  v.  d.  Anfang.  d.  ev.  ret  K  in  Brandenb.  u.  Preussen.  HaL  1774 
A.  Midler,  (§  337.  nt  c.)  p.  826ss.  Jf.  Helving,  Gesch.  d.  Prenss.  Btaata.  Lemgo.  1884.  voL  I.  p 

100788. 

«  Struve,  pffilz.  KHist  Cap.  5.  p.  189s. 


CHAP.  II.    CALVINISM.    §  356.  DOET.    AEMINIUS.    GEOTIUS.  415 

ent  from  the  civil  war  in  which  they  contended  for  their  ancient  rights,  hut 
hoth  were  carried  on  under  the  skilful  direction  of  the  heroic  prince  of 
Orange.  The  ornaments  found  in  the  ancient  churches  were  entirely  de- 
stroyed. The  seven  northern  provinces  in  which  German  manners  and  an 
evangelical  faith  prevailed,  formed  (15T9)  a  confederation  called  the  Union 
of  Utrecht.  The  civil  and  religious  freedom  of  these  provinces  was  not, 
however,  acknowledged  by  Spain  until  it  became  so  completely  exhausted 
that  it  was  obliged  to  conclude  an  armistice  (1609). 

§  356.  Synod  of  Dort.    Nov.  13,  IQIQ-end  of  May,  1619. 

Acta  Synodi  nationalia  Dordrecht!  hab.  Lugd.  B.  1620.  f.  Han.  1620.  4.  Acta  et  scr.  synodalia  Ee- 
monstrantium.  Harder.  1620.  4.  ffale&ii  Hist  Cone.  Dordraceni,  ed.  Modhem.  Hmb.  1724.  Epp. 
praestant.  et  erud.  virorum  ecc.  et  tlieol.  Amst  (1660. 1684.)  1704.  f.  Litterae  delegatorum  Hassiacor 
ad  Landgrav.  missae.  ed.  ab  H.  Heppe,  (Zeitsch.  £  hist.  Th.  1853.  H.  2.)— J.  Regeriboog,  Hist  d.  Ee- 
monstranten.  Amst  1774.  3  vols.  a.  d.  Holl.  (v.  Cramer.)  Lemgo.  1781.  2  vols.  M.  Graf,  Beitrr.  z. 
Gesch.  d.  Syn.  v.  Dord.  Bas.  1S25.  [Artt.  of  the  Syn.  of  D.  with  the  Hist  &c.  by  the  States-Gen. 
from  the  Lat  by  T.  Scott,  Utica.  1831. 12.  2T.  Ckatelain,  Hist.  d.  Syn.  d.  Dordrecht  Par.  1841.  8.] 

In  the  University  of  Leyden,  established  under  the  influence  of  the  Re- 
formation, the  spirit  of  Zwingle  came  into  open  conflict  with  the  victorious 
spirit  of  Calvin.  Arminius  (d.  1609)  having  become  perplexed  with  respect 
to  the  doctrine  of  unconditional  predestination,  Gromarus  defended  it  against 
him.  (a)  Both  became  leaders  of  opposite  parties,  and  when  Arminius  at- 
tempted to  establish  an  ecclesiastical  peace  among  those  congregations  which 
had  abandoned  the  papacy  on  the  basis  of  a  few  simple  articles  selected  from 
the  Scriptures,  and  regarded  as  essential  to  salvation,  the  effect  was  to  threat- 
en the  young  Church  and  republic  of  the  Netherlands  with  an  open  division. 
A  justification  of  their  creed,  called  the  Remonstrance,  was  presented  (1610) 
by  the  party  of  Arminius  to  the  assembled  states  of  Holland  and  "West  Fries- 
Land.  (5)  But  as  most  of  the  ministers  had  been  educated  at  Geneva,  Calvin- 
ism had  the  ascendency  among  the  clergy,  and  through  their  influence  among 
the  common  people,  to  whom  the  merits  of  the  controversy  were  unknown. 
But  the  venerable  Oldenbarneveld  and  Hugo  Grotius,  who  as  a  humanist 
and  a  statesman  had  paid  some  attention  to  theology,  were  at  that  time 
political  leaders  in  the  republican  party,  and  were  the  protectors  of  the  Re- 
monstrants, (c)  This  was  sufficient  to  induce  Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange,  the 
Stadtholder  and  the  General  of  the  Republic,  then  striving  to  attain  the 
supreme  power,  to  form  a  connection  with  the  Calvinists.  A  synod  was 
called  by  the  States-General  for  the  determination  of  the  controversy. 
Although  all  the  Reformed  churches  except  that  of  Anhalt  were  invited  to 
take  part  in  its  deliberations,  the  number  of  foreign  deputies  actually  present 
was  very  small  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  members  from  the  Nether- 
lands. Even  before  the  synod  was  opened,  the  Prince  of  Orange  by  an  act 

a)  Arminii  Opp.  theoL  L.  B.  1629.  4.  and  often.  [Works  of  J.  Arm.  ed.  by  J.  NicTiols,  Load.  9 
vols.  8.]  G.  Brandt,  Hist  Yitae  Arminii,  ed.  Moshem.  Brunsv.  1725.  [IT.  Bangs,  Life  of  Armin'.us. 
Now  York.  1844.  12.  Life  and  Works  of  A.  publ.  in  Auburn,  1852.  2  vols.  8.] 

&)  In  Lat  in  the  Epp.  praest  et  erud.  Virorum,  ed.  2.  p.  145. 

c)  H.  Luden,  Hugo  Grotius  nach  Schicks.  u.  Schrr.  Brl.  1805.  [M.De  Buriguy,  Life  of  H.  Gro- 
tius, transl.  from  Fr.  Lend.  1754.  8.] 


416  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  Y.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

of  exorbitant  power  expelled  all  who  belonged  to  the  republican  party.  The 
members  of  the  synod,  therefore,  consisting  of  thirty-six  pastors,  twenty 
elders,  and  five  professors,  were  selected  with  some  degree  of  arbitrariness, 
and  it  was  obvious  that  the  fate  of  the  Eemonstrants  was  decided  upon  be- 
fore the  opening  of  the  meeting.  Their  spiritual  leaders,  under  the  conduct 
of  Episcopius,  the  eloquent  and  inflexible  successor  of  Arminius,  (d)  were 
summoned  before  the  synod  merely  .as  accused  persons.  They  there  protest- 
ed against  an  unconditional  submission  of  themselves,  but  notwithstanding 
the  milder  views  of  the  foreign  deputies,  they  were  declared  by  a  majority 
of  votes,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  word  of  God,  incapable  of  any  ecclesi- 
astical or  academic  functions  until  they  should  penitently  return  to  the  fel- 
lowship of  the  Church.  In  most  of  the  provinces  of  the  Union,  those 
preachers  and  teachers  belonging  to  the  Remonstrant  party  who  would  not 
immediately  resign  every  spiritual  office  were  expelled  from  the  country. 
But  after  the  death  of  Maurice  (1625),  when  the  Republican  party  again 
obtained  the  ascendency,  the  Arminians  were  tolerated,  and  their  churches 
became  numerous  and  flourishing  on  account  of  their  liberal  exegetical  litera- 
ture, (e)  The  Articles  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  were  confirmed  by  the  States- 
General,  and  although  they  received  legal  authority  in  no  foreign  country 
but  France,  Calvinism  became  henceforth  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Re- 
formed Church.  Calvin's  twofold  doctrine  of  predestination,  based  upon 
that  of  original  sin,  was  in  some  degree  modified  in  them,  and  all  who  pro- 
perly used  the  means  of  grace  were  told  that  they  need  have  no  doubt  of 
their  final  salvation.  (/)  But  even  the  tendency  which  proceeded  from 
Zwingle  and  Melancthon  was  fostered,  and  occupied  a  subordinate  position  in 
the  churches.  Its  most  important  original  record,  after  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism, is  the  creed  left  by  Bullinger,  and  adopted  through  the  influence  of 
the  Elector  Palatine  by  the  Swiss  Confederacy  under  the  name  of  the  Second 
Helvetic  Confession  (1566).  According  to  it  the  promises  of  God  are  general 
for  all  believers,  (g) 


CHAP.  III.— PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION  THROUGH 

EUROPE. 

§  357.     United  Austrian  States,  until  1609. 

Raupach,  ev.  Oest  Hmb.  1732ss.  8  volai  4.  Waldau,  Gesch.  d.  Prot  in  Ocst.  Ansp.  1T83.  2 
vols.— J.  Burii,  Hist  dipL  de  statu  rel.  ev.  in  Hung.  s.  1.  1710.  £  (P.  Ember)  Hist  Ecc.  re£  in 
Hung,  et  Transsylvania,  ed.  Lampe,  Traj.  1723.  4.  J.  Ribini,  Memor.  Aug.  Conf.  in  Hung.  Poson. 
1787ss.  2  vols.  Die  -wichtigsten  Schicksale  d.  ev.  K.  Augs.  Bek.  in  TJng.  1520-1608.  Lps.  1S08. 
[Munyay)  Hist  ecc.  cv.  A,  C.  addictorum  in  Hung.  Halb.  1S30.  Corpus  Synodorum  Aug.  Cent  in 
Hung.  ed.  J.  Szeberinyi,  Pesth.  1848.  G.  Haner,  Hist  Ecc.  Transylvanicar.  Frc£  et  Lps.  1694. 
12.— Pontani  a  Braitenlerg,  Bok.  pia.  Fret  1608.  t.—Bucholts.  (p.  358.)  Jianke,  u,  d.  Zeiten 
Ferd.  I.  u.  Mas.  II.  in  s.  Zeitsch.  vol.  L  p.  223. 

German  Protestantism  was  extensively  diffused  at  an  early  period  among 

d)Ph.a  LimborcJi,  Yita  Episc.  Amst  1701.    J.  Konynenburg,  Laudes  Ep.  Ibid.  1791.  4. 
«)  Adr.  a  Catteribiirgh,  BibL  Scrr.  Remonstr.  Amst  1728.    G.  S.  Francke,  de  Hist  dogmatum 
Anninianorum.  Kil.  1814.    Z>.  de  Bray,  Essai  sur  1'Hist  de  1'eglise  Anninienne.  Strasb.  1S35.  4. 
/)  Nlemeyer,  Col.  p.  690ss. 
0)  Ed.  0.  P.  Fritzsche,  Tur.  1839.  in  Niemeyer  p.  462ss. 


CHAP.  1IL    EUROPEAN  REFORM.    §  357.  AUSTRIA.    HUNGARY.  417 

the  higher  classes  in  Austria.  Ferdinand  /.,  during  the  last  years  of  his 
reign,  stood  aloof  from  the  strife  of  parties.  Maximilian  II.  (1564-76), 
whom  the  Protestants  regarded  as  a  secret  believer  in  their  principles,  and 
the  Eomans  as  an  apostate,  endeavored  to  reconcile  both  sides,  and  to  pro- 
mote a  general  reform  consistently  with  the  laws,  by  giving  to  the  knights 
and  to  the  princely  cities  the  privilege  of  forming  an  ecclesiastical  system 
according  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  Hungarian  students  who  studied 
at  "Wittenberg  and  returned  to  their  native  country  imbued  with  Lutheran 
sentiments,  "Waldenses,  Hussites,  and  Humanists,  were  all  instrumental  in 
carrying  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  in  every  direction.  The  most 
sanguinary  laws  were  insufficient  to  impede  the  progress  of  these  agencies. 
All  laws  were  silent  during  the  storm  which  followed  the  battle  of  Mohacs 
(1526).  No  greater  severity  against  the  Protestants  was  exercised  by  the 
house  of  Hapsburg  when  its  hold  upon  Hungary  was  so  precarious,  than  was 
indispensable  to  its  own  security ;  and  wherever  the  Turks  held  sway,  a  form 
of  worship  in  which  no  images  were  used  might  be  extended  without  ob- 
struction. Ferdinand  I.  conceded  to  a  few  magnates  and  towns  in  his  domin- 
ions the  enjoyment  of  a  free  religious  toleration,  which  was  still  further 
increased  under  Maximilian.  The  Reformed  churches  became  equally  numer- 
ous, and  soon  began  to  be  disturbed  by  controversies.  The  writings  of  Luther 
were  also  carried  into  Transylvania  by  some  merchants  of  Hermanstadt.  on 
their  return  from  the  fair  at  Leipsic  (1521).  After  enduring  many  persecu- 
tions, all  the  Saxon  churches  declared  themselves  adherents  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  (1544),  the  Magyars  connected  themselves  with  the  Reformed 
Church,  and  the  "Wallachians  continued  to  worship  according  to  the  Greek 
ritual.  During  the  civil  wars  which  took  place  in  Hungary  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  throne,  complete  religious  freedom  was  granted  to  Transylvania 
at  the  Diet  of  Clauseriburg  (1556).  In  an  election  of  a  king  of  Bohemia 
(1526),  Ferdinand  was  chosen  instead  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  principally  on 
account  of  the  favor  which  he  showed  to  the  Utraquists.  In  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Smalkaldic  war  the  Electors  of  Saxony  were  invested  with  the 
power  to  command  the  army  furnished  by  the  Bohemian  states  in  any  way 
which  might  promote  the  common  cause.  These,  in  consequence  of  Luther's 
success,  had  regained  their  former  spirit  and  power,  had  become  reconciled 
with  the  Bohemian  brethren,  and  now  combined  their  Hussite  sentiments 
partly  with  Lutheran  and  partly  with  Reformed  doctrines,  (a)  Rudolph  II. 
(after  1576)  permitted  evangelical  persons  in  all  parts  of  his  dominions  to  be 
oppressed,  freedom  of  opinion  was  confined  to  the  nobility,  and  divine  wor- 
ship (after  1604)  was  entirely  suppressed  by  public  violence.  Stephen  Bot- 
skai,  Prince  of  Transylvania,  whose  power  was  considerable  on  account  of 
his  alliance  with  the*  Turks,  now  took  up  arms  for  the  establishment  of  po- 
litical and  religious  liberty.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  Peace  of  Vienna 
(1606),  by  which  Hungary  and  Transylvania  were  allowed  freely  to  receive 
either  the  Augsburg  or  the  Helvetic  Confession.  (J)  In  the  latter  province 

a)  Confession  of  1535  &  1575  in  Lat  in  Niemeyer,  Col.  p.  771.  819ss.  With  many  original 
documents :  Die  andero  Apologia  der  Stande  d.  3L  Boheimb,  a.  d.  bohni.  Spr.  in  die  teutsche  ver- 
setzt  a.  1619.  4. 

1)  Pacificatio  Viennensis  in  Eniber-Lampe.  p.  325ss. 


4 1 8  MODEEN  CHTTECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

popery  had  been  entirely  renounced,  and  in  Hungary  a  majority  of  the 
people  and  nearly  all  the  nobles  had  done  the  same.  While  the  members  of 
the  house  of  Hapsburg  were  contending  with  one  another,  the  evangelical 
states  of  Austria,  with  arms  in  their  hands,  obtained  from  the  Archduke 
Matthias  the  restoration  of  all  the  privileges  they  had  acquired  under  Maxi- 
milian. The  Bohemians  at  the  same  time  received  from  the  Emperor  Ru- 
dolph an  imperial  charter,  (c)  by  which  they  were  placed  on  the  same  ground 

with  the  Catholics,  and  the  supreme  power  was  conceded  to  the  states  (1609) 
« 

§  358.    Sweden. 

J.  JSaaz,  Inventarium  Ecc.  Suco-Gotbor.  LIncop.  1042.  4.  P.  E.  Thyselius,  Handlingar.  til 
Sverges  Keformations-och  Kyrkohlstoria  under  Gustaf.  I.  Stockb.  1841-5.  2  vols.  (Comp.  Zcitscb.  f. 
List  Th.  1846.  II.  2. 1S4T.  II.  2.)— R.  C.  7?5»i«r,  de  Gust.  I.  rcrum  sacr.  instauratore.  Traj.  ad  Eh. 
1840.  Geijer,  Gescb.  Schw.  (p.  246.  nt  6.)  1834.  vol.  II.— Schinmeier,  Leb.  d.  drel  scbwed.  Eeffi  Lor. 
Anderson,  Oluf  u.  Lor.  Peterson.  Lab.  1788.  4.— A.  Theiner,  Scbw.  u.  s.  Stellung  z.  h.  Stuhl.  unter 
Job.,  Big.  and  Karl  IX.  Augsb.  1888.  f.  2  vola.  [Vertot,  Eev.  In  8w.  on  account  of  tho  change  in 
Eeligion,  from  the  French  by  J.  Mitctel,  Lond.  1723.  8.] 

,  Sweden  had  been  delivered  from  the  sanguinary  hands  of  the  Danes  by 
Gustavus  Vasa  (after  1521).  The  Reformation  was  preached  there  by  the 
brothers  Olaf  and  Laicrcnce  Peterson,  who  had  studied  at  "Wittenberg,  and 
were  so  constituted  by  nature  that  the  one  possessed  those  intellectual  quali- 
ties in  which  the  other  was  deficient.  The  bishops,  who  held  in  their  hands 
the  principal  wealth  of  the  country,  were  connected  with  the  Danish  inter- 
est, and  the  new  government,  anxious  to  relieve  the  people  of  their  taxes 
and  to  pay  off  their  Ilanseatic  mercenaries,  longed  to  obtain  possession  of  the 
property  of  the  Church.  A  public  discussion  was  held  under  the  royal  pro- 
tection at  Upsala  (1526),  and  a  translation  of  tho  New  Testament  was  made 
by  tho  Chancellor  Anderson.  The  king,  sustained  by  the  nobility  and  peas- 
antry, humbled  the  bishops  at  the  Diet  of  Westeras  (1527),  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  property  of  the  Church.  The  Reformation  was  introduced 
in  accordance  with  the  advice  of  Luther,  although  the  greater  portion  of  the 
people  for  a  long  time  received  only  its  external  form,  and  scarcely  noticed 
the  change,  and  even  the  king  had  cause  to  deny  that  any  change  had  taken 
place  in  the  national  religion.  Those  bishops  who  acknowledged  the  new 
order  of  things  remained  members  of  the  diet  and  superintendents  of  the 
Church,  but  they  were  made  dependent  upon  the  royal  favor,  and  their  pow- 
ers were  circumscribed  by  the  authority  of  consistories.  A  reconciliation 
with  Catholicism  was  sought  for  under  John  III.  (after  1568),  whose  wife 
was  a  Polish  princess,  and  belonged  to  the  Catholic  Church ;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  the  refusal  of  the  Romish  court  to  concede  tho  demands  of  the 
king,  and  the  opposition  of  the  people  to  the  Catholic  ritual,  the  effort  proved 
unsuccessful,  (a)  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland  and  (after  1592)  of  Sweden, 
atoned  for  his  attempt  to  oppress  the  evangelical  Church  by  the  loss  of  the 
Swedish  crown,  which  was  won  (1599,  1604)  by  his  uncle,  Charles  IX.,  the 
champion  of  Protestantism.  At  first  nothing  but  the  word  of  God  contained 

c)  A.  e.  bohm.  Urk.  ubers.  m.  Anin.  v.  Borott,  Gorl.  1S03. 

a)  Die  Jesuiten  als  Vermittler  e.  prot.  Kirchenagende.  Brl.  Monatschr.  1794.  lately  ed.  by 
.£ohr,  Neust  1325. 


CHAP.  IIL    EUROPEAN  EEFOKM.    §  859.  DENMARK.  419 

in  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  acknowledged  as  the  creed  of  the  Church.  But 
finally  the  clergy,  that  they  might  meet  the  calumnies  of  their  Catholic  op- 
ponents, and  that  the  whole  Swedish  nation  might  have  hut  one  God,  and 
might  worship  him  as  one  man,  proclaimed  their  adherence  to  the  Augsburg 
Confession  in  1593,  and  to  the  Form  of  Concord  in  1663,  (5)  and  a  law  was 
enacted  which  provided  that  all  who  should  apostatize  to  popery  should  he 
banished  from  the  country. 

§  359.    Denmark  with  Norway  and  Iceland. 

Pontoppidan,  (p.  246.  nt  a.)  vol.  II.  p.  754ss.  vol.  III.  Munter,  Danske  Eef.  Historie.  Kjobenb. 
2  vols.  u.  KGesch.  v.  Dim.  u.  Nor.  Lpz.  3834.  vol.  IIL  Stemmer  fra  den  Danske  Kirkes  Ecf.  Tid. 
Odense.  1836.  4.—Mulerte,  de  causis  propagatae  celeriter  in  Dan.  ref.  Haf.  1817.  4. 

The  whole  power  of  the  Danish  state  was  shared  between  the  bishops 
and  the  barons.  Christiern  II.  was  elected  king  in  1513,  and  proved  to  be  a 
tyrant  under  the  tyranny  of  the  mother  of  his  paramour.  Under  him  the 
nobility  were  degraded,  the  people  were  exalted,  and  the  Eeformation  was 
favored  that  he  might  obtain  the  mastery  of  the  bishops,  (a)  On  his  expul- 
sion by  the  united  power  of  the  barons  and  prelates,  his  uncle  Frederic  I.  of 
Holstein  (1523-33),  who  was  connected  by  marriage  with  the  house  of  Sax- 
ony, and  a  firm  friend  of  the  gospel,  was  raised  to  the  throne.  But  in  the 
stipulations  made  before  his  election,  he  pledged  himself  to  maintain  the 
privileges  and  rights  of  the  bishops,  and  to  punish  those  who  preached 
against  the  God  of  heaven  and  the  holy  Father  by  fines  and  bodily  chastise- 
ments. The  Eeformation  continued  still  to  spread  among  the  people  until 
the  king  obtained  a  law  at  the  Diet  of  Odense  (1527),  by  which  Protestants 
and  Catholics  were  put  in  possession  of  equal  civil  privileges,  the  marriage 
of  priests  was  tolerated,  and  the  election  of  bishops  was  rendered  indepen- 
dent of  Eome.  The  bishops  protested  against  the  succession  of  his  oldest 
son,  with  whom  Luther  was  known  to  be  on  terms  of  intimacy.  Christiern 
IILj  however,  succeeded  in  gaining  over  to  his  party  the  lay  members  of  the 
diet,  when  all  the  bishops  were  suddenly  attacked  on  the  20th  Aug.,  1536, 
and  their  freedom  was  obtained  only  by  the  renunciation  of  their  dignities. 
Roennow,  Bishop  of  Eoeskild,  alone  would  yield  nothing  to  the  injury  of  his 
Church,  and  died  the  death  of  a  martyr  in  prison  (1544).  At  a  diet  held  at 
Copenhagen  (Oct.,  1536),  from  which  the  clergy  were  entirely  excluded,  the 
political  privileges  of  the  Church  were  completely  destroyed,  and  its  posses- 
sions  were  shared  by  the  king  and  the  nobles.  The  king  was  crowned  by 
JRugenhagen,  and  an  ecclesiastical  constitution  was  adopted  by  which  a  few 
titular  bishops  were  appointed,  and  the  Church  was  made  entirely  dependent 
upon  the  court.  (5)  The  Form  of  Concord  was  cast  into  the  flames  by 
Frederic  II.  (1581),  (e)  but  during  the  ITth  century  it  possessed  great  au- 
thority among  the  people.  The  new  Church  was  established  without  oppo- 

6)  Ev.  K.  Zeitung.  1835.  N.  56. 

a)  JDaMmann,  Gesch.  v.  Dannemark.  vol.  III.  p.  850ss. 

6)  Mohnike,  Kronung  Ghr.  u.  s.  Gemahlin  durch  Bug.  Strals.  1835.  M&nter,  Symbb.  ad  ill.  Pa- 
genbagii  in  Dania  commorationem.  Hafn.  1886. 

c)  J.  ff.  ab  Elswich,  de  F.  C.  num  in  Dania  sit  combusta?  Wit  1716.  4.  Gegen  s.  Zweifel  die 
Urkunde:  Gcrde^  H.  Ee£  voL  III.  prae£ 


420  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164a 

sition  in  Norway,  not,  however,  until  the  Archbishop  of  Drontheim  had  fled 
with  all  the  ecclesiastical  treasures  (1537).  In  Iceland  the  Episcopal  party 
were  destroyed  while  struggling  with  arms  in  their  hands  (1550). 

§  360.    Poland,  Livonia,  and  Eoorland. 

Adr.  Regenvolsoii  (Wengierskf),  Syst  hist  ebron.  Eccl.  Slavonicarnm.  Ultraj.  1652.  4.  Jura  et 
libertt.  Dissidentium  in  regno  Pol.  Ber.  1707.  t.  Schicksale  d.  pol.  Dissid.  Hmb.  176Sss.  8  volst  C. 
6.  v.  Friese,  Ref.  Gescb.  v.  Pohlen  u.  Utth.  BreL  17S6.  8  vols.  G.  W.  C.  Lochner,  Fata  et  rationes 
familiarum  cbr.  in  Pol.  quae  ab  Ecc.  cath.  allcnao  fueront,  usque  ad  consensus  Sendom.  temp.  (Acta 
Soc.  Jablonovianae.  Lps.  1832.  Th.  IV.  Fsc.  2.)  C.  V.  frartnski,  Ilistor.  Sketch  of  the  Rise,  Pro- 
gress, and  Decline  of  the  Ref.  in  Poland.  Lond.  ISSSes.  2  vola.  8vo.  bcarb.  v.  Lindau.  Lpz.  1841.— K. 
L.  Tetsch,  knrl.  KHist  Riga  u.  L.  1767s*.  8  vols.  J.  Lukassewice,  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  Kirchen  in  LUb, 
Lpz.  1848-50.  2  vola.  8.  [An  Account  of  Livonia  and  the  Marian  Teu.  Ord.  Lond.  1701.  8.] 

.  Many  persons  expelled  from  various  countries  on  account  of  their  religion, 
found  an  asylum  in  Poland  under  the  protection  of  particular  nobles. 
Churches  had  therefore  been  formed  which  were  composed  of  Bohemian 
brethren,  of  the  Reformed,  and  of  Lutherans.  After  some  warm  controver- 
sies these  became  united  at  the  Synod  of  Sendomir  (1570),  under  one  gene- 
ral confession,  whose  indefinite  articles  afforded  room  for  minor  differences 
of  opinion,  (a)  As  the  power  of  the  waiwodes  was  almost  unlimited  in  their 
respective  domains,  the  kings  and  bishops  had  very  little  power  to  inflict 
persecution.  By  these  inferior  governors  a  religious  peace  was  concluded 
during  the  interregnum  (Pax  Dissidentium,  1573),  which  had  the  force  of  a 
law  of  the  empire  to  secure  equal  privileges  to  Catholics  and  Protestants. 
But  as  early  as  the  time  of  Sigismund  III.  (after  1587),  the  Catholic  party 
had  acquired  much  strength  by  means  of  the  inducements  which  the  king 
and  the  Church  could  present  to  the  higher  nobility,  while  many  of  the  Dis- 
sidents had  become  dissatisfied  with  the  general  confession  of  faith,  and  had 
renewed  the  former  controversies  in  the  body  to  which  they  belonged. 
Vladislaus  IV.  sought  in  vain  to  effect  a  general  reconciliation,  or  at  least  a 
mutual  understanding  of  the  contending  parties,  by  means  of  a  religious  dis- 
cussion held  at  Thorn  (1644).  (5) — The  Grand  Master  of  Livonia  could  not 
refrain  from  following  the  example  of  Prussia,  although  the  archbishop 
arrayed  himself  in  defence  of  prescriptive  rights  and  the  ancient  faith. 
Riga  decided  in  favor  of  the  Reformation  (1523),  and  conscious  of  its  inde- 
pendence as  an  imperial  city,  it  became  a  member  of  the  League  of  Smal- 
kald  (1538).  Nearly  all  the  population  had  embraced  the  cause  of  the 
Reformation  when  the  Grand  Master,  Conrad  Rettler,  assumed  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Koorland  and  Semigallia  (1561).  That  portion  of  Livonia,  how- 
ever, which  was  situated  on  the  other  side  of  the  Dwina,  and  which  he 
could  not  defend  against  the  power  of  Russia,  was  ceded  to  Poland  on  con- 
dition that  it  should  be  permitted  to  profess  the  Augsburg  Confession. 

a)  Consensus  Sendomiriensis  Fief,  ad  V.  1704.— Jdblonski,  Hist  Cons.  Sendom.  Ber.  1731.  4, 
6)  Scripta  facientia  ad  Colloq.  Thorun.  Helmst  1G45.  4.    Acta  Conv.  Thor.  Yarsav.  1646.  4. 


CHAP.  IIL    EUROPEAN  EEFOKM.    §  361.  ENGLAND.  421 

GEEAT  BEITAIN  AND  IEELAND. 

Wllkins,  Cone.  Brit.  vol.  III.  Kef.  Ecc.  Anglic.  Lond.  1603.  t.—G.  Burnet,  H.  of  tho  Eef.  of  the 
Church  of  Engl.  Lond.  (1679ss.  2  vols.  f.)  [New  York.  3  and  4  vols.  8.]  E.  Cardwell,  Documentary 
Annals  of  the  Ee£  Church  of  Engl.  1546-1716.  Oxf.  1839.  2  vols.  J.  Strype,  Ecc.  Memorials  under 
Henry  VIII.,  Edw.  and  Mary.  Lond.  1721.  3  vols.  f.  and  Annals  of  the  Eef.  during  the  reign  of  Q. 
Eliz.  Lond.  (1709S6.)  1725ss.  4  vols.  f.  H.  Soames,  H.  of  the  Eef.  of  the  Church  of  EngL  Lond. 
1826ss.  4  vols.  J.  v.  Gumpach,  Gesch^,  d.  Trennung  d.  engl.  K.  v.  Born.  Darmst  1845.  Weber, 
(§  297.)  vol.  II. :  Der  construct  Theil.  d.  Eef.  u.  d.  purit.  Sectenbildung.  1853.  [J.  1C.  Worgan, 
Speculum  Eccl.  Anglicanae,  or  Eef.  in  Engl.  Lond.  1830.  Zurich  Letters,  ed.  by  H.  Robinson,  Lond. 
1846.  8.  T.  Fuller,  Church  Hist,  of  G.  B.  Lond.  1837.  3  vols.  8.  C.  Maittand,  The  Eef.  in  Engl. 
Lond.  1849.  8.  Doffs  Church  Hist,  of  Engl.  from  1500-1688.  Lond.  1839.  5  vols.  8.  T.  V.  Short, 
Hist  of  the  Church  of  Engl.  till  1688.  Lond.  1840.  8.]— Primordia  Eef.  Hibernicae.  (Gcrdes,  Miscell. 
Groning.  vol.  VII.  P.  I.)  R.  Mant,  H.  of  the  Church  of  Irel.  from  the  Kef.  to  the  Eevol.  Lond. 
1839.  As  a  curiosity :  Cobbett,  H.  of  the  Prot  Eef.  in  Engl.  and  Irel.  Lond.  1828. 2  vols.— D.  Hume: 
Hist  of  Great  Brit  (Stuart)  Edinb.  Lond.  1754ss.  2  vols.  4.  Hist  of  Engl.  (Tudor.)  Lond.  1759.  2 
vols.  4  and  often.  Lingard,  Hist  of  Engl.  till  1688.  Lond.  1849. 13  vols.  12. 

§  361.    Establishment  of  the  Anglican  Church. 

A  party  favorable  to  the  Reformation  had  been  prepared  in  England  by 
the  influence  of  "Wycliffe,  and  it  was  now  revived  by  the  circulation  of  the 
writings  of  Luther.  An  English  translation  of  the  New  Testament  by  Fryth 
and  Tindal  was  printed  at  Antwerp  (1526),  and  went  like  a  Phoenix  from  its 
ashes  across  the  channel.  But  Henry  VIII.  defended  the  religion  of  St.  Tho- 
mas with  his  pen  and  his  sword.  Subsequently,  however,  his  deadly  love  was 
fixed  upon  Anna  Boleyn,  and  he  entertained  doubts  of  the  lawfulness  of  his 
marriage  with  Catharine  of  Aragon,  his  'brother's  widow.  Clement  VII. 
could  not  consent  to  annul  this  marriage  with  the  aunt  of  the  emperor.  By 
the  advice  of  Cranmer  the  king  obtained  a  decision  of  a  body  of  learned  men, 
who  declared  that  the  marriage  of  a  brother's  widow  was  null  and  void.  He 
then  married  Anna  and  fell  under  the  papal  ban.  A  Parliament,  in  which 
servility  rather  than  a  love  of  reform  prevailed,  sundered  all  connection  be- 
tween England  and  the  pope,  and  the  king,  who  ruled  in  God's  stead  both 
in  Church  and  state,  probably  according  to  his  lusts,  was  recognized  as  the 
sole  head  of  the  Church  (after  1532).  An  immense  property  belonging  to  the 
monasteries  now  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  king,  and  a  still  greater  treasure 
of  art  and  antiquity  was  squandered.  Cranmer,  who  had  been  exalted  to  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  Canterbury  and  secretly  married  to  a  German  lady,  now 
endeavored  to  involve  the  king  in  the  Reformation,  even  contrary  to  the  royal 
wishes.  The  superstition  of  the  times  was  exposed  in  the  most  unsparing 
manner.  Becket's  sepulchre  was  dishonored,  and  the  Holy  Scriptures  were 
distributed  among  the  people.  The  venerable  bishop,  John  Fisher,  died  in 
defence  of  the  liberties  of  the  Church,  and  the  Chancellor  Thomas  More  was 
beheaded  pleading  for  such  a  reformation  as  no  royal  or  popular  violence 
could  efiect,  and  clinging  fondly  to  his  ideal  of  a  future  commonwealth,  in 
which  all  might  have  room  to  labor  equally  for  the  common  weal  in  a  life  of 
happiness  conformed  to  natural  laws,  (a)  But  the  Catholics  sometimes  re- 
minded the  king  of  his  celebrated  defence  of  the  faith,  and  of  the  law  of  1539,  in 

a)  De  optima  reipubL  statu  deque  nova  insula  Utopia  1516. — G.  Th.  Rudhart,  Thomas  Morua, 
Numb.  1829.  W.  J.  Walter,  Sir  Thos.  More.  Lond.  1830.  \J.  Macintosh,  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Moie. 
Lond.  12.] 


422  MODERN  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

which  transubstantiation,  celibacy,  masses  for  the  dead,  and  auricular  confes- 
sion had  been  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  common  hangman.  (&)  The 
followers  of  Luther  and  of  the  pope  were  frequently  executed  on  the  same 
gibbet.  It  was  not  till  the  time  of  the  regency  during  the  minority  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  (after  1547),  that  Cranmer  was  able,  by  means  of  the  Parliament, 
to  enter  thoroughly  upon  the  work  of  reform,  and  by  calling  Bucer  to  Cam- 
bridge, to  form  an  alliance  with  the  German  divines.  Edward,  however,  died 
in  early  youth  (1553),  and  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Catharine,  inherited  the 
crown.  She  had  been  educated  in  the  Catholic  Church,  had  endured  in  her 
youth  many  sacrifices  in  its  behalf,  and  now  became  animated  with  extreme 
enthusiasm  to  see  it  victorious.  With  hands  full  of  blood  and  violence  she 
now  gave  back  England  to  the  pope,  and  Cranmer  died  at  the  stake  far  more 
heroically  than  he  had  lived  (1556).  (c)  In  early  life  Mary  sunk  under  the 
weight  of  her  own  melancholy  and  the  hatred  of  her  people  (1558).  Eliza- 
beth, the  daughter  of  Anna,  then  ascended  the  throne.  Her  birth  was, 
according  to  the  decision  of  the  Romish  Church,  illegitimate,  and  she  had 
been  educated  in  the  evangelical  faith  of  her  mother,  as  well  as  in  the  school 
of  misfortune.  During  the  long,  rigid,  and  prosperous  reign  (till  1603)  of  this 
virgin  queen,  the  Reformation  was  established  in  spite  of  internal  and  external 
enemies,  with  a  good  degree  of  circumspection  and  moderation.  But  even  she 
sometimes  found  occasion  for  the  axe  of  the  executioner  against  Anglo-Ro- 
man missionaries  and  assassins.  Many  Catholic  ceremonies  were  still  retained 
in  the  book  of  Common  Prayer.  A  confession  of  faith  was  formed  under 
Edward,  and  afterwards  reduced  to  39  Articles,  which  was  accepted  by  a 
convocation  of  the  clergy  at  London  (1562),  and  was  made  by  Parliament  the 
rule  of  faith  for  all  the  clergy  (1571).  In  this  it  is  declared  that  the  Scrip- 
tures contain  every  thing  necessary  to  salvation,  that  justification  is  through 
faith  alone,  but  that  works  acceptable  to  God  are  the  necessary  fruit  of  this 
faith,  that  in  the  Lord's  Supper  there  is  a  communion  of  the  body  of  Christ, 
which  is  spiritually  received  by  faith,  and  predestination  is  apprehended  only 
as  it  is  a  source  of  consolation,  (d)  Supreme  power  over  the  Church  is  vested 
in  the  English  crown,  but  it  is  limited  by  statutes.  Bishops  continued  to  be 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  officers,  and  the  first  barons  of  the  realm.  Whatever 
was  done  by  the  kings  of  England  against  the  papacy  and  in  behalf  of  the 
Reformation,  was  enforced  also  as  the  law  for  Ireland.  But  the  Irish  obsti- 
nately resisted  every  effort  of  their  tyrannical  oppressors  to  compel  them  to 
embrace  the  new  faith.*  The  English,  however,  proved  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment that  as  a  conquered  territory  Ireland  belonged  to  them  as  Canaan  onco 
belonged  to  the  Israelites.  The  free  and  common  territory  of  the  confeder- 
ated and  kindred  tribes  was  converted  into  royal  fiefs,  and  when  the  principal 
chiefs  were  goaded  on  by  continual  oppressions  to  rise  in  rebellion,  their  lands 
were  given  to  Englishmen,  until  the  native  inhabitants  were  almost  com- 

&)   Wttkins,  vol.  III.  p.  848s. 

c)  Strype,  Th.  Cr.  Lond.  (1694.)  1711.  f.    Gilpin,  Th.  Cr.  Lend.  1784.  Samml.  merkw.  Lebens- 
beschrr.  a.  d.  brit  Biogr.  Hal.  1754ss.  voL  II.    ff.  J.  Todd,  Life  of  Cr.  Lond.  1831.    [Livee  of  Cr.  by 
C.  W.  Lebas,  &  Mrs.  Lee  &  Vind.  of  Cr.  by  Todd.} 

d)  Niemeyer,  Col.  p.  601  ss. 


CHAP.  III.    EUROPEAN  REFORMATION.    §  362.  PURITANS.  423 

pletely  destitute  of  property.  The  entire  revenues  and  property  of  the  Church 
were  gradually  taken  possession  of  by  a  foreign  Protestant  hierarchy,  by  the 
side  of  which  the  Irish  were  obliged  to  sustain  their  own  bishops  and  pastors 
from  their  own  scanty  resources. 

§  362.     Origin  of  the  Puritans  and  Independents. 

(Sraddiaw.)  The  English  Puritane.  Lond.  1605.  Lat :  Puritanismus  angl.  Frcf.  1610.  Z>.  Neal,  H.  of 
the  Puritans.  Lonrl.  (1731ss.  4  vols.)  1793-7. 1822. 5  vols.  [With  notes  by  J.  0.  Choules.  New  York.  1844. 
2  vols.  8.]  J.  B.  Marsden,  Hist  of  the  early  Puritans  (till  1642.)  Lond.  1S50.  [  IV.  IT.  Stowell  &  D.  Wilson, 
H.  of  the  Puritans  in  Engl.  &  of  the  Pilg.  Fathers.  Lond.  1826. 12.  B.  Brpoks,  Lives  of  the  Puritans. 
Lond.  1813.  3  vols.  8.]— Robinson,  Apol.  pro  exulibus  Anglis,  qui  Brownistae  appellantur.  Lugd.  1619. 
4.  C.  Walker,  H.  of  Independency.  Lond.  (1648ss.)  1661.  3  vols.  4.  B.  Ilanbury,  Hist.  Memorials, 
relating  to  the  Independents  or  Congregationalists.  Lond.  1839.  3  vols.  \Bogu6  &  Bennett,  Hist,  of  the 
Dissenters.  Lond.  1808-12.  4  vols.  8.]—  W.  Chlebus,  die  Dissenters.  (Ze.tsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1848.  H.  1.) 

A  party  consisting  principally  of  those  strict  Oalvinists  who  had  suffered 
persecution  under  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  now  had  returned  as  confessors,  took 
offence  at  the  dependence  of  the  Church  upon  the  state,  at  the  high  preroga- 
tives of  the  bishops,  and  at  the  splendid  ritual  of  worship,  whose  indifferent 
forms  not  being  expressly  authorized  by  Scripture,  were  looked  upon  as  rem- 
nants of  Antichrist.  These  Puritans  demanded  a  Presbyterian  form  of 
Church  government,  a  simple  spiritual  form  of  worship,  and  a  strict  disci- 
pline. Elizabeth  endeavored  to  overcome  their  opposition,  but  this  was  found 
rather  to  increase  with  their  Sabbatical  festivals  on  Sunday,  and  their  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine  of  predestination.  By  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1559)  all  Non- 
conformists were  threatened  with  fines  and  imprisonment,  and  their  ministers 
with  deposition  and  banishment.  But  those  ministers  who  had  resigned  theii 
congregations,  or  been  deposed,  established  new  congregations  in  connection 
with  Presbyteries  (after  1572),  and  the  most  vigorous  portion  of  the  estab- 
lished Church  itself  exhibited  an  inclination  toward  Puritanism.  A  separa- 
tion from  a  church  which  was  regarded  as  a  persecutor  of  Christians  was  now 
effected  on  conscientious  principles  by  Robert  Brown  (after  1580),  and  after 
his  return  by  John  Eolinson  (after  1610),  who  preached  that  according  to 
apostolic  example  every  congregation  should  be  an  independent  church,  that 
every  man  was  justified  in  worshipping  God  according  to  his  own  conscience, 
and  that  ministers  were  dependent  only  on  their  congregations.  These  Inde- 
pendents, when  they  were  compelled  to  leave  their  own  country  formed  con- 
gregations in  the  Netherlands  and  in  America,  but  they  were  still  firmly 
rooted  in  England,  where  the  Puritans  under  continual  persecutions  became 
daily  more  violent  and  gloomy,  and  gradually  a  dangerous  and  powerful  party. 
In  their  morals  and  manners  they  were  eminently  pious,  they  looked  upon  al 
earthly  pleasures  as  sinful,  their  own  fancies  were  regarded  as  divine  inspira- 
tions, and  they  thought  that  the  state  itself  should  be  subject  to  their  demo- 
cratic hierarchy. 


424  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY?  PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648, 

363.    Scotland. 

J.  Knox,  H.  of  the  Ref.  of  ScotL  (till  156T.)  Lond.  1864.  £  &  often.  D.  Caldtrwood,  II.  of  tin 
Kirk  of  Sc.  Lond.  16T8.  t  Edinb.  1845.  7  Tola.  Gil.  Stuart,  H.  of  the  Ref.  In  Sc.  Lond.  1780.  G.  Cook, 
II.  of  the  Church  of  Sc.  from  the  Ref.  Edinb.  1815.  8  vols.  K.  ff.  Sack,  d.  K.  v.  Sch.  Heidlb.  1844 
2  Abth.  K.  G.  v.  Rudloff,  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  in  Sch.  Brl.  1S47-9.  2  vols,  [J.  Skinner,  EccL  Hist  of  Sc. 
Lond.  1818.  2  vote.  8.  Analecta  Scotia,  illnstr.  the  civil,  eccL  &  lit  H.  of  Sc.  Ed.  1884-T.  2  vols.  8. 
W.  3f.  HeUierington,  II.  of  the  Church  of  Sc.  till  1848.  4  ed.  Edinb.  1858.  a  8  ed.  New  York.  1844.  8.] 
—Robertson,  H.  of  Sc.  Edinb.  1759.  8  vols.  4  &  often.  [New  York.  1886.  a  P.  F.  Tytler,  H.  of  Sc. 
Lond.  1842-44  9  vols.  a  A 1845.  7  vols.  a  Sir  IF.  Scott,  H.  of  So,  new  ed.  Lond.  1837.  2  vols.  12.] 

The  first  martyr  for  the  Reformation  in  Scotland  (1528)  was  Patrick 
Hamilton,  a  youth  belonging  to  the  royal  family,  hut  favorable  to  the  Refor- 
mation in  consequence  of  his  studies  in  Germany.  Cardinal  Beatoun  continued 
to  burn  persons  at  the  stake  until  a  martyr  predicted  from  the  midst  of  the 
flames  his  own  violent  death  (1546).  Such  martyrdoms  were  the  most  im- 
pressive kind  of  preaching  for  a  rude  and  sensuous,  but  true-hearted  people. 
Under  the  unsettled  regency  which  bore  sway  during  the  minority  of  Queen 
Mary  Stuart  the  reform  party  had  opportunity  to  gain  strength.  The  leader 
and  the  impetuous  but  eloquent  preacher  of  this  party  was  John  JKnox 
(d.  1572),  whose  vigor  had  been  acquired  amid  the  flames  of  persecution  and 
the  toils  of  the  galleys,  and  who  had  learned  to  despise  the  terrors  as  well  as 
the  pleasures  of  the  world,  (a)  After  the  marriage  of  Mary  with  the  Dau- 
phin of  France  the  regency  attempted,  with  the  aid  of  French  troops  to  over- 
throw the  Reformation,  and  to  enforce  the  hereditary  claims  of  the  quecu 
upon  the  English  crown.  The  Reformed  party  then  collected  together  and 
formed  themselves  into  a  Congregation  of  Christ  at  Edinburgh  (1557),  and 
with  Elizabeth's  assistance  obtained  an  act  of  Parliament  (1560)  by  which  the 
people  received  a  Calvinistic  Reformation,  (5)  and  the  nobles  the  greater  part 
of  the  property  of  the  Church.  But  in  the  season  of  its  triumph  Protestant- 
ism sought  to  persecute  its  enemies ;  it  sometimes  cost  a  person  his  property, 
and  even  his  life,  to  attend  a  mass,  and  a  pious  vandalism  wreaked  its  fury 
upon  the  monuments  of  the  Church.  After  the  death  of  her  husband  Mary 
returned  to  her  own  hereditary  dominions  (1561).  The  frivolous  manners  of 
this  beautiful  queen's  court  were  an  abomination  to  the  stern  Calvinists,  and 
Knox  went  to  meet  her  as  the  ancient  prophet  did  the  idolatrous  queen,  and 
remained  unmoved  by  her  tears.  Finally  she  awoke  the  flames  of  civil  war, 
not  so  much  by  her  secret  machinations  against  the  Reformation  as  by  her 
criminal  passions.  Failing  to  accomplish  her  purposes  by  such  means  she 
now  cast  herself  into  the  fatal  arms  of  Elizabeth,  (c)  The  crown  was  placed 
upon  the  head  of  her  son,  James  VI.  (1567),  the  leaders  of  the  Reformation 
were  made  regents  during  his  minority,  and  a  Presbyterian  form  of  ecclesias- 
tical government  was  every  where  adopted  (1592). 

a)  Smetoniun,  Vita  Kn.  Edinb.  1579.  4  Th.  JfcCrie.  Life  of  J.  Kn.  Edinb.  1811.  2  vols.  &  often. 
[Cincinnati,  (in  Calv.  Lib.  vol.  IIL)  1838.  8.]  Im  Ansz.  v.  Planck,  Gott  1817.  G.  Weber,  J.  Kn.  u. 
d.  schott  K.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1842.  H.  4) 

&)  Cont  Scoticana  I.  in  Niemeyer  p.  LIs.  840ss.  <k  First  Book  of  Discipline. 

c)  F.  v.  Raumer,  Elizabeth  u.  Maria  Stuart  Lps.  1886.  [ff.  G.  Sett,  Life  of  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots.  Lond.  1840.  3  ed.  8.  P.  F.  TyUer,  Inquiry  into  the  Evidence,  &c.  Lond.  1790.  2  vls.  Whita- 
tor's  Vind.  &  Miss  Benger's  Life.] 


CHAP.  III.    EUROPEAN  REFORM.    §  364.  JAMES  I.    CHARLES  I.  425 

§  364.  Great  Britain  under  the  Stuarts. 

Rusfiworth,  Hist.  Collections.  1618^4.  Lond.  1T32.  6  vols.  Harris,  H.  of  James  I.  Lond.  1754. 4. 
and  H.  of  Charles  I.  Lond.  1T58.  4.  Guieot,  H.  de  larevol.  d'Angleterre.  [Hist  of  the  Eng.  Rev.  of 
1640,  from  the  Fr.  of  Guizot  Lond.  1845.  8.]  Par.  1826.  3  ed.  1841.  2  vols.  &  Collection  des  Memoires 
relatifi  a  la  Rev.  Par.  1823.  2  vols.  Macaulay,  H.  of  Engl.  vol.  I.  cap.  1.  \J.  ff.  Jesse,  Court  of  Engl. 
under  the  Stuarts.  Lond.  1846.  4  vols.  8.  R.  Vaughan,  H.  of  Engl.  under  the  Stuarts  &  Common- 
wealth. 1603-88.  Lond.  1840.  2  vols.] 

Mary's  son  was  also  Elizabeth's  heir,  James  I.  of  England.  Utterly  disap- 
pointing the  hopes  he  had  raised  among  the  Presbyterians,  he  appointed  bish- 
ops as  the  instruments  of  an  arbitrary  monarchy  in  Scotland,  was  increasingly 
bitter  even  to  the  last  toward  the  rude  strictness  of  the  Puritans,  but  was  mild 
in  his  opposition  to  the  Catholics,  in  proportion  as  they  swore  that  the  pope 
had  no  power  to  depose  princes,  nor  absolve  subjects  from  their  allegiance. 
The  discovery  of  a  plot  formed  by  some  Catholics  for  blowing  up  the  Parlia- 
ment (1605),  filled  the  people  with  consternation  and  hatred.  Charles  I.  in- 
herited his  father's  inclinations  and  aversions.  The  opposition  of  the  Puritans 
which  had  already  been  increased  by  persecution,  and  been  directed  to  the 
inferior  regard  shown  in  the  Old  Testament  to  worldly  monarchy,  was  aroused 
to  the  highest  extreme  by  prelatical  sermons  upon  the  superiority  of  a  mon- 
arch to  all  laws,  and  upon  the  duty  of  unconditional  submission  to  his  au- 
thority. The  king  made  an  effort  to  govern  without  his  Parliament,  married 
a  Catholic  princess,  who  imagined  herself  a  modern  Esther,  and  gave  to  the 
Scottish  Church  a  liturgy  which  the  people  abhorred  as  they  would  have  done 
a  service  to  Baal.  The  Scots  now  formed  a  league  in  behalf  of  the  true  re- 
ligion and  the  freedom  of  the  kingdom  (Covenant,  1638).  The  king  was 
obliged  to  convene  the  Parliament  (1640)  to  obtain  money  for  the  war  against 
them,  but  the  representatives  of  an  enraged  people,  exasperated  by  still  fur- 
ther thoughtless  opposition,  impeached  the  royal  counsellors,  entered  into  the 
Solemn  League  of  the  Scots,  and  when  threatened  by  the  king  raised  an 
army,  which,  in  spite  of  many  defeats,  soon  became  irresistible  in  consequence 
of  its  religious  enthusiasm  and  moral  discipline.  The  Irish  Catholics,  relying 
upon  the  reputed  inclinations  of  the  king,  made  preparations  for  a  general  mas- 
sacre of  the  Protestants  among  them  (1641).  The  Puritans,  with  their  Old 
Testament  style  of  preaching,  maintained  their  ascendency  in  Parliament, 
while  the  Independents  were  most  numerous  in  the  army,  but  both  were 
agreed  in  their  opposition  to  all  papal  abominations,  and  in  their  derivation 
of  all  power  from  God  and  his  people.  A  select  number  of  pious  and  intel- 
ligent clergymen  were  assembled  by  the  Parliament  to  consult  with  a  smaller 
number  from  its  own  body  with  respect  to  a  new  ecclesiastical  organization. 
This  Westminster  Synod  (1643-49)  in  connection  with  a  few  commissioners 
from  the  Scottish  Church,  after  long  debates  between  Presbyterians,  Inde- 
pendents, and  those  who  would  have  the  Church  governed  by  the  civil  pow- 
ers (Erastians),  finally  adopted  a  Puritanic  order  of  worship,  a  Presbyterian 
form  of  Church  government,  and  a  Calvinistic  Confession  of  Faith  with  two 
Catechisms.  The  seats  of  the  bishops  in  the  House  of  Lords  had  been  va- 
cated, and  their  office  was  now  abolished,  the  revenues  of  the  Church  prop- 
erty were  consumed  in  these  difficult  times,  principally  for  political  purposes, 
<md  with  a  few  alterations  in  favor  of  the  civil  powers  the  acts  of  the  Synod 


426  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  15.MM8. 

were  proclaimed  as  laws.  Only  in  the  Scottish  Church,  however,  have  the 
Westminster  Standards  been  thoroughly  received,  for  in  England  their  enforce- 
ment was  opposed  by  the  growing  ascendency  of  the  army,  (a)  Archbishop 
Laud,  who  had  refused  all  connection  with  the  pope  as  long  as  Rome  re- 
mained as  it  was,  but  who  had  been  unable  to  recognize  him  as  Antichrist, 
now  ascended  the  scaffold  (1645),  and  was  soon  followed  by  his  sovereign, 
with  a  fortitude  and  divine  resignation  which  has  since  given  him  the  name 
of  a  martyr  king  (Jan.  30,  1649).  Cromwell,  an  Independent,  though  as  a 
ruler  favorable  to  a  Presbyterian  constitution,  in  the  mean  time  obtained  the 
mastery  of  the  revolution  which  had  borne  him  into  power,  and  gradually 
advanced  from  the  fanaticism  of  faith  and  freedom  to  the  cunning  selfishness 
of  a  tyrant.  (&) 

FBANOE. 

I.  (Sorranns)  Cmmtr.  do  statu  rel.  et  reip.  in  regno  Gal.  Gen.  1570-80.  5  vols.  (Bcea)  H.  ecc.  dos 
6gl.  r6f.  1521-68.  Antv.  15SO.  8  vol*.  Reynier  d*  la  rianche,  IL  de  1'fetat  do  France,  sous  Franc.  II. 
publ.  p.  Mennechet,  Par.  1886.  2  vols.    Davlla,  IL  delle  guerre  dv.  dl  Francia.  1559-93.  Yen.  1630. 4. 
&  often.    (Benoist)  H.  de  1'edit  de  Nantes.  Delft.  1698s.  8  vols.  4.    De  Thou  (p.  858).— Eecueil  do 
Lettres  missives  do  Henri  IV.,  pnblie  par  Berger  de  Xivrey,  voL  I.  (1562-84.)  Par.  1848.    [G.  P.  li. 
James,  Life  of  Ilenry  IV.  Lond.  1847.  8  vols.  8.    Lord  Mahon,  Life  of  Louis  Pr.  of  Conde,  New 
York.  1848. 12.    Anon.  Life  of  Louis  of  Bourbon,  Pr.  of  Conde,  from  the  French.  Lond.  1693.  2  vols. 
8.    Maimbourg,  H.  of  the  League,  from  the  Fr.  by  Dryden,  Lond.  1684.  8.    Ranke,  Civil  wars  and 
Monarchy  in  France  in  the  16th  &  17th  contt  Lond.  1852.  2  vols.  8.    M.  Castelnau,  Mom.  of  Fran- 
cis II.  &  Charles  IX.  from  tho  Fr.  Lond.  1724.  f.    li.  de  Bouille,  A.  des  Dues  do  Guise,  Par.  1849.  2 
vols.  8.    Blackwood's  Mag.  Apr.  1850.  (Eclec.  Mag.  Dec.  1850.)  ] 

II.  Lacrttelle,  II.  do  France,  pendant  les  guerrcs  de  rel.  Par.  1815sa.  4  vols.    A.  L.  Herrmann, 
Fr.  Eel.  u.  Burgerkriege  im  16  Jahrh.  Lps.  1828.    Browning,  II.  of  the  Huguenots.  Lond.  1829.  2  vols. 
Capeftgue,  IL  de  la  Bef.  de  la  ligue  et  du  regne  de  Henri  IV.  Par.  1834s.  8  vols.    L.  Ranke,  franz. 
Gesch.  im  16.  u.  17.  Jhh.  Stuttg.  1852.  vol.  I.    [ Mrs.  Marsh,  II.  of  the  Prot.  Eef.  in  France,  Philad. 
1851.  2  vols.  12.    K  Smedley,  H.  of  the  Eef.  in  France,  New  York.  8  vols.  12.    Ch.  Weiss.  II.  of  the 
Prot  Eef.  in  France.  Lond.  1854.  2  vols.  12.  &  with  an  Append,  by  IT.  W.  Herbert,  New  York.  1854. 
2  vols.  12.    G.  de  Felice,  II.  of  the  Protestants  of  France,  from  the  Fr.  Lond.  1353.  2  vols.  &] 

§  365.  '  Night  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

The  rise  and  fall  of  the  sects  in  the  Southern  provinces,  a  liberal  adminis- 
tration of  ecclesiastical  laws,  and  an  extensive  cultivation  of  polite  literature, 
had  prepared  the  way  for  the  entrance  of  Protestantism  into  France.  The 
hearts  of  the  first  converts  to  it  were  gained  by  Luther's  writings,  but  the  first 
churches  in  France  were  established  by  her  own  sons,  Calvin  and  Beza.  The 
Appropriate  business  of  the  Sorbonne  was  not  neglected,  and  Luther's  seditious 
writings  were  condemned  in  due  season,  (a)  Francis  I.  sometimes  thought 
of  effecting  a  peaceable  reformation,  and  even  invited  Melancthon  to  come 
to  him  for  that  purpose.  But  the  policy  of  the  French  court  at  that  period 

a)  Puritanorum  Librl  Symb.  ed.  Niemeyer.  Lps.  1840.  Sack.  (p.  424.)  vol.  II.  p.  61ss.  K.  G.  v. 
Rudloff,  d.  Westminster  Syn.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1850.  II.  2.)  [  W.  M.  Ifetfierington,  Hist  of  the 
Westm.  Assem.  New  York.  1843. 12.] 

&)  Oliver  Cromwell's  Life,  Letters  &  Speeches,  by  T.  Carlyle,  Lond.  1845.  2  vols.  [J.  H.  M. 
WAuUgne,  The  Protector,  a  Vindication,  New  York.  1848. 12.  Harris,  Life  of  O.  C.  Lond.  1762.  8. 
J.  T.  Headley,  Life  of  O.  C.  New  York.  1848.  12.]— Villemain,  Gesch.  Cromw.  A.  d.  Fr.  v.  Berly. 
Lps.  1830. 

a)  Determin.  Theol.  Fac.  Paris,  super  doctr.  Luth.  d.  15.  Apr.  1521.  [Gerdes,  H.  Eef.  Monumm 
p.  lOss  ]  Melancth.  Apol.  adv.  furios  Paris  theologastror.  deer.  Vit  1521. 


CHAP.  III.    EUROPEAN  REFORM.    §  365.  FRANCE.    BEZA.  427 

induced  it  to  favor  the  Protestants  in  Germany,  and  to  burn  them,  especially 
the  "Waldenses,  in  great  numbers  (1545)  in  Trance.  (&)  Besides,  although 
Melancthon  freely  consented  to  the  king's  proposal,  Luther  was  suspicious  of 
it,  and  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  a  reformation  in  which  the  spirit  of 
Erasmus,  and  not  a  love  of  the  gospel  prevailed,  (c)  The  French  court  was 
also  influenced,  not  merely  by  its  zeal  for  religion,  but  by  its  political  fears 
and  hatred  of  a  sect  which  denounced  as  capital  offences  crimes  unblushingly 
practised  in  the  royal  palace.  But  in  spite  of  persecutions,  sometimes  proba- 
bly produced  by  enthusiastic  violations  of  Catholic  feelings,  the  Huguenots 
increased,  especially  in  the  south,  and  united  themselves  together  at  a  Gene- 
ral Synod  in  Paris  (1559).  The  Confession  of  Faith  which  they  there  adopted 
was  Calvinistic,  and  their  ecclesiastical  constitution  was  representative,  com- 
bining independent  congregations  and  a  united  general  Church,  (d)  Many  of 
the  nobility  of  the  kingdom,  the  Bourbons,  with  the  title  of  King  of  Navarre, 
and  the  noble  Chatillons,  ranged  themselves  at  the  head  of  this  party,  and  its 
political  power  became  formidable.  During  the  reigns  of  two  successive 
kings,  whose  intellectual  inferiority  rendered  a  regency  always  indispensable 
(after  1559),  their  mother,  Catharine  de  Medici,  held  the  actual  reins  of  au- 
thority, while  the  Dukes  of  Guise  supported  by  the  Catholics,  and  the  princes 
of  Bourbon  by  the  Huguenots,  contended  for  the  regency.  In  the  strife  of 
these  leaders  the  queen-mother  found  the  necessary  condition  of  her  supre- 
macy. At  the  religious  conference  of  Poissy  (1561),  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembled  court,  Beza  succeeded  in  truly  and  brilliantly  defending  the  new 
faith  against  the  whole  prelatic  strength  of  France,  (e)  In  the  edict  of  Janu- 
ary (1562)  the  Huguenots  obtained  the  right  to  hold  public  worship  any  where 
except  in  the  principal  cities,  (f)  But  this  privilege  was  regarded  as  an 
abomination  by  the  city  of  Paris  and  the  Catholic  population  generally,  and 
was  derided  with  sanguinary  violence  by  the  Duke  of  Guise.  During  the 
same  year,  therefore,  hostilities  were  commenced  with  all  the  aggravations  of 
a  civil  and  religious  war,  and  were  three  times  renewed  after  as  many  treaties 
of  peace.  The  Catholic  governmental  party  were  assisted  by  Spanish  and  papal 
troops,  and  the  Reformed  by  English  gold  and  German  blood,  (g)  Finally,  at 
the  peace  of  St.  Germain  (1570)  the  Huguenots  were  guaranteed  the  posses- 
sion of  freedom  of  conscience,  a  degree  of  publicity  in  religious  worship,  equal 
political  privileges,  and  a  few  fortified  towns  as  securities  for  the  future.  In 
token  of  a  complete  reconciliation  the  king's  sister  was  given  in  marriage  to 
Henry  of  Navarre.  All  the  Protestant  leaders  were  invited  to  Paris  to  cele- 
brate the  nuptials.  There,  on  the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew,  1572,  the  queen- 
mother  gave  the  signal  for  a  massacre  which  had  long  been  the  subject  of 
conversation,  but  was  then  resolved  upon  under  the  impulse  of  the  moment. 
During  this  fatal  night  twenty  thousand  Huguenots,  with  the  brave  General 

Z>)  Corp.  Eef.  vol.  II.  p.  741.  855.  879.  904ss.    Strobel  Mel.  Ruf  nach  Frankr.  Numb.  1794.     C. 
Sclimidt,  d.  Unions- Versache  Franz  I.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1850.  H.  I.) 

c)  H.  de  la  persecution  et  saccagement  du  peuplo  de  Merindol  et  de  Cabrierea  et  autres  circon- 
toisins  appeles  Vaudois.  1566.    Beza,  I,  35ss. 

d)  Niemeyer,  Col.  p.  Sllss.        e)  JBaum,  Beza  vol.  II.  p.  145ss. 
/)  B&noist  vol.  I. :  Recueil  d'Edits  p.  Iss. 

g)  F.  W.  Barflwld,  Deutschl.  u.  d.  Hugen.  1843.  voL  L 


428  HODEE&  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

Coligny  were  murdered,  presenting  a  horrid  earnest  of  the  future  revolution, 
A  Te  Deum  was  sung  at  Kome  by  the  order  of  Gregory  XIII.  in  honor  of 
this  extermination  of  Christ's  enemies,  (h) 

§  366.    Edict  of  Nantes. 

Those  who  had  escaped  the  massacre  now  armed  themselves  for  vengeance 
with  the  courage  of  despair,  and  once  more  conquered  from  their  enemies  a 
recognition  of  their  rights  (1676).  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  had  been  spared, 
and  compelled  to  deny  his  faith,  assumed  the  position  which  naturally  be- 
longed to  him,  and  became  the  leader  of  the  Huguenots.  But  the  Guises,  in 
alliance  with  Philip  IT.,  now  formed  a  Holy  League,  in  which  a  majority  of 
the  nobles  and  people  swore  that  they  would  exterminate  the  heretics. 
'  Charles  IX.  died  under  the  torture  of  terrible  dreams  (1574).  Henry  III.  was 
compelled  to  violate  the  treaty  of  peace,  but  finally,  disgusted  with  the  tyranny 
of  the  Holy  League,  he  had  Henry,  Duke  of  Guise,  the  Gideon  of  Catholic 
France,  assassinated,  and  the  Cardinal  of  Guise  executed,  fled  before  the  fury 
of  the  Catholic  populace  to  the  camp  of  the  King  of  Navarre,  was  excom- 
municated by  the  pope,  and  was  at  last  assassinated  by  the  Dominican,  Clem- 
ent (1589).  By  this  death  of  the  last  of  the  house  of  Valois  the  throne  de- 
scended by  inheritance  to  Henry  of  Navarre,  whose  title  had  been  declared 
invalid  by  the  pope  and  the  league.  After  many  severe  struggles  to  gain  pos- 
session of  his  royal  rights,  and  finding  that  he  could  never  hope  to  give  peace 
to  his  subjects  so  long  as  the  greater  portion  of  them  regarded  him  as  a  here- 
tic, Henry  IV.  concluded  that  France  was  worth  the  offering  of  a  mass  (1593). 
As  soon,  however,  as  his  kingdom  became  settled,  he  secured  to  his  real  com- 
panions in  faith  by  the  irrevocable  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598)  freedom  of  reli- 
gious faith,  the  public  worship  of  God  with  only  a  few  trifling  restrictions,  all 
then*  rights  as  citizens,  and  great  privileges  as  an  organized  political  corpora- 
tion, (a)  They  were  indeed  to  pay  tithes  to  the  established  Church,  but  were 
to  be  free  from  all  kinds  of  episcopal  jurisdiction.  Although  these  conces- 
sions did  not  completely  satisfy  even  the  Huguenots,  it  required  the  whole 
royal  power  to  enforce  compliance  with  the  edict  among  the  magistrates,  and 
in  the  provinces  opposed  to  it.  But  just  as  France  had  begun  to  enjoy  the 
highest  prosperity  under  his  administration,  just  as  he  was  about  to  execute 
the-  most  enlightened  schemes  for  the  permanent  pacification  of  Europe, 
Henry  fell  beneath  the  dagger  of  Eavaillac  (May  14,  1610).  The  peaceful 
sons  of  the  old  Huguenot  heroes  were  finally  driven  to  insurrection  by  a 
series  of  violations  of  their  rights,  and  Cardinal  Richelieu  by  the  power  of 
his  intellect  overthrew  all  opposition,  and  disarmed  them  as  a  political  party. 
At  the  same  time,  by  an  act  of  amnesty  at  Nismes  (1629),  he  secured  to  them 
all  those  ecclesiastical  rights  which  had  been  guaranteed  in  the  Edict  of 
Nantes;  but  by  various  persecutions  and  frequent  apostasies  the  reformed 


Ti)  Audin,  H.  de  la  8.  Barth61emy.  Par.  1826.  Wackier,  d.  Bluthochzeit  Lps.  (1826.)  1828, 
Against  Capefigue:  Rarike:  hist  polit  Zeitsch.  1835.  vol.  II.  St  3.  &  Franz.  Gesch.  vol.  I.  p.  26989, 
W.  G.  Soldan,  Frankr.  u.  d.  Bartholomaosnacht.  (Raumer's  hist  Tascheub.  1854.) 

a)  Benoist,  Monn.  p.  62ss. 


CHAP.  III.    EUROPEAN  EEFOEM.    §  367.  SPANIAEDS.    ITALIANS.  429 

Church  was  reduced  to  not  more  than  half  the  strength  which  it  possessed 
before  the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew.  (5) 

§  367.    Spain  and  Italy. 

M.  Geddes,  Martyrologium  eor.  qni  in  Hisp.  etc.  (3fos7iem.  Dss.  ad  II.  ecc.  Alt.  1 733.  p.  663.) 
R.  Consalvi,  Eelat  de  martt  Prot.  in  Hisp.  (Gerdes,  Serin,  vol.  IV.  P.  II.)  APCrie,  H.  of  the  pro- 
gress &  suppression  of  the  Eeform.  in  Spain.  Edinb.  1829.  Adolfo  de  Castro,  H.  de  los  Protes- 
tantes  Espanoles.  Cadiz.  1851.  [The  Spanish  Protestants  and  their  persecution  under  Philip  II.,  from 
the  Spanish  of  De  Castro,  by  T.  Parker.  Lond.  1852.  8.  It.  Watson,  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  New  York. 
1S18.  8.]—Gerdesii,  Spec.  Ital.  reformatae.  L.  B.  1765.  4.  JlPCrie,  II.  of  the  progress  &  suppr.  of  the 
Eef.  in  Italy.  Edinb.  tS27.  C.  F.  Leopold,  u.  d.  Ursachen  d.  Eef.  u.  deren  Verfall  in  Ital.  (Zeitsch. 
£  hist  Th.  1843.  H.  2.) 

In  the  train  of  the  emperor  the  seeds  of  the  Reformation  were  conveyed 
to  Spain,  where  they  were  cherished  perhaps  even  by  some  who  surrounded 
his  dying  bed,  (a}  and  certainly  were  received  with  the  highest  enthusiasm,  in 
some  instances  from  a  patriotic  resistance  to  the  inquisition,  but  in  others 
from  a  profound  religious  feeling,  which  found  satisfaction  in  the  reformed 
doctrine  of  justification.  But  Catholicism,  especially  the  worship  of  the 
saints,  is  deeply  rooted  in  the  obstinate  spirit  of  the  Spanish  people.  Purity 
of  faith  is  as  highly  valued  by  a  Spaniard  as  purity  of  blood,  and  he  would 
not  scruple  to  imbrue  his  hands  in  the  blood  of  a  Brother  who  had  apostatized 
from  the  faith.  (5)  Martyrdom  therefore  had  no  terrors,  and  when  Philip 
had  exhausted  the  immense  resources  of  his  empire  in  endeavoring  to  put  down 
the  religious  revolution  among  other  nations,  the  inquisition  effectually  silenced 
the  arguments  of  Protestantism  by  throwing  into  prison  and  there  putting  to 
death  all  persons  suspected  of  heresy,  or  by  the  popular  pageantry  of  an  auto 
da  fe.  In  Italy,  the  contempt  into  which  the  clergy  had  fallen,  and  the  ex- 
clusive engagement  of  worldly  men  in  the  studies  of  polite  literature,  had 
produced  a  spirit  which  hailed  the  movement  in  Germany  with  great  joy.  By 
means  of  literary  societies  of  Protestants  connected  with  the  foreign  armies 
in  their  midst,  and  of  translations  of  the  writings  of  the  Eeformers  generally 
under  assumed  names,  individual  friends  or  congregations  were  gained  in 
nearly  all  the  principal  towns,  and  especially  in  Ferrara,  under  the  protection 
of  the  heroic  Duchess  of  Este,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  France,  (c)  Oppor- 
tunities, however,  were  found  for  the  indulgence  of  evangelical  feelings  in  the 
Old  Church,  (d)  or  they  were  divided  among  themselves  by  controversies  re- 
specting the  Lord's  Supper,  and  by  the  conduct  of  those  who  were  hostile  to 
all  ecclesiastical  systems,  and  therefore  wished  to  destroy  or  at  least  encroach 
upon  that  portion  of  the  Catholic  faith  which  was  retained  by  the  reformers. 
Moreover  none  but  the  middle  classes  in  Italy  were  ever  sincerely  devoted  to 
the  cause  of  liberty,  and  the  spirituality  of  the  German  and  French  Protes- 
tants could  never  be  very  popular  among  a  people  so  fond  of  those  arts  which 

V)  Tzschirner,  de  causis  impeditae  in  Francogal.  sacrorum  publ.  emendationis.  (Opp.  Lps.  1329. 
p.  818.) 

[a)  Wm.  Stirling,  Cloister  life  of  Charles  V.  Lond.  1852.  8.] 

6)  Claude  Senarcle,  Hist,  vera  de  morte  Jo.  Diazii.  1546.  (Gerd  esii  Serin,  antiquar.  vol.  VIII. 
P.  1.)  Corp.  Eef.  vol.  VI.  p.  113s. 

c)  KHistor.  Archiv.  1824.  P.  4.  p.  Is.    K  Munch,  K.  v.  Este.  Aach.  1831ss.  2  vols. 

cf)  Del  beneficio  di  Cristo  about  1540.  &  often.    liiederer,  Nachrr.  vol.  IV.  p.  121.  235ss. 


430  MODERN  CHTTECH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

are  addressed  exclusively  to  the  outward  sense.  When  therefore  the  dangei 
was  perceived  at  Rome,  and  an  inquisitorial  tribunal  with  formidable  powers 
was  appointed  there  (1542),  many  fled  beyond  the  Alps,  and  others  recanted 
and  relapsed  into  thoughtlessness,  indifference,  or  even  insanity,  (c)  Dreading 
the  eloquence  of  martyrdom,  the  inquisition  struck  terror  into  the  hearts  of 
the  people  rather  by  imprisonment,  by  consignment  to  the  galleys,  and  by 
secret  executions.  It  was  only  in  Calabria  that  the  members  of  a  few  churches 
of  the  "Waldenses  were  hunted  to  death  like  wild  beasts  (1560).  Near  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century  all  vestiges  of  Protestant  communities  in  Italy  were 
completely  obliterated.  Among  those  who  fled  to  foreign  countries  were  some 
highly  honored  divines  and  prelates,  who,  with  few  exceptions,  spent  their 
lives  in  great  unhappiness.  (/) 


CHAP.  IV.— FANATICS  AND  ULTRAISTS  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

Sc7ilu8selburg  (p.  402.)  IT.  W.  Ei'lkam,  Gcsch.  d.  prot.  Sekten  im  Zclta.  d.  Ref.  Hamb.  1848.— 
ffagen  (p.  360.)  voL  III. 

§  3G8.     General  Relations  of  the  Reformation. 

While  some  who  anticipated  and  co-operated  in  effecting  the  Reformation 
finally  shrunk  from  its  results,  in  the  midst  of  the  general  commotions  which 
then  took  place,  and  the  liberty  which  all  enjoyed,  many  individuals  of  differ- 
ent dispositions  wished  to  share  in  the  privileges  of  the  new  Church  who 
exceeded  either  the  true  limits  of  Protestantism,  or  at  least  those  which  the 
popular  mind  could  then  tolerate.  These  extreme  characters  the  reformed 
churches  with  one  common  spirit  violently  rejected.  What  Calvin  sanctioned 
by  a  dark  deed,  Melancthon  praised,  (a)  Luther  remarked  that  the  most 
deadly  acts  of  the  inquisition  might  thus  be  justified,  and  that  after  all,  the 
hangmen  were  the  most  learned  doctors.  (5)  In  this  way  the  maxim  was 
gradually  formed,  that  errorists  should  be  silenced,  and  that  obstinate  here- 
tics should  not  indeed  be  put  to  death,  but  confined,  and  sent  out  of  the  coun- 
try. Philip  alone,  among  the  princes,  was  disposed  to  recognize  the  right  of 
all  men  to  liberty  of  conscience,  and  that  persons  of  another  faith  may  pos- 
sess the  essentials  of  true  piety,  (c) 

e)  a  L.  Roth,  Fr.  Spieras  Lebensende,  Numb.  1829. 

/)  E.  g.  Schlosser  (p.  402.  nt  f.)  C.  Schmidt,  Vie  de  Pierre  Martyr  VermiglL  Strasb.  1835.  4.  F 
Meyer,  die  ev.  Gemeinde  in  Locarno,  ihre  Auswand.  nacb  Zurich  u.  weiterc  Schicks.  Zur.  1836s.  2  vola. 

«)  Calvini  Defensio  ortb.  fidei  c.  errores  Serueti,  ubi  ostenditur,  haereticos  jure  gladii  coercendos 
esse.  s.  1. 1554.  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  VIII.  p.  362.  [Stebbing,  Hist,  of  the  Church,  vol.  IL  p.  128.  Spirit 
of  the  Pilgrims,  vol.  III.  p.  615.  Bib.  Repertory,  vol.  VIII.  p.  87.  Beza,  Life  of  Calv.  ed.  by  Sibson, 
note  c.  Henry,  Life  of  C.  vol.  II.  p.  219.] 

V)  De  Wette  vol.  II.  p.  622.  Walch  vol.  IV.  p.  759.  X.  374.  XV.  1686.  XVI.  64  Yet  see  De 
Wette  vol.  III.  p.  498.  V.  95.  Walch  vol.  XIII.  p.  442s. 

c)  Brief  an  Joh.  Friedrich  d.  Mittlern  v.  7.  Marz.  1559.  (Saliff.  voL  III.  p.  4S6ss.  Wetzlarsche. 
Beltrr.  vol.  XI.  p.  304ss. 


CHAP.  IV.    TJLTRAISTS.    §  869.  ANABAPTISTS.  43 1 

§  369.    Anabaptists  as  Fanatics. 

I  Justus  M&n,iw:  d.  Wiederteuffer  Lere  vnd  geheimn.  a.  H.  S.  widerlegt  M.  Yorr.  Luth.  Witt. 
1530.  and  Von  d.  Geist  d.  WT.  "Witt.  1544.  4.  II.  Bidlinger,  d.  WT.  vrsprung,  fiirgang,  Secten.  Zur. 
15GO.  4— Newe  Zeitung  v.  d.  WT.  zu  Munsster.  (MitLuth.  Vorr.  u.  Melanchth.  Propositiones.)  Niirnb. 
1535.  4  Ordn.  d.  WT.  zu  M.  1535.  4.  If.  Dorpius,  warhafftige  hist,  wie  das  Ev.  zu  M.  angefangen 
vnd  durch  d.  WT.  verstoret  wider  auffgehort  bat.  (Witt.)  1536.  4  Magdeb.  1847.  II.  a  Kerssen- 
Iroick,  anabapt  furoris  hist  narratio.  1564-73.  (defective :  Mencken,  Scrr.  Germ.  vol.  III.  a  poor 
trans. :  Gesch  d.  WT.  zu  M.  1771.  4) 

II.  H.  J.  H.  Otte,  Ann.  anabaptistici.  Bas.  1672.  4.  N.  Krolin,  WT.  vorn.  in  Niederdeutsch.  (Hof- 
mannianer.)  Lps.  1758.  V,  A.  Winter,  Gesch.  d.  bal  WT.  Munch.  1809.  H.  Jochmus,  Gesch.  d. 
KReform  zu  M.  u.  ihres  Unterganges  durch  d.  WT.  Munst  1825.  J.  Hast,  Gesch.  d.  WT. 
Munst.  1836.  C.  A.  Cornelius,  de  fontib.  quibus  in  Hist,  seditionis  Mon.  viri  docti  usi  sunt.  Mon 
1850.  K.  Ease,  d.  Reich  d.  WT.  (Neue  Prophete'n.) 

"While  the  Reformers  justified  their  opposition  to  the  papacy  by  appealing 
to  the  Scriptures,  or  to  clear  and  manifest  reasons,  it  was  not  surprising  that 
others,  on  the  contrary,  decidedly  arrogated  to  themselves  as  individuals 
what  the  Church  claimed  for  herself  in  general,  and  that  fanatical  persons 
mistook  their  own  passionate  impulses  for  divine  inspirations.  Their  rejec- 
tion of  infant  baptism,  in  consistency  with  the  Protestant  doctrine  of  faith, 
and  on  account  of  its  want  of  Scriptural  authority,  together  with  their  con- 
sequent- repetition  of  the  baptism  of  adult  believers,  became  the  distinctive 
badge  of  their  party.  These  Anabaptists,  who  made  their  first  appearance  at 
Zwichau  and  Wittenberg  (1521),  were  nearly  all  put  to  death  in  the  Peasants' 
war,  but  in  almost  every  part  of  the  country,  a  class  of  enthusiasts  resem- 
bling them,  but  very  unlike  each  other  in  moral  and  religious  character,  be- 
came the  pioneers  and  freebooters  of  the  Reformation.  Some  of  them  were 
persons  who  had  renounced  the  world,  and  others  were  the  slaves  of  their 
own  lusts ;  to  some  of  them  marriage  was  only  an  ideal  religious  communion 
of  spirit,  to  others  it  was  resolved  into  a  general  community  of  wrives  ;  some 
did  not  differ  from  the  reformers  with  respect  to  doctrine,  but  others  rejected 
original  sin  and  the  natural  bondage  of  the  will,  denied  that  we  are  to  be 
justified  by  the  merits  of  Christ  alone,  or  that  we  can  partake  of  his  flesh, 
and  maintained  that  our  Lord's  body  was  from  heaven,  and  not  begotten  by 
the  virgin.  As  they  acknowledged  no  call  but  that  which  came  directly 
from  God  within  them,  they  despised  the  ministerial  office  in  the  Church, 
and  though  they  denounced  all  historical  records,  they  justified  themselves  by 
isolated  passages  of  the*  Bible  for  overthrowing  all  existing  relations  in  social 
life.  In  their  assumed  character  of  men  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  they 
were  of  course  exalted  above  all  law,  and  frequently  exhibited  a  spirit  of 
rebellion  against  every  kind  of  government.  Hencje,  among  both  Catholics 
and  Protestants  it  was  thought  right  to  punish  them  even  with  death.  In 
Miinster,  where  the  Reformation  and  civic  liberty  had  obtained  the  ascend- 
ency by  rather  violent  measures  (1532),  some  Anabaptists  from  the  Nether- 
lands having  driven  out  all  who  opposed  them,  formed  a  theocratic  Democra- 
cy (Feb.,  1534),  which  was  to  be  the  commencement  of  Christ's  promised 
kingdom  on  earth.  Matthiesen  was  regarded  by  them  as  the  prophet  Enoch, 
and  after  his  heroic  death,  Bockelson  was  received  by  them  as  the  king  of  the 
world.  Prophets  were  sent  abroad  in  every  direction,  a  kind  of  community 
of  goods  and  polygamy  were  introduced  among  them,  and  the  most  san 


432  MODEEN  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

guinary  proceedings  were  enacted  under  a  pretended  divine  inspiration,  until, 
after  a  courageous  defence,  Munster  was  conquered  by  the  neighboring 
princes  (June  24th,  1525).  Their  disorderly  conduct  was  then  arrested  by 
the  sword,  and  the  authority  of  the  hierarchy  and  of  the  nobility  was  re- 
established. 

§  370.     The  Anabaptists  as  an  Orderly  Community.     Collcgiants. 

Menno  Sim.  Fundamentnm,  together  with  some  other  unimportant  small  works.  1575.  Opp. 
Amst  1646.  Comp.  Archiv.  £  KGeech.  1814.  voL  II.  B.  1C.  Xoosen,  Menno  8.  Lps.  1843.  J.  C. 
Jehring,  grundL  II.  v.  den  Taufges.  b.  1615.)  from  the  Dutch  by  E.  van  Gent)  Jena.  1720.— // 
Schyn,  H.  Christianorum,  qui  Mennonitae  appellantnr.  Amst  1723.  and  H.  Menn.  plonior  dednctio. 
Ib.  1729.  <?.  L.  v.  Reiwwitz  and  F.  Wadztck^  Beitrr.  z.  Kenntn.  d.  taufges.  Gemeinden.  Brsl.  1821ss. 
2  vols.  A.  Hunzinger,  das  Eel  K.  u.  Schnlwesen  d.  Menn.  Speyer.  1881.— J.  Wiggers,  d.  Taufges. 
in  d.  Pfalz.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1848.  H.  S.—JKues,  gegenw.  Znst  d.  Menn.  u.  Collcg.  Jen.  1743.  Ar- 
X5hiv.  t  KG.  1814  vol.  I.  Part  &, 

The  misfortunes  and  extravagances  of  the  Anabaptists  of  Munster  com- 
pelled those  who  survived  either  partially  to  distrust  their  claims  to  infallibil- 
ity and  their  hopes  of  a  secular  kingdom,  or  to  throw  themselves  upon  the  ex- 
pectation of  an  advent  of  Christ  in  the  future.  These  scattered,  divided  and 
dispirited  communities  were  collected  into  small  congregations  in  various 
parts  of  the  Netherlands  and  on  the  German  sea-coasts,  by  the  pious  dili- 
gence of  Menno  Simon,  who  had  formerly  been  a  priest  (d.  1561).  Under 
the  name  of  Assemblies  of  the  Saints,  they  adopted  a  rigid  discipline,  re- 
jected all  oaths,  war,  lawsuits,  and  divorce  except  for  adultery,  and  prac- 
tised the  washing  of  feet  as  a  sacred  ordinance ;  and  though  they  obeyed 
the  authorities,  they  contended  that  it  did  not  become  a  successor  of  Christ 
to  exercise  worldly  jurisdiction.  Public  toleration  was  conceded  to  them  in 
the  Netherlands  when  the  liberty  of  those  provinces  was  obtained,  and  grad- 
ually it  was  allowed  them  in  England  and  Germany.  But  even  during 
Menno's  life  they  became  divided  on  the  subject  of  the  rigidity  of  excommu- 
nication into  the  Pure  and  the  Gross,  or  on  the  doctrine  of  election  into 
Calvinists  and  Arminians.  With  the  latter  class  the  Collegiants  became 
united  more  particularly  in  Rhynsburg.  This  sect  sprung  up  about  1620, 
when  the  Arminian  clergy  were  excommunicated,  and  three  brothers  of  the 
name  of  Kodde,  ruling  elders  of  more  than  ordinary  proficiency  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, collected  such  as  were  of  the  same  faith  with  themselves  into  assem- 
blies for  prayer  (Collegia).  They  rejected  all  ecclesiastical  offices  for  religious 
instruction,  and  demanded  a  severity  of  morals  such  as  prevailed  in  the 
primitive  Church,  but  they  were  almost  indifferent  with  respect  to  ecclesias- 
tical articles  of  faith.  Hence  persons  of  very  different  sentiments  were  to  be 
found  among  them,  but  the  association  by  which  their  congregations  were 
united  was  not  dissolved  until  some  time  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

§  371.    Antitrinitarians. 

Ch.  Sand,  Bibl.  Antitrr.  Freist  (Amst.)  1684.  F.  8.  Sock,  Hist  Antitrr.  Socinianor.  Lps.  et  Be- 
giom  1774SS.  2  vols.  F.  Trec?isel,  M.  Servet  u.  s.  Yorganger.  Heidelb.  1839. 

The  fellowship  of  the  Reformers  with  the  Church  was  shown  by  their 
inviolable  attachment  to  the  ancient  Catholic  symbols.  But  those  in  various 


CHAP.  IV.    ULTEAISTS.    §  371.  ANTITEINITAEIANS.    8EEVETUS.  433 

countries,  and  especially  in  Italy,  who  were  secretly  opposed  to  all  ecclesias- 
tical creeds,  indulged  the  hope  that  they  would  find  an  asylum  in  countries 
possessing  the  Reformation.  Some  of  these,  therefore,  in  the  name  of  the 
Scriptures  or  of  intellectual  freedom,  claimed  the  right  to  reject  any  ecclesi- 
astical doctrines,  and  especially  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  it  had  been 
taught  in  the  Church,  or  in  an  Anabaptist  spirit  uttered  opinions  respecting 
this  right  from  a  professed  divine  inspiration.  The  reformers,  however,  has- 
tened as  speedily  as  possible  to  deny  all  fellowship  with  such  heretics,  by  a 
sentence  which  adjudged  such  persons  to  a  capital  punishment.  John  Denck 
thought  he  discovered  in  the  abundant  love  which  Christ  produced  by  his 
agency  before  he  came  into  the  world,  and  which  he  typically  represented,  a 
state  of  exaltation  above  the  Scriptures  and  all  laws,  and  yet  led  to  the  pre- 
cise course  of  conduct  which  they  required.  His  education  in  polite  litera- 
ture did  not  raise  him  above  the  secret  practice  of  anabaptism,  in  which  he 
thought  seven  evil  spirits  were  abjured,  and  seven  good  spirits  were  received 
by  the  believer.  He  was  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  the  equality  of  the  Son 
with  the  Father  as  a  real  idolatry,  but  the  principal  point  on  which  his  feel- 
ings were  enlisted,  was  one  in  which  he  maintained  that  an  eternal  hell  was 
inconsistent  with  the  divine  mercy.  He  was  merely  expelled  from  the  sphere 
of  his  activity  in  the  cities  of  Upper  Germany,  and  escaped  martyrdom  as  a 
heretic  by  an  early  death  (1528).  (a)  Hitzer,  a  learned  friend  of  Zwingle  and 
a  popular  poet,  was,  while  full  of  expressions  of  repentance,  beheaded  at  Con- 
stance for  his  assertion  of  the  unity  of  God  (1529),  although  he  was  also 
convicted  of  holding  Anabaptist  sentiments  and  of  adulterous  conduct.  (5) 
Servetus,  a  native  of  Aragon,  and  a  man  of  extensive  acquirements  but  of  a 
restless  disposition,  taught  that  the  Deity  was  the  real  essence  of  all  things ; 
that  the  world  in  all  its  forms  is  actually  nothing ;  that  the  Trinity  is  only  a 
revelation  of  the  great  First  Cause  in  the  form  of  the  light  and  the  word 
finally  completed  in  the  incarnation ;  and  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  merely  a 
mode  in  which  God  communicates  himself  to  created  beings.  He  therefore 
derided  the  Trinity  held  by  the  Church  as  a  three-headed  Cerberus,  and 
thought  himself  destined  to  be  the  restorer  of  Christianity.  He  was  burned 
by  the  Catholics  in  effigy,  and  by  the  Protestants  in  reality,  at  Geneva 
(1553).  (c)  Campanus,  who  appealed  from  the  whole  world  to  the  apostles, 
and  described  the  Son  in  accordance  with  Arian  views,  and  the  Spirit  as  only 
the  influence  by  which  man  was  redeemed  and  assimilated  to  God,  died  in 
prison  at  Cleves  (about  1578).  (d)  Gentilis,  a  Calabrian,  completed  the  doc- 
trine of  three  Gods  of  unequal  rank,  which  had  been  advanced  by  Grilaldo, 

a)  Vom  Gesetz  Q-.  (s.  1.  et  a.)  Geistl.  Blumengartl.  (6  small  Treatises  by  Denck.)  Amst.  1680.— 
Ilagen  vol.  III.  p.  275ss.    Heberle,  J.  Denck  u.  s.  Buchl.  v.  Gesetz.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1851.  H.  Is.) 

b)  J.  J.  .Ereitinger,  Anecd.  de  L.  Hetzero.  (Museum  Helv.  1751.  vol.  VI.)    Dietrich,  in  d.  Tub. 
Zeitsch.  1834.  H.  4. 

c)  Diall.  de  Trin.  (Hagen.)  1532.     Christianismi  restitutio.  (Vien.)  1553.— Relation  du  proces 
criminal  intente  k  Geneve  contre  M.  Servet,  redig6o  d'apres  les  documents  originaux  par  A.  Rilliet, 
Gen.  1844.    Calmni  fldelis  expos,  errorum  Serv.  s.  1.  1554.— Mostieim,  Hist  Serv.  Hlmst.  1T27.  4. 
and  Neue  Nachr.  v.  d.  Arzte  Serv.  Hlmst.  1750.  5.    Heberle,  Serv.  Trin.  u.  Christol.  (Tub.  Zeitsch, 
1S40.  H.  2.)    Baur,  Dreieinigk.  vol.  III.  p.  46ss.    \W.  IT.  Drummond,  Life  of  Servetus.  Lond.  1S48. 
12.    It.  Wright,  Apol.  for  Serv.  Lond.  1805. 12.    Henry,  Life  of  Calv.  vol.  II.  and  as  in  §  368.  nt.  a.] 

d)  Schelhorn,  de  Camp.  (Amoenitt.  liter,  vol.  XI.) 

28 


434  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

a  learned  jurist,  by  maintaining  that  the  Son  was  another  God  of  the  same 
nature,  but  derived  from  the  Father.  He  saved  his  life  by  a  recantation,  an 
ecclesiastical  penance,  and  an  act  of  perjury  at  Geneva,  but  lost  it  at  Berne, 
as  he  thought,  in  honor  of  the  Father  (156C).  (e)  David  Joris,  a  painter 
from  Delft,  who  had  before  been  highly  esteemed  as  a  prophet  in  the  new 
kingdom  at  Munster,  taught  that  the  Trinity  was  merely  a  revelation  of 
God  in  three  different  ages  of  the  world,  and  assembled  together  Anabap- 
tists of  all  kinds,  with  the  promise  that  they  should  take  possession  of  the 
earth  as  the  Israelites  did  of  Canaan  in  the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  had 
made  its  appearance  in  him.  He  was  whipped  and  outlawed,  but  found  an 
honorable  asylum  under  an  assumed  name  at  Basle  (d.  1556).  (/)  Others 
took  refuge  in  Poland,  and  were  there  at  first  known  under  the  common 
name  of  Dissidents,  but  were,  after  1565,  expelled  from  the  Reformed  Church 
as  Unitarians.  They  were  not  entirely  free  from  persecution,  but  through 
the  favor  of  some  powerful  supporters  they  obtained  a  general  centre  for 
their  body  at  Racau  (1569).  (?)  In  Transylvania  a  public  recognition  of  the 
Unitarians  was  obtained  (1571)  by  the  influence  of  the  Piedmontese  Blan- 
drata,  the  private  physician  of  the  prince.  Jesus  was  honored  by  this  sect 
simply  as  a  man,  but  one  who  was  richly  endowed  by  God  and  exalted  for 
dominion  over  the  whole  world.  Adoration  was  paid  to  him  by  most  of 
them,  and  those  who  refused  this  were  persecuted.  (7t) 

§  872.    Socinians. 

L  BlbL  fratrum  Polcn.  Ircnop.  (Amst)  1658.  8  vols.  f.  Ch.  Oftorodt,  Unterrichtung  v.  d 
Hauptp.  d.  chr.  R.  Rak.  1C04.  and  oft.  Catech.  Racov.  (1009.  12.  and  oft.  Poln.  1605.)  ed.  Oeder, 
Frcf.  1789.  Wissowatius,  Rel.  rationalis.  16S5.  Amst  1703.  Stan.  Lulieniecii,  H.  ref.  Pol. 
Freist  1685. 

II.  Suddens,  de  orig.  Sociniau.  Jen.  1725.  4.  Ziegler,  Lchrbg.  d.  F.  Uoc.  (Ilenke,  N.  Mag.  vol. 
IV.  p.  201ss.)  K  Bengel,  Ideen  z.  Erkl.  d.  Soc.  Lehrbgr.  (Tab.  Mag.  St  14»)  0,  Fock,  der  So- 
einianismus  in  der  Gesammtentw.  d.  christl  Geistes,  nach  8.  hist  Verlaut  u.  Lehrbegr.  Kiel  1847. 
2  Abth. 

Laelius  Socinus,  belonging  to  the  noble  family  of  the  Sozini  of  Siena, 
spent  his  time,  after  1547,  in  reformed  countries  in  the  character  of  an 
inquiring  but  sceptical  man  of  letters,  under  the  advice  and  toleration  of  the 
reformers,  and  highly  esteemed  for  his  honesty  an,d  intelligence  (d.  1562).  (a) 
It  was  by  his  nephew  and  heir,  Faustus  Socinus  (d.  1604),  that  the  Unitarians 
in  Poland,  with  whom  he  became  connected,  became  organized  as  a  commu- 


e)  £.  Aretius,  Val.  Gentilis  justo  capitis  supplicio  affecti  H.  Gen.  1567.  4.  Gent  impietatum  ex- 
plicatio  exactis  Senatus  Genev.  c.  praef.  Th,  Bezae,  Gen.  1567.  4. 

/)  T  Wonderboek,  1542.  4. 1555.  f.— Hist  Dav.  Jovis  d.  Erzketzers,  durch  d.  Univ.  Basel.  Bas. 
1559.  4.  H.  vitae  Dav.  Georgii  haeresiarchae,  conscr.  ab  ipsius  genero,  Nic.  JBlesdikio,  ed.  J.  Ke- 
vins, Daventr.  1642. 12.  Jessenius,  aufgedeckte  Larve  Dav.  Georgii.  Kiel.  1670.  4. 

g)  Catechesis  et  Conf.  fidei  coetus  per  Pol.  congregati  in  nomine  J.  C.  Cracov.  1574.  12.  known  a? 
the  1.  Racovian  Catechism. 

h)  Blanlr.  Conf.  Antitr.  c.  refutatione  Ftocii,  ed.  Henke,  Hlmst  1794.  (Opp.  acad.  p.  245.) 
Heberle,  a.  d.  Lehren  v.  Bland.  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  1840.  H.  4.)— Summa  univ.  Th.  chr.  sec.  Unitarioa 
Claudiop.  1737.  (Rosenmuller,  in  Standlin's  u.  Tzsch.  Archiv.  f.  KGesch.  voL  I.  H.  1.) 

a)  Ch.  F.  Illgen,  Vita  L.  Socini.  Lps.  1814.  Symbolae  ad  vit  et  doct  L.  8.  ill.  Lps.  3  P. 
1826-44.  4.  Orelli,  L.  Soc.  (Basl.  wiss.  Zeitschr.  1824.  voL  II.  P.  8.  p.  llSss.)  F.  Treclisel,  Lelto 
Bozini  u.  die  Antitrinitarier  sr.  Zeit.  Heidelb.  1844. 


CHAP.  IV.    TJLTBAISTS.    §  3T2.  SOCINIANS.    §  873.  SCIIWENCKFELD.        435 

city,  and  received  a  complete  system  of  doctrine.  (5)  The  principal  article 
of  this  was  an  attempt  at  an  accommodation  between  different  parties  by  the 
doctrine,  that  although  Jesus  was  born  a  mere  man,  he  was  nevertheless 
without  any  earthly  father,  and  was  wonderfully  endowed  by  God,  was 
taken  up  into  heaven,  and  as  the  reward  of  his  life  was  deified,  that  he 
might  be  a  mediator,  to  bring  man,  alienated  from  God  by  sin,  to  the  knowl- 
edge and  grace  of  God,  and  that  he  might  reign  as  the  king  of  his  people  in 
all  periods  of  time.  As  man  is  destitute  of  any  natural  knowledge  of  God, 
divine  revelation  is  made  to  correspond  with  the  laws  of  his  mind.  The 
Socinian  explanations  of  the  New  Testament  were  therefore  frequently  of  a 
bold  and  novel  character,  but  conformed  to  the  prejudices  of  a  limited  un- 
derstanding, and  the  ethical  system  adopted  was  more  of  a  social  than  of  a 
religious  nature.  Christianity  was  viewed  on  the  whole  as  a  moral  redemp- 
tion by  our  own  efforts.  The  connection  with  the  Anabaptists,  which  Socinus 
found  already  formed,  was  very  soon  broken  off.  Socinianism  was  the  extreme 
of  opposition  to  popery,  and  was  never  a  true  pulsation,  but  the  feverish  ex- 
citement of  the  Protestant  Church  when  it  was  sinking  into  a  chill  ortho- 
doxy. Its  advocates  were  never  regarded  by  the  Protestants  as  Christians, 
and  it  was  only  in  Altorf,  near  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, that  they  succeeded  in  forming  an  organized  party.  Even  this  was 
soon  suppressed.  A  few  literary  men,  especially  among  the  Arrninians,  have 
been  obliged  to  defend  themselves  against  the  reproach  of  Socinianism.  (c) 
In  Poland,  the  attack  upon  Protestantism  was  most  ferocious  against  the  So- 
cinians.  In  1638  they  lost  possession  of  Eacau,  where  the  Polish  nobility 
had  been  educated,  and  in  1658  they  were  entirely  exterminated  under  the 
ostensible  charge  of  being  traitors  to  the  government,  (d)  The  exiled  con- 
gregations found  refuge  under  the  great  Elector,  and  individuals  took  up  their 
residence  in  the  Netherlands,  but  the  proper  time  for  Socinianism  as  a  sect 
was  now  past. 

§  373.     Caspar  SchwencTcfeld  of  Ossing.     Sebastian  Frantic. 

For  his  writings,  see  Walch,  Bibl.  theol.  Th.  II.  p.  67ss.  Kurze  Lebensb.  Schw.  without  place.  1697. 
Hist  Nachr.  v.  Schw.  samt  Anzahl  sr.  Schrr.  Prenzl.  1744.  Die  wesentl.  Lehre  des  Herrn  0.  Schw. 
n.  sr.  Glaubensgenossen.  Brsl.  1776.  (Jdhne)  Dankb.  Erin,  an  d.  Schwenkfelder  zu  Philadelphia.  Gorl. 
1816.—  Wig  and,  de  Schwenkfeldianismo.  Lps.  1586.  4.  ErbJcam,  p.  357ss.— Franck :  Paradoxa  280 
d.  i.  Wunderred.  aus  dL  H.  8.  (Ulm.  1564.)  4.  Baum  d.  Wiss.  Gates  u.  Buses.  Ulm.  1534.  4.  Dio 
Guldin  Arch.  Augsb.  1538.  f.  Das  verbuthschiert  mit  siben  Sigeln  verschlossne  Buch.  (Ibid.)  1539. 
f.—S.  Th.  Wald,  de  vita  scriptis  et  syst.  myst.  8.  Franci.  Erl.  1793.  4.  K.  am  Ende,  kleine  Nachleso 
zu  d.  unvollst.  Nachrr.  v.  8.  Fr.  Nurnb.  1796.  4.  mit  2.  Fortss.  1798-99.  ffagen  -vol.  III.  p.  314ss. 
Erlkam,  p.  286ss.  C.  T.  Kaim,  d.  Kef.  d.  Eeichsst  Ulm.  Stuttg.  1851.  p.  269ss. 

As  the  Eeformation  found  salvation  only  in  the  Scriptures  but  by  means 
of  a  true  and  saving  faith,  the  latter,  when  it  was  especially  ardent,  some- 
times rose  against  the  narrowness  and  uncertainty  of  all  merely  external 


I)  Opp.  Irenop.  1656.  2  vols.  f.  (Przypcoviua)  Vita  F.  8.  1636.  4.  before  Opp.  Soc.  u.  Bibl.  frat 
Polonorum.    Soulmin,  Mem.  of  the  Life  of  F.  8.  Lond.  1777. 

c)  Rambach,  EinL  in  d.  E.  Streit.  d.  ev.  K.  mit  d.  Soc.  Cob.  1753.  2  vols.  4.    Zeltner,  H.  Crypto- 
Bocinismi  Altorfinae  Acad.  infesti.  Lps.  1729.  2  vols.  4. 

d)  Proditiones  Arianorum  patriae  suae  sub  tempus  belli  Suecici.  1657.  4.    On  the  other  side :  Li** 
bieniecii  Memoriale  in  causa  Fratrum  Unitar.  Stetini.  1659. 


436  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

Scripture.  The  confidence  -which  was  thus  produced  in  an  immediate  and 
living  communion  with  Christ  is  well  illustrated  by  the  case  of  Schwenckfeld 
(d.  1561).  In  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Lignitz,  he  formed  a  centre  of  influ- 
ence in  behalf  of  the  Reformation  in  Silesia,  and  (even  in  1525)  was  on 
terms  of  personal  intercourse  with  Luther.  He,  however,  came  gradually  to 
the  conclusion,  that  although  Luther  was  correct  in  opposing  the  papacy,  the 
new  kingdom  proposed  by  the  reformers  was  to  be  wholly  conformed  to  the 
outward  letter,  and  therefore  was  not  likely  to  afford  much  assistance  in  the 
Christian  life.  On  his  banishment  from  Silesia  he  betook  himself  to  Suabia 
(1528),  where  he  maintained  a  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Protestant 
princes,  and  a  violent  controversy  with  the  Protestant  theologians.  By  the 
latter  he  was  held  up  as  the  chief  of  all  fanatics,  but  he  seems  to  have  propa- 
gated his  principles  without  attempting  to  found  an  independent  party.  The 
main  points  of  his  system,  in  addition  to  all  kinds  of  strange  sentiments 
respecting  the  deification  of  Christ's  flesh  for  us,  that  it  might  be  the  food 
of  our  souls  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  respecting  Christ's  death  as  a  penalty 
paid  to  Satan  for  man,  (a)  were  his  exclusive  regard  for  sincere  piety  in  the 
heart  by  means  of  a  gracious  incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ  within  us,  and  a  con- 
sequent indifference  to  the  mere  letter  of  the  Scripture  or  the  visible  Church. 
A  few  followers  and  congregations,  especially  in  North  America,  have  pre- 
served some  true  memorials  of  him  until  the  present  time.  (&)  "With  similar 
views,  but  with  more  learning  and  moderation,  T /laments  (d.  1569)  has  de- 
fended the  redeemed  and  divinely  enlightened  conscience  in  opposition  to  a 
reliance,  upon  the  sacred  letter.  He  was  therefore  obliged  to  fall  out  with 
the  reformers,  and  thereby  proved  that  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  this  subject 
was  more  consistent  with  sound  common  sense  than  the  Protestantism  cf 
that  period,  (c)  The  idea  that  God  is  continually  making  revelations  to  all 
believers,  was  not  by  any  means  incredible  to  enlightened  human  reason. 
The  principal  champion  for  this  doctrine  was  Seb.  Franclc,  originally  from 
Woerd  (Donauwoerth,  d.  at  Basle  about  1543),  successively  a  priest,  a  Lu- 
theran preacher,  a  soap  manufacturer,  a  learned  printer,  and  always  a  popular 
writer,  (d)  He  found  edification  in  the  apparent  contradictions  and  obscure 
passages  of  the  Scriptures,  the  letter  of  which  he  regarded  as  the  sword  of 
Antichrist  by  which  the  Christian  is  slain,  and  yet  the  sacred  pyx  in  which 
the  true  Christ  is  conveyed  to  men.  He  allowed  himself  to  believe  nothing 
except  on  the  united  testimony  of  his  own  heart  and  conscience,  and  he  pro- 
fessed subjection  to  no  master  but  himself.  He  was  acquainted  with  ancient 
philosophy,  was  familiar  with  the  mysticism  of  the  middle  ages,  and  de- 
scribed the  Deity  as  the  everlasting  essence,  which  needed  not  the  existence 
of  any  creature,  and  yet  pervaded  and  acted  through  all  created  forms.  The 
will  of  man,  however,  being  free,  may  either  be  governed  by  the  divine 
nature  within  him,  or  may  pervert  this  nature  to  unhallowed  objects.  When- 
ce) <?.  L.  Hahn,  Sobw.  Sententia  de  Chr.  persona  et  opere.  Vrat  1847. 
[&)  J.  Schults,  in  Hist  of  Rel.  Denominations  in  U.  S.  (Harrisburg.  1849.  8.)  p.  557.] 

c)  A.  Neander,  Tbeob.  Thamer,  d.  Repraes.  u.  Vorganger  moderner  Geistesricbtung.  Brl.  1842. 

d)  Yom  Laster  d.  Trnnkenh.  1531.  4.    Cbronica,  Zeytbuch  u.  GescbychtbibeL  Strassb.  1531.  f 
Cosmographie  o.  Weltbuch.  1534  f.    Bpruchworter,  Schone  Weisen,  Herrliche  Clugreden  u.  Hoff 
sprucb.  Frnkf.  1541.  and  oft. 


CHAP.  IV.    ULTEAISTS.    §  378.  FKANCK.  437 

ever  he  passively  submits  to  it,  God  becomes  man  in  him.  Thus  in  Socrates, 
in  Christ,  and  in  others,  what  has  been  concealed,  unexpressed,  and  even 
unpossessed,  in  many,  becomes  manifest,  and  God  becomes  dependent  in  the 
flesh  that  man  may  become  deified  in  following  him  on  the  way  to  the  cross. 
Franck  was  driven  out  of  Strasbourg  and  Ulm,  and  the  Landgrave  and  Me- 
lancthon  (e)  uttered  warnings  against  him  as  the  devil's  special  and  favorite 
blasphemer.  (/)  He  thought  the  papacy  so  worn  out  in  the  hands  of  the 
devil,  that  when  Satanic  influences  could  find  no  concealment  behind  St. 
Peter's  chair,  a  new  papacy  had  been  established  as  speedily  as  possible. 
The  Christianity  which  he  endeavored  to  promote  was  to  be  free  from  all 
restraints,  from  sectarian  policy,  from  factious  strife,  and  indeed  from  all  ex- 
ternal things.  But  so  completely  did  he  fall  out  with  the  ruling  spirits  of 
his  age,  that  no  course  remained  for  him  but  with  them  to  wait  patiently  for 
the  approaching  end  of  this  world,  while  within  himself  the  shores  of  a  new 
world  were  rising  on  his  view. 


CHAP.  V.— CONDITION  AND  RESULTS  OF  PROTESTANTISM. 

Hundeshagen,  d.  deutsche  Protestantism.  Frkf.  (1846^47.)  1850.  D.  SchenJcd,  d.  Wesen  d.  Pro- 
test a.  d.  Quellen  d.  Eef.  Zeita.  Schaffh.  1846ss.  8  vols. 

§  374.    Protestantism  as  a  Principle. 

The  object  of  the  reformers  was  to  return  to  the  purity  of  the  apostolic 
Church,  and  to  remove  the  abuses  which  had  become  almost  universal  dur- 
ing subsequent  centuries,  especially  on  the  subject  of  justification  by  works 
and  the  deification  of  creatures.  They  therefore  maintained  that  the  word 
of  God  was  the  only  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  and  that  human  nature  is 
so  corrupt  that  it  can  attain  salvation  only  by  the  merits  of  Christ,  appropri- 
ated by  a  faith  wrought  by  divine  power,  (a)  The  struggle  after  freedom 
•was  regarded  as  a  subordinate  matter,  and  as  a  general  thing  was  very  little 
a  subject  of  attention.  But  as  justification  by  faith  was  a  transaction  which 
took  place  entirely  between  Christ  and  the  heart  of  the  believer  himself,  and 
they  were  obliged  to  oppose  the  claim  of  the  existing  Church  to  infallibility 
and  the  exclusive  power  of  saving  men,  and  as  the  new  Church  could  claim 
no  such  power  while  struggling  against  th§  positive  right,  it  laid  hold  of  that 
which  is  eternal  and  abstract.  The  ideal  of  a  perfect  Church  was  therefore 
proposed,  in  which  the  different  churches  were  variously  represented  in  pro- 
portion to  their  faith,  although  no  one  of  them  was  ever  perfect.  This  invisi- 
ble Church  therefore  embraced  all  true  believers  in  all  places  on  earth.  (J) 
The  idea  of  Protestantism  was  in  this  way  unconsciously  developed.  The 
term  itself  was  of  a  later  origin,  drawn  from  a  prominent  individual  fact 

e)  C.  Eef.  vol.  IIL  p.  9SSss.  with  the  subscriptions  of  the  divines  assembled  at  Smalcald  in  1540. 

/)  Luth.  in  Walch  vol.  XIV.  p.  894. 

a)  A.  Dorner,  d.  Princip.  unsrer  Kirche  nach  d.  innern  Verb.  Br.  zwei  Seiten.  Kiel.  1841.  D. 
Schenkel,  d.  Pr.  d.  Prot.  Mit  bes.  Beruchts.  d.  neuesten  Verhandl.  Schaffh.  1852. 

&)  The  essential  idea  is  found  in :  Apol.  Confess.  Aug.  Art  IV.  Walch  vol.  XX.  p.  1881.  Th« 
rery  words :  2/ioingli,  brevis  Expositio,  art  de  Ecclesia.  Calv.  Inst  IV,  1.  7. 


438  MODERN  CHIJECH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

and  applied  to  a  great  general  idea.  On  the  one  Land,  it  implies  a  continual 
protest  against  the  extravagant  claims  of  Catholicism,  and  on  the  other  an 
acknowledgment  of  a  common  universal  Christianity  wherever  a  heart  ia 
found  in  connection  with  Christ.  It  likewise  claims  to  be  the  Christianity 
of  the  heart  and  of  freedom.  So  far,  however,  were  the  reformers  from  per- 
ceiving this. in  the  midst  of  the  excitement  of  their  internal  and  external 
conflicts  of  faith,  that  from  the  time  of  the  convent  of  Berg  and  the  Synod 
of  Dordrecht,  the  Protestant  Chnrch  appears  only  like  a  purified  form  of 
Catholicism.  In  various  ways  it  practically  represented  itself  as  infallible, 
and  even  expressly  claimed  that  there  was  no  salvation  out  of  itself,  (c)  In 
its  doctrinal  statements  respecting  man's  natural  state,  it  wore  the  aspect  of 
a  Christianity  of  bondage.  In  both  Churches  of  the  Reformation  the  Pro- 
testant principle  was  realized  at  first  in  the  highest  degree,  in  accordance 
with  the  type  shown  in  the  character  of  their  respective  founders.  In  the 
Reformed  Church  it  appeared  in  the  form  of  the  ascendency  of  a  vigorous 
understanding,  requiring  an  unconditional  return  to  the  forms  of  primitive 
Christianity.  In  the  Lutheran  Church  it  took  the  form  of  a  predominant 
profound  feeling,  and  recognized  an  historical  development  in  the  Church. 
In  the  first  place,  the  disagreement  respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  which  was  determined  by  this  difference  in  original  character,  could 
hardly  fail  in  producing  the  precise  disagreement  which  afterwards  followed 
with  respect  to  the  two  natures  of  Christ.  Then  the  different  political  throes 
which  attended  the  birth  of  the  respective  Churches,  were  evidently  deter- 
mined by  the  ethical  character  of  each.  The  Lutheran  nations  were  disposed 
to  leave  even  their  earthly  affairs  in  the  hands  of  the  all-controlling  God- 
man,  while  the  Reformed  with  bold  activity  set  about  the  completion  of  the 
work  of  their  heavenly  King.  In  these  diversities  we  may  discover  the 
ground  for  the  difference  of  aims  which  is  discoverable  in  these  Churches ; 
the  Lutheran  fixes  its  eye  principally  upon  the  eternal  salvation  of  man, 
while  the  ultimate  object  of  the  Reformed  is  the  glory  of  God.  This  differ- 
ence, however,  is  rapidly  vanishing,  (d) 

§  375.    Morals. 

The  doctrine  of  salvation  by  faith  was  opposed  to  that  of  dependence 
upon  works,  and  the  idea  of  Christian  freedom  was  in  direct  hostility  to  that 
of  the  depression  of  the  intellect  by  human  enactments.  The  simplicity  and 
absolute  character  of  the  moral  law  was  secured  when  evangelical  counsels 
were  regarded  as  only  the  non-essential  means  by  which  its  objects  were  to 

c)  Zwingl.  de  yera  et  falsa  rel.  (Opp.  vol.  II.  p.  192.)    On  the  other  hand :  Calv.  Instt  L  IV.  c.  2. 
§  12.— Moser,  Corp.  jur.  ev.  Lut  1783.  voL  IL  p.  895.    Comp.  A.  K.  Zeitung.  1881.  N.  180.  1832. 
N.  122. 1833.  N.  20s.  180. 

d)  J.  Tichler,  de  indole  sacr.  emendationis  a  Zw.  institutae  recte  aestimanda.  Traj.  1827.    M. 
Gobd,  rel.  Eigenthuml.  £.  lath.  u.  ref.  K  Bonn.  1887.    J.  P.  Lanye,  welche  Geltnng  gebuhrt  d. 
Eigenthuml.  d.  ref.  K.  Zur.  1841.    Hagenbach,  d.  ref.  K.  in  Bez.  a  Verfass.  u.  Cult  Schaffh.  1842. 
K.  Strdbel,  u.  d.  Unterech.  d.  Inth.  u.  ref.  K  (Zeitsch.  f.  lath.  Th.  1842.  H.  8.)    Zyro,  z.  Charakter  d. 
ref.  K.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1843.  H.  8.)    Merle  PAubigne,  Luther  u.  Calvin,  [transl.  in  D'Aub.  and  hit 
writings,  New  York.  1846.]— A.  Schweizer,  GLehre  d.  ref.  K.  1844  vol.  I.  p.  7ss,    Schneckenburger 
in  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1847.  H.  4.  and  TiieoL  Jahrbb.  1848.  H.  1. 


CHAP.  Y.    PROTESTANTISM.    §  375.  MORALS.  439 

DO  attained.  The  reformers  endeavored,  by  means  of  German  and  Latin 
popular  books  and  schools  on  an  ecclesiastical  basis,  to  educate  a  people  who 
could  appreciate  and  act  upon  Protestant  principles,  (a)  In  consequence 
of  the  unwonted  freedom  proclaimed  at  the  Reformation,  it  must  be  con- 
ceded that  the  seeds  of  wild  passions  already  sown  were  made  suddenly  to 
spring  up.  By  the  prominence  given  to  original  sin,  in  comparison  with 
which  particular  temptations  and  sins  were  looked  upon  as  of  inferior  im- 
portance, the  moral  power  of  Protestantism  certainly  became  much  less  than 
we  should  have  expected  from  so  great  a  religious  revolution.  (5)  It  must 
also  be  remarked,  that  mere  orthodoxy  more  and  more  constantly  took  the 
place  of  a  living  faith ;  and  in  the  low  state  of  education  which  then  pre- 
vailed, there  was  great  danger  that  the  high  ground  taken  respecting  works, 
and  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination,  would  lead  to  an  easy  kind  of 
religious  practice.  It  is  true  that  Luther  at  one  time  spoke  of  Germany  as 
worse  than  Sodom,  and  mourned  that  he  spoke  the  German  language  ;  Me- 
lancthon  deplored  that  all  the  waters  of  the  Elbe  were  not  enough  for  tears 
to  weep  over  the  unfortunate  dissensions  of  the  Reformation;  and  the  re- 
formers generally,  in  view  of  these  evils,  gave  way  to  the  presentiment  that 
the  end  of  the  world  was  near.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
Luther  was  at  that  time  angry  that  the  Reformation  had  just  been  abused  to 
those  selfish  purposes  which  are  never  wanting  in  the  midst  of  such  revolu- 
tions ;  that  he  applied  to  his  age  the  same  rule  he  was  accustomed  to  use 
with  respect  to  his  own  heart,  and  in  his  monastic  confinement  looked  upon 
the  luxury  naturally  springing  from  the  increased  wealth  acquired  by  the 
middle  classes  on  the  discovery  of  America  as  a  crime ;  nor  should  we  for- 
get that  Melancthon  sometimes  shrunk  back  from  the  very  mental  conflicts 
which  had  been  conjured  up  by  his  own  power.  At  all  events,  it  was  not 
long  before  the  Church  took  upon  itself  the  work  of  controlling  public 
morals.  Among  the  Lutherans,  it  is  true,  this  was  attempted  without  any 
thorough  system  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  but  by  means  of  exhortations, 
monitory  lectures,  and  excommunication,  not  unfrequently  mingled  with  much 
passion,  (c)  In  both  Churches  there  was  an  occasional  reference  to  the 
power  of  punishment  possessed  by  the  civil  authorities.  A  domestic  and 
ecclesiastical  system  of  morality  was  thus  established,  of  so  rigid  a  character, 
that  when  compared  with  the  facility  possessed  in  the  Catholic  Church  of 
alternating  between  sinful  pleasures  and  penitential  exercises,  it  appeared  to 
have  produced,  in  connection  with  profound  religious  spirituality,  a  severe, 
sometimes  a  gloomy  and  a  restless  disposition.  Such  was  particularly  the 
case  in  the  French  and  Scotch  Churches,  and  an  extreme  form  of  it  was  de- 
veloped among  the  Puritans.  The  Sabbath  was  observed  with  scrupulous 
exactness,  and  many  things  before  regarded  as  discretionary  or  innocent  were 
now  treated  as  sins.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  the  single  fact  of  the  big- 

«)  De  constituendis  scholis  Luth.  liber,  praecedit  Mel.  praefatio.  Hag.  1524.  ( Waleh  vol.  X.  p. 
532.)  P.  H.  Sohuler,  Gesch.  d.  katech.  Eel.  Unterr.  unter.  d.  Prot  Hal.  1802.  A.  Schaeffer,  de  Tin- 
fluence  de  Luth.  sur  Teducation  du  peuple.  Par.  1853. 

V)  E.  Sarcerius,  v.  jherlicher  Visitation.  Eisl.  1555.  4.  Comp.  Engelhardt  in  Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th. 
1S50.  H.  1. 

c)  E.  g.  A.  Musculus,  v.  pludrichten  Hosenteufel.  Frnkf.  (1556.)  1557. 


440  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  Y.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

amy  of  the  Landgrave,  for  the  secret  consummation  of  which  Luther  and 
his  colleagues  granted  a  dispensation.  This  was  done  by  him  for  the  pur- 
pose of  avoiding  a  still  greater  evil,  and  was  justified  by  a  reference  to  the 
divine  dispensation  in  behalf  of  Abraham,  and  to  the  papal  license  given  to 
the  Count  of  Gleichen.  It  was,  however,  done  with  too  little  care  for  the 
interests  of  the  Church,  and  proved  a  stumbling-block  which  was  harshly 
used  against  him,  and  was  even  abused  in  public  for  justifying  a  barbarous 
polygamy,  (d)  No  divorces  were  allowed  except  for  adultery,  and  yet  by 
official  and  entire  separation  of  the  parties  they  prepared  the  way  for  further 
concessions,  (e)  The  approbation  which  the  reformers  gave  to  the  assassina- 
tion of  tyrants,  proceeded  in  Melancthon's  case  from  the  influence  of  his 
ecclesiastical  and  classical  studies,  and  in  Luther's  case  from  the  views  of 
right  which  prevailed  among  the  ancient  Germans,  and  a  manly  self- 
respect^/)  The  whole  fanciful  system  of  faith  in  magic  and  in  Satanic 
influences  remained  undisturbed  and  possibly  even  more  distinctly  prominent, 
in  consequence  of  the  poetic  manner  in  which  Luther  involuntarily  described 
his  conflicts  with  the  devil.  But  even  before  the  movements  connected  with 
the  Reformation  were  over,  important  efforts  were  made  to  construct  a  sci- 
entific system  of  ethics,  in  which  the  virtues  were  classified  in  the  usual 
ancient  and  theological  form,  but  springing  out  of  a  justifying  faith.  The 
extreme  excitement  against  Osiander's  doctrines  (§  847)  was  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  especially  unfavorable  to  a  farther  investigation  of  such  subjects,  (g) 

§  876.    Law. 

The  reformers  maintained  merely  the  ordinary  view  of  law,  according  to 
which  the  power  of  the  state  was  entirely  separated  from  that  of  the  Church, 
and  Luther  even  boasted  that  he  had  kept  them  from  being  perilously  confound- 
ed, (a)  But  with  a  full  consciousness  of  the  result,  they  went  back  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  apostolic  Church,  derived  the  whole  authority  of  all  ecclesiastical 
officers  from  the  local  churches,  and  would  allow  no  one  but  God,  (i)  and  least 
of  all  the  princes,  of  whom  Luther  had  a  very  poor  opinion,  (c)  to  have  do- 
minion over  souls.  In  the  constitution  of  the  Hessian  Church,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  form  an  equal  balance  between  the  independence  of  the  particu- 
lar congregations  and  the  unity  of  the  provincial  established  Church  (§  329). 
Luther  had  doubts  whether  any  artificial  legislation  could  form  a  people 
adapted  to  such  a  state  of  things,  (d)  His  favorite  idea  of  a  Church  was  not 
one  in  which  the  popular  element  was  highest,  but  one  in  which  every  indi- 
vidual was  looked  upon  as  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  (e)  But  in  one 

d)  De  Wette  voL  V.  p.  286ss.    C.  Rtf.  voL  IIL  p.  849.    Ileppt,  urk.  Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  Doppel- 
ehe  d.  Landgr.  (Zeitsch.  £  hist  Th.  1852.  H.  2.) 

e)  Merkwurd.  Ehefall,  mitgeth.  v.  Schwarz.  (Zeitsch.  f.  thur.  Gesch.  1853.  H.  2.) 

/)  Strdbel,  Miscell.  vol.  I.  p.  170.     Vkert  vol.  II.  p.  46.     Walch  vol.  XXIL  p.  2151s. 

g)  Venatorius,  d.  virt  chr.  L  III.  Nor.  1529.  P.  t>.  Eitzen,  Ethik.  Witt  1571.  Comp.  Pelt  in 
Stud.  u.  Krit  1848.  H.  2.  Schwarz,  Ibid.  I860.  H.  1.  A.  Schweizer,  Ibid.  H.  Iss. 

a)  Conf.  Aug.  II,  7.  Walch.  voL  X.  p.  294ss.— Sc/ienkel,  u.  d.  urspr.  Yerh.  d.  K.  z.  Staale  a.  d 
Gcbiete  der.  ev.  Prot  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1850.  H.  Is.) 

&)  Art.  Smalc.  p.  352s.    De  Wette  vol  IV.  p.  106.     Walch  vol.  X.  p.  452.  469. 

c)  Hid.  p.  460.       d)  Schr.  an  d.  Landgrafen  in  Eichter,  KVerf.  (nt  /.)  p.  40s. 

«)   Walch  vol.  X.  p.  271s. 


CHAP.  V.  PROTESTANTISM.  §  3T&.  LAW.  STATE.          441 

case  the  limits,  and  in  another  the  power  itself,  showed  that  in  actual 
practice  both  views  were  impracticable  in  their  full  extent.  In  arranging 
the  powers  of  the  Church,  however,  Luther  always  had  his  eye  exclusively 
upon  the  spiritual  interest.  In  the  empire,  the  Church  could  be  represented 
only  by  the  imperial  states ;  and  in  the  hope  that  the  legal  bishops  would  at 
some  time  become  reconciled  to  the  Church,  the  superior  ecclesiastical  offices 
in  Germany  remained  vacant.  For  the  time  being,  therefore,  the  princes  and 
magistrates  from  love  to  the  Church  performed  the  functions  of  the  highest  ec- 
clesiastical offices  as  provisional  bishops,  though  with  the  counsel  of  distin- 
guished doctors  and  the  aid  of  the  provincial  states.  Consistories,  composed 
of  civil  officers  and  clergy,  were  instituted  (after  1539)  principally  for  jurisdic- 
tion over  causes  connected  with  marriage,  excommunication,  and  processes  in 
which  clergymen  were  concerned.  The  government  of  each  provincial 
Church  gradually  fell  of  itself  into  their  hands,  responsible  only  to  the  civil 
authorities,  so  that  the  actual  legal  system  became  directly  the  reverse  of  the 
legal  principle  originally  proposed.  (/)  Even  then  Luther  had  cause  to  sigh 
over  the  bishopric  of  the  court,  without  any  spiritual  character,  and  some- 
times particular  divines,  when  oppressed,  reminded  the  princes  that  Christ 
had  not  delivered  his  people  from  papal  bondage  merely  to  make  them  slaves 
to  the  Politici.  (g~)  But  the  actual  condition  of  things  was  soon  justified  on 
legal  principles  by  various  learned  men,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  transfer 
of  the  episcopal  power  to  the  hands  of  orthodox  princes  by  virtue  of  the 
Eeligious  Peace  (Episcopal  system).  (7^)  The  congregations  included  in  the 
district  of  each  imperial  state  constituted  a  distinct  provincial  Church.  And 
yet  from  their  opposition  to  the  Catholic  imperial  Church,  and  from  their 
possession  of  a  common  creed,  the  Protestant  states  even  after  the  dissolution 
of  the  League  of  Smalkald,  regarded  themselves  especially  in  the  general  diet 
as  a  single  political  ecclesiastical  corporation,  and  the  provincial  churches, 
although  some  of  them  might  be  beyond  the  limits  of  the  empire,  were 
looked  upon  as  constituting  a  single  evangelical  Church,  joined  together  by 
mutual  sympathy  in  love  and  conflicts.  The  Reformed  Church  received  a 
republican  constitution  in  consequence  of  the  peculiar  mode  of  its  origin,  and 
the  country  in  which  it  was  formed.  Its  basis  consisted  of  a  system  of 
synods  composed  of  clergymen  and  elders,  in  a  regular  ascending  series  up 
to  the  highest  assembly.  This  system,  however,  was  never  fully  carried  out 
except  in  the  French  and  Scottish  churches,  and  even  in  them  the  co-optation 
of  the  elders  and  the  choice  of  the  ministers  were  necessary  through  the 
higher  synods,  the  congregations  having  only  the  right  of  a  rejection.  In 
the  German  Eeformed  churches  the  Presbyteries  gave  way  before  the  Con- 
sistories of  the  governments,  (i)  and  in  the  Lutheran  churches  of  the  Lower 


/)  Walch  p.  1906.    L.  RicJiter,  d.  ev.  KOrdnungen  des  16.  Jahrh.  Brl.  1846.  2  vols.  4.    Hid. 
Gesch.  d.  ev.  KVerf.  in  DeutschL  Lps.  1851. 

0)  De  Wette  vol.  III.  p.  596.    Faculty  at  Jena,  1561 :   Salig  vol.  III.  p.  635.    Fac.  at  Wittenb. 
1633 :  Consil.  Theol.  Yit  Frcf.  1664.  f.  P.  II.  p.  129. 

7i)  M.  Stepliani,  Tract,  de  jurisd.  Eost.  (1609.)  1623.  4.  Esp.  Carpzov. 

1)  Tous  los  synodes  nationanx  des  cgl.  re£  de  France,  par  Aymon,  Haye.  1710.  2vols.  4.  Ebrard, 
Entst.  u.  erste  Entwickl.  d.  Presb.  Verf.  d.  ref.  K.  Frankr.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1849.  H.  2.)  A.  Gem- 
>jerg,  d.  schott  Nationalk.  nach  gegenw.  Verf.  Hamb.  1844s.  2  vols.    Sack,  (p.  424.)    II.  v.  Mulder. 


442  MODEKN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1048. 

Rhine  a  synodal  constitution  was  preserved.  (I )  The  plan  of  preserving  the 
external  unity  of  the  Church  by  a  representation  from  all  portions  of  it 
through  the  Synod  of  Dort,  failed  in  consequence  of  the  method  taken  for 
the  composition  of  that  body,  and  the  dissensions  which  prevailed  among 
its  members.  The  Churches  of  the  several  nations  were  therefore  only 
spiritually  connected  with  one  another.  The  royal  supremacy  in  the  Angli- 
can Chur'ch  was  limited  by  the  popular  branch  of  the  states.  The  legal 
synods  of  the  superior  and  inferior  clergy  (Convocations)  were  indeed  inten- 
tionally kept  without  much  influence,  and  finally  were  entirely  neglected,  but 
the  ecclesiastical  legislation  was  consequently  transferred  to  the  Parliament. 
The  actual  administration  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
bishops,  who  were  made  dependent  upon  the  crown  by  its  power  to  nominate 
and  transfer  them,  and  by  the  inadequate  revenues  of  their  dioceses.  (I)  In 
Sweden  also  the  king  remained  the  head  of  the  Church,  and  the  legisla- 
tive passed  from  the  national  council  (after  1693)  to  the  general  diet,  among 
whose  spiritual  states  sat  not  only  bishops,  but  representative  pastors.  The 
administration  of  the  episcopal  dioceses  was  performed  by  consistories  under 
the  presidency  of  the  bishops.  The  affairs  of  each  congregation  were  admin- 
istered by  biennial  assemblies  (Sockenstamen)  of  all  the  taxable  members  of 
the  congregation  under  the  direction  of  these  consistories,  (m)  The  canon 
law,  in  spite  of  Luther's  wrath  against  the  jurists,  continued  to  be  in  fact 
the  basis  of  the  ecclesiastical  jurisprudence,  and  the  most  important  proceed- 
ings were  gradually,  and  often  in  a  confused  manner,  conformed  to  it. — A 
popular  feeling  was  developed  during  the  Eeformation  which  at  one  time 
threatened  to  subvert  every  form  of  political  institutions.  When  the  hier- 
archy had  been  stripped  of  its  sacred  privileges,  every  immunity  appeared  to 
hang  in  suspense,  and  nothing  was  left  as  the  ground  of  right  but  every  indi- 
vidual's independent  character.  Luther  never  hesitated  to  abuse  those  princes 
who  opposed  him,  and  not  unfrequently  reminded  even  the  evangelical 
princes  that  the  country  and  the  people  belonged  not  to  them,  but  that  they 
belonged  to  the  country  and  the  people,  (n)  Hence,  in  many  of  the  imperial 
cities  the  municipal  corporations  obtained  the  ascendency  as  soon  as  the 
Reformation  was  introduced,  and  the  republic  was  confirmed  in  the  Swiss 
Confederacy  and  commenced  in  the  Netherlands.  The  nobility,  the  peas- 
ants, and  the  burgesses,  endeavored  successively  in  the  name  of  the  gospel  to 
overthrow  the  existing  forms  of  government,  (o)  In  France  the  Huguenots 
contemplated  the  establishment  of  a  free  state,  ( p)  and  in  England  the  legiti- 

Gesch.  d.  ev.  KVeit  in  d.  Mark  Brandcnb.  Weim.  1846.— IT.  F.  Jacobean,  Grande  d.  Verschiedenh. 
d.  luth.  n.  ref.  KVert  (Deutsche  Zeltsch.  £  chr.  Wiss.  1852.  N.  49ss.) 

*)  K.  v.  Oven,  d.  Presbyt  u.  Synodalvert  In  Berg,  Julicb,  Cleve.  Essen.  1S29.  Jacobson,  Gesch. 
d.  Quellen  d.  ev.  KRechts  d.  prov.  KheinL  u.  Westpb.  Konigsb.  1844. 

1)  J.  L.  Funk,  Organisir.  d.  engl  Staatsk.  gcschichtL  Altona.  1829.  C.  Sc.hoell,  d.  Convocation 
1  engl.  K.  (Zeitsch.  £  hist  Th.  1853.  H.  1.) 

rri)  F.  W.  v,  Schubert,  Schw.  KVerf.  Greifsw.  1821.  2  vote.  A.  G.  Knoes,  Eigenthumlichkeiten 
d.  schw.  KVert  Stnttg.  1852. 

n)  Waleh  vol.  X.  p.  468.  XXII,  214Cs. 

o)  §  325.  JSarthold,  Jiirgen  Wollenwebcr  v.  Lubeck.  (Raumer,  hist.  Taschenb.  1835.)  C,  F. 
Wurm,  d.  polit  Beziebungen  Heinrichs  VIII.  zu  M.  Meyer  u.  J.  Wullenwever.  Hamb.  1852.  4. 

p)  Capefigue,  H.  de  la  E6f.  vol.  II.  p.  105.  G.  Weber,  gesch.  Darst  d.  Calvinism,  im  Verb,  z 
Staat  in  Genf.  n.  Frankr.  Hcidclb.  1836. 


CHAP.  V.    PEOTESTANTISM.    §  376.  STATE.    §  377.  CLERGY.  443 

mate  king  was  condemned  by  the  Parliament  in  the  midst  of  psalm-singing 
and  prayer  to  mount  the  scaffold.  On  the  other  hand,  the  theological  scru- 
ples of  the  reformers  led  them  to  respect  as  a  providential  blessing  the  per- 
sonal character  of  their  rulers,  the  people  were  exhorted  to  the  duty  of 
Christian  obedience  in  every  thing  consistent  with  faith,  and  the  practical 
energies  which  had  been  developed  among  the  people  were  restrained.  (#) 
The  powers  of  the  clergy  and  the  rights  attending  the  possession  of  the 
Church  property,  were  exercised  by  the  political  magistrates,  and  dependent 
officers  now  filled  places  which  had  been  occupied  by  an  independent  corpo- 
ration. Hence,  where  the  princes  allowed  the  Reformation  to  have  its 
course,  their  power  was  almost  universally  increased  by  it.  Accordingly  in 
Denmark  the  monarchy  became  absolute,  white  in  Sweden,  after  the  king 
had  broken  the  independent  power  of  the  bishops,  the  crown  was  endan- 
gered by  the  aggressions  of  a  haughty  aristocracy. 

§  377.     The  Clergy  and  Church  Property. 

During  the  Eeformation  the  principle  was  generally  adopted  that  all 
Christians  belonged  to  the  priestly  order.  Accordingly,  while  it  was  conceded 
that  the  ministerial  office  was  instituted  by  Christ,  it  was  maintained  that  each 
minister  was  individually  to  receive  his  commission  from  the  congregation  as 
its  servant,  and  that  ordination  was  only  a  solemn  call  to  this  duty,  (a)  Lu- 
ther's remark,  however,  that  the  spiritual  order  was  nothing,  and  that  God 
was  about  to  root  out  the  stupid  clergy,  (&)  belongs  to  the  period  when  he 
was  engaged  in  the  work  of  demolition.  The  principle  generally  received 
was  that  every  congregation  had  the  right  to  choose  its  own  pastor,  although 
in  the  Lutheran  Church,  especially,  the  right  of  patronage  was  respected,  and 
as  far  as  it  was  exercised  by  the  bishops,  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
sistories, leaving  to  the  congregations  a  right  seldom  of  much  avail,  of  de- 
clining the  person  appointed.  On  the  principle  that  among  the  ministers  of 
the  word  of  God  there  could  be  no  hierarchical  organization  by  divine  right, 
the  priestly  functions  and  privileges  of  the  bishops  became  common  to  all  pas- 
tors, (c)  except  the  right  of  excommunication,  which  was  at  first  questioned, 
and  then  gradually  was  assumed  by  the  consistories.  The  Episcopal  office,  as 
a  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority,  was  rejected  by  the  Eeformed  Church,  but 
in  England  after  1588  it  was  again  defended  as  a  divine'  institution,  (d)  and 
among  the  Lutherans  the  opinion  became  general  that  this  primitive  regula- 
tion should  not  be  abolished  without  urgent  necessity,  and  Melancthon  thought 
that  a  tyranny  more  intolerable  than  the  former  domination  would  result  from 
the  overthrow  of  the  episcopal  rule,  (e)  It  has,  however,  been  looked  upon 
as  an  evangelical  sentiment  that  as  a  spiritual  officer  a  bishop  should  renounce 
all  civil  jurisdiction.  By  the  operation  of  various  political  circumstances 


q)  Comp.  p.  377.  Wrong  Explan.  in  Hagen  vol.  IIL  p.  146. 154 

a)  Lut/ier :   Walch  vol.  X.  p.  801s.  1S33.  1857ss.  XIX.  1544.  V.  1609.— ft  Earless,  K.  u.  Amt 
nach  luth.  Lehre.  Stuttg.  1858. 

V)  Do  Wette  vol.  II.  p.  674.        c)  Art.  Smalc.  p.  352ss. 

d)  Niel,  Gesch.  d.  PuriL  vol.  I.  p.  605ss.    [Neale,  H.  of  the  Pur.  (Orig.  Engl.  ed.)  vol.  I.  p.  807ss.] 

e)  Corp.  Eef.  vol.  II.  pp.  334.  341. 


444  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER,  V.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

Episcopacy  has  in  fact  become  entirely  extinct  among  the  German  churches. 
In  a  few  instances  the  prelatic  office  remains  with  the  states,  for  the  Protes- 
tant bishops  of  Lower  Germany  who  possess  sovereign  powers,  rest  their  claims 
wholly  upon  the  fact  that  certain  princely  houses  have  acquired  episcopal  ter- 
ritories under  the  title  of  bishops.  (/)  Superintendents  in  Lutheran  countries 
(p.  382)  were  regarded,  after  the  formation  of  the  consistories,  merely  as  sub- 
ordinate officers  for  the  supervision,  and  in  general  for  the  ordination  of  the  pas- 
tors. Although  the  clergy  are  generally  without  political  privileges,  and  have 
suffered  much  during  some  of  the  religious  dissensions  from  arbitrary  power, 
they  exercise  great  personal  influence,  and  they  have  frequently,  to  their  own 
peril,  asserted  their  right  publicly  to  inflict  ecclesiastical  punishments  upon 
their  supreme  rulers,  (g)  A  general  desire  was  exhibited  among  all  classes 
during  this  period  to  obtain  a  share  of  the  property  of  the  Church.  Immense 
wealth  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  princes  and  nobility,  while  the  people  ob- 
tained their  portion  by  withholding  the  tithes  and  rents  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  clergy.  Even  in  Switzerland  the  sacred  vessels  were  sent  to 
the  mint  or  to  the  market,  and  Calvin  himself  was  unable  to  save  the  property 
of  the  Church.  (A)  In  some  countries,  especially  in  Germany,  a  portion  of 
this  wealth  was  used  in  the  endowment  of  benevolent  or  literary  institutions ; 
but  so  little  were  the  pastors  and  teachers  of  schools  provided  for  from  this 
great  inheritance,  that  Luther  could  not  sufficiently  lament  their  miserable 
condition,  (i)  But  even  then  he  had  occasion  to  remark  that  destitute  as  they 
were  of  real  estate,  they  were  despised  and  cheated  by  the  rude  rabble,  and 
especially  by  every  young  squire  and  petty  tax  collector  in  the  land.  (£) 
Whatever  remnant  of  ecclesiastical  property  had  been  saved  from  this  general 
pillage  was  generally  administered  by  the  agents  of  the  government,  by  whom 
it  was  used  for  civil  purposes  whenever  a  pressing  necessity  or  cupidity  dic- 
tated, and  the  real  estate  was  frequently  squandered  in  the  payment  of  rents. 
The  convents  doubtless  well  deserved  their  fate,  but  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  foundations  for  the  nobility,  which  were  of  no  advantage  to  the  Church, 
their  general  dissolution  was  rather  a  destruction  than  a  reform,  and  robbed 
innocence  or  penitence  of  an  asylum  provided  for  them  by  the  piety  of  for- 
mer times. 

§  378.    Public  Worship  and  Art. 

Bibl  Agendor.  edit  by  Konig,  Zolle  1726.  4.  Die  ev.  KOrdn.  v.  Richter  (p.  44L  lit/)  Elsen- 
ichmid,  Gesch.  d.  KGebraucho  d.  Prot  Lps.  1795.  J.  L.  Funk,  Geist  n.  Form  d  v.  Luth.  angeordn. 
Kultua.  BrL  1819.  T.  Eliefoth,  d.  urspr.  Gottesdienstordn.  in  d,  deut  K.  lath.  Bekenntn.  ihre  De- 
struct  u.  Ref.  Rostock.  1847.— J.  Geffcken,  u.  d.  verechledne  Einth.  d.  Decal.  u.  d.  Einfloss  drs.  a.  d. 
Cultus.  Hamb.  1838.  C.  Grueneisem,  de  Protestantlsmo  artibus  baud  Infesto.  Stnttg.  1889.  4.  [Lind- 
say, Sketches  of  the  Hist  of  Chr.  Art  Lond  1846.  8  vols.  8.  C.  Burney,  Gen.  Hist  of  Music.  Lond 
1789.  4  vols.  4.  J.  Hawkins,  Gen.  Hist  of  the  Science  &  Practice  of  Music,  Lond.  1776.  5  vols.  4 
Burney  &  Hawkins,  abridged  by  T.  £usby,  Lond.  1819.  2  vols.  8.  E.  North,  Memoirs  of  Music. 
Lond.  1846.  4.] 

The  Eeformed  Churches  conformed  strictly  to  the  simple  style  of  devotion 

/)  Walch  voL  XVL  p.  1664.    Apol.  Conf.  p.  204.    Henke  on  Villers,  p.  505ss. 
tie  bisch.  Wurde  in  Preussens  ev.  K  Konigsb.  1884. 

0)  Walch  vol.  X.  p.  lS96ss.  XIII.  1288.  Comp.  Hutterus  red.  7  ed.  p.  818s. 

h)  JSuttinaer,  vol.  I.  p.  122.  884.    Henry,  Calvin,  voL  II.  p.  28ss. 

f)  De  Wette  voL  III.  P.  135ss.  160.       k)  Walch  vol.  II.  p.  925.  XL  2532.  XIII.  81s. 


CHAP.  V.    PEOTESTANTISM.    §  878.  PUB.  WOESHIP.    AET.  445 

f 

tvhich  prevailed  in  the  days  of  the  apostles.  The  Lutheran  mode  of  worship 
was  gradually  developed  from  the  old  Koman  ritual  used  in  the  mass,  but 
modified  by  the  principles  and  practice  of  the  reformers.  According  to  these, 
the  services  of  the  house  of  God  were  not  for  God  alone ;  the  evangelical  ser- 
mon ought  to  be  the  principal  part  of  them,  the  native  language  of  a  people 
was  for  them  the  most  sacred,  and  the  congregation  should  take  an  active 
part  in  the  exercises,  (a)  When  Luther  published  an  order  for  divine  wor- 
ship (1526)  he  took  particular  care  that  no  one  should  regard  any  part  of  it 
as  indispensable  or  universally  binding,  so  that  Christian  liberty  should  be 
thereby  abridged.  (5)  In  the  Lutheran  Church  the  practice  of  private  con- 
fession even  of  individual  sins  was  retained,  but  only  as  a  voluntary  matter 
when  any  one  needed  it,  and  for  ignorant  people,  (c)  Instead  of  daily  masses 
and  the  singing  of  the  hours,  many  Protestants  had  bible -lessons  appointed, 
and  in  Geneva  meetings  for  free  religious  conference  (congregations)  were 
held.  The  sacred  festivals  were  so  reduced  as  to  commemorate  none  but  the 
most  important  events  in  sacred  history,  and  only  a  few  of  the  national 
churches  continued  to  celebrate  days  in  honor  of  Mary  and  the  apostles. 
Days  of  fasting  were  occasionally  appointed,  and  an  annual  festival  for  com- 
memorating the  Reformation  was  observed  first  in  Saxony,  in  1688.  The  Re- 
formed Church,  with  a  decidedly  iconoclastic  spirit,  removed  from  their  places 
of  public  worship  all  statues,  pictures,  and  works  of  art,  regarding  them  as 
inconsistent  with  the  requirements  of  the  word  of  God.  Having  destroyed 
nearly  all  its  organs,  it  received  a  scriptural  psalmody,  and  the  tender  melodies 
used  to  accompany  it  from  the  French,  (d)  Luther  had  no  idea  that  the 
proper  influence  of  the  gospel  was  to  destroy  all  the  refinements  of  art.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  was  anxious  that  all  the  arts,  and  particularly  music,  should 
be  enlisted  in  the  service  of  Him  who  had-  created  them,  (e)  Albert  Durer 
was  still  moved  by  Luther's  spirit,  and  the  faithful  Lucas  Cranach  was  the 
painter  of  the  Reformation.  (/)  All  the  monuments  of  art  which  had  been 
collected  by  the  Catholics  of  earlier  times  in  the  Church  of  St.  Lawrence  in 
Nuremberg,  were  preserved  without  injury  by  the  Protestants.  As  long  as 
Protestantism  felt  placed  in  an  attitude  of  special  hostility  to  Catholicism,  its 
influence  was  unquestionably  adverse  to  the  imitative  arts,  since  it  deprived 
them  of  their  legendary  stores,  allowed  of  no  statues  or  pictures  in  the 
churches,  except  such  as  were  strictly  illustrative  of  scriptural  history,  and 
even  when  contending  agaimst  the  Iconoclasts  Luther  was  willing  to  give  up 
the  pictures,  (g)  The  more  magnificent  the  Gothic  structure,  the  less  was  it 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  preaching.  It  is,  however,  to  Luther  that  we  are 
principally  indebted  for  the  popular  character  of  sacred  music.  The  hymns  of 
the  ancient  Church  were  reproduced,  and  together  with  the  songs  which 
gushed  from  his  own  heart,  he  sent  them  forth  among  the  German  churches 


a)  Walch  vol.  X.  p.  262ss.        Z»)  TUd.  p.  266ss.    Apol  Conf.  p.  151. 
x  c)  Conf.  Aug.  art  11.    Walch  vol.  XX.  p.  60.  XVII,  2448. 

d)  Bullinger,  vol.  I.  p.  131s.  175.  265.  418.— Henry,  Calvin,  vol.  I.  p.  160s.  u.  Beil.  p.  67ss.    IT.  A. 
Daniel,  Codex  liturg.  ecc.  univ.  in  epit.  redactus  Vol.  III.  Lps.  1851. 

e)  Walch  vol.  X.  p.  1723.    De  Wette  vol.  IV.  p.  181. 

/)  Stark,  Durer  (p.  306.)  p.  671s.    Ch.  Schuchardt,  L.  Cranachd.  Aelteru  Leben  u.  Werke.  Lps. 
1851.  2  vols.       g)  Walch  vol.  XX.  p.  SOss. 


446  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

in  a  stream  of  sacred  poetry,  expressive  of  all  the  profound  feelings  of  the 
Christian  heart,  and  comhining  all  the  deep  tones  of  the  Christian  spirit. 
When  these  songs  were  collected  by  a  pious  literary  man  in  Rome  they  seemed 
to  him  like  the  pages  of  a  great  lyrical  epic  poem  which  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tian poetry  had  composed  in  the  course  of  many  centuries.  Hans  Walter 
assisted  Luther  in  giving  a  popular  character  to  church  music  as  a  choral  for 
the  congregation.  This  was  a  kind  of  music  derived  from  the  old  ecclesias- 
tical harmonies  combined  with  some  popular  melodies,  in  which  a  scientific 
choir  were  only  leaders  to  the  assembly,  and  in  which  pieces  similar  to  mo- 
tets were  interwoven.  (A)  Even  the  master-song,  as  it  flourished  at  that  time, 
especially  in  Protestant  cities,  was  directed  to  biblical  subjects,  to  which  in- 
deed the  principal  singing  was  expressly  confined,  (*) 

§  879.    Humanistic  Education  and  Holy  Scriptures.     Gout,  from  §  284. 

G.  W.  Meyer,  Oesch.  d.  SchrtfterkL  &  Wlederberrt.  d.  Wlss.  Gutt  1803*  6  vola.  K  Ileus*,  Qesch. 
d.  II.  Schrr.  N.  T.  2  od.  Bnronschw.  1868,  p.  Ml» 

In  every  instance  in  which  the  profound  feelings  of  an  educated  people 
came  under  the  power  of  the  Reformation,  an  original  religious  literature  and 
a  series  of  successful  polemic  writings  were  produced.  A  considerable  amount 
of  scriptural  commentary  and  historical  investigation  were  indispensable  for 
laying  a  foundation  for  the  Reformation,  and  to  vindicate  its  necessity.  Yet 
though  it  was  commenced  when  the  human  mind  was  in  a  process  of  the 
liveliest  development,  it  was  not  merely  no  assistance,  but  rather  a  restraint 
npon  that  development,  on  account  of  the  exclusively  religious,  and  among 
the  Epigonoi  of  the  Reformation,  the  contracted  dogmatic  interest  which 
prevailed.  Luther's  quarrel  with  Erasmus  was  only  a  prelude  of  the  rupturo 
between  modern  orthodoxy  and  humanistic  learning,  which  was  for  a  while 
postponed  by  Melancthon  and  his  school,  but  which  was  ultimately  unavoid- 
able, (a)  Luther,  it  is  true,  placed  a  high  estimate  upon  the  languages,  but 
it  was  only  for  the  sake  of  their  utility  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures. 
These  Scriptures  being  the  only  source  of  all  Christian  truth,  it  was  neces- 
sary first  to  understand  them  by  means  derived  from  themselves,  and  then  to 
secure  them  against  the  arbitrary  methods  of  the  allegorical  interpreters.  (J) 
Luther  lived  on  terms  of  fomiliar  equality  with  the  sacred  writers,  and  on 
this  account  their  most  delicate  shades  of  meaning  seem  never  to  have  es- 
caped him,  so  that  frequently  we  have  their  discourse  with  nothing  but  his 


7t)  Luth,  geistl.  Lieder  nebst  Singwcisen.  ed.  by  C.  9.  WinUrfeld,  Lps.  1840.  4  Luffi.  geistl.  Lie- 
der  m.  d.  zu  s.  Lebzeiten  gebraucbL  Singwelaen.  ed.  by  Ph.  Wackernagd,  Stuttg.  1848. 4— (Bunaeri) 
Yersuch  e.  allg.  ev.  Gesang-u.  Gebetbuchs.  Hamb.  1883.  G.  v.  Tucher,  Scbutz  d.  ev.  KGes.  im 
1.  Jahrh.  d.  EeC.  Lps.  1848.  2  vols.  G.  Stipp,  unverfalschter  Liedersegen.  Brl.  (1851.)  1852.— Ram- 
fcac/t,  L.  Verdienste  urn  d.  KGes.  Hamb.  1813.  Wackernagd,  d.  deutsche  KLied.  v.  Luth.  b.  Blau- 
rcr.  Stuttg.  1840.  4— C.  v.  Winter/eld,  d.  ev.  KGesang.  u.  B.  Verb.  z.  Kunst  d.  Tonsatzes.  Lps.  1843ss. 
8  vols.  4 

0  Gervinus,  Gesch.  d.  poet  Nation.  Lit  voL  IL  p.  265. 

o)  Only  one  side:  De  non  contemnendis  studlis  humanioribus  future  tbeologo  max.  necessarlia 
clwor.  viror.  ad  Eob.  Hessnm  Epp.  Lutheri,  MeL,  P.  Mosellani  etc.  Erpb,  1523.  Ranke  vol.  V.  Cap. 
S.  Proofs  for  the  other  view  In  Hagen  vol.  III.  p.  26ss. 

&)  Carlstadii  Concl.  c.  Ecc.  23  ct  47.    Walch  voL  XVIII.  p.  1602.  XXII.  p.  19826S. 


CHAP.  V.    PEOTESTANTISM.    §  879.  SCEIPTUEES.    §  380.  THEOSOPHY.        447 

manner,  (c)  In  Calvin's  concise  expositions,  especially  of  the  epistles  of  Paul, 
we  have  expressions  of  the  most  profound  religious  feeling,  and  those  things 
which  must  be  presupposed  for  the  understanding  of  the  inspired  writers,  to- 
gether with  a  wonderful  skill  in  the  natural  development  of  thoughts,  (d) 
Melancthorfs  commentaries  exhibit  in  a  still  higher  degree  the  predominance 
of  the  rhetorical  and  dogmatic  over  the  grammatical  character.  Beza  was 
more  rigid  in  his  views,  and  more  conversant  with  theological  learning,  but 
he  devoted  his  attention  principally  to  a  defence  of  the  oriental  and  inspired 
character  of  the  sacred  volume,  in  opposition  to  the  classical  but  superficial 
objections  of  the  blunt  Zwinglian,  Oastellio.  (e)  Flacius  endeavored  to  lay 
down  precise  rules  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  He  maintained 
that  the  divine  word  is  to  be  explained  by  every  means  derived  from  human 
science,  but  in  subserviency  to  the  fear  of  God ;  that  nothing  must  be  so  in- 
terpreted as  to  become  inconsistent  with  the  analogy  of  faith,  i.  e.,  the  sum 
of  Christianity  founded  upon  clear  passages  of  Scripture,  by  which  he  proba- 
bly means  Lutheranism,  and  that  the  allegorical  method  is  admissible  only 
when  the  literal  sense  would  be  immoral,  unreasonable,  or  useless.  (/)  After 
the  bold  doubts  suggested  by  Luther  and  Carolstadt,  respecting  some  parts  of 
the  canon,  there  were  no  disputes  on  that  subject  except  with  the  Catholics, 
on  the  manner  of  its  composition.  The  controversies  carried  on  with  regard 
to  the  origin  of  the  Masoretic  points,  and  the  purity  of  the  Greek  language 
in  the  New  Testament,  show  that  philological  studies  were  obliged  to  contend 
with  powerful  prejudices.  But  after  the  establishment  of  the  Church  but  lit- 
tle attention  was  bestowed  upon  the  original  basis  on  which  it  was  constructed, 
in  consequence  of  a  decided  preference  for  dogmatic  disputes.  Grotius  was 
the  only  one  who,  as  a  pious  humanist,  seems  to  have  made  any  attempts  to 
render  the  Scriptures  intelligible  to  his  contemporaries,  (g) 

§  380.     Philosophy  and  Tlieosopliy.     Mysticism  and  Practical  Christianity. 

Kromayer,  de  "Weigelianismo,  Kosae-Crucianismo  et  Paracels.  Lps.  1669.  Colberg,  platon.  her- 
iiiet.  Christcnth.  Frkf.  u.  Lps.  1690.  2  vols.  F.  Delitzsch,  d.  naturphil.  Mystic,  innerh.  d.  luth.  K. 
(Zeitsch.  £  luth.  Th.  1841.  H.  3.)  JW.  Carrttre,  die  phil.  "Weltanschauung  d.  Eeformationszeit  Stuttg. 
1S4T.  \H.  Ifallam,  H.  of  Lit  New  York.  184T.  Enfieltfs  Abridgment  of  Bracket's  H.  of  Phil. 
Lond.  1791.  2  vols.  4.]  K.  F.  A.  Schelling,  Prot.  u.  Phil.  Hamb.  184S.  , 

The  reformers  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  philosophy,  and  felt  embit- 
tered toward  it  on  account  of  its  connection  with  Scholasticism,  (a)  It  was 
only  by  means  of  Melancthon's  Class-Book  and  the  academic  corporation 
which  existed  at  that  time,  that  a  formal  philosophic  science,  derived  from 
former  times  and  founded  principally  upon  Aristotle,  was  propagated  in  the 
Protestant  schools  as  the  handmaid  of  Theology.  The  speculations  of  Giordano 

c)  Especially  upon  Genesis,  the  Psalms,  and  the  Ep.  to  the  Galatians. 

d)  Lately  published  by  Tholuck  since  1S31  in  2d  edit    Comp.  an  edit,  of  Miscell.  writings,  by 
the  same  author,  vol.  II.  p.  330ss. 

e)  Fuesslin,  Seb.  Castellio.  Frkf.  1T55. 

/)  Clavis  Sc.  S.  Bas.  1567.  Jen.  1674  2  vols.  &  often. 

g)  Annott  in  V.  T.  Par.  1644.  ed.  Doederlein,  HaL  1775s.  3  vols.  4  Annott  in  N.  T.  Amst 
164183.  2  vols.  f.  ed.  Windheim,  Hal.  1769.  2  Th.  4 

a)  J.  ab  Elswich,  de  varia  Arist  in  scholis  Protest,  fortuna  (p.  320.  before  his  edit  of  Launoi) 
fleeren,  Folgen  d.  Eef.  f.  Phil.  (Eef.  Ulm.  1S19.  p.  114.)  comp.  Galle,  Melancth.  p.  112. 


448  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1644 

Bruno  with  respect  to  the  all-uniting  and  all-embracing  divinity  were  mis- 
understood at  Wittenberg,  and  he  himself  was  burnt  at  Rome  (1600).  (fy 
Many  endeavored  to  solve  the  mystery  of  the  divine  nature  and  of  tlio 
world's  organization  by  subtle  glances  into  the  depths  of  their  own  natures. 
Paracelsus,  a  Swiss  physician  (d.  1541),  gave  to  these  efforts  a  wild  and  tor- 
tuous form  of  expression  in  images  drawn  from  nature,  and  terms  derived 
from  alchemy.  Without  regard  to  the  personal  objects  which  he  prosecuted 
in  an  empirical  manner,  we  find  that  he  opposed  the  learned  traditions  of  that 
period  by  lively  exhibitions  of  real  nature,  and  that  his  philosophy  aimed  to 
contemplate  God  as  he  exists  in  the  depths  of  nature,  as  he  is  in  himself,  and 
in  his  return  to  himself,  (e)  Valentine  Weigel  (d.  1588),  much  esteemed  as  a 
devout  pastor  in  Tschopan,  in  his  posthumous  theosophic  writings,  maintained 
that  all  outward  ecclesiastical  systems  are  of  no  value  when  compared  with 
the  internal  Spirit  which  God  gives  to  men,  and  represented  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church  merely  as  allegories  by  which  the  hidden  relations  of  God  and 
the  universe  are  made  known.  («)  This  style  of  speculation  became  com- 
pletely developed  in  the  works  of  Jacob  Boehme  (d.  1024),  the  shoemaker  of 
Goerlitz,  as  the  tranquil,  pious  heart  and  penetrating  mind  of  the  German 
philosopher  endeavored  to  express  through  his  uncouth  language  and  limited 
education,  in  a  natural  imagery  which  is  sometimes  quite  insipid  and  some- 
times highly  poetic,  or  in  ecclesiastical  forms,  his  conception  of  the  early 
dawn  and  the  most  hidden  qualities  of  things,  of  the  process  by  which  man 
is  exalted  from  the  terrible  power  of  nature  to  the  bright  kingdom  of  love, 
and  of  the  infinitely  calm  First  Cause,  by  whoso  blessedness  he  was  at  par- 
ticular moments  delightfully  filled.  All  existence,  even  the  divine,  appeared 
to  him  an  everlasting  progress  through  various  opposite  forces.  Being  per- 
secuted by  the  pastor  of  his  own  city,  he  obtained  toleration  from  the  con- 
sistory in  Dresden.  His  followers  love  frequently  to  contrast  the  exuberance 
of  his  pious  spirituality  with  the  formal  dependence  of  the  Church  upon  the 
outward  letter  of  the  Scriptures.  The  literary  position  which  should  bo 
assigned  to  him  is  one  which  belongs  to  the  most  modern  school  of  poetry 
and  philosophy,  of  which  he  may  properly  be  regarded  as  the  prophet,  (e) 
Arndt  (d.  at  Celle,  1621),  on*  the  other  hand,  did  much  to  promote  internal 
Christianity  in  the  spirit  of  the  popular  mysticism  of  former  times.  (/)  That 

6)  Jordani  Bruni  Scripts  ID  unum  corpus  red.  Gfrdrer,  Stuttg.  1884  \C.  BarVulmte,  J.  Bru- 
no. Par.  1843.  2  vols.  a  See  Brit  Q.  Rev.  (Eel.  Mag.)  July,  1849.] 

c)  Schrr.  Bas.  15S9ss.  11  vols.  4.    litener  u.  Siber,  Leben  u.  Lehrcn  boruhmter  Physiker.  1829. 
P.  1.    II.  A.  Prau,  d.  TheoL  d.  Par.  in  Auszug.  BrL  1849.    M.  B.  Leasing,  Par.  s.  Leben  u.  Denkon. 
Brl.  1839. 

d)  K.  u.  HauspostilL  Ncust  (Magd.)  1611.  1618.    Captura  aurea,  d.  guldne  Griff  d.  L  Anl.  alle 
Dinge  ohnc  Irrth.  zu  erkenuen.  1618.  4.  corap.  Walch,  Einl.  in  d.  K.  Streit  d.  luth.  K.  vol.  IV. 
p.  1028SS. 

e)  Werke  durch  Gechtel,rAmst  (1682.  2  vols.  4.)  1780.  6  vola.  durch  Schiebler,  Lps.  ISSlas.  6  vola. 
Btuttg.  1S35SS.  4  vols.    Leben  by  A.  v.  Franckenberg,  prefixed  to  the  Werken.    A.  E.  Umbreit,  J. 
B.  Hdlb.  1SS6.    J.  Hamberger,  d.  Lehre  des  deatschen  Phil,  in  syst  Ausz.  Munich.  1844.     W.  L. 
Wullen,  J.  B.  Leben  n.  Lehre.  Stuttg.  1836.     Tholuck,  J.  B.  vor  d.  Dresd.  OConsist  (Deutsche 
Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1852.  N.  25.) 

/)  Tier  Bucher  v.  wahren  Christenth.  p.  1605. 1.  compl.  ed.  Magd.  1609.  [Pbilad.  1842.  8.]  Paradies- 
Gurtl.  voller  chr.  Tugenden.  1612.  and  often.  F.  Arndt,  J.  Arndt  Brl.  1S38.  A.  Wildenhahn, 
J.  Arndt,  Lps.  1847.  2  vola.  ff.  L.  Pertz,  de  J.  Ar.  ejusquo  libris  de  vero  Christ  Hann.  1S52.  4 


CHAP.  V.    PROTESTANTISM.    ARNDT^    MUELLER.    ANDRE AE.  449 

he  might  satisfy  those  who  were  starving  around  him,  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  discovery  of  the  philosopher's  stone.  He  was  at  one  time  de- 
posed for  the  martyr  zeal  which  he  showed  in  behalf  of  exorcism,  and  from 
a  fear  of  the  action  of  a  living  spirit  he  was  accused  by  the  orthodox  divines 
of  some  of  the  current  heresies.  (#)  But  during  the  dreary  period  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  even  down  to  our  own  times,  he  did  much  to  promote 
a  mild,  consoling  and  practical  form  of  Christianity  among  the  people.  "With 
much  more  spirit,  Henry  Mueller  (d.  1675),  in  opposition  to  the  dumb  eccle- 
siastical idols  of  his  time,  proclaimed  in  Rostock  the  riches  of  divine  love 
which  are  found  in  Christianity.  (7t)  In  opposition  to  an  age  which  in  its 
zeal  for  Lutheranism  had  begun  to  lose  sight  of  Christianity,  JoJi.  Val.  An- 
dreae  (d.  1654),  with  an  affectionate  spirit  but  with  satirical  humor,  after 
consecrating  himself  to  Christ,  took  a  stand  against  the  perverse  follies  of  the 
day.  (i)  The  first  of  the  treatises  professing  to  be  by  Christian  Rosenkreuz, 
an  allegorical  and  mythical  personage,  respecting  a  secret  society  for  the  sub- 
jugation of  nature  and  the  spiritual  world  by  magical  arts,  was  unquestion- 
ably by  him,  and  the  two  others  must  have  proceeded  at  least  from  a  circle 
in  intimate  connection  with  him.  They  were  doubtless  designed  to  be  a  fan- 
ciful satire  upon  a  peculiar  tendency  of  that  period,  to  which,  however,  they 
have  contributed  assistance  when  read  as  a  serious  history  by  persons  inclined 
to  such  folly.  (&)  The  real  object  of  Andreae,  however,  was  to  overthrow 
the  idols  of  literature  and  religion,  and  to  set  up  the  primitive  Christ  in  their 
stead,  (I)  and  in  the  distant  future  he  beheld  the  ideal  of  a  Christian  state,  a 
colony  of  Arndt's  Jerusalem,  in  which  a  community  of  goods  and  universal 
felicity  based  upon  morality  would  combine  an  education  for  an  earthly  state 
with  another  for  heaven,  (m)  The  mystic  theological  tendency  which  pre- 
vailed especially  in  Rostock  and  Strasbourg,  originated  in  an  attempt  to  adhere 
to  the  Christianity  of  the  heart  and  life,  in  opposition  to  one  which  had  be- 
come torpid  in  the  spell  of  the  Form  of  Concord,  and  other  magical  creeds. 

(7)  Luc.  Osiander,  theol.  Bedenken  u.  chr.  treuherz.  Erin.  Tub.  1624. 

7i)  Geistl.  Erquickstunden,  the  last  by  fiusswurm,  Ratzeb.  (1823.)  1831.  Himml.  Liebeskuss,  last 
ed.  by  Fiedler,  Lps.  1831.  and  others.  Comp.  Arnold,  vol.  I.  p..  934 

i)  Andr.  Vita  ab  ipso  conscr.  ed.  Rheinwald,  Ber.  1849.  (Uebers.  in  Seybold's  Selbstbiogr.  Win- 
terth.  1799.  vol.  II.)  W.  Hossbach,  Andr.  u.  s.  Zeita.  Brl.  1819.— Andr.  Dictgn.  with  Praef.  by  Her- 
der, Lps.  1786.  M.  P.  £urk,  Verz.  aller  Schrr.  Andr.  Tub.  1793.  Andr.  entlarvter  Apap,  nebst 
Beitr.  z.  KGesch.  d.  16.  u.  17.  Jahrh.  by  C.  T.  Papst,  Lps.  1S27.  Die  Christenburg  v.  Andr.  ed.  by 
C.  Gruneisen,  Lps.  1836. 

/fc)  Chymische  Hochzeit  Christian!  Rosenkr.  a.  1459.  (after  1602.)  Strasb.  1616.  Fama  fraternita- 
tis  d.  lobl.  O.  d.  Rosenkreuzer.  (1610.)  Cass.  1614.  To  the  2  ed.  of  Cass.  1615.  is  added  Die  Confession 
der  Brudersch.  R.  C.  Both  with  the  lat.  orig.  of  the  Conf.  (ed.  by  J.  F.  v.  Meyer.}  Frkf.  1827.— G.  E. 
Guhrauer,  u.  d.  Verf.  u.  urspr.  Sinn  d.  Fama  Fraternit  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1852.  H.  2.) 

I)  Invitatio  ad.  fraternit  I.  II.  Arg.  1616s.  Christ,  societatis  idea.  Tub.  1620.  Vita  ed.  Rheinu\ 
p.  100.  Ep.  ad  Comenium.  (Comen.  Opp.  Amst.  1657.  p.  284.) 

ni)  Reipubl.  Christiano  politanae  descriptio.  Arg.  1619. 12.  Guhrauer,  der  erste  dcutsche  Staats- 
romnn.  (Prutz,  deutsches  Museum.  1852,  N.  22.)  comp,  Arnold,  vol.  I.  p.  1114ss. 


29 


450  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 


CHAP.  VI.— THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHUKCH. 

Sarpi,  PaUavicini,  (p.  859.)  Vitae  et  res  gestae  Pontlflcum  Rom.  et  Cardd.  auctoribus  daconio 
Cabrera,  VictoreUo.  Rom.  1680.  f.  L.  Xante,  d.  rf.m.  Pflpste,  Ibre  Kirohe  n.  ihr.  Staat  im  16.  a 
17.  Jahrh.  Brl.  (1S34&S.)  1837sa.  8  vols.  Htfde,  fl.  d.  Schicksale  d.  K.  a.  d.  Tridontinum.  (Tab. 
Quartalsch.  1846.  n.  1.) 

§  381.     The  Popes  in  the  Age  of  the  Reformation,  till  1585. 

Onufrio  Panvini,  Platlna  restitutes  c.  additions  Pontt  a  Sixto  IV.  nsqne  ad  Plum  IV.  Von. 
1562.  4.  and  often.  A.  du  Chetne,  H.  des  Papes,  Par.  1646.  f.  cont  (till  Paul  V.)  p.  Fr.  du  Chttnc, 
Par.  1658.  2  vols.  t  Itambach,  Hist  d.  PSpste.  (cont  by  Bower,  10th  vol.)  Magd.  1779s.  2 
Abschn.  4.  [B.  Platina,  Lives  of  the  Popes  from  the  time  of  Christ  to  Slxtns  IV.  transl.  and  cont 
(till  1685.)  by  P.  Rycaut,  Lond.  1885.  f.  Koicer't  Lives  of  the  Popes  till  1758,  cont  by  &  //.  Coao 
till  now.  2  ed.  New  York.  1885.  8  yols.  8.] 

During  the  contests  between  Franco  and  Spain  for  the  possession  of  Italy, 
Leo  X.  formed  an  alliance  with  the  emperor,  and  died  exulting  over  their 
common  victory  (Dec.  1st,  1521),  and  with  the  reputation  of  having  ex- 
hausted the  revenues  of  three  pontificates.  Hadrian  VI.  (1522-23),  of 
Utrecht,  an  ardent  literary  man,  but  with  no  taste  for  art  and  poetry,  a  pre- 
ceptor of  the  emperor,  and  twice  regent  of  Spain,  though  regarding  his  pos- 
session of  sovereign  authority  as  the  most  unfortunate  circumstance  of  his 
life,  came  to  the  papal  chair  entirely  unacquainted  with  Roman  affairs,  or  the 
various  intrigues  of  that  period  with  respect  to  Italy,  and  became  most  pain- 
fully conscious  of  the  dependence  of  even  the  best  of  men  upon  the  times  in 
which  they  live.  The  efforts  ho  put  forth  for  the  deliverance  of  Rhodes 
from  the  hands  of  the  Turks  were  utterly  unsuccessful,  and  he  finally  died 
under  the  burden  of  his  official  duties,  (a)  Clement  VII.  (1523-84),  a  natu- 
ral son  of  Julian  de  Medici,  made  an  earnest  but  ineffectual  effort  for  the 
independence  of  Italy  (p.  381).  Rome  was  once  more  plundered  by  the  bar- 
barians, and  the  vicar  of  Christ  was  obliged  to  pay  dearly  for  the  procession 
which  the  emperor  contrived  for  his  liberation.  He  was,  however,  success- 
ful in  his  policy  of  employing  the  imperial  forces  to  secure  the  possession  of 
Florence  as  an  inheritance  of  his  family,  and  in  elevating  his  niece  to  the 
throne  of  France.  (I)  Paul  III.  (Farneso,  1534-49)  was  himself  acquainted 
with  polite  literature,  and  honored  it  in  others ;  he  adorned  the  city  of  Rome 
with  many  works  of  art,  exhausted  his  resources  in  unfortunate  schemes  to 
acquire  principalities  for  his  sons  and  grandsons,  and  by  subsidies  against  the 
Protestants  laid  the  foundation  for  the  load  of  debt  under  which  the  States 
of  the  Church  have  since  groaned.  "  He  soon,  however,  became  alarmed  at 
the  sudden  success  of  the  emperor,  and  subsequently,  as  far  as  was  possible 
for  a  pope,  he  acted  in  political  concert  with  the  Protestants.  He  appointed 
to  the  office  of  cardinal  men  of  profound  piety,  and  committed  to  their  hands 
the  duty  of  forming  a  plan  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church.  They  repre- 
sented the  papacy  as  the  true  source  of  all  abuses,  and  proposed  measures 
against  the  secularization  of  ecclesiastical  offices  and  endowments,  and  against 
the  incompetency  and  immorality  of  the  clergy.  Such  a  plan  the  cardinals 
concluded  should  be  introduced,  only  very  gradually,  and  with  great  secrecy. 

a)  Biographies  by  Giovio  and  others  in  Burmann.  (p.  874) 
I)  Ziegler,  H.  Clem.  (Schdhorn,  Amoenn.  H.  ecc.  voL  I.  p.  210.) 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHUECH.    §  381.  JULIUS  III.    PAUL  IV.    PIUS  IV.        45 1 

The  knowledge  of  it,  however,  was  betrayed  to  the  Protestants,  was  pub- 
Jished  by  them  to  show  how  much  even  their  adversaries  had  conceded,  and 
was  commented  upon  by  Luther  with  unreasonable  raillery,  and  the  pope 
found  it  better  to  introduce  the  inquisition  instead  of  the  Reformation,  (c) 
Julius  III.  (Del  Monte,  1550-55),  with  an  impudent  affectation  of  modesty, 
attempted  to  justify  his  elevation  of  the  keeper  of  his  monkeys  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  cardinal,  and  although  abundantly  competent  to  the  duties  of  his 
station,  spent  the  whole  period  of  his  pontificate  in  enjoying  himself  in  his  beau- 
tiful villa.  There  was,  however,  a  party  continually  becoming  more  power- 
ful, which  was  convinced  that  the  Church  could  never  be  delivered  but  by 
piety  and  a  rigid  morality.  Their  first  choice  fell  upon  Marcellus  II.  (1555), 
but  he  was  destined  by  Providence  barely  to  make  his  appearance  in  the 
papal  chair,  (d}  Paul  IV.  (Caraffa,  1555-59)  brought  to  the  throne  the 
gloomy  severity  of  an  octogenarian  monk,  and  was  inflexibly  strict  toward 
himself,  toward  others,  and  even  toward  his  guilty  nephews,  but  proved  him- 
self a  terrible  enemy  to  heretics,  and  gathered  around  himself  a  shadow  of  the 
ancient  hierarchy.  For  a  while  his  patriotic  feelings  obtained  the  mastery, 
and  induced  him  to  form  an  alliance  with  France  to  effect  the  liberation  of  Italy 
from  the  power  of  Spain.  A  heretic  infantry  defended  Rome  against  a  Catholic 
army,  and  nothing  but  Philip's  piety  toward  his  Church  prompted  him  to  grant 
the  pope  an  honorable  peace.  Oil  the  day  he  died,  his  statue  was  mutilated 
by  the  people,  and  the  house  of  the  inquisition  was  reduced  to  ashes,  (e) 
Pius  IV.  (Medici  of  Milan,  1559-65),  condescending  and  pleasant  as  he  was 
by  nature,  allowed  all  the  measures  adopted  by  his  predecessor  to  remairj  in 
force,  established  the  papal  authority  by  his  moderation  and  conciliatory  con- 
duct toward  the  princes,  conceded  the  use  of  the  cup  in  Austria  as  far  as  the 
German  princes  and  bishops  thought  it  needful  for  their  country,  and  sus- 
tained the  heroic  efforts  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  for  the  deliverance  of 
Malta.  (/)  The  Dominican  Pius  V.  (Ghislieri,  1566-72),  a  pious  judge  in 
all  matters  connected  with  morality  and  heresy,  realized  as  much  as  possible 
in  the  court  and  the  Church  generally,  the  ideal  of  the  rigidly  devout  party, 
encouraged  the  violent  and  sanguinary  measures  then  adopted  against  the 
Protestants,  and  assisted  in  gaining  the  naval  victory  of  Lepanto  against  the 
Turks,  {g}  Gregory  XIIL  (Buoncompagno,  1572-85)  established  learned  eccle- 
siastical schools  especially  for  missions,  corrected  the  book  of  canon  law  by  ap- 
peals to  the  original  authorities  (p.  286),  and  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  was 
made  to  harmonize  with  the  solar  year.  (Ti)  In  consequence  of  his  attempt  to 

c)  (A  M.  Quirini)  imago  opt.  Pontificis  expressa  in  gestis  P.  III.  Brix.  1745.  4    On  the  other 
side :  Kie&ing,  Ep.  de  gestis  P.  Lps.  1747.  4.    Schelhorn,  Ep.  II.  de  emendanda  Ecc.  Tur.  1748. 
Walch  vol.  XVI.  p.  2394ss.  cf.    Bulla  Reformat  Pauli  III.  ad  Hist.  Cone.  Trid.  pertinens,  concepta, 
non  vulgata,  ed.  Clausen,  Havn.  1830,  4,    [Necessity  of  Eef.  presented  to  the  Diet  of  Speyer,  Letter 
of  Paul  III.  to  Charles  V.,  and  Calvin's  Remarks,  transl.  by  JS&ceridge,  Philad.  1835. 18.] 

d)  P.  Polidori  de  vita  Marc.  II.  commentar.  Rom.  1744,  4 

e)  A,  Caraccioli,  Col.  hist,  de  vita  P,  IV.  Col.  1612,  4.    F.  Magii  Disqq.  hist  de  P.  IV.  inculpata 
vita.  Neap.  1672.  f.    Bromato,  Storia  di  Paolo  IV.  Rom,  1748.  2  vols.  4. 

/)  Leonardi  Or.  de  laudib.  Pii  IV.  Pad.  1565. 

(7)  E.  Catena,  Vita  del  P.  Pio  V.  Rom.  1586.  4.  J.  A.  Galutii  de  vita  Pii  V.  Rom.  1605.  f. 
(Acta  SS.  Maj.  Th.  I.  p.  616.)  A.  Szovii  P.  V.  Rom.  1672.  £  P.  A.  Maffei,  Vita  di  8.  Pio.  Veu, 
1712.  4  Mendkam,  Life  of  S.  Pius  V.  Lond.  1835. 

A)  Comp.  F,  Piper,  Gesch,  d.  Osterfestes  s.  d.  Kalenderreform.  Brl.  1345. 


452  MODEKN  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

relieve  the  finances  of  the  state  by  restoring  long-forgotten  feudal  tenures 
which  he  had  no  power  to  enforce,  he  revived  old  party  dissensions,  and 
increased  the  number  of  the  banditti  until  they  openly  took  the  field  as  ai 
organized  army,  (t) 

§  382.     Ignatius  de  Loyola,  1491-1566. 

L  Itibadentira,  (according  to  the  account  of  Consalvus)  Tita  Ignat  JTeap.  1572.  and  often. 
Ma/ei,  (according  to  the  account  of  Polancua)  de  vita  et  morib.  IgnaL  L.  Rom.  15S5.  4  and  often. 
Cf.  Acta  88.  Jul.  voL  VII.  p.  409. 

IL  Souhours,  Vie  de  8.  Ignace.  Par.  (1679.  4.)  1680.  trans,  by  Haza-Radlitz.  Vien.  1S85.  Oenetti, 
Leben  d.  h.  Ign.  v.  L.  Innspr.  1847.— ZTarw,  Leben  I.  L.  Rost  1721.  F.  fort&m,  Entstehnngs- 
gesch.  d.  J.  O.  Mannh.  1848.  [I.  Taylor,  Loyola  and  Jesuitism  in  its  Rudiments.  Lend.  1849.  8.  /' 
W.  Grinfldd,  Hist  of  the  Jesuits.  Lond.  1858.  8.  T.  J.  BUM,  Gescb.  d.  Ordons.  d.  J.  only  Port  I.  is 
published.  Lps.  1858.] 

•  Don  Inigo  de  Loyola,  a  native  of  the  mountains  in  the  Basque  provinces 
of  Spain,  was  thrown  upon  a  sick-bed  in  consequence  of  severe  wounds  re- 
ceived during  the  heroic  defence  of  Pampeluna  (1521),  and  while  reading 
the  history  of  the  saints,  became  filled  with  a  longing  to  acquire,  like  St. 
Trancis,  a  glorious  crown  in  heaven  by  earthly  sufferings.  Having  been 
betrothed  as  a  spiritual  Amadis  to  the  Holy  Virgin,  he  endeavored  by  ex- 
treme self-denials  and  temptations  to  acquire  an  education  and  sphere  of 
activity  worthy  of  such  a  knighthood.  With  six  companions  in  the  Church 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  at  Montmartre  (1534),  besides  taking  the  ordinary  monas- 
tic vows,  ho  solemnly  pledged  himself  to  take  care  of  himself,  to  minister  to 
pilgrims,  to  seek  the  conversion  of  the  Saracens,  and  to  receive  with  the 
most  confiding  obedience  every  command  which  the  Holy  Father  might 
impose  with  respect  to  any  sphere  of  duty.  After  much  reflection,  Paul 
III.  (1540)  granted  this  Society  of  Jesus,  which  at  first  consisted  of  but  sixty 
members,  his  permission  to  devote  themselves  as  a  community  to  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  soul  in  the  Christian  life  and  faith,  and  as  a  military  com- 
pany to  the  extension  of  Christian  truth,  (a)  Ignatius  was  elected  the  first 
general  of  the  order,  and  he  obtained  for  it  (1545)  all  the  privileges  of  tho 
mendicant  friars.  He  soon  saw  it  extending  into  all  parts  of  Europe,  and 
under  the  conduct  of  Xavier,  developing  its  operations  for  the  conversion  of 
the  heathen  beyond  the  ocean.  The  mind  of  Ignatius  was  somewhat  con- 
tracted, but  he  possessed  an  indomitable  will,  and  his  whole  life  was  spent  in 
the  relief  of  the  sick,  the  instruction  of  children,  and  the  care  of  souls.  He 
endeavored  always  to  keep  his  mind  so  occupied  with  spiritual  exercises,  that 
his  religious  feelings  and  his  imagination  were  in  continual  excitement,  and 
yet  were  firmly  held  in  a  given  direction.  (5) 

0  M.  A,  Ciappi,  Comp.  delle  attioni  e  s.  vita  di  Gr.  Rom.  (1591.)  1596.  4.  J.  Bomplani  H.  pon- 
tif.  Gr.  Dill.  1635.  Mafei,  Ann.  Gr.  Rom.  1742.  2  vols.  4 

a)  Litt  spost,  qnibus  institutio,  confirm,  et  varia  privill.  continentur  8.  J.  Antv.  1685. 

1)  Exercitia  epiritualia  8.  P.  Ign.  Loyolae.  Antv.  1688.  and  often.  Lond.  1838.  Directorium  it 
exerc.  spir.  Antv.  1688. 


CHAP.  VI.    OATH.  CHURCH.    §  883.  JESUITISM.  453 

§  383.    Jesuitism. 

I.  Constltutiones  Soc.  Jesu.  (Horn.  1583.)  Antu.  1635.  (Corpus  institutorum  S.  J.  Antu.  1702.  2 
rols.  4.)    Institutum  S.  J.  Prag.  1757.  2  vols.  4.    Hist  S.  J.  auctore  Orlandino.  (Rom.  1615.)    Sac- 
chino,  Possino,  Juvencio,  Cordova.  Antu.  1620. 1750.  6  vols.  f. 

II.  Hist  de  la  comp.  de  Jesus.  Par.  1740.  4  vols.  and  often.    Hist  Ehrentempel  d.  Gcsell.  J. 
Vien.  1841.— R.  O.  Dallas,  H.  of  the  Jesuits.  Lond.  1816.  2  vols.  Mit  Erl.  (v.  F.  v.  Kern.)  Dusseld. 
1820.  2  vols.  u.  Nachtr.  Mijnch.  1821.— 8.  Sugenheim,  Gesch.  d.  Jes.  in  Deutschl.  Frkf.  1848.  2  vols.— 
12.  Hospiniani  H.  Jo&itica.  (Tig.  1619.)  Gen.  1670.  f.    Ilareriberg,  pragm.  Gesch.  d.  O.  d.  J.  Hal. 
1760.  2  vols.  (Adelung)  Yrs.  e.  Gesch.  d.  J.  Brl.  u.  Hal.  1769s.  2  vols.  P.  P.  Wolf,  allg.  Gesch.  d.  J. 
(Zur.  1789ss.)  Lps.  1803.  4  vols.  Spittler,  u.  Gesch.  u.  Verf.  d.  J.  O.  Lps.  1817.  [Cretineau  Joly,  Hist, 
rel.  pol.  et  lit  de  la  Comp.  d.  J.  Par.  1846.  2  ed.  6  vols.  12.    A.  Steinmetz,  Hist  of  J.  from  the  Germ. 
Philad.  1840.  2  vols,    Ravaignan,  Life  and  Inst  of  J.  New  York.  12.    E.  Dvller,  J.  as  they  were 
and  are,  from  the  Germ.  Lond.  1845. 12.     W.  H.  Rule,  Celebrated  Jesuits,  Xavier,  Laynez,  Garnett 
Bellarmine,  Schall,  and  Gruber.  Lond.  1853.  8.    Michelet  &  Quinet,  The  J.  from  the  Fr.  New  York. 
1842. 12.    J.  Poynder,  H.  of  the  J.  Lond.  1816.  2  vols.  8vo.] 

A  few  sagacious  and  enthusiastic  spirits  connected  with  the  order,  well 
understood  the  peculiar  wants  of  the  age,  and  by  a  dexterous  adaptation  of 
it  to  these,  even  under  the  administration  of  its  second  General  Lainez  (d. 
1564),  it  became  conscious  of  its  general  power  to  maintain  the  cause  of  the 
hierarchy  against  Protestantism,  whether  within  or  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
Eoman  Church.  Before  any  could  become  members,  they  were  required  to 
pass  through  a  novitiate,  in  which  they  were  severely  and  appropriately 
tested.  Of  the  actual  members,  some  were  called  scholastics,  others  coadju- 
tors, secular  or  spiritual,  and  only  a  few  choice  spirits  reached  the  perfect 
dignity  of  the  Professed.  From  the  latter  were  chosen  the  principal  officers, 
the  Superiors,  and  the  Provincials,  constituting  a  well  organized  train  of 
authorities  up  to  the  General  of  the  Order  in  Eome  with  his  assistant  Coun- 
cil. Every  individual  was  powerful  in  his  appropriate  sphere,  but  in  every 
act  he  was  closely  watched  and  guarded  lest  he  should  transcend  his  proper 
limits.  So  perfect  was  the  obedience  inculcated  by  a  long  course  of  disci- 
pline;  and  strengthened  by  every  spiritual  means,  that  with  the  exception  of 
some  internal  storms,  a  single  arbitrary  but  "inflexible  will  controlled  every 
movement  of  the  order  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  And  yet,  although  each 
individual  possessed  no  more  will  of  his  own  than  the  particular  members  of 
the  human  body,  he  expected  to  be  placed  in  precisely  that  position  in  which 
his  talents  would  be  best  developed  for  the  common  benefit,  in  exercises  of 
monastic  devotion,  in  literary  and  scientific  pursuits,  in  the  secular  life  of 
courts,  or  in  strange  adventures  and  eminent  offices  among  savage  nations. 
All  became  accustomed  to  regard  the  order  as  their  only  home,  and  their 
superiors  as  their  only  providence.  The  movements  of  this  order  were  not 
impeded  by  the  clumsy  machinery  of  ancient  monasticism,  for  it  had  at  its 
command  all  kinds  of  ecclesiastical  dispensations,  and  as  a  third  kind  of 
monasticism,  completely  restored  to  the  various  occupations  of  the  world,  it 
entered  into  every  relation  of  social  and  secular  life,  (a)  At  the  close  of  the 
century  in  which  it  was  established,  by  the  multitude  of  its  members  engaged 
in  the  instruction  of  youth,  and  appointed  to  be  the  guardians  of  princes,  it 
had  become  the  most  important  power  in  the  Catholic  Church.  The  Jesuits 
also  endeavored  to  become  proficient  in  every  kind  of  intellectual  cultivation, 

a)  If.  v.  Orelh,  d.  "Wesen  d.  Jes.  Ordens.  p.  186s. 


454  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

as  the  only  way  to  obtain  ascendency  in  the  world  of  mind.  But  although 
they  had  among  them  a  multitude  of  learned  men  in  every  department  of  lit- 
erature, the  curse  of  their  straggle  against  human  freedom  rested  upon 
them,  and  not  a  single  great  work  was  given  by  them  to  the  world.  Full 
of  pomp  as  their  churches  generally  were,  very  little  genuine  taste,  and 
scarcely  any  true  works  of  art,  were  to  be  seen,  and  they  seemed  like  post- 
humous sons  of  their  parent  Catholicism.  They  gave  their  countenance  to 
every  fantastic  and  gloomy  superstition,  though  it  must  be  conceded  that  it 
was  a  Jesuit  whose  tender  spirit  moved  him  to  be  the  first  to  arouse  the 
people  by  his  awakening  appeals  against  the  abominations  of  the  trials  of  the 
witches.  (5)  In  spite  of  the  ill-will  of  the  other  orders,  and  the  suspicions 
of  some  governments,  public  sentiment  in  Catholic  countries  was  in  their 
favor.  But  in  their  efforts  to  become  all  things  to  all  men,  and  to  make  the 
way  of  salvation  easy,  some  of  them  indulged  in  an  inconsiderate  boldness  of 
assertion,  which  was  not  properly  rebuked  by  their  leaders,  and  thus  their 
enemies  found  occasion  for  accusing  them  of  maintaining  the  hierarchical 
views  of  former  times  (p.  884)  respecting  the  inferior  importance  of  ordinary 
duties  in  comparison  with  the  attainment  of  a  supreme  object,  of  putting 
forth  general  maxims  dangerous  to  the  security  of  all  laws,  and  of  composing 
a  science  of  casuistry,  in  which  pedantry  and  frivolity  were  equally  conspicu- 
ous, but  which  seriously  impaired  the  inviolability  of  the  moral  law.  (c) 

§  384.     The  Council  of  Trent,    Dec.  13,  154&-&ec.  4,  1563. 

I.  Canones  et  deer.  C.  Trld.  Rom.  15G4  4  and  oft.  ed.  Jod.  U  Plat,  Lov.  1770  4  Lps.  1852.  Ace. 
3.  Congr.  Card.  Cone.  Trid.  interpretum  Resolutions  et  Conatitt  Pontif  recentiores  ad  jus  commune 
spect  cd.  Aem,  L.  Jiichter,  Lps.  1853.    [Canons  and  Decrees  of  the  (Ecumen.  Council  of  Trent 
transl.  by  J.  Wateruorth,  with  Essays  on  the  Hist  of  the  Council.  Lond.  1843.  8.]— (P.  et  J.  du  Pay) 
Instructions  et  missives  des  Rofs  de  France  et  de  leurs  Ambass.  et  autres  actes  concern,  le  Cone,  de 
Tr.  Par.  (1607.)  ed.  4  1654  4    Lett  et  Memoires  de  Fr.  de  Vargat,  etc.  trad.  p.  M.  de  Vassor, 
Auist  1699.  lat  fee.  Schramm,  Brunsv.  1704  4    Monn.  ad  Hist  C.  Tr.  spect  ampliss.  Col.  op.  Jod. 
le  Plat,  Lov.  1781-7.  7  vols.  4    G.  J.  Planck,  Anecdota  ad  IL  C.  Tr.  Gott  1791-1818.  25.  Fascc.    J. 
Mendham,  Memoirs  of  the  Council  of  Trent  Lond.  1884  4    Acta  C.  Tr.  ab  a.  1562.  a  Gdbr.  Car- 
dinal* Paleotto  descr.  ed.  Mendham,  Lond.  1842.    [The  Council  of  Tr.  and  its  proceedings.  (Pres. 
Board  of  Publ.)  Philad.  1835. 18.] 

II.  Sarpi,  Pallavicini  (p.  859.)    [P.  P.  Sarpi,  II.  of  the  C.  of  Tr.  transl.  by  A.  Brent,  Lond. 
1676.  f.  P.  8.  PaUavicini,  H.  du  Cone,  dn  Trente.  Montronge.  1844.  8  vols.  8.]  Comp.  J.  N.  Brischar, 
Beurtb.  d.  Controvereen  Sarpi's  u.  Pall.  TQb.  1848.  2  vols.    L.  Ell.  du  Pin,  II.  du  C.  de  Trente. 
Brnx.  1721.  2  vols.  4    Salig,  vollat  Hist  des  Tr.  Cone.  Hal.  1741ss.  8  vols.  4    J.  M.  Goschl,  Gescb. 
d.  C.  z.  Tr.  Ratisb.  1840.  2  vols.     Wessenberg  (p.  277.)  voL  III.  IV.    J.  T.  L.  Dam,  Gescb.  d.  Tr.  C. 
Jen.  1846.    [Bungener,  Hist  of  C.  of  Trent  from  the  Germ,  Lond.  1S52.  8.    A.  L.  Kichter,  Canons 
and  Decrees  of  the  C.  of  Trent  Berl.  1353.  ».] 

The  general  council  long  called  for  by  the  nations  of  Europe  to  restore 
peace  to  the  Church,  and  to  reform  its  abuses  by  a  process  accordant  with 
legal  forms,  was  finally  convened  by  Paul  III.  The  objects  expressed  in  the 

Z>)  (Fr.  Spee)  Cautio  criminalis  s.  de  process,  c.  sagas.  Rint  1631.  Frcf.  1682.  and  often. 

e)  Especially  after  Th.  Sanchez,  de  Sacramento  matrim.  Gen.  1592.  8  vols.  and  oft  A.  de  Esco- 
bar, L.  TheoL  moralis,  24  S.  J.  Doctoribus  reseratus.  Lugd.  1646.  and  oft— Satire:  Monita  privata 
8.  J.  Notobirgae  (Krakau).  1612.  and  oft— M.  Chemnitius,  TheoL  Jesuvitar.  praec.  capp.  Lps.  1500. 
Doctrinae  Jesuitar.  praec.  capp.  confutata.  Rupellae  ed.  2.  1564  (G.  Scioppius)  Anatomia  S.  J.  1633. 
4  (M  Perraulf)  La  Morale  des  Jes,  extraite  de  leurs  livres.  Mons.  1669.  3  vols.  12.  J.  Ellendorfi 
d.  Moral  u,  Politik  d.  J.  Darmst  1840.— Defence :  J.  B.  Leu,  Beitrr.  z.Wurdig.  d.  J.  O.  (after  M6hler ) 
Luc.  1840.  F.  J.  Buss,  Die  Gesellsch.  J.  Mainz.  1858.  Abth.  I. 


CHAP.  VI.  CATH.  CHUECH.  §  384.  COUNCIL  OF  TEENT.        455 

terms  of  the  call  were  to  exterminate  heretics,  and  to  secure  definitively  the 
internal  unity  of  the  Church,  in  the  Romish  sense  of  these  terms.  It  was 
opened  at  Trent  just  as  war  had  been  declared  against  the  Protestants,  but 
after  the  emperor's  victories,  the  pope  saw  that  the  imperial  influence  wa= 
greater  in  a  council  assembled  in  a  German  territory  than  that  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  place  of  meeting  was  therefore  changed  to  Bologna  (1547),  un- 
der the  pretence  of  danger  from  a  pestilence,  and  when  the  imperial  bishops 
still  remained  at  Trent,  it  was  adjourned  to  1548.  Julius  III.  so  far  yielded 
to  the  threats  and  promises  of  the  emperor,  that  he  ordered  the  synod  to 
continue  its  sessions  at  Trent  on  May  1,  1551.  Some  Protestant  delegates 
had  already  arrived,  and  others  were  on  their  way,  when  for  fear  of  Maurice 
of  Saxony,  the  assembly  adjourned  April  28th,  1552,  for  two  years.  It  was 
not,  however,  reassembled  until  by  order  of  Pius  IV.,  Jan.  8, 1562.  The 
order  of  business  for  the  assembly,  after  every  thing  that  could  produce  any 
recollection  of  Basle  was  set  aside,  was  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  pre- 
siding legates.  The  twenty-five  sessions  were  merely  public  solemnities,  at 
which  the  decrees  debated  and  prepared  in  the  committees  were  openly  pro- 
claimed. The  decrees  were  passed  by  a  majority  of  the  bishops  and  generals 
of  orders  present  at  the  time,  of  which  the  Italians  were  more  numerous 
than  all  the  other  nations  together.  The  opposition,  especially  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  bishops,  became  sometimes  very  formidable,  and  by  these  the  de- 
mands of  the  Protestant  deputies  were  welcomed  with  much  favor,  (a) 
Even  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Protestants  respecting  the  Scriptures 
and  justification,  or  views  consistent  with  them,  found  some  to  advocate 
them,  (5)  and  the  emperor,  with  the  French  king,  made  important  demands 
for  a  reformation ;  but  when  this  liberal  party  was  seen  to  have  become 
Protestant,  or  were  frightened  by  finding  themselves  tending  toward  that 
result,  the  papal  party  by  treaties  with  the  courts  and  with  individual  pre- 
lates obtained  a  complete  victory,  (c)  Decrees  respecting  doctrines,  and  de- 
crees for  the  reformation  of  the  Church,  were  after  the  fourth  session 
published  alternately.  The  former  contained  a  revision  of  the  previous  sys- 
tems of  doctrine,  and  as  far  as  the  dogmas  of  the  middle  ages  advocated  by 
the  different  theological  schools  could  be  made  to  harmonize,  they  were 
stamped  with  the  seal  of  infallibility,  and  most  of  the  Protestant  deviations 
from  them  were  condemned.  In  the  decrees  for  reformation,  many  salutary 
rules  were  adopted  for  the  government  and  discipline  of  the  Church,  and. 
many  canons  of  the  ancient  Church  were  revived.  These  decrees  were  all 
confirmed  by  Pius  IV.,  who  reserved  to  himself  the  papal  prerogative  of  ex- 
plaining them  as  he  pleased.  The  Synod  of  Trent  was  accepted  uncondition- 
ally by  most  of  the  Italian  States,  by  Portugal,  Poland,  and  the  emperor ;  and 
with  a  reservation  of  the  royal  prerogatives  by  Spain,  Naples,  and  Belgium ; 
with  some  exceptions  by  Switzerland  and  Hungary ;  and  only  so  far  as  re- 
spects doctrines  by  France,  (d) 

a)  Vargas,  Lett  et  M6m.  p.  468s.     Weaseriberg,  vol.  III.  p.  Sllss. 

&)  Sarpi  1.  II.  p.  249ss.  322ss.    Pallavicini  VIII,  11.  4.    Hormayr,  Taschenb.  £  vaterl.  Gescb, 
t832.  p.  130ss.        c)  Kanke,  Papste.  vol.  L  p.  833ss. 

d)  Courayer,  H.  de  la  reception  du  C.  de  Trente.  Amst  1756. 


456  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

§  385.    Sixtw  V.    April  27,  158&-Aug.  27,  1590. 

Itobardi,  Sixti  V.  gesta  quinquennalia.  Rom.  1590.  4.  Lett,  Vita  di  Sisto  V.  Losanna.  1C69.  2 
Th.  later  in  3  vols.  and  often,  esp.  in  Fr.  Tar.  1702.  2  vols.  Defended  with  a  partisan  spirit  by  C. 
Tempesti,  Storia  della  vita  e  geste  di  Sisto  V.  Rom.  1755.  2  vols.  4.  Comp.  RanJce,  Ptipsto.  vol. 
III.  p.  817S8. 

Felix  Peretti  made  bis  way  from  the  herd  to  the  throne  by  his  pious  zeal 
as  a  Franciscan,  a  preacher,  and  an  inquisitor,  and  when  a  cardinal  under  the 
name  of  Montalto  (after  1576),  by  an  humble  deportment  and  a  complete 
renunciation  of  his  natural  and  impetuous  love  of  command.  The  style  in 
which  this  contrast  between  his  earlier  and  his  later  life  is  mentioned  in 
popular  accounts,  only  shows  by  what  qualities  and  conduct  the  people  of  that 
period  generally  believed  that  the  triple  crown  could  best  be  won.  Having 
attained  this  highest  point  of  his  ambition,  Sixtits  V.  thought  that  nothing 
'was  impossible  for  him,  and  while  grasping  with/ his  utmost  power  every 
thing  actual  and  possible,  he  busied  himself  with  the  most  fantastic  and  stu- 
pendous plans.  The  utmost  that  human  power  and  sagacity  could  do  was 
accomplished  by  him  in  maintaining  the  papal  authority,  in  opposition  to 
princes  who  were  either  contending  for  the  Reformation,  or  had  already 
made  peace  with  its  friends.  Instead  of  vainly  attempting  to  put  down  here- 
tics, he  concluded  that  he  might  profitably  make  use  of  them  in  firmly  bind- 
ing the  Catholic  kings  to  the  interests  of  the  papal  see.  But  in  the  contest 
between  France  and  Spain,  he  saw  only  a  contention  between  the  milder  and 
the  more  rigid  parties  in  the  great  Catholic  body  itself,  and  hence  his  atten 
tion  was  distracted  and  his  practical  energy  was  enfeebled.  Under  his  direc 
tion  the  banditti  were  completely  destroyed ;  by  the  exercise  of  an  inexorable 
and  almost  barbarous  severity  the  authority  of  law  was  re-established  in  his 
territories ;  a  wise  system  was  put  in  practice  for  the  support  of  the  poor ; 
industry  was  awakened ;  the  Vatican  library  attained  a  magnificent  size ;  vari- 
ous works  in  biblical  literature  were  printed  ;  the  printing-press  in  the  Vati- 
can for  the  publication  of  all  that  has  reached  us  from  the  ancient  Church, 
beginning  with  the  Scriptures,  was  established ;  the  vast  works  of  antiquity 
were  rescued  from  their  rubbish,  as  far  at  least  as  they  could  become  useful 
in  illustrating  the  triumphs  of  the  cross ;  and,  although  he  placed  by  the  side 
of  these  many  new  edifices  not  unworthy  of  the  association,  and  even  en- 
riched his  relatives,  he  left  behind  him  a  vast  treasure  in  the  castle  of  St. 
Angelo,  from  loans  and  an  increased  sale  of  offices,  to  be  used  by  his  success- 
ors only  in  circumstances  strictly  defined.  His  government  was  not  accord- 
ing to  the  taste  of  the  Roman  people,  and  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  hated,  did 
much  to  curtail  his  reputation,  if  not  his  life.  But  so  profound  and  so  poetic 
was  the  impression  which  he  produced  upon  his  contemporaries,  that  even  in 
his  own  age  his  hopes,  his  achievements,  and  his  fortunes  became  i^corpo- 
rated  in  various  forms  among  the  legends  of  the  people. 

§  386.    Popes  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 

Clement  VIII.  (Aldobrandini,  1592-1605)  was  in  the  sight  of  God  and 
man  a  priest  of  extraordinary  piety  in  the  ecclesiastical  sense  of  that  word. 
In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  rigidly  Catholic  party,  with  a  wise  ostenta- 


TCHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH.    §  386.  CLEMENT  VIII.    PAUL  V.    GKEGOEY  XV.    457 

tion  he  absolved  Henry  IV.  from  papal  excommunication,  and  thereby  formed 
a  needful  counterbalance  to  the  oppressive  friendship  of  Spain.  He  was 
obliged  to  act  with  zeal  against  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  yet  toward  indi- 
vidual Protestants  he  exhibited  many  tokens  of  personal  friendship.  His 
influence  upon  France,  Spain,  and  Savoy  was  that  of  a  prince  of  peace ;  but 
when  the  true  house  of  Este  had  become  extinct,  he  took  possession  of  Fer- 
rara  as  an  escheated  fief,  by  military  force,  preceded  by  the  terrors  of  an  ex- 
communication. By  such  means  a  termination  was  given  to  the  exercise  of 
arbitrary  power  in  Ferrara,  but  with  it  also  ceased  the  cheerful  splendor  of  a 
court  adorned  by  knights,  art,  and  literature,  (a)  Paul  V.  (Borghese,  1605-21) 
regarded  himself  as  the  appointed  instrument  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  render 
the  decretals  of  his  predecessors  equal  in  authority  to  divine  laws,  in  an  age 
which  he  misunderstood.  This  produced  many  disagreements  between  him 
and  the  different  Italian  states,  respecting  the  limits  of  jurisdiction  possessed 
by  the  spiritual  courts.  With  Venice,  where  the  power  of  the  state  was  held 
in  the  highest  esteem,  this  controversy  proceeded  to  an  open  rupture  when  the 
pope  demanded  that  certain  clergymen  who  had  been  condemned  for  some 
capital  offences,  should  be  delivered  up  to  him,  and  that  a  law  should  be  re- 
pealed by  which  an  increase  of  the  property  of  the  Church  in  real  estate  was 
forbidden.  The  Venetian  senate  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  and  the 
territories  under  their  control  were  placed  under  an  interdict  (April  17",  1606). 
The  papal  ban  was  declared  by  Venice  to  be  unjust,  and  therefore  void.  The 
Servite,  Paolo  Sarpi,  an  intelligent  and  highly  educated  man,  and  of  rigid 
Catholic  piety  with  respect  to  his  mode  of  life,  justified  the  republic  in  the 
eyes  of  foreign  nations,  and  quieted  the  minds  of  the  Venetian  people  by 
strengthening  a  consciousness  of  their  rights.  When  the  pope  therefore  saw 
that  his  interdict  was  despised,  and  that  Ferrara  was  in  peril,  he  was  obliged 
to  avail  himself  of  the  mediation  of  France  to  effect  a  peace,  leaving  the 
rights  of  the  republic  unimpaired  (1607).  (5)  He  was  more  successful  in 
laying  a  permanent  basis  for  the  wealth  of  his  own  family,  by  the  destruction 
of  the  unfortunate  house  of  Genci.  Sarpi  was  included  in  the  stipulations  of 
the  peace,  and  although  well  acquainted  with  the  ordinary  practice  of  the 
Roman  curia,  he  continued  with  all  the  lawful  means  which  history  affords, 
to  protest,  like  another  Paul  withstanding  Peter,  against  the  arbitrary  aggres- 
sions of  the  pope  upon  the  liberties  of  the  Church  and  state  (d.  1623).  (c)  On 
the  other  hand  the  pope  had  himself  saluted  as  the  Vicar  of  God,  and  the 
valiant  preserver  of  the  papal  omnipotence,  (d)  Gregory  XV.  (Ludovisi, 
1621-23),  who  always  lived  on  the  brink  of  the  grave,  gave  a  permanent 
form  to  the  rules  by  which  the  election  and  consecration  of  the  pope  should 


a)  Lettres  du  Card.  tiTOssat.  Par.  162T.  f.  Amst.  1T32.  5  vols.  Les  ambassades  du  Card,  ctu  Per- 
ron. Par.  1623.  f.— Z.  Wadding,  Vita  Clem.  VIII.  Eom.  1723.  4. 

1)  Interdict!  Veneti  H.  auct  Paulo  Sarpi  ex  ital.  Cantabr.  1726.  4.  Controv.  inter  P.  M.  et  Vene- 
tos  acta  et  scrr.  ex  ital.  Ill  villa  San  Vincentiana  1607. 

c)  Opere  (with  hia  Vita  by  Falgenzio).  Ven.  1677.  5  vols.  12.     Grisellini  (Mernorie  aneddoto. 
transL  into  Germ,  by  Le  £ret,  Viva.  1761.)  del  genio  di  Fra  Paolo.  Ven.  1785.  (Fontanini,  Storis 
arcana  di  Fra  Paolo.  Ven.  1803.)  MancM-Giovini,  Biogr.  di  Fra  P.  Zurigo.  1836.  2  vols.   E.  Muncli, 
Fra  P.  Sarpi.  Carlsr.  1838. 

d)  Esovii  Paulas  V  Burghesius.  Koin.  1624. 


458  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1643. 

henceforth  be  conducted,  (e)  canonized  the  founders  of  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits,  whose  pupil  he  had  been,  made  a  powerful  effort  to  maintain  the  Ger- 
man war,  and  received  the  Palatine  library  as  his  share  of  the  booty.  (/) 
Urban  VIII.  (Barbermi,  1623-44),  although  fully  conscious  of  his  eminent 
dignity  and  talents,  was  contented  with  the  prosecution  of  such  designs  ns 
belonged  to  him  in  the  character  of  an  Italian -prince,  the  construction  of  a 
few  forts,  and  the  conduct  of  an  inglorious  war  against  the  house  of  the  Far- 
nese.  For  a  while  his  policy  was  favorable  to  the  cause  of  the  Protestant 
powers,  and  the  rigid  Catholics  complained  that  the  pope  stood  as  cold  as  ice 
in  the  midst  of  the  conflagration  of  churches  and  monasteries.  But  he  pro- 
tested against  the  compulsory  concessions  made  at  the  treaty  of  Prague,  main- 
tained the  most  rigid  system  of  Catholicism,  and  gave  the  final  form  to  the 
bull  In  coena  Domini  (p.  811),  in  which  nearly  all  the  claims  of  the  mediaeval 
hierarchy  are  advanced,  and  not  only  Saracens,  pirates,  and  princes  who  im- 
pose arbitrary  taxes,  but  Lutherans,  Zwinglians,  and  Calvinista,  were  anathe- 
matized.  (g) 

§  887.    Law  and  Political  Relation*. 

It  was  principally  through  the  labors  of  some  learned  Jesuits  that  the 
ideas  of  the  middle  ages  were  now  reduced  to  a  regular  theocratic  system  of 
policy,  the  fundamental  principle  of  which  was  that  the  state  is  to  the  church 
what  the  body  is  to  the  soul.  It  was  contended  that  although  this  body  lives 
in  accordance  with  its  own  laws,  it  should  nevertheless  be  subservient  to  the 
great  objects  of  the  soul,  and  in  extreme  cases  should  bo  sacrificed  for  the  sal- 
vation of  the  soul.  It  was  also  conceded  that  the  royal  power  is  not  derived 
from  the  pope,  and  is  not  subject  to  him,  and  yet  where  the  salvation  of  the 
soul  demands  such  a  sacrifice,  the  pope  has  a  right  to  depose  even  kings,  and 
the  inquisition  is  authorized  to  take  away  their  lives,  since  every  earthly 
power  loses  its  rights  when  they  are  abused  for  the  injury  of  religion.  Ac- 
cording to  this  system  the  sacerdotal  power  was  committed  to  a  distinct  order 
of  men  by  God,  and  the  royal  power  was  derived  from  the  people,  so  that 
the  advocates  of  this  system  carried  out  the  doctrine  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  people  to  its  extreme  results,  (a)  Not  only  individual  Jesuits  taught  that 
it  was  lawful  and  even  pleasing  to  God  to  slay  a  tyrannical  king,  but  even  the 
Sorbonne  decided  (1589)  that  the  French  people  ought  to  have  no  scruples 
of  conscience  in  taking  up  arms  against  their  king,  (ft)  This  was,  it  is  true, 
intended  to  express  a  decision  on  a  particular  case,  and  was  directed  only 
against  those  kings  who  threatened  the  interests  of  Catholicism.  But  the 
majesty  of  even  Catholic  kings  was  made  to  depend  upon  religious  considera- 

e)  Ingoli.  Caeremoniale  ritns  electionls  Rom.  Pont  Rom.  1C21.   Lunadoro,  Relazione  dell*  corte 
di  Roma.  Rom.  ed.  5. 1S24.  2  vols.  12. 

f)  Aug.  T/ieiner,  Schenkung  der  Heldelb.  Bibl.  u.  ihre  Vereend.  nach  Rom.  Munch.  1844. 

0)  Bullar.  Rom.  vol.  IV.  p.  118&.  Lt  Bret  (p.  811.)  1. 2.  vol.  2  ed.  1772.— S.  Simonin,  Sylvae  Ur- 
banianao  s.  gesta  Urb.  Antu.  1C3T. 

a)  J.  Mariana,  de  Rege  et  Regis  fnstitutione  1.  III.  Tolet.  1593.  &  often.  Bellarmin,  de  pote» 
tate  Summi  Pontif.  in  temporal.  Rom.  1610.  &  often.  Suo.rez,  Def.  fldei  cath.  adv.  anglic.  secUe  er 
Tores.  Conimb.  1613.  &  often. 

&)  Responsum  facultatis  tbeoL  Parisiensis.    (Additions  au  Journal  de  Henry  III.  vol.  I.  p.  817.) 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH.    §  387.  LAW.    POLITICAL  EELATIONS.         459 

tions,  and  under  the  sway  of  a  king  whom  the  pope  had  approved,  this  same 
Sorbonne  condemned  the  very  doctrine  (1594)  which  had  produced  the  vio- 
lent death  of  two  kings  of  France,  (c)  Wherever  Protestantism  maintained  its 
existence  under  the  government  of  Catholic  princes,  the  power  of  the  sove- 
reign was  limited  by  the  states,  but  no  sooner  did  Catholicism  obtain  the 
victory  than  he  was  freed  from  all  such  restraints.  In  Venice  a  system  of 
political  science  was  composed  without  reference  to  religious  creeds,  (d) 
When  Paul  IV.  pronounced  the  election  of  the  emperor  invalid,  because  it 
had  been  held  without  his  mediation,  and  by  heretical  princes,  he  perceived 
that  the  Eoman  authority  in  such  matters  was  despised  by  every  one  in  Ger- 
many, whether  belonging  to  the  new  or  to  the  old  religion,  (e)  and  the  imperial 
coronation  has  ever  since  been  a  high  festival,  which  in  the  view  of  the  na- 
tion had  no  relation  to  Eome.  The  popes  were  well  aware  that  their  cause 
could  not  then  dispense  with  the  favor  of  the  princes ;  and  although  they  still 
derived  regular  revenues  from  the  appointment  of  ecclesiastical  offices,  in- 
stead of  drawing  money  from  the  princes,  these  princes  received  large  sums 
from  the  hand  of  the  popes.  By  such  subsidies  for  maintaining  the  contest 
against  the  Protestants,  and  by  numerous  gifts  for  the  establishment  of  rela- 
tives, the  debts  of  the  Eoman  court  finally  became  so  enormous,  that  under 
Urban  VIII.  they  amounted  to  thirty  millions  of  scudi,  and  half  the  papal 
revenues  were  consumed  in  the  payment  of  the  interest.  (/)  This  burden, 
however,  by  an  artificial  system  of  finance  was  rendered  not  unacceptable  to 
many  wealthy  persons,  and  a  vast  influence  was  acquired,  since  it  now  be- 
came the  interest  of  independent  men  of  wealth  to  sustain  the  papacy.  The 
pope  looked  upon  himself  as  far  superior  to  any  council,  to  whose  decisions  he 
paid  deference  merely  from  his  own  free  grace.  He  maintained  that  even 
in  doubtful  matters  the  Church  was  bound  to  regard  him  as  infallible,  that  it 
might  not  act  against  conscience  when  going  against  his  decision,  (g)  The 
appointment  of  nearly  all  prelates  depended  upon  the  will  of  the  princes,  and 
the  consent  of  the  pope.  It  was  in  the  German  bishoprics  that  the  influence 
of  the  emperor  was  the  least,  but  the  popes  generally  found  it  expedient  to 
consult  the  wishes  of  the  German  princes  in  the  appointment  of  their  younger 
sons.  In  the  new  form  of  their  oath  the  bishops  were  obliged  to  swear  obe- 
dience to  the  papacy  rather  than  to  the  Church,  and  that  they  would  perse- 
cute heretics  to  the  utmost  of  their  power.  (Ji)  In  most  of  the  principal 
cities  permanent  nunciatures  were  formed,  with  high  plenipotentiary  powers 7 
that  through  them  the  influence  of  the  papacy  might  become  as  it  were  uni- 
versal. The  Gallican  Church  alone  kept  itself  aloof  from  these  agencies,  (i) 

c)  Argentre  (p.  251.)  vol.  II.  p.  434. 

d)  Comp.  J.  C.  de  Jonge,  Nederland  en  Yenetie.  Gravenbag.  1852. 

e)  Dr.  Seld  in  Goldast.  pol.  Eeicbsbandl.  vol.  V.  p.  167. 
/)  Jianke,  Piipste,  vol.  III.  p.  lOss. 

0)  Pallavicini,  XIII,  16.    Le  Plat,  Monn.  ad  H.  C.  Trid.  vol.  VI.  p.  806ss.    Bellarm,  de  Eoin. 
Pont.  IV,  5. 

7i)  From  the  PontifioaU  Jiomanum,  Eomae  1595.  In  EicJihom,  KEecbt  vol.  I,  p.  592s.— (Rau- 
tenstraucli)  Abb.  u.  d.  Eid,  welchen  die  dt.  Bischofe  abzulegen  haben.  Vien.  1781. 

1)  (F.  v.  Moser)  Gescb.  d.  Nuntien  in  Deutschl.  Frkf.  1788.  2  vols.  (Weidenfeld)  Entwickl.  d.  Dis- 
;.ens-u.  Nuntiaturstreitigk.  (Bonn.)  178S.  4.    L.  Snell,  Gescb.  d.  Einfubr.  d.  Nunt.  in  d.  Scbweiz. 
Bad.  1847. 


460  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

The  Roman  court  also  began  now  to  bestow  as  a  matter  of  grace,  and  for  a 
definite  period  (facilitates  quinquennales),  especially  upon  the  German  bish- 
ops, the  right  to  grant,  as  the  missionary  interests  of  their  present  and  pro- 
spective dioceses  seemed  to  require  them,  dispensations  of  marriage,  and  ex- 
emptions from  Catholic  appointments,  (fc) 

§  388.     Great  Change  in  the  Character  of  Catholicism. 

In  the  struggle  then  going  forward  new  attachments  for  the  Church  began 
to  be  developed,  and  the  hierarchy  discovered  that  their  salvation  depended 
principally  upon  religious  considerations.  Hence  some  of  the  worst  abuses  in 
the  administration  of  the  Church  were  removed,  indulgences  were  no  longer 
exposed  for  sale,  (a)  it  was  found  to  be  useless  to  threaten  any  one  with  the 
papal  ban,  and  it  was  only  in  Rome  that  excommunication  was  sometimes 
resorted  to  as  an  assistance  to  the  police.  By  a  very  gradual  enforcement  of 
the  Tridentine  decrees,  the  clergy  were  compelled  to  live  respectable  lives. 
In  the  principal  sees  of  the  Church,  their  worldliness  was  now  exchanged  for 
a  solemn  and  imposing  splendor,  piety  generally  took  the  form  of  a  sentimen- 
tal devotion,  and  as  those  who  were  known  to  possess  it  had  reason  to  expect 
the  blessings  of  fortune  and  ecclesiastical  honors,  we  may  suppose  that  selfish 
views  and  artifice  were  sometimes  mingled  with  it.  That  which  had  for- 
merly been  done  in  the  Church  with  no  thought  of  opposition,  now  fre- 
quently brought  upon  the  actors  a  high  degree  of  suspicion  and  persecution. 
The  same  clergy  to  whom  Gerson  had  once  been  a  leader,  now  refused  to 
tolerate  Richer,  who  sought  to  find  in  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church 
protection  for  not  only  the  rights  of  the  state,  but  also  for  those  of  the  gene- 
ral Church,  which  he  claimed  to  be  subject  to  the  Son  of  God  as  its  only 
supreme  monarch.  He  was  compelled  to  recant  his  opinion  by  Richelieu's 
assassins,  and  in  the  midst  of  his  persecutions  died  (1631).  (J)  Galilei  (d. 
1638)  was  obliged  solemnly  to  retract  his  assertion  that  the  earth  moves 
around  the  sun.  (c)  The  Humanists  were  compelled  to  give  way  before  the 
inquisition,  and  the  enthusiasm  which  had  sprung  up  in  favor  of  antiquity 
was  unable  to  maintain  its  ground  against  the  rising  spirit  in  behalf  of  the 
Church.  The  instruction  of  youth  in  the  higher  departments  of  learning 
was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits,  who  regulated  it  by  the  strictest  rules, 
gave  it  almost  exclusively  a  spiritual  direction,  and  confined  the  intellect 
within  certain  definite  limits.  From  a  dislike  to  the  universities,  the  hier- 
archy began  to  prefer  that  the  clergy  should  be  educated  in  episcopal  semi- 
naries. The  control  which  the  inquisition  possessed  over  books  made  them 

K)  0.  Mejer,  d.  rom.  Curie.  (Richter  u.  Jacobs.  Zeitsch.  f.  Recht  u.  Polit  d.  K.  1847.  p.  212s.) 
lUd.  Propaganda,  vol.  IL  p.  210ss. 

a)  Comp.  PescTieck,  kirchengesch.  MIscell.  (Zeitsch.  f.  List  Th.  1839.  P.  3.) 

5)  De  ecc.  et  pol.  potestate.  Par.  161L  and  oft.  Apologia  pro  Gersonio,  denuo  L.  B.  1676.  4.— 
Baittet,  la  vie  d'Edmond  Richer,  Doct  de  Sorbonne  Liege.  1714. 

c)  Paulus,  GaL  Kampf.  f.  d.  Rationalism.  (Beitrr.  z.  Dogmen-,  K.  u.  Eef.  Gesch.  1837.  p.  824ss.) 
Mohnlke,  z.  Gesch.  GaL  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1882.  P.  1.  p.  245.)  Der  h.  Stuhl  gegen  Gal.  (Hist.  pol.  BL 
1841.  vol.  VII.  P.  7-10.)  [Life  of  GaL  in  Lib.  of  Useful  KnowL  pp.  58-61.  Lond.  1838.  12.  Life  of 
Gal.  Galilei,  &c.  Boston.  1832. 12.  D.  Brewster,  Martyrs  of  Science.  Lond.  1841.  8.  Edinb.  Rev.  (ic 
Eclectic  Mag.  Oct  1844)  April,  1844.  Art  Martyrs  of  Science.] 


CHAP.  VI.  CATH.  CHURCH.  §  383.  FEANCI3  OF  SALES.  BOKEOMEO.   461 

more  powerful  in  Southern  Europe  than  they  could  be  by  any  punishments 
they  could  inflict.  The  censorship  was  rendered  complete  by  the  index  of 
prohibited  books,  the  number  of  which  was  swelled  by  the  well-contested 
rivalry  between  the  Roman  and  the  Spanish  inquisitions  (after  1558).  The 
works  of  Catholic  and  classical  writers  were  'given  to  the  world  in  mutilated 
editions.  Personal  solicitude  for  the  faith  and  ignorance  far  exceeded  the 
limits  which  the  necessities  of  Catholicism  required,  (d)  This  dread  of  intel- 
lectual activity  produced  a  passionate,  servile,  and  malignant  spirit  on  the 
part  of  the  hierarchy.  The  religion  of  the  common  people,  however,  still 
remained  sincere ;  and  although  persons  were  often  canonized  for  political  rea- 
sons, and  for  their  large  fees,  many  genuine  saints  were  found  in  the  humble 
walks  of  life.  Francis  of  Sales,  Bishop  of  Geneva  (d.  1622),  by  the  popular 
cordiality  of  his  mysticism,  which  called  on  men  to  renounce  their  own  wills 
even  when  directed  to  beneficence,  and  by  an  earnestness  which  concerned 
itself  with  nothing  bnt  religion,  was  more  efficient  in  the  edification  of  be- 
lievers than  in  the  conversion  of  heretics,  (e)  The  Castilian  Theresa  (d. 
1582),  after  passing  through  many  temptations  to  worldly  pleasure,  and 
many  sufferings,  had  her  heart  pierced  as  it  were  with  the  arrows  of  divine 
love,  possessed  ineffable  enjoyments  during  her  seasons  of  ecstasy,  and  spent 
her  life  in  bringing  the  female  department  of  the  Carmelite  order  to  the 
severe  discipline  of  ancient  times.  (/)  Carlo  Borromeo  (d.  1587),  a  relative 
and  favorite  of  the  pope,  was  elevated  even  when  a  youth  to  the  see  of  St. 
Ambrose,  possessed  great  influence  in  the  papal  ccmrt,  and  at  the  Council  of 
Trent,  was  full  of  zeal  against  the  heretics  on  the  southern  declivities  of  the 
Alps,  although  he  relied  entirely  npon  the  power  of  the  divine  word.  By  his 
gentleness  and  strictness  he  bestowed  great  blessings  upon  his  native  province, 
and  his  lofty  form  appears  to  look  down  upon  it  even  now  in  the  act  of  bless- 
ing and  guarding  it.  (g)  But  even  that  older  form  of  Catholicism  which  had 
prevailed  in  the  time  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle,  could  not  be 
entirely  extinguished,  for  it  bore  a  prominent  part  in  the  religious  changes 
which  then  took  place,  and  in  the  reformations  conducted  by  the  partisans  of 
Catholicism.  The  former  tendency  was  represented  by  Henry  IV.,  and  the 
latter  by  Philip  II.,  not  on  account  of  the  accidental  qualities  which  be- 
longed to  the  character  of  those  individuals,  but  because  each  of  them  was 
like  the  summit  of  a  mountain,  the  most  prominent  among  his  people. 

d)  Index  expurgatorius.  Antu.  1571.  Arg.  1609.  Indices  librr.  prohibitorum  et  expurgandor. 
1667.  and  others.  [The  Vatican  Index  Expurg.  ed.  by  E.  Gibbings,  Dubl.  1837. 12.]  Dan.  Francus, 
Dsq.  de  Papist  indicc.  libb.  proh.  Lps.  1684.  4.  Mendham,  The  literary  policy  of  the  Church  of 
Eome  exhibited,  in  an  account  of  her  damnatory  catalogues  or  indexes.  Ed.  2.  Lond.  1880.  [This 
work  is  also  embraced  in  Mendhartis  Index  of  Proh.  Books,  by  order  of  Greg.  XVI.  Lond.  1840.] 

«)  Oeuvres  de  S.  Fr.  de  Sales,  Par.  1834. 16  vols.  Baudry,  Suppl.  aux  oeuvres.  Lyon.  1836.— 
Leben  v.  C.  A.  Sales,  1634.  Marsollier,  1747.  Reusing,  1818.  F.  H.  (Tub.  tbeol.  Quartalschr.  1S42. 
P.I.) 

/)  Schrr.  d.  h.  Ther.  v.  Jesu,  ed.  by  Gallus  Schwab,  Sulzb.  1831s.  5  vols.  Acta  S.  Ther.  ill.  a.  J. 
Vandermoere,  1846.  f. 

g)  Opp.  Milan.  1758.  5  vols.  £  Godeau,  la  vie  de  Ch.  B.  Par.  1747.  Sailer,  d.  h.  Karl.  Augsb. 
1824.  Giussano,  Leben  d.  h.  K  B.  from  the  Ital.  v.  Klitsche,  Augsb.  18363.  3  vols.  Dierenger,  d.  }L 
Borom.  u.  d.  KVerbess.  sr.  Zeit  Koln.  1846. 


462  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

§  389.    Fraternities  far  Instruction  and  Charity. 
Auberti  Miraei  Regulae  et  Constltt.  Clericorum  In  congregat  viventiura.  Antv.  1639.  4 

The  practice  of  organizing  public  orders  had  been  found  to  be  of  great 
importance  in  promoting  objects  of  general  utility  in  the  Church.  A  few 
Roman  prelates  associated  themselves  together  to  effect  a  reform  among  the 
clergy  (1524).  They  resolved  to  spend  their  time  in  the  performance  of 
pious  services,  not  for  reward,  nor  for  the  collection  of  alms,  but  depending 
on  such  voluntary  offerings  as  might  be  sent  them  by  Providence.  When 
one  of  their  number,  the  Bishop  of  Theate,  had  become  Pope  Paul  IV.,  these 
Theatincs,  in  the  capacity  of  preachers,  missionaries,  and  attendants  on  the 
sick,  became  almost  exclusively  a  seminary  in  which  the  superior  clergy  were 
trained,  (a)  Philip  of  Ncri,  whose  peculiar  inclinations  led  him  to  spend  his 
days  in  churches  and  hospitals,  and  among  children,  and  his  nights  in  the 
catacombs,  formed  in  Rome  (1648)  a  fraternity  for  religious  duties,  and  rely- 
ing upon  the  assistance  of  God  and  of  pious  people,  he  erected  a  largo  hospi- 
tal, in  the  oratory  of  which  (Oratorium)  books  of  a  devotional  character 
were  read  and  explained.  From  this  establishment  proceeded  the  Fathers  of 
the  Oratory,  an  association  of  clergymen  for  mutual  edification,  but  not 
bound  by  formal  vows.  The  French  Oratory  of  Jesu*  was  a  similar  institu- 
tion established  for  the  reformation  of  the  clergy  (1611)  by  Peter  de  Berulle, 
a  man  who  in  on  elevated  earthly  position  sought  to  attain  the  extreme  per- 
fection which  belongs  not  to  this  world.  (&)  After  the  publication  of  the 
decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  requiring  all  independent  monasteries  to 
unite  themselves  into  congregations  for  mutual  supervision,  a  few  French 
monasteries  formed  an  association  (after  1618)  for  the  restoration  of  the  rule 
of  St.  Benedict,  and  with  this  congregation  most  of  the  French  Benedictines 
became  connected,  in  compliance  with  the  expressed  wishes  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu.  This  society,  which  received  the  name  of  St.  Maurus,  a  disciple 
of  Benedict,  devoted  its  efforts  to  the  instruction  of  youth  and  the  advance- 
ment of  solid  learning.  The  Fathers  of  the  Oratory  soon  after  directed  their 
exertions  in  the  same  channel.  Both  orders,  in  consequence  of  the  leisure 
and  freedom  from  care  which  they  afforded  to  their  learned  men,  and  the 
combination  of  various  powers  which  they  could  effect,  have  accomplished 
immense  benefits  for  the  cause  of  historical  learning.  Among  their  members 
were  found  some  whose  names  have  been  renowned  in  the  literary  world, 
and  who  for  their  literary  success  and  zeal  have  been  models  for  all  succeed- 
ing ages,  (c)  Among  Jthe  Minorites,  the  popular  character  of  a  mendicant 
order  was  revised  (1528)  by  Matteo  de  Bassi,  apparently  for  no  other  purpose 
than  to  restore  the  genuine  costume  of  St.  Francis.  Even  the  old  spirit  of 

a)  Caj.  Thienaei  Vita  CoL  1612.  (Acta  S3.  Aug.  vol.  II.  p.  249.) 

1)  Baron.  Ann.  ad  a.  57.  N.  162.  Instituta  Congreg.  Eom.  1612.  A.  Gattonius,  Vita  P.  Nerii. 
Mog.  1602.  Ifabert  <f<j  Cerisy,  Vie  du  Card.  Berulle.  Par.  1646.  4.  Tabaraud,  H.  de  P.  de  Ber. 
Par.  1817.  2  vols. 

c)  Constitt  pro  directione  reglminis  Congr.  S.  Mauri.  Par.  1646.    (ffaudiquer)  H.  du  ven.  dom. 
Didier  de  la  Cour,  E6formateur  des  Ben.  Par.  1772.— (Tassin,  H.  lit  de  la  congr.  de  8.  Maur.  Par. 
-726.  4.  Brux.  1770.  4.  with  Anm.  (v.  Meusd.)  Frkt  u.  L.  1773s.  2  vols.    J.  O.  Herbs* :  Verdienste    • 
d.  Mauriner  urn  die  Wlss.  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1888.  P.  Is.)    Die  liter.  Leiatungen  d.  Franz.  Orat 
(Tub.  Quartalschr.  1835.  P.  8.) 


CHAP.  VI.  CATH.  CHUECH.  §  389.  CAPUCHINS.  UESULINES.     463 

the  Franciscans  was  aroused.  Occhino,  the  vicar-general  of  the  order,  and  a 
preacher  of  repentance  in  Italy,  having  vainly  endeavored  to  satisfy  his  mind 
by  self-denials,  whose  austerity  continually  became  more  severe,  finally  went 
over  to  the  Protestants  (1542),  and  even  beyond  them  in  their  peculiar  doc- 
trines. The  Capuchins,  however,  continued  to  show  a  spirit,  prepared  for 
the  boldest  sacrifices,  for  the  cultivation  and  employment  of  which  the  Eom- 
ish  Church  offers  such  facilities.  They  were  now  also  furnished  with  a  gene- 
ral exclusively  for  their  order  (1619).  (d)  Angela  of  Brescia  (d.  1540),  one  of 
those  souls  which  move  on  earth  as  angels  of  consolation,  established  in 
honor  of  St.  Ursula  an  order  of  virgins  devoted  to  acts  of  charity  and  kind- 
ness in  the  domestic  circle.  The  Ursulines  also  became  subject  to  a  monastic 
constitution  (1612),  and  undertook  the  education  of  children  of  their  own 
sex.  Francis  of  Sales,  by  the  agency  of  his  friend  Francisca  of  Chantal,  so 
remarkable  for  her  vigorous  and  glowing  heart,  founded  the  order  of  the 
Visitants  (1610-18,  Ordo  de  visitatione  Mariae  Yirginis),  which  thought  that 
in  the  visitation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  might  be  found  a  type  of  the  manner 
in  which  all  virgin  souls  should  wait  for  the  visit  of  their  heavenly  spouse. 
The  Piarists,  founded  by  Joseph  Calasanza  (d.  1648),  a  Spaniard  then  resid- 
ing at  Eome,  soon  became  the  rivals  of  the  Jesuits  as  the  fathers  of  the 
religious  schools,  (e)  John  di  Dio  (d.  1550),  a  poor  man,and  a  native  of  Por- 
tugal, was  constrained  by  his  sympathy  for  the  distressed  to  found  an  order 
for  the  relief  of  such  as  were  sick  and  poor,  without  regard  to  differences  of 
faith.  Its  members  were  known  in  Spain  as  Brethren  of  Hospitality,  in 
France  as  Brethren  of  Christian  Love,  and  in  Germany  as  the  Brethren  of 
Mercy.  Vincent  de  Paula,  by  birth  belonging  to  the  common  people,  at  one 
time  a  slave  in  Tunis,  and  a  man  who  sympathized  with  all  the  ills  to  which 
the  human  soul  or  body  is  subject,  founded  (1624)  the  congregation  of  the 
Priests  of  the  Mission  (Lazarists),  the  object  of  which  was  to  convey  Chris- 
tianity with  all  its  blessings  to  the  neglected  classes  of  Christendom,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  constitute  a  school  friendly  to  the  Jesuits,  and  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  French  clergy.  "While  a  confessor  for  the  widow  Le  Gras, 
he  also  instituted  the  society  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  (Filles  de  la  charite, 
grises),  into  whose  gentle  hands  the  French  people  have  committed  the  care 
of  their  sick  and  poor.  (/)  In  connection  with  these  various  societies  may 
also  be  mentioned  those  associations  of  brethren  and  sisters  to  which  per- 
sons of  all  classes,  especially  in  the  Italian  cities,  belong,  who  still  remained 
in  the  ordinary  walks  of  secular  life,  but  according  to  a  prescribed  rule  suc- 
cessively and  generally  in  a  deep  disguise,  from  no  motive  but  a  regard  for 
the  will  of  God  perform  all  needful  offices  for  pilgrims,  the  sick  and  the  dead. 


d)  Acta  SS.  Ma),  vol.  IV.  p.  2S3ss.    Bvoerio,  Ann.  Ord.  Min.  qui  Capucini,  etc.  Lugd.  B.  1632ss. 
3  vols.  f.    M.  a  Tugio,  Bullar.  O.  Capp.  Kom.  f740ss.  7  vols.  f.— Occhino,  Dialog    XXX.  Bas.  1563. 
McCrie,  Hist,  of  Kef.  in  It  p.  185ss.  362ss.     Trechsel,  L.  Sozini.  p.  2?ss.  202ss. 

e)  (Seyfer't)  Ordensregeln  d.  Piaristen.  Hal.  1783.  2  vols. 

/)  Leben  d.  H.  Vine,  by  Abelly,  Par.  1664.  Collet,  Nancy.  1748.  Stollerg,  2  ed.  Vienna,  1819. 
Schmieder.  (Ev.  K.  Z.  1832.  N.  77ss.)  Orsini,  Par.  1842.  Gabitton,  Vie  de  M.  de  Gras.  Par. 
1C76.  (Clemens  Brentano)  Die  barm.  Schwestern  in  Bezug  a.  Arraen-  u.  Krankenpf.  Cobl.  1831. 
Comp.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S30.  N.  22ss.  1833.  N.  18s.  Fleischmann,  d.  Wirken  d.  barmh.  Schvr.  in  Wien. 
Vienna.  1S39. 


464  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164S. 

§  390.     The  Fine  Arts. 

Literature  in  §  267.  Kuglar,  Geacb.  d.  MaL  voL  II.  Glareanw,  Dodecachordon.  Baa.  1547. 
Gerbert,  de  cantu  et  musica.  8.  Bias.  1774  2  vols.  4  fiochlitz,  Grundlinten  zu  e.  Gesch.  d.  Gc- 
Bangsmus.  f.  Klrche,  Ac.  (Fur.  Frennde  d.  Tonk.  vol.  IV.  Lps.  1882.)  Kiencetter,  Gcsch.  d.  cur. 
abend!.  Mnsik.  Lps.  (1884.)  1847.  4 

It  has  been  the  interest  of  the  Catholics  of  modern  times  to  favor  the 
arts.  The  imitative  arts  had  however,  at  this  time,  reached  the  highest  point 
to  which  they  were  destined  to  rise,  and  the  unrestrained  power  of  genius 
found  no  motives  to  return  to  its  efforts  in  that  direction.  Correggio,  witli 
an  overflowing  heart  and  a  magic  richness  of  coloring,  and  Titian,  with  all 
the  splendors  of  nature  itself,  painted  also  scenes  from  sacred  history,  (d) 
Both  of  them,  however,  did  homage  without  restraint  at  the  altar  of  sensu- 
ous beauty.  The  revival  of  art  in  the  school  of  Bologna  was  influenced 
indeed  by  anatomical  studies  and  learned  attempts  to  imitate  antique  models, 
and  yet  it  was  pervaded  by  the  ecclesiastical  spirit.  The  noble  Caracci  with 
his  bold  grandeur,  Domenichino  with  his  gloomy  fervor,  and  Guido  Hem 
with  his  enthusiastic  earnestness,  presented  to  the  world  the  conceptions  and 
forms  of  the  Church,  while  Poussin  painted  not  only  the  ancient  marble 
figures  as  saints,  but  even  landscapes  seriously  and  solemnly  as  if  they  had 
been  for  a  divine  temple.  The  hardy  natural  simplicity  of  the  Netherlandic, 
and  the  yet  unbroken  enthusiasm  of  the  Spanish  national  character,  raised 
the  imitative  arts  of  the  17th  century  to  the  brilliant  eminence  which  they 
had  formerly  attained :  Rubens  made  use  of  sacred  things  to  represent  most 
skilfully  the  energy  of  passion  and  an  exuberant  sensuous  life,  in  his  effort 
to  adorn  the  sepulchral  chapel  of  his  family ;  and  Murillo,  the  painter  of  the 
Catholic  faith,  and  yet  distinguished  for  his  spirited  conformity  to  nature, 
presents  even  those  sacred  things  which  ho  adored  with  rapturous  devotion 
sometimes  in  the  most  natural  attractions  and  sometimes  in  the  most  un- 
earthly and  fanatical  forms.  The  plastic  arts  sought  to  renew  their  infancy 
by  waxlike  imitations  of  the  ungraceful  forms  of  nature.  By  such  means, 
Bernini  with  astonishing  skill  destroyed  the  taste  of  his  contemporaries,  and 
the  Christian  character  of  these  arts.  It  was  at  such  a  period  that -a  Barbe- 
rini,  then  on  the  papal  throne,  thought  he  could  add  to  his  reputation  by  dis- 
figuring the  Pantheon,  which  he  despoiled  of  the  ornaments  which  had 
been  spared  by  so  many  barbarians,  that  he  might  cast  them  (1632)  into  can- 
nons and  an  ill-contrived  high  altar  for  the  church  of  St.  Peter.  The  poetry 
of  Italy  was  generally  tedious  and  of  a  moralizing  strain,  until  Torquato 
Tasso  (d.  1595),  a  genuine  poet,  though  slightly  addicted  to  the  same  style, 
celebrated  the  great  change  which  had  recently  taken  place  in  Catholicism  in 
his  account  of  the  exploits  of  the  middle  ages.  (5)  Bprne  on  by  the  medi- 
aeval spirit  which  still  survived  among  his  people,  Calderon  (d.  1687),  in  his 
sacred  plays  for  festive  seasons  (p.  302),  has  brought  forward  the  mysteries 
of  Christianity  in  a  poetic  dress,  and  celebrated  Christian  heroism  and  all 

[a)  A  life  of  Correggio  and  Parmeg.  Lond.  1823.  8.  J.  Northcote,  Life  of  Titian.  Lond.  1830 
2  vols.  8.] 

[&)  -R.  Milman,  Life  of  Tasso.  New  ecL  Lond.  1S32.  2  vols.  8.  Sism&ndi,  H.  of  Lit  vol.  L 
p.  277SS.] 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHUECH.    §  390.  PALE3TKINA.    ALLEGE!.    NEBL        465 

that  then  remained  of  it  as  in  a  waking  dream,  (c)  Modern  music  first  attained 
the  character  of  an  art  by  which  the  devout  heart  gives  utterance  to  its  emo- 
tions, in  the  Church  of  the  fourteenth  century  in  the  Netherlands.  Its  style 
was  at  that  time  serious,  grand,  and  full  of  expression  only  when  taken  as  a 
whole ;  and  as  the  Church  would  not  renounce  the  few  melodies  which  had 
long  been  used,  art  was  obliged  to  exert  its  powers  on  the  harmonies  by 
which  they  were  embellished.  The  consequence  was  that  many  imitators 
adopted  an  artificial,  dry,  and  learned  kind  of  music,  which  derived  all  its 
life  from  some  secular  airs  mingled  with  them,  (d)  The  Synod  of  Trent  en- 
treated the  pope  that  he  would  devise  some  plan  by  which  this  state  of  things 
might  be  improved.  Marcellus  II.  accordingly  disclosed  his  views  to  an 
enthusiastic  young  man,  and  soon  after  under  the  papacy  of  Paul  IV.,  Pales- 
trina  presented  to  the  world  his  Missa  Marcetti  (1555).  This  was  the 
commencement  of  a  revolution  in  sacred  music,  which  by  his  influence  be- 
came simple,  thoughtful,  aspiring,  sincere,  and  noble,  but  destitute  of  pas- 
sion and  tenderness,  (e)  The  most  spiritual  of  all  arts,  it  raised  the  heart 
into  immediate  communion  with  the  infinite,  and  while  celebrating  the 
mystery  of  the  divine  sacrifice  in  the  different  parts  of  the  Mass  to  which 
it  especially  was  set,  it  found  opportunity  to  express,  and  to  elevate  by  its 
various  combinations  of  sounds,  every  kind  of  Christian  feeling.  The  centre 
of  this  school  was  the  papal  chapel,  and  its  last  creative  master  was  Gregorio 
Allegri  (d.  1652),  whose  Miserere,  composed  for  a  double  choir,  expresses 
with  wonderful  simplicity  all  the  calm  and  profound  sufferings  of  a  Christian 
heart  beneath  the  Saviour's  cross.  (/)  The  Opera  was  invented  (about  1600) 
by  certain  persons  belonging  to  the  Academy  of  the  Medici,  while  attempting 
in  an  antique  style  to  represent  the  ancient  drama.  This  secular  yet  serious 
and  dignified  style  of  music  delighted  all  classes.  While  the  old  ecclesiasti- 
cal style  was  struggling  in  Kome  to  maintain  its  ground  against  this  inno- 
vation, the  school  of  music  founded  by  Neri  began  to  perform  in  the  orato- 
rium  pieces  relating  to  subjects  from  sacred  history.  In  this  way  came  into 
existence  the  Oratorio,  intermediate  between  the  ancient  and  modern  styles' 
of  music,  and  more  distinctly  expressive  of  precise  characters  and  situations, 
more  agreeable  in  its  melodies,  and  richer  in  its  instrumental  accompani- 
ments. (#) 

§  391.  The  Sacred  Scriptures.  Cont.  from  §  286,  386. 
The  Complutensian  Polyglott  was  followed  by  other  similar  attempts  of  a 
literary  character,  with  the  aid  of  a  larger  number  of  ancient  versions.  The 
Greek  text  by  Robert  Stephens  (Estienne),  (a)  and  after  him,  almost  acciden- 
tally, the  beautiful  impressions  from  the  office  of  the  Elzevirs,  (J)  on  the  basis 
of  the  edition  of  Erasmus  or  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  were  now 
established  as  an  article  of  faith  in  both  Churches  (Textus  receptus).  Many 

[c)  Ibid.  vol.  II.  p.  316s.]       d)  Mansi  vol.  XXIX.  p.  107. 
e)  Saini,  Memorie  della  vitadi  GK  P.  da  Palest.  Eom.  1823.  2  vols.  4. 

/)  N.  Wiseman,  u.  d.  in  d.  papstl.  Kapelle  ubl.  Liturgie  d.  stillen  Woche.  A.  cL  EngL  v.  Axinger, 
Augsb.  1840.    [The  Offices  of  Holy  Week.  Lond.  Svo.] 
g)  fink  in  Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1842.  H.  8. 

a)  Par.  1546. 16.    Especially  1550.  f.  (ed.  regina.)       &)  Lugd.  B.  1624. 12.  and  oft 
30 


466  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.  PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-164a 

also  attempted  to  expound  the  Scriptures,  but  with  no  peculiarities  of  theii 
own,  they  generally  depended  wholly  either  upon  Erasmus  or  the  fathers. 
Not  only  were  the  views  of  divine  inspiration  entertained  by  the  ancient 
Church  expressly  disregarded  by*  the  Jesuits  of  the  Netherlands  (after  1585), 
but  even  the  statements  and  ordinary  intelligence  of  the  Scriptural  writers 
were  impeached.  The  shock  which  the  Protestantism  of  that  period  received 
from  such  expressions,  encouraged  many  men  to  make  known  the  more 
recent  results  of  the  scientific  studies  of  a  liberal  school,  (c)  Luther's  Bible 
was  extensively  circulated  under  the  name  of  his  enemies,  (d)  After  many 
animated  discussions  in  the  Synod  of  Trent,  the  object  of  which  was  to  avoid 
all  dependence  upon  grammarians,  and  to  secure  themselves  from  the  attacks 
of  Protestants,  the  Vulgate  was  declared  to  be  authentic  for  all  sermons 
and  expositions  of  Scripture.  This  ambiguous  decision  has  been  explained 
by  learned  Catholics  generally  to  mean  simply  that  this  translation  was  pre- 
ferable to  all  others.  («)  Such  a  decree,  however,  never  became  effectual, 
until  in  an  official  edition  the  various  and  corrupt  readings  of  this  version 
were  partially  removed.  Sixtus  V.  took  charge  of  this  work  (1590),  and  by 
virtue  of  his  plenary  apostolic  power  pronounced  it  authentic  and  unchange- 
able. From  the  haste,  however,  with  which  it  had  been  accomplished,  it 
soon  became  necessary  that  a  new  edition  with  important  emendations  should 
be  prepared  under  the  authority  of  Clement  VIII.  (1592).  The  merit  of  hav- 
ing perceived  these,  and  of  making  improvements  with  regard  to  some  other 
errors  in  the  work,  was  not  readily  acknowledged  by  Protestants,  but  all 
were  convinced  that  such  measures  were  infallible  in  matters  of  faith.  (/) 

§  392.  Laws  Respecting  Doctrines  and  Internal  Theological  Controversies. 
The  doctrinal  decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Trent,  the  partial  vagueness  of 
which  was  doubtless  a  matter  of  design,  were  generally  acknowledged  to  be 
the  standard  of  Catholic  orthodoxy.  The  phraseology  used  in  the  Profemo 
Fidci  Tridentina,  a  confession  published  by  Pius  IV.  (1564),  and  intended  to 
be  binding  upon  all  candidates  for  the  clerical  office  or  for  academical  honors, 
was  strictly  conformed  to  the  language  used  in  those  decrees,  (a)  Pius  V. 
published  the  Catechismus  Romanus  (1566),  not  so  much  for  popular  instruc- 
tion as  for  the  direction  of  pastors  while  engaged  in  that  work.  Both  these 
creeds  presented  some  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Tridentine  articles  in  a  more 
definite  form,  and  although  they  have  been  opposed  in  some  quarters,  they 
have  in  practice  been  received  as  authority.  The  essential  nature  of  Protes- 
tantism was  assailed  by  the  Synod  of  Trent  only  so  far  as  the  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures  was  made  to  depend  upon  the  decision  of  the  Church,  and 

c)  Rich.  Simon,  Hist  crtt  da  texte  du  N.  T.  c.  23. 

d)  (  Walch  voL  XXI.  p.  811.)  N.  T.  by  Eraser,  Lps.  1527.    H.  8.  by  Dietonberger,  Mentz.  1584 
by  Eck,  Ingolst  1537.— G.  W.  Panzer,  Gesch.  d.  rom.  kath.  dt  Bibelubers.  Nurnb.  1781.  4. 

«)  Sess.  IV.  Deer.  2.  [Landon,  Man.  of  Councils,  p.  607.]— L.  v.  Ess.  Doctorum  cath.  Trldenttni 
circa  Yulg.  decreti  sensum  testantium  Hist  Salisb.  1816.  Grate,  u.  d.  Grlinzen  d.  Freih.  in  Erkl.  d. 
H.  8.  Eliw.  1817. 

/)  Th.  James,  Bellum  papale  s.  concordia  disco'rs  Sixti  V.  et  Clem.  VIII.  Lond.  (1600.  4.)  1688. 
[James,  Ou  the  Corruptions  of  Scripture,  Councils  and  Fathers.  (Locd.  1848.  8  ed.)  p.  171»s.] 
Selwelhorn,  Amoenn.  P.  IV.  p.  433ss. 

a)  G.  C.  F.  Mohnike,  urk.  Gesch.  d.  ProC  Fidei  Trid.  Greifew.  1822. 


CHAP.  VL  OATH.  CHURCH.  §  892.  THEOLOGY.  CONTROVERSIES.    467 

the  authority  of  tradition  is  made  equivalent  to  that  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
most  important  principle  it  proposed  in  opposition  to  the  Protestantism  of 
that  period,  was  one  which  referred  to  the  doctrine  of  justification.  Even 
among  the  prelates  themselves  there  was  a  pious  and  respectable  party  favor- 
able to  the  views  of  the  Protestants  on  this  subject.  (&)  Hence,  after  pro- 
tracted debates,  justification  was  declared  to  be  a  gracious  state  prepared  for 
by  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  co-operation  of  the  sinner  himself,  and  is  essen- 
tially advanced  by  works  performed  in  obedience  to  the  Church.  Hence  the 
doctrine  which  declared  that  man  is  justified  only  by  a  faith  wrought  wholly 
by  God,  could  be  condemned  with  much  consistency,  (c)  The  dispute  be- 
tween the  Thomists  and  the  Scotists  on  the  subject  of  original  sin  and  divine 
grace,  was  not  and  could  not  be  decided  at  that  time,  since  the  controversy 
maintained  by  those  schools  had  now  become  a  controversy  between  the  two 
orders  of  mendicant  friars,  and  the  deviation  of  the  whole  Church  from  the 
principles  of  Augustinism  rendered  it  indispensable  that  indefinite  forms  of 
expression  should  be  used.  But  when  the  efforts  of  Protestants  had  suc- 
ceeded in  directing  the  thoughts  of  the  Church  toward  these  delicate  points, 
and  the  Jesuits,  in  consistency  with  the  moral  system  of  their  school,  had 
adopted  the  views  of  the  Scotists,  the  dangerous  proximity  of  this  dispute  to 
the  dread  abyss  of  Protestantism  could  not  deter  men  from  engaging  in  it  in 
many  ways.  The  Franciscans  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  damnatory  bull  of 
Pius  Y.  (1567),  which  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  Gregory  XIII.  (1579), 
upon  seventy-nine  dangerous  propositions  extracted  from  the  writings  of 
Bajus,  a  professor  of  Louvain,  who  had  abandoned  scholasticism  and  had 
turned  his  attention  to  a  scriptural  and  Augustinian  Christianity,  (d)  This  de- 
cree, however,  never  affected  his  personal  standing  in  the  Church.  The 
theological  faculty  of  Louvain  defended  themselves  by  an  aggressive  move- 
ment (after  1587),  and  condemned  thirty-four  propositions  opposed  to  the 
essential  doctrines  of  Augustine,  and  to  the  absolute  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, from  the  writings  of  the  Jesuits  Less  and  Hamel.  Sixtus  V.  endeavored 
to  allay  the  growing  strife  by  an  absolute  command  that  each  party  should 
cease  agitating  the  subject  (1588).  But  a  general  controversy  between  the 
rival  schools  of  the  Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits  had  already  commenced  in 
Spain  in  consequence  of  a  Pelagian  work  intended  as  conciliatory  by  the 
Jesuit  Molina,  (e)  Pressed  by  complaints  from  all  parties,  Clement  VIII. 
called  together  a  congregation  (1597)  for  the  full  decision  of  the  question, 
"  In  what  way  is  the  assistance  of  divine  grace  concerned  in  the  conversioD 
of  the  sinner  ?  "  "When  both  parties  had  submitted  their  respective  views  in 
the  most  circumstantial  manner  before  this  tribunal,  Paul  V.  dismissed  (1607) 
the  congregation,  worn  out  by  protracted  labors,  with  the  promise  that  a  de- 
cision should  be  given  as  soon  as  convenient,  and  commanded  both  parties  to 
maintain  perpetual  silence  on  the  subject.  (/) 

6)  Ranke,  Papste,  vol.  I.  p.  199ss.  160ss. 

c)  Sess.  VI.  Deer,  de  Justif.  [Landon,  p.  610.] 

d)  JBaji  Opp.  Col.  1696.  4.    Du  Chesne,  H.  du  Bajanisme.  Dcmay,  1731.  4. 

«)  Liberi  arb.  c.  gratiae  donis,  div.  praescientia,  praedest.  et  reprobat  concordla.  Olyssip.  158* 
Antu.  1595.  4. 

/)  Aug.  le  Blanc  (Sorry),  H.  congreg.  de  auxiliis  gratiae.  Ant  1709.  £ 


468  MODERN  CHTJECH  HISTORY.    PER.  T.    A.  D.  1517-1&W. 

§  393     Efforts  at  Reconciliation,  and  Controversies  with  the  Protestants. 
C.  W.  tiering,  Qosch.  d.  kirchl.  Unionsversnche.  Lpz.  1836-8.  2  vols. 

Even  when  the  popes  began  to  despair  of  victory,  they  would  admit  of 
no  compromise  with  the  Protestants  for  fear  that  the  whole  Church  might 
thereby  become  infected  with  the  spirit  of  the  Reformation,  (a)  But  as  the 
Protestant  Church  had  gone  in  some  respects  to  an  extreme,  and  as  the 
Catholic  Church  still  needed  reform,  and  as  the  former  appeared  only  another 
form  of  the  latter,  a  hope  was  entertained  that  a  reconciliation  might  be 
effected  which  would  be  eminently  beneficial  to  both  parties.  With  this 
view  Ferdinand  I.  requested  two  learned  men  whose  feelings  were  friendly  to 
-the  object,  to  draw  up  articles  of  accommodation  and  agreement.  Cassander, 
always  an  apostle  of  peace,  conceded  that  the  Scriptures  were  the  only  au- 
thority for  proving  any  doctrine,  and  thought  that  he  might  find  a  point  -of 
agreement  for  the  one-sided  views  of  both  parties  in  the  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith  and  workg.  He  was  anxious  to  preserve  the  hierarchy,  but 
was  willing  to  give  up  its  abuses,  together  with  a  multitude  of  evils  which 
had  grown  up  in  a  long  course  of  time,  or  things  which,  like  celibacy,  had 
once  been  beneficial,  but  were  now  antiquated.  Wizel,  when  a  youth,  had 
been  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  Lutheran  gospel,  which,  however,  he  re- 
nounced (1531),  because  he  regarded  its  doctrine  of  justification  as  injurious 
to  Christian  practice,  and  he  was  anxious  to  preach  nothing  but  the  gospel 
of  Christ.  He  afterwards  preached  as  a  priest,  though  married,  in  the  for- 
saken Church  at  Eisleben,  in  behalf  of  the  Catholic  cause,  and  with  many 
complaints  against  Luther.  At  a  still  later  period  he  sat  in  a  council  of 
Catholic  prelates,  in  which  he  still  clung  firmly  to  the  hope  that  by  follow- 
ing the  path  which  Erasmus  had  pursued,  renouncing  all  scholastic  subtleties 
and  papal  abuses,  by  purifying  the  Church  and  returning  to  the  Scriptures, 
all  Christendom  might  once  more  become  united  around  its  common  Lord 
Christ.  (&)  But  although  at  these  religious  conferences  an  agreement  often 
seemed  just  at  hand,  and  failed  only  because  of  the  obstinacy  of  some  individ- 
uals, it  was  evident  from  the  peculiar  nature  and  historical  necessity  of  such  a 
religion  as  Protestantism,  that  all  these  negotiations  must  fail.  In  the  Ger- 
man conferences  the  principal  topics  of  discussion  were  original  sin  and  jus- 
tification, though  after  the  Synod  of  Trent  the  subject  of  the  sole  authority 
of  the  Scriptures  was  most  prominent.  The  Protestants  reproached  the 
Catholics  with  having  departed  from  the  Scriptures  and  from  Christ,  and  the 
Catholics,  on  the  other  hand,  reproached  the  Protestants  with  having  de- 
parted from  the  Church,  with  being  revolutionary  in  their  tendencies,  and 
yet  contending  that  the  will  was  not  free,  and  with  being  afraid  of  good 
works.  Catholicism  was  assailed  in  the  most  earnest  manner  by  Chemnitz, 
and  Protestantism  by  Bellarmine.  (c)  The  principal  subjects  debated  by 

a)  Comp.  Wesseriberg,  Kirchenwera.  voL  III.  p.  198ss.  p.  295. 

•  6)  G.  Cass,  de  artic.  reL  inter  Catholicos  et  Protestantes  controversis  ad  Ferd.  I.  et  Max.  II.  Con 
uultatio.  Col.  1566.  ed.  H.  Grotiut,  Lugd.  1642.  G.  Vie.  Via  regia.  Col.  (about)  1564.  ed.  Conring 
Holmst  1650.  4.  Both :  ed.  Conring,  Helmst,  1669.  ±.—Strobd,  Beltrr.  vol.  II.  St  Is.  A.  Neander 
de  G.  Vicelio.  Ber.  1839.  4.  Also  his  Das  Eine  u.  Mannichf.  d.  chr.  Leben.  Brl.  1840.  p.  16788. 

c)  CTiemnitii  Examen  Conctlii  Trid.  1565ss.  4  vols.  ed.  G.  C.  Joannis,  Frcf.  1707.  f.  and  often 
Bellarmini  Dsp.  de  controv  chr.  fidei  adv.  hujus  temp,  haereticos.  Eom.  1581  ss.  3  vols.  £  and  often 


CHAP.  VL  CATH.  CHURCH.  §  393.  ATTEMPTS  AT  UNION.       469 

these  able  disputants,  however,  were  particular  doctrines  and  usages.  The 
authorities  to  which  the  Protestant  appealed  were  generally  the  literal  mean- 
ing  of  the  Scriptures  and  facts  in  the  past  history  of  the  Church,  to  which 
the  Catholic  usually  replied  by  appealing  to  the  reasonable  fitness  of  things 
and  primitive  usage.  Flacius  and  Gerhard  delighted  in  pointing  out  traces 
of  Protestantism  in  former  times,  that  so  they  might  overcome  the  Catholic 
Church  with  its  own  weapons,  (d)  Zealous  partisans,  like  Nihus,  soon  dis- 
posed of  the  whole  subject  by  contending  that  the  party  which  could  show 
a  prescriptive  right  of  possession  should  be  victorious,  (e)  The  doctrine  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  as  it  was  maintained  in  both  Churches,  gave  much  occasion 
on  account  of  its  supernatural  sensuousness,  on  the  one  side  to  ridicule  for 
the  scholastic  subtilty  of  its  form,  (/)  and  on  the  other  to  a  rude  kind  of  poetry 
for  its  strange  figurative  language,  (g)  But  this  controversy  with  Scriptural 
weapons,  especially  on  the  part  of  the  Catholics,  was  nothing  but  a  faint 
reflection  of  the  extremely  animated  personal  exertions  made  for  the  same 
general  object.  "With  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  Church  sprung  up  the 
hope  that  it  was  about  to  recover  all  it  had  lost.  The  liberal  party  in  that 
Church,  as  it  had  not  yet  entirely  discarded  the  Protestant  spirit,  might 
easily  have  tolerated  that  spirit  in  a  more  distinct  form  by  its  side.  The 
more  zealous  party,  on  the  other  hand,  from  its  very  nature  could  allow  of 
no  terms  in  its  opposition,  and  although  its  efforts  were  at  that  time  directed 
not  so  much  to  the  persecution  as  to  the  conversion  of  their  opponents,  its 
adherents  were  resolved  to  go  to  any  extremes,  and  to  demand  every  thing. 
Vast  plans  were  formed  for  future  action.  Once  more  the  papacy  felt  that 
it  was  destined  to  conquer  the  world.  Intellect  and  eloquence,  craft  and 
force,  were  put  in  requisition.  The  first  object  was  to  win  those  who  were 
still  undecided,  and  the  next  was  to  overthrow  Protestantism  in  countries 
where  Catholicism  was  in  the  ascendant,  or  at  least  where  the  govern- 
ment still  remained  in  the  hands  of  Catholics.  In  both  these  objects  they 
were  to  a  considerable  extent  successful,  in  consequence  of  the  prodigious 
activity  of  the  Jesuits.  But  not  only  were  large  masses  of  people  induced 
to  change  their  connections,  but  many  individuals  passed  over  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  and  as  long  as  the  lines  of  separation  continued  indistinct,  and 
when  hopes  previously  formed  were  disappointed,  conversions  were  not 
infrequent  on  either  side,  (ti)  Vergerius,  the  papal  legate  in  Germany,  when 
he  attempted  to  combat  Luther's  spirit,  was  himself  carried  away  by  it.  (i) 
To  act  upon  Protestant  communities,  young  men  were  selected  from  their 
midst  and  imbued  with  all  the  enthusiasm  of  Catholic  proselytism,  and  other 

d)  Flacius  (p.  338)  Gerhard  (§  853).       e)  Are  nova.  Hildesh.  1632.  4. 

/)  (C.  G.  Holder)  Mus  exenteratus,  per  fratrem  Wilh.  do  Stuttg.,  Ord.  Minoruin.  Tub.  1593.  4. 
Lps.  167T.  12. 

g)  Forer,  Bellnra  ubiquisticum.  Dill.  1627.  12.  (Alter  u.  neuer  Katzenkrleg  v.  d.  Ubiqnitat. 
Ingolst  1629. 12.)  Nothw.  Vertheid.  d.  h.  rom.  Eeichs  ev.  Churff.  u.  Stande  Augapfels,  durch  d.  hierzu 
verordn.  Theologen.  Lpz.  1628.  4.  Brill  a.  d.  ev.  Augapt  1629.  4.  Ev.  Brillenputzer.  Lps.  1629.  4, 
(Andreae)  Wer  hat  das  Kal.  in's  Aug  geschlagen  ?  Dili  1629.  4. 

h)  F.  W.  Ph.  v.  Ammon,  Gallerie  d.  denkwurd.  Personeu,  welche  im  16.  17.  u.  18.  Jahrh.  v.  d. 
ey.  zur  kath.  Kirche  ubergetreten  sind.  Erl.  1833. 

i)  E.  T.  Perthel,  Or.  pro  P.  P.  Vergerio.  Jen.  1842.  F.  H.  Schonhuth,  V.  Bischof  v.  Capo  d'Istria. 
(Stud.  d.  ev.  Geistl.  WurL  1842.  vol.  XIV.  P.  1.) 


470  MODEEN  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

principles  which  were  found  in  the  Catholic  system.  But  the  most  strenuoui 
efforts  were  made  to  influence  the  Protestant  princes,  who  were  assailed  OD 
the  one  hand  by  all  the  arts  of  seduction,  and  on  the  other  by  the  weapons 
of  assassination  and  of  insurrection.  (£) 

§  394.     The  Propaganda. 

I.  Erectio  S.  Congrcgationis  de  fide  cath.  propaganda.  (Bullar.  Eom.  Th.  III.  p.  421ss.)— Bullarium 
Pontif.  8.  Congr.  de  prop.  fide.  Eom.  1889-41.  5  vols.  4.— IL  Sayeri  H.  Congr.  de  prop.  fide.  Eegiom. 
1721.  4  Otto  Mejer,  d.  Prop.,  ihre  Provinzen  u.  ihr  Eecht  Mit  bes.  Eucks.  a.  Deutschl.  GotL 
1852s.  2  vols. 

I.  Lett  ediflantes  et  carieuses  ecrites  des  Missions  Strangles.  Par.  (1717-76.  84  vols.)  1780-3.  20 
vols.— Brown,  II.  of  the  prop,  of  Chr.  among  the  heathen  since  the  Eef.  Lond.  1814.  2  vols.  P.  Witt- 
mann.  d.  Hcrrlicbk.  d.  K.  In  Ihren  Miss.  ».  d.  Glaubenssprit  Augsb.  1841s«.  2  vols.  Uenrion,  II. 
gon.  des  Miss.  catb.  Par.  1846s.  2  vols.  4. 

There  was  no  Church  bnt  the  Roman  which  had  means,  opportunity,  and 
willing  instruments  in  the  monks  for  establishing  churches  beyond  the  ocean. 
All  efforts  to  extend  religion  among  unbelievers,  or  to  recover  apostates  who 
were  looked  upon  as  for  ever  belonging  by  right  of  baptism  to  the  papacy,  (a) 
were  directed  and  sustained  by  the  Congregation  de  propaganda  fide  (1622) 
in  Eome.  With  this  was  connected  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  (1627),  an 
institution  admirably  fitted  by  the  gradual  addition  of  a  number  of  endow- 
ments, for  training  the  children  of  the  Catholic  Church  to  be  missionaries  to 
all  nations.  The  idea  of  this  institution  had  been  already  realized  by  Ignatius 
in  the  organization  of  his  Collegium  Germanicum  (1552)  for  the  education 
of  a  priesthood  favorable  to  Eome,  and  to  act  upon  the  German  nation.  (Z>) 
After  its  model  colleges  have  been  established  at  Rome  for  other  nations,  so 
that  on  the  festival  of  the  Three  Kings  the  praise  of  God  is  there  sung  by 
the  Church  as  it  was  on  the  primitive  Pentecost,  in  the  languages  of  many 
nations. 

§  395.    East  Indies. 

The  communication  and  Investigation  of  original  authorities  was  commenced  by  Jones,  Cole. 
brooke,  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Bopp,  Eammohnn-Eoy,  Eoscn,  Lassen,  and  Brockhaus.  For  general  views : 
P.  V.  Bohlen,  d.  alte  Indien  m.  Bucks,  auf  Aegypten.  Konigsb.  1830.  2  vols.  Th.  Jienfey,  Indien  in 
d.  HalL  Encykl.  II.  voL  XVII.  Roth  in  Zeller's  Jahrb.  1846.  P.  8.—J.  P.  Maffei,  Historiae  Indie. 
1.  XII.  (Flor.  1588.  f.)  Antu.  1605.  La  Croze,  H.  du  Christ  des  Indes.  Haye.  1724.  2  vols.  with  Anm. 
v.  Sohnstedt,  Hal.  u.  L.  1737ss.  2  vols.  Norlert,  Mem.  hist  sur  les  miss,  des  Jesuites  atix  Indea 
orient  ed.  8.  Besanp.  1747.  2  vols.  Paulini  a  S.  Barthol.  India  or.  chr.  Eom.  1794.  4.  [A  Voyage 
to  the  E.  I.  with  an  account,  &c.  with  add.  by  Forster,  and  transl.  by  Johnston,  Lond.  1800.]  Jf. 
Mullbauer,  Gesch.  d.  knth.  Miss,  in  Ostind.  b.  Mitte  d.  18.  Jhh.  Munich.  1852.— Th.  Yeates,  Indian 
Church's  History.  Lond.  1818.  J.  Hough,  Hist  of  Christ  in  India.  Lond.  1839.  2  vols.  [W.  Ward, 
View  of  the  Hist.  Lit.  and  Eel.  of  the  Hindoos.  Hartf.  1824.  12.  H.  H.  Wilson,  Vishnu  Purana,  or 
Hindu  Myth,  and  Trad.  Lond.  1840.  4.  C.  Coleman,  Myth,  of  the  Hindoos.  Lond.  1832.  4.  Bjorn- 
sterna,  Theogony  of  the  Hindoos,  &c.  Lond.  1845.  8.  H.  R.  Hoisington,  Hindu  Philosophy,  from 
the  Tamil,  with  notes,  &c.  New  Haven.  1S54.  8.] 

In  India  the  gospel  met  with  a  mild,  imaginative,  and  visionary  people, 
with  minds  conversant  with  the  infinite,  though  actually  existing  among  the 

k)  E.  g.  Ranke,  H.  of  the  Popes.  voL  II.  p.  105s.  comp.  452. 
a)  Meyer  vol.  I.  p.  lOss. 

ft)  J.  Cordara,  Coll.  Germanici  et  Hung.  Hist.  Eom.  1770.  f.  Das  deutsche  Collegium  in  Eom. 
Lps.  1843. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHUECH.    §  395.  EAST  INDIES.    BEAHMANISM.  47 1 

ruins  of  primitive  civilization.  For  nearly  a  thousand  years  they  had  been 
the  victims  of  servitude,  first  under  Mohammedan  despots,  and  afterwards 
under  a  company  of  Christian  merchants,  during  which  they  had  become 
cowardly,  fawning,  and  indolent  in  their  natures.  They  however  remained 
remarkable  for  their  powers  of  endurance,  fearless  and  stubborn  in  matters 
connected  with  their  religion,  and  filled  with  recollections  of  their  former 
glory.  The  Brahmins  were  probably  a  foreign  race,  who  at  some  former 
period  had  descended  from  the  Himalayan  mountains,  and  being  superior 
to  the  natives,  had  introduced  among  them  the  refinements  of  religion.  Ac- 
commodating themselves  to  an  organization  which  they  found  among  the 
people,  they  secured  enormous  privileges  for  themselves  by  an  unequal  appor- 
tionment of  the  intellectual  advantages  they  brought  among  the  graduated 
castes.  In  then*  own  and  in  the  people's  estimation,  they  were  equal  to  the 
gods,  while  the  Farias  were  regarded  as  beneath  the  brutes.  The  limits  of 
caste,  by  which  the  fate  of  every  individual  was  almost  unalterably  fixed 
according  to  his  merits,  were  supposed  to  have  been  assigned  by  the  Creator, 
so  that  what  was  lawful  in  one  caste  was  a  capital  offence  in  another.  All 
the  laws,  the  literature,  and  the  arts,  which  existed  among  the  people,  were 
traced  back  originally  to  the  sacred  writings  (Vedas),  which  were  said  to 
have  been  reduced  to  writing  long  before  the  time  of  Christ,  as  they  flowed 
from  the  lips  of  Brahma.  Brahmanism  was  originally  a  benignant  deifica- 
tion of  nature.  In  a  philosophical  sense,  Brahma  is,  the  essence  of  all  exist- 
ence, his  only  attribute  is  infinity,  and  every  thing  possessing  individuality 
and  a  finite  nature  springs  from  Maya,  Appearance,  or  Illusion.  The  incon- 
sistency between  this  original  sense  and  its  philosophical  meaning  may  be 
seen  in  the  delicate  recoil  which  is  felt  by  the  people  from  all  contact  with 
nature.  The  higher  castes  therefore  eat  no  flesh,  but  the  intercourse  of  the 
sexes  is  looked  upon  as  pure,  and  the  services  of  the  temples  are  connected 
with  the  indulgence  of  the  vilest  lust,  and  yet  the  perfection  of  human  wis- 
dom is  supposed  to  be  an  escape  from  the  illusion  of  the  finite,  and  an  utter 
loss  of  all  personal  consciousness.  By  contemplation  and  self-denials,  carried 
sometimes  to  the  extreme  of  suicidal  self-tortures,  man  is  elevated  until  he 
becomes  a  god.  Their  system  of  religion,  perhaps  a  combination  of  several 
different  national  religions,  when  fully  developed,  teaches  that  the  original 
Brahm  manifests  himself  as  Brahma,  Yishnu,  and  Siva — in  other  words,  as 
the  Creation,  the  Development,  and  the  Eeabsorption  of  all  things.  Hence 
sometimes  one  and  sometimes  another  of  this  Trimurti  is  regarded  as  su- 
preme. According  to  their  epic  legend,  VisJimCs  Deity,  regarded  as  the 
divine  life  of  nature,  has  frequently  become  incarnate,  at  one  time  as  a  beast, 
at  another  as  a  man  born  of  a  virgin,  in  the  form  of  Rama  contending  with 
giants,  in  that  of  Krishna,  as  a  prince  of  peace  crowned  as  a  victor,  and 
finally  he  will  yet  appear  in  that  of  Kalki,  on  a  white  steed,  for  the  removal 
of  all  sin.  But  at  the  close  of  the  world,  JTala,  the  great  destroyer,  will  ar>- 
pear  and  swallow  up  every  thing,  and  last  of  all  even  the  three  supreme  gods 
themselves,  so  that  the  essence  of  Brahma  will  exist  once  more  alone.  The 
space  between  the  chief  gods  and  men  is  filled,  as  it  were  symbolically,  with 
a  kingdom  of  inferior  and  fanciful  divinities.  The  popular  faith  has  regarded 


472  MODEKN  CHyECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

all  these  as  actual  persons,  and  the  dispute  between  different  parties  with 
respect  to  the  claims  of  Vishnu  or  Siva  to  the  supreme  power  has  been 
aggravated  by  the  explanations  of  the  sages  and  the  embellishments  of  the 
poets,  until  the  spiritual  world  has  become  peopled  with  a  wonderfully  vari- 
ous and  confused  race  of  beings,  which  have  been  divided  into  numerous 
sects.  The  greatest  contrasts  were  here  exhibited.  A  monkey  was  some- 
times deified  by  the  side  of  a  god  who  was  so  spiritualized  and  so  great,  that 
thought  itself  was  too  insignificant  to  conceive  of  him,  and  yet  some  many- 
limbed  monster  was  supposed  to  contain  and  to  represent  him.  This  faith, 
which  at  one  time  converted  the  rocky  mountains  into  temples,  had  so 
thoroughly  pervaded  every  relation  of  the  popular  life,  and  was  so  firmly 
incorporated  with  the  prejudices  even  of  the  Farias,  that  although  the  Chris- 
tian preachers  presented  many  points  of  doctrine  which  corresponded  with 
it,  no  great  results  could  for  a  long  time  be  expected  from  their  labors.  Bishops 
were  appointed  by  the  Portuguese  to  take  the  charge  of  their  possessions  in 
the  East,  but  no  congregations  were  collected  there  until  Francis  Xamer 
(after  1542),  with  all  the  enthusiasm  which  his  great  success  inspired,  per- 
formed extraordinary  acts  of  piety  among  them,  and  baptized  probably  a 
hundred  thousand  Farias  and  outcasts.  (a)  To  preserve  these  in  the  faith, 
however,  it  was  found  necessary  to  use  the  labors  of  the  inquisition  (15GO). 
The  first  labor  of  this  court  was  directed  to  the  extirpation  of  a  few  congre- 
gations of  the  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  which  had  maintained  an  existence 
there  in  the  same  condition  in  which  they  had  been  formed  as  a  part  of  the 
Syrian  Church  of  the  fifth  century.  These  Christians,  however,  in  the  popu- 
lar organization  of  the  Hindoo  people,  had  been  embraced  in  the  warrior 
caste.  The  name  of  Nestorius  was  also  once  more  solemnly  anathematized 
in  India.  The  Jesuit  Nolili  (after  1606),  in  the  character  of  a  Christian 
Brahmin,  was  not  altogether  without  success  in  his  appeals  to  the  higher 
castes,  (ft)  The  Islam  of  the  early  conquerors  was  too  simple  and  powerful 
to  be  overcome  without  a  desperate  struggle.  Still  the  efforts  of  the  Great 
Mogul  AHar  to  establish  a  religion  of  reason  (after  1578),  produced  a  much 
greater  approximation  to  the  religion  of  the  Jesuits.  In  1610,  three  imperial 
princes  mounted  on  white  elephants  rode  to  the  place  where  they  were  bap- 
tized. Victory,  however,  still  remained  on  the  side  of  Mohammed. 

§  396.     Japan. 

After  the  researches  of  Joinville,  Buchanan,  Klaproth,  Mackenzie,  Colebrooke,  and  Bitter :  Oru- 
ler,  Art  Japan  in  d.  Hall.  EncykL  II.  vol.  XIII.  p.  330ss.  comp.  Benfey,  Ibid.  vol.  XVII.  p.  194ss 
P.  de  Bohlen,  de  Buddhaismi  orig.  et  aetate.  Eegiom.  1827.  J.  J.  Schmidt,  (Memoires  de  TAcad. 
imperiale  de  Petersb.  1830.  vol.  II.  Liv.  2.  8. 1832.  vol.  IL  Ltv.  1.)  Neumann,  Pilgerfahrten  Buddb. 
Priester.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1833.  St  2.)  A.  WutUce,  de  Buddhaistar.  disciplinar.  Vrat.  1848.— 
Kaempfer,  Beschr.  v.  Japan,  hrsq.  v.  Dohm.  Lemg.  1777.  2  vols.  4.  [H.  of  Japan,  Anc.  and  Pr.  State 
of  the  Gov.  Ac.  transl.  by  Schenchser,  from  the  Germ,  of  Kaempfer,  Lond.  1727.  2  vols.  f.]  P.  de 
Charlevote,  H.  du  Christ  dans  I'Emp.  da  Japon.  Eom.  1712ss.  3  vols.  par  M.  D.  L.  G.  Par.  1836.  2 


0)  Fr.  Xaverii  Epp.  I.  IV.  Par.  1631. 12.    Bricfe  d.  h.  F.  v.  X.  ubers.  u.  erkL  v.  J.  Burg,  Neu- 
wied  1836.    JTor.  Turselini,  de  vita  Xav.  Eom.  1594.-  and  often.    [Dubois,  Letters  on  Chr.  in  Ind, 
Lond.  8.  with  Townley'a  (Lond.  1824.  8.)  and  HougWs  (Lond.  1825. 12.)  Eepliea  to  Dubois.] 

1)  Platel  (Norbert),  M6m.  hist,  sur  les  affair,  des  Jes.  Lisb.  1766.  7  vols.  4. 


CHAP.  VL    OATH.  CHURCH.    §  396.  JAPAN.    BUDDHISM.  473 

vols.  Crasset,  H.  de  1'egl.  de  Japan.  Par.  1T15.  4.  Augsb.  1733.  t—Stditdlin,  u.  d.  Verwandtscb.  d. 
Lamalschen  Kel.  m.  d.  chr.  (Archiv.  f.  KGesch.  1814  vol.  I.  St  3.)  [<7.  McFarlane,  Geog.  and  Hist. 
Ace.  of  Japan.  New  York.  1852.  8.  T.  Wells,  J.  and  the  Japanese.  New  York.  1852.  P.  F.  v.  Sie- 
lold,  Manners.and  Customs  of  the  Japanese.  New  York.  1840. 12.  Golownin,  Mem.  of  Captivity  in 
J.  Lond.  1852.  2  vols.  8.  2  ed.] 

"When  Xamer  reached  Japan,  he  found  that  the  Christian  Church  had 
been  imitated  by  the  devil,  for  already  bells,  rosaries,  celibacy,  monasticism, 
a  hierarchy,  and  apparently  a  spiritual  monarch  were  there.  The  primitive 
religion  of  the  country  was  a  mythical  worship  of  nature,  prompted  by  a 
lively  glow  of  sensuous  pleasure.  But  for  a  long  time  the  predominant  reli- 
gion had  been  a  Buddhism  which  had  been  introduced  from  abroad.  About 
six  hundred  years  before  Christ,  in  Magadha,  a  province  of  India,  arose  Gau- 
tama surnamed  Buddha,  i.  e.,  the  Wise,  who  enlisted  with  much  zeal  in  the 
work  of  reforming  his  countrymen.  By  his  wisdom  and  self-denials  he  be- 
came an  incarnation  of  the  Deity,  according  to  the  sacred  legends,  the  eighth 
incarnation  of  Vishnu  by  Maya  in  the  form  of  a  pure  virgin.  In  this  incar- 
nation, the  system  of  the  world  attained  a  self-consciousness.  As  he  pro- 
claimed the  universal  brotherhood  of  man,  the  system  of  caste  was  discarded 
by  him,  but  in  its  stead  was  gradually  introduced  a  hierarchy,  the  existing 
head  of  which  was  always  honored  as  an  incarnate  divinity.  The  spirit 
inculcated  by  Buddhism  is  mild  and  humane,  since  it  requires  that  its  fol- 
lowers should  sympathize  with  the  sufferings  of  every  living  thing,  and 
instead  of  demanding  bloody  sacrifices,  it  calls  upon  them  to  sacrifice  them- 
selves for  the  good  of  others.  Still  the  fundamental  principle  of  this  religion, 
that  the  higher  life  can  be  attained  only  by  a  liberation  of  ourselves  from  all 
the  illusion  of  a  personal  existence,  imposes  the  necessity  of  severe  and  cruel 
struggles.  The  natural  development,  therefore,  of  this  principle,  is  a  lifeless 
and  haughty  system  of  religion,  in  which  the  highest  merit  is  attached  to 
human  efforts.  («)  About  a  hundred 'years  after  Christ,  Buddhism  was  per- 
secuted by  the  Brahmans,  and  after  a  protracted  struggle  was  expelled  from 
its  native  country.  It  soon,  however,  became  the  religion  of  nearly  all  the 
neighboring  nations,  from  whose  peculiar  characters  it  received  many  modi- 
fications. In  Japan,  Xavier  adopted,  though  in  a  higher  and  modified  sense, 
every  thing  in  Buddhism  which  was  considered  holy,  as  a  part  of  the  faith 
which  he  preached,  and  consequently  soon  succeeded  in  establishing  a  church. 
But  in  his  eagerness  to  penetrate  still  farther  into  heathen  countries,  this 
Apostle  of  the  Indies  died  £Oon  after"  on  his  way  to  China  (1552).  Under 
the  direction  of  the  Jesuits,  a  most  splendid  ecclesiastical  establishment  was 
formed  in  Japan,  and  hopes  were  entertained  that  the  whole  nation  would 
soon  become  subject  to  its  sway.  But  in  consequence  of  some  immoralities 
on  the  part  of  the  European  residents,  and  the  suspicion  that  Christianity  was 
only  the  precursor  of  foreign  dominion,  a  series  of  sanguinary  persecutions 
(after  1587)  was  commenced.  Thousands  even  of  the  native  inhabitants  died 
as  martyrs  for  the  new  faith.  About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century 

\a)  K  Burnouf,  Introd.  a  1'Hist  du  Buddhisme  Indien.  Par.  1845.  vol.  I.  4.  R.  &  Hardy,  Man- 
ual of  Buddhism,  &c.  Lond.  1852.  8.  E.  Upham,  Hist  and  Doct.  of  Buddhism.  Lond.  1829.  f.  C. 
F.  Neumann,  Catechism  of  the  Shamans,  or  Laws  of  the  Bud.  Priests.  (Orient.  Transl.  Fund.) 
Lond.  1882.  8.] 


474  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A,  D.  1517-1648. 

every  vestige  of  Christianity  was  obliterated  from  the  country,  and  all  i 
course  with  foreigners  in  Japan  was  strictly  prohibited. 

§  397.     China. 

N.  THgaut,  do  cbr.  exped.  apud.  Sinas  ex  coinm.  Eiccii.  Aug.  1015.  4  and  often.  J.  A.  Scfiall,, 
Relatio  de  initio  et  prog,  missionis  Soc.  J.  apud  Chinenses.  Vien.  1663.  Rat.  1672.  Mit  Anm.  v.  Mm 
tegff,  Vlen.  1884.  Du  ffalde,  Desc.  de  1'Emp.  de  la  Chine.  Par.  1786.  8  vols.  4.  Uebers.  m.  Mosbeiin's 
Vorr.  Rost  1748.  4  vols.  4— For  the  recent  investigations,  see  Journal  Asiatique.  Abd-Remusat, 
Melanges  asiat  Par.  1825s.  2  vols.  Nouv.  Mdlanges.  Par.  1829s.  2  vols.  Stuhr,  chin.  Reichsrel.  Brl. 
1835.  u.  rel.  Bysteme  d.  Or.  p.  9ss.  Neumann,  d.  Natur-  u.  Rel.  Phil.  d.  Chin.  Nach  d.  W.  d. 
TscbuhL  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1887.  P.  1.)  [Histories  and  Accounts  of  China  by  T.  Thornton,  (Lond. 
1844  2  v.  8.)  C.  Gutzlaff,  (New  York.  1888. 1  v.  8.)  If.  Murray,  (Edinb.  8  v.  12. 1886.)  J.  P.  Davis, 
(New  York.  1884  2  v.  12.)  J.  Kidd,  (Lond.  1841.  8.)  and  E.  William*,  (New  York.  1848.  8.)] 

In  the  extreme  East,  the  Europeans  found  an  innumerable  people,  whose 
historical  accounts  went  as  far  back  as  those  of  the  Jews,  and  who  regarded 
themselves  as  the  centre  of  the  world.  Nearly  all  the  mechanical  arts  which 
had  recently  been  discovered  in  Europe,  were  found  to  have  been  in  exist- 
ence among  them  from  a  remote  antiquity,  in  connection  with  a  rigid  system 
of  civilization  which  had  for  thousands  of  years  successively  overcome  all 
their  conquerors.  The  state  was  organized  strictly  as  a  single  great  family, 
and  all  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor,  though  limited  by  an  inviola- 
ble usage  and  an  aristocracy  of  learning.  The  consciousness  of  individual 
freedom  with  respect  to  moral  conduct  had  never  yet  been  awakened  among 
the  people.  Three  forms  of  religion  existed  there  side  by  side  in  peace.  The 
first  was  the  primitive  religion  of  the  empire,  of  which  Confucius  (Kong-fu- 
Dstt)  was  honored  as  the  founder.  This  was  a  simple  adoration  and  worship 
of  the  heavens  regarded  as  a  power  of  nature,  and  of  certain  genii  supposed 
to  be  subject  to  the  emperor,  together  with  a  devout  and  well-arranged  sys- 
tem of  moral  conduct,  (a)  The  second  was  the  doctrine  of  Too,  a  system 
which  directed  'men  to  adore  the  original  source  of  reason,  revealed  and 
incarnate  on  earth,  (J)  but  degenerated  into  a  system  of  idolatry  and  magic. 
The  third  was  the  worship  of  Buddha  (Fo-tho),  a  religion  which  had  been 
more  recently  introduced  among  the  people,  but  unsustained  especially  in  the 
interior  provinces  by  a  powerful  hierarchy.  The  account  of  divine  things 
which  these  religions  gave  was  intelligent  and  candid,  but  without  religious 
enthusiasm,  and  bore  no  traces  of  fanaticism  except  with  reference  to  the 
customary  rules  of  civility  towards  the  gods  and  the  dead,  and  with  respect 
to  the  etiquette  of  social  life.  As  the  natives  regarded  every  thing  foreign  with 
extreme  contempt,  the  Christian  missionaries  who  followed  in  the  train  of 
commerce  were  at  first  totally  unsuccessful  in  every  attempt  to  convert  them. 
The  respect  of  the  people  was  however  finally  secured  when  they  discovered 
the  superiority  of  the  missionaries  in  mathematical  science,  the  principles  of 
which  were  immediately  appreciated.  The  Jesuit  Eicci  (1582-1610)  obtained 
high  distinction  among  the  people  as  an  astronomer,  and  the  favor  of  the  im- 

o)  Schott,  Werke  d.  chin.  Weisen  Kong-fu-Dsu.  Hal.  1S26.  6  vols.  Confucii  Chi  King,  ed. 
Mold,  Stuttg.  1880. 

V)  Le  Tao-te-King,  ou  le  livre  de  la  raison  supreme,  par  Laoteeu,  traduit  avec  une  version  latina 
et  le  texte  chinois,  par  G.  Gauthier,  Par.  1838.  [A.  Ijungstedt,  Port  Settl.  and  Missions  in  China. 
Boston,  1836.  8.] 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH.    §  398.  WEST  INDIES.    PARAGUAY.  475 

perial  court,  (c)  After  this  the  Jesuits  established  numerous  congregations, 
milt  churches,  and  translated  the  Scriptures,  and  even  the  Surama  of  St. 
Fhomas,  but  with  a  careful  accommodation  to  the  religious  customs  and 
nanners  of  the  people.  "When  reproached  for  this  by  the  Dominicans  at 
fome,  they  defended  themselves  on  the  ground  that  it  was  indispensable  to 
heir  success,  and  was  as  innocent  as  the  apostles'  conformity  to  the  Jewish 
aw.  (d) 

§  398.     West  Indies.     Cont.  from  §  290. 

Gonzalez  d'Avila,  Theatro  ecc.  de  las  iglesias  de  las  Indias.  Madr.  1649ss.  2  vols.  Bourgoing, 
rertus  des  missionairs  ou  II.  des  miss.  d'Am6r.  Par.  1654.  2  vols.  G.  Baluffi,  1'America  un  tempo 
pagnuola  sotto  1'aspetto  religioso  (till  1843).  Ancon.  1S45.  8  vols.  Comp.  Pdppig,  Indien  in  d.  Hall. 
tocykl.  II.  vol.  XVII.  esp.  p.  SSlss.— L.  A.  Muratori,  Christianesimo  felice  nelle  missione  nel  Para- 
uai.  Ven.  1743.  2  vols.  4.  (Abstract:  Relat  des  miss,  du  P.  Par.  1754.)  Charlevoix,  H.  da  P.  Par. 
756.  3  vols.  4.  Nurem.  1768.  Pauke'a  Reise  in  d.  Miss,  nach  P.  edit  by  Frost,  Vien.  1829.  In  an 
nfriendly  spirit:  Ibagnez,  Regno  Giesuitico  del  P.  Lissab.  1770.  Uebers.  v.  Le  Bret,  Koln.  (Lps.) 
774,  [R.  Southey,  Tale  of  Paraguay.  Lond.  12mo.  Ibid.  H.  of  Brazil.  Lond.  1S10.-19.  3  vols.  4. 
(bbe  Raynal,  Phil,  and  Pol.  Hist  of  the  Settl.  and  Trade  of  Europeans  in  the  W.  L  from  the  French 
y  J.  Justamond,  Lond.  1787.  12.  Views  of  the  Planting  of  Colonies  and  Missions  in  Mexico  and 
'eru  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Prescott,  Bernal  Diaz,  (transl.  by.  M.  Keatinge,  Lond.  1800.  4.) 
~)e  Soils,  (transl.  by  Townsend,  Lond.  1724.)  Robertson's  America,  and  other  works.] 

In  Brazil,  baptism  was  administered  to  prisoners  while  dying,  and 
wherever  it  could  be  performed  under  the  protection  of  the  Portuguese 
rms.  A  splendid  ecclesiastical  establishment  was  immediately  formed  in 
ivery  country  conquered  by  the  Spaniards.  But  although  the  natives  were 
generally  protected  by  the  laws  and  defended'  against  the  colonists  by  the 
nonks,  they  were  hastening  rapidly  to  extinction.  Even  where  they  were 
ubjugated  to  the  Spanish  yoke  and  Christianized  (Indies  aldeidados),  they 
[id  not  renounce,  but  continued  at  the  same  time  the  worship  of  their  an- 
ient  gods.  The  inquisition,  however,  took  care  that  the  outward  semblance 
f  Christianity  was  maintained.  With  an  heroic  courage,  the  Jesuits  and  Ca- 
>uchins  pressed  forward  into  the  open  primitive  forests  of  the  country,  and 
long  with  the  gospel,  carried  in  their  most  simple  and  cheerful  form  the 
lessings  of  civilization.  But  when  the  Jesuits  urged  at  Madrid,  that  the 
Teat  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  Christianity  among  the  nations,  was  the 
ruelties  and  evil  examples  of  the  Spaniards,  they  obtained  permission  to 
stablish  Christian  colonies  among  the  Indians  who  were  as  yet  independent, 
,nd  which  no  Spaniard  was  to  enter  without  their  permission.  Such  was 
he  origin  of  the  republic  of  Paraguay  (after  1610),  governed  by  the  Jesuits 
a  a  patriarchal  style.  The  converted  savages  were  treated  as  children,  but 
,s  pious  and  happy  children,  and  although  much  wealth  was  derived  by  tho 
•rder  from  the  country  under  its  subjection,  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of 
he  people  was  entirely  the  fruit  of  its  exertions. 

c)  Wertheim,  Ricci.  (Pletz,  neue  theoL  Zeitsch.  1833.  P.  8.) 

d)  Platel,  (p.  472.)  La  moral  pratique  des  Jes.  1669ss.  vols.  II.  VI.  VII. 


476  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 


CHAP.  VII.— THE  THIKTY  TEAKS'  WAR. 

The  orig.  authorities  for  the  Hist  of  the  80  yrs.  War.  (Monatsbl.  d.  Allg.  Zeitg.  1845s.  Dec.  Jan 
Jane.)— Londorp,  d.  K.  Maj.  u.  d.  h.  Beichs  Acta  publ.  (Frk£  162188.)  Tub.  1789ss.  17  vols.  t 
(Pappus)  EplL  fer.  Germ.  1617-43.  c.  animadw.  J.  G.  Eoehm,  Lps.  1760.  Theatrum  Europ.  Frkt 
1785S&.  voL  I.-IV.  KhetenhiUer,  (p.  858.)— Schiller,  Gesch.  d.  dretss.  Kr.  Lps.  1791.  2  vols.  and  oft. 
Fortges.  v.  Woltmann,  Lps.  1809.  2  vols.  [Thirty  Years'  War,  from  the  Germ,  of  Schiller  by  A.  J. 
W.  Morrtomn,  New  York.  1847. 12.]  K.  A.  Menzd,  Gesch.  d.  drelss.  Kr.  (Gesch.  d.  Deutsch.  vol. 
Visa.)  BreL  1885-9.  8  vols.  SolU,  d.  BeL  Kr.  in  Deutschl.  Haml).  1840s.  2  vols.  F.  W.  Barihold, 
Gesch.  d.  dentschen  Kr.  v.  Tode  G.  Ad.  an.  Btuttg.  1842sa.  2  vols,  [MenzeFs  Hist  of  Germany  has 
been  transl.  by  Mrs.  G.  Ilorrockt,  Lond.  1848.  8  vols.  12.  See  also  KoMrau&clCa  Hist  of  Germ, 
and  Col.  MUchettt  Life  of  Wallensteln.] 

§  899.     Occasion*. 

The  Catholic  and  Protestant  parties  in  Germany  continued  to  stand  in  an 
antagonistic  and  threatening  attitude  with  respect  to  each  other.  The  house 
of  Hapshurg,  the  head  of  the  Catholic  party,  by  the  vast  extent  of  territory 
which  it  had  acquired,  became,  in  fact,  dangerous  to  the  liberties  of  Europe, 
but  its  power  was  thus  far  restrained  by  its  divisions  at  home  and  its  intel- 
lectual inferiority.  In  Bavaria,  and  in  most  of  the  prelatical  countries,  Pro- 
testantism, which  had  been  in  the  ascendant  about  the  middle,  was  nearly 
suppressed  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  That  which  had  been 
found  impossible  to  be  accomplished  among  the  people,  the  Jesuits  attempted 
among  the  princes.  Jacob,  Margrave  of  Baden  (1590),  and  Wolfgang  "Wil- 
liam, Count  Palatine  of  Neuburg  (1614),  proclaimed  themselves  converts  to 
the  Catholic  Church,  (a)  In  consequence  of  the  early  death  of  the  Mar- 
gravine, the  conversion  of  the  former  was  attended  by  no  important  results 
among  his  subjects,  and  the  Count  Palatine's  own  confessor  was  still  a  de- 
fender of  Protestantism.  Political  reasons  were  doubtless  the  reason  for  the 
conversion  of  the  count  himself,  but  by  means  of  it  a  country  previously  sup- 
posed to  be  lost  became  open  to  the  efforts  of  the  papacy.  The  ecclesiastical 
reservation  was  respected  according  to  the  will  of  those  who  for  the  time 
had  possession  of  the  government.  Ilence  nearly  all  the  property  of  the 
Church  in  Northern  Germany  and  Suabia  fell  gradually  into  the  hands  of 
the  Protestant  princes,  or  was  administered  by  Protestant  bishops  as  electoral 
princes.  But  when  the  Elector  Gebhard,  High  Steward  of  Cologne  (after 
1577),  who  had  always  been  unfriendly  to  the  Catholic  party,  gave  himself 
up  to  his  passion  for  Agnes  of  Mansfeld,  and  sought  to  legalize  his  forced 
marriage  with  her  in  the  Reformed  Church,  he  was  deposed  by  the  pope,  the 
Bishop  of  Liege,  a  Bavarian  prince,  was  elected  by  the  chapter  in  his  place, 
and  he  was  abandoned  even  by  the  Lutherans  (1583).  (J)  Sentence  of  pro- 
scription was  pronounced  by  the  imperial  aulic  council  upon  Donauw'vrth,  for 
improper  treatment  of  a  Catholic  procession,  and  not  only  was  the  decree 
enforced  by  Bavaria,  but  Protestantism  itself  was  violently  oppressed,  and 
the  liberty  of  the  imperial  cities  was  impaired  (1607)..  In  view  of  the  dan- 

a)  Unsere  Jacobs,  M.  v.  B.  christl.  erhebl.  u.  wohlfundlrte  Motiven,  warum  wir  a.  Trieb  uns. 
Gewiss.  d.  luth.  Lehre  verlassen,  durch  Jo.  Pistorium,  Coin.  1591.  4  Beihing,  Murl  argillati  clvit. 
sanctae  h.  e.  rel.  cath.  fundamenta,  quibus  insistens  Wolfg.  C.  PaL  in  clvIL  sanctam  faustum  pedem 
intulit  Col.  1615.  4.  Uebers,  v.  Vetter,  Col.  1615.  4. 

6)  J.  D.  Koeler,  de  actis  et  fatis  Gebh.  Tr.  Altorf.  1723.  4.  F.  W.  JBartfiold,  G.  Tr.  v.  Waldbur*. 
(Eaumer's  hist.  Taschcnb.  1840.)  ( 


CHAP.  VII.  THIRTY  TEAKS'  WAR.  §  399.  CAUSES.  §  400.  BOHEM.  WAR.   477 

ger,  the  Elector  Frederic  V.  of  the  Palatinate  induced  a  few  Protestant  states 
to  form  a  Union  (1608).  In  opposition  to  this,  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  a  man 
of  a  powerful  and  practical  intellect,  whose  interest  was  identified  with  the 
success  of  the  Catholic  cause,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  league  com- 
posed of  the  ecclesiastical  princes,  (c)  Saxony,  as  the  representative  of 
Lutheranism,  took  sides  with  the  emperor.  As  long  as  the  Jesuits  kept  the 
question  of  the  religious  peace  in  a  state  of  suspense,  the  Union  refused  at 
the  Diet  of  Eatisbon  (1613)  to  submit  to  the  decision  of  the  majority  in  all 
matters  connected  with  religion,  and  when  their  complaints  were  not  attend- 
ed to,  the  members  of  it  withdrew  entirely  from  the  diet. 

§  400.     The  Bohemian  War.     Cont.  from  §  357. 

Muller,  fiinf  Bucher  v.  Bohm.  Kr.  Drsd.  1840.    Richter,  v.  Bohmen-Aufruhrs  o.  d.  dreiss.  Kr. 
Ursachen  u.  Beginn.  Erf.  1844.— O.  A.  Pescheck,  Gesch.  d.  Gegenref.  in  Bohmen.  Drsd.  1844.  2  vola. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  heir-apparent  to  his  throne,  the  Emperor 
Matthias  ventured  to  oppress  individuals  among  the  Bohemians,  or  allowed 
the  Catholic  land  proprietors  to  do  so.  A  petition  was  therefore  presented 
to  the  emperor  on  this  subject,  by  the  Utraquists.  His  answer,  however,  was 
of  a  threatening  character.  Two  imperial  counsellors,  supposed  to  be  the 
authors  of  this,  were  thrown  from  a  window  of  the  castle  in  Prague,  and 
the  members  of  the  diet  favorable  to  the  Utraquists  seized  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment. Ferdinand  //.,  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits,  and  resolved  to  venture 
every  thing  to  bring  about  the  triumph  of  Catholicism,  had  already  sup- 
pressed by  a  quiet  exercise  of  power  the  Protestantism  which  had  been  pre- 
dominant in  his  patrimonial  inheritance  of  Carinthia  and  Styria,  when  on  the 
death  of  Matthias  he  was  crowned  emperor  at  Frankfort,  (a)  The  Bohe- 
mians pronounced  him  an  enemy  to  the  liberties  and  religion  of  their  country, 
and  declared  that  he  had  forfeited  the  throne  (Aug.  17,  1619).  They  then 
chose  Frederic  V.  of  the  Palatinate  for  their  king.  The  League  took  up 
arms  in  behalf  of  Ferdinand,  while  the  Union  and  Saxony,  from  motives  of 
prudence  and  from  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  strict  principles  of  Lutheranism, 
remained  inactive.  Frederic  knew  nothing  of  royalty  except  how  to  enjoy 
its  pleasures ;  whatever  power  he  possessed  in  Bohemia  was  destroyed  at  the 
battle  of  the  "White  Mountain  near  Prague  (Nov.  8,  1620),  and  the  conversion 
of  Bohemia  was  effected  by  the  Jesuits  and  the  soldiers  from  Lichtenstein. 
The  Bohemian  literature  was  committed  to  the  flames  by  the  commission  for 
the  reformation  of  the  people.  John  of  Nepomulc,  who  had  once  been  the 
archbishop's  vicar  and  confidant  in  a  hierarchical  controversy  with  King 
"Wenceslaus,  and  had  been  thrown  during  a  fit  of  passion  by  that  king  into 
the  river  from  the  bridge  of  the  Muldau  (1393),  now  became  the  national 
eaint  of  the  new  Catholic  kingdom  of  Bohemia.  The  legend  of  his  death 
was  intentionally  enlarged,  and  he  was  looked  upon  as  the  martyr  for 
the  seal  of  confession.  The  qualities  and  incidents  which  history  has 
attributed  to  John  Huss  were  now  transferred  to  this  saint  of  the  bridge,  that 


c)  K.  M.  v.  Aretin,  Gesch.  Maxim.  I.  Passau  1842.  f.  2  vols. 

a)  F.  Hurter,  Gesch.  K.  Perd.  II.  u.  sr.  Eltern  b.  z.  Kronung  in  Frankf.  Schaffh.  1850.  4  vols. 


478  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

the  memory  of  the  reformer  (Master  Jan)  might  be  effaced  from  the  minds 
of  the  people.  (5) 

§  401.     The  German  War. 

The  emperor  was  resolved  to  destroy  Frederic  V.  even  as  a  prince  of  the 
empire,  and  it  was  principally  for  this  reason  that  he  now  kept  up  and 
strengthened  his  army.  The  office  of.  elector  in  the  Palatinate  was  given  to 
Bavaria  (1623).  In  all  his  patrimonial  Austrian  possessions  the  Protestant 
religion  was  entirely  suppressed.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  had  long  since  (1602) 
consumed  the  revenues  from  the  sale  of  the  Jubilee  indulgences,  in  maintain- 
ing free  companies  for  surprising  the  army  of  the  Reformed  Church,  and  tho 
people  of  Geneva  merely  instituted  an  annual  thanksgiving  in  commemora- 
tion o(  his  failure  (1'escalade).  But  in  the  Valteline,  on  the  Italian  border, 
the  Catholics  murdered  their  reformed  fellow-countrymen  (July,  1620),  and 
Spanish  and  Austrian  troops  took  possession  of  tho  country,  as  well  as  of  some 
parts  of  the  Gray  League,  (a)  When  all  opposition  in  Germany  had  been  put 
down  by  "Wallenstein,  the  emperor  proclaimed  the  Edict  of  Restitution,  (&) 
that  it  might  be  an  authentic  explanation  of  the  Religious  Peace.  According 
to  this,  all  those  foundations  belonging  to  the  Catholic  Church  which  had 
been  confiscated  since  tho  Treaty  of  Passau  were  to  be  restored,  the  Calvin- 
ists  were  excluded  from  the  privileges  granted  in  the  Religious  Peace,  and 
Catholic  states  were  not  to  be  impeded  in  their  efforts  to  convert  their  sub- 
jects. The  violent  proceedings  which  ensued  during  the  execution  of  this 
edict  were  followed  by  others  of  still  greater  violence,  until  Protestantism 
appeared  once  more  on  the  point  of  utter  extinction,  (c)  But  just  at  this 
critical  moment  the  Catholic  powers  began  to  contend  among  themselves. 
France  and  Rome  became  alarmed  at  the  formidable  power  of  the  house  of 
Uapsburg.  "Wallenstein  reminded  the  pope  that  Rome  had  not  been  plun- 
dered for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  and  a  passage  into  Germany  was  opened 
by  Franco  for  Guttavus  Adolphus  (June  24,  1630),  who  both  from  policy  and 
religion  espoused  the  cause  of  Protestantism,  and  re-established  it  by  his 
bold  military  exploits,  (d)  After  his  heroic  death  (Nov.  6, 1632)  the  war  was 
maintained  by  the  Swedish  generals,  who  were  secretly  supported  by  Riche- 
lieu. They,  however,  held  out  with  great  difficulty,  since  by  the  treaty  of 
Prague  (1635)  the  Elector  of  Saxony  once  more  forsook  not  only  the  com- 
mon cause,  but  even  the  foreign  policy  of  Protestantism,  until  France  openly 
came  to  their  support.  Neither  party  can  be  said  to  have  been  successful, 
and  Germany  was  desolated  by  a  civil  and  religious  war,  by  no  means  na- 

b)  The  first  Altar  in  1621.    Canonization  in  1629.    Life  in  Jo.  Nep.  by  the  Jesuit  Balbi  about 
1670.    (Acta  S3.  Maj.  voL  III.  p.  667.)    The  history:  Pdzd,  Gesch.  Wenzels.  voL  I.  p.  266.    Urkiin- 
denb.  p.  109. 154ss.    The  expedient  of  two  persons  called  Jo.  of  Nep.  was  resorted  to  even  in  Acta 
S3.  p.  670.  673. 

o)  (Cp.  Waser.)  Veltlinisch  Blutbad.  Ziir.  1621.  4.    De  Porta,  Hist.  ref.  Ecc.  Rhaet  II.  p.  2SO?s. 
&)  Londorp,  Th.  IIL  p.  1047. 

c)  Caraffa,  de  Gerin.  sacra  restaurata.  Col.  1639. 

d)  Erinnerungen  an  G.  A.  Eigenhandige  EinL  z.  Gesch.  e.  Leb.  ed.  by  Rulis,  Hal.  1806.    Pufen- 
dorf,  Cinmtr.  de  reb.  Snec.  ab  expedit  G.  A.  Ultraj.  1636.  Frcf.  1707.  f.    A.  F.  Gfrorer,  Gesch.  G.  A. 
n.  sr.  Zeit  Stuttg.  (1837-18.)  1863.    Geijer,  Gesch.  v.  Scbw.  vol.  III.  Ueising.  G.  A.  in  Deutschl.  Brl 
1S46.    [  W.  Harte,  Life  of  G.  A.  Lond.  1759.  2  vols.  4.    J.  F.  Ilolllngs,  Life  of  G.  A.  Lond.  1838. 12.] 


CHAP.  TIL    THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.    §  402.  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA.        47S 

tional  in  its  objects,  but  equivocal  in  its  nature  and  prosecuted  by  the  leaders 
for  various  subordinate  ends. 

§  402.     The  Peace  of  Westphalia. 

I.  Instrumentum  P.  W.  ed.  Berninger,  Monast,  1648.    Meiern.,  Gott.  1747. — A.  Adami  Arcana 
P.  W.  Frcf.  1698.  4.  ed.  Meiern,  Gott  1737.  4.    M6moires  de  M.  D.  (Gl.  du  Mesme  tfAvaux.')  Col. 
Gren.  1674.  J.  O.  t>.  Meiern,  Acta  P.  W.  publics.  Hann.  1734ss.  6  vola.  f.  m.  Register.  Gott  1740.  f.— 

II.  Putter,  Geist  d.  W.  F.  Gott  1795.  Senkenberg,  Darst  d.  W.  F.  Frkf.  1804.  Woltmann,  Gesch. 
d.  W.  F.  Lpz.  1808s.  2  vols. 

Those  who  had  commenced  the  war  did  not  live  to  witness  its  conclusion. 
Austria  was  compelled  to  acknowledge  that  Protestantism  and  Germany 
were  not  to  be  overcome  by  violence.  With  a  formidable  desperation  the 
people  of  the  different  nations  demanded  peace.  After  many  tedious  and  in- 
tricate negotiations  at  Munster  and  Osnabruck,  a  peace  was  concluded  in 
October,  1648,  to  be  henceforth  a  fundamental  law  of  the  German  nation. 
Under  the  guarantee  of  France  and  Sweden,  Bavaria  retained,  besides  the 
electoral  dignity,  the  Upper  Palatinate,  and  an  eighth  electorate  was  formed 
for  the  Lower  Palatinate,  which  was  now  restored.  France  and  Sweden  were 
recompensed  for  their  trouble  by  certain  territories  of  the  empire.  All  dam- 
ages were  compensated  by  means  of  the  secularized  property  of  the  Church. 
The  right  of  each  state  of  the  empire  to  form  alliances  with  foreign  powers, 
provided  it  was  not  in  opposition  to  the  emperor  and  the  empire,  was  formally 
acknowledged.  "With  respect  to  the  controversy  between  the  two  churches, 
the  five  articles  of  the  Deed  of  Osnaburg  were  adopted,  in  which  the  princi- 
ple of  a  complete  legal  equality  of  both  parties  with  respect  to  each  other, 
was  assumed,  and  all  ecclesiastical  and  political  protests  were  rejected  :  "The 
Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  shall  be  inviolably  kept  by  each.  In  all  impe- 
rial courts  and  deputations  the  number  of  members  from  each  religious  party 
shall  be  equal.  In  the  Imperial  Diet,  if  the  two  religious  parties  differ  from 
each  other,  nothing  shall  be  decided  by  a  majority  of  votes  but  by  com- 
promise. With  respect  to  ecclesiastical  property  the  possessions  of  all  par- 
ties shall  be  decided  by  the  state  of  affairs,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1624. 
Wherever  a  free  exercise  of  religion  was  publicly  tolerated  in  that  normal 
year  it  shall  be  continued,  but  where  this  was  not  the  case  liberty  of  domes- 
tic worship  shall  be  permitted.  The  relations  of  the  Eeformed  Church  to- 
ward the  Catholics  are  established  on  grounds  similar  to  those  of  the  churches 
professing  the  Augsburg  Confession.  But  the  legal  relations  of  the  two  Pro- 
testant parties  toward  each  other  to  continue  precisely  as  they  were  at  that 
time,  whether  settled  by  treaty  or  by  usage.  A  prince  who  may  go  over 
from  one  Protestant  party  to  the  other,  may  grant  religious  toleration  to  those 
who  belong  to  the  same  creed  with  himself,  but  he  shall  allow  the  established 
Church  to  remain  unmolested."  The  evangelical  Hungarians  had  received 
support  from  Rakoczy  of  Transylvania,  and  in  the  treaty  of  Linz  (1643)  had 
secured  the  restoration  of  their  ecclesiastical  rights.  The  Silesian  princif  ali- 
ties,  but  none  of  the  other  Austrian  patrimonial  states,  were  included  in  the 
provisions  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  Through  the  mediation  of  Venice  t 
and  France,  at  the  treaty  of  Milan  (1639)  the  Gray  League  recovered  its 
Italian  possessions,  but  with  the  stipulation  that  the  Protestants  should  be 


480  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

excluded.  A  peace  without  a  genuine  reconciliation  was  thus  concluded  for 
every  part  of  Europe,  and  the  balance  of  power  between  the  Catholic  and 
Protestant  Churches  was  secured  by  the  imperial  constitution,  but  the  em- 
pire was  divided  and  sacrificed  to  foreign  influences. 


CHAP.  VIII.    THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCH. 

Cnuiuf.  (p.  856.)  Leo  All.  (p.  855.)  R.  Simon,  H.  crit  des  dograes  et  controv.  des  chretleus  or. 
Trevoux.  1T1L  H^MCciu^  Abblld  d.  tUtern  u.  neuern  gr.  K  Lpu.  1T11.  4.  M.  le  Quien,  Oriens  chr. 
Par.  1740.  8  vols.  t  Librl  symb.  Ecc.  or.  ed.  J.  Kimmd,  Jen.  1848.  Appendix  LL.  symb.  ed.  Weiss- 
enborn,  Jen.  1850.  [J.  M.  Neale,  H.  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church.  Lond.  1850.  2  vols.  8.  T.  Smith, 
Greek  Church,  its  Docc.  A  Rites.  Lond.  1630.  8.  John  Covlll,  Some  Account  of  the  Greek  Church. 
Lond.  1722.  f  ] 

§  403.     Connections  with  Protestants. 

A  Greek  translation  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  (a)  and  a  letter  of  salu- 
tation to  Joasaph  II.  (b)  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  sent  by  Me- 
lancthon,  by  the  hands  of  a  Greek,  but  no  reply  was  ever  received.  By 
means  of  a  preacher  connected  with  an  embassy  at  Constantinople,  the  theo- 
logian of  Tubingen  was  induced  to  send  another  translation  to  the  Patriarch 
Jeremias  II.  (1574).  The  answer  of  that  prelate  was  written  in  accordanco 
with  the  very  strictest  forms  of  Greek  orthodoxy,  and  as  it  expressed  a  desire 
that  the  correspondence,  if  agreeable  to  them,  should  have  no  further  dis- 
cussion of  doctrines,  but  be  confined  to  an  exchange  of  friendly  civilities,  the 
intercourse  was  broken  off  (1581).  (c)  Cyrillus  Lucaris,  a  native  of  Candia, 
who  had  been  educated  at  Padua,  formed  connections  when  in  Lithuania 
with  reformed  clergymen,  which  were  continued  by  means  of  Dutch  and 
English  ambassadors  after  he  became  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  (1602)  and  sub- 
sequently of  Constantinople  (1621).  To  prevent  the  further  progress  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  to  infuse  new  life  into  the  formal  worship  of  his  own 
Church,  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the  young  Church  of  the  "West,  and  even 
transmitted  to  Geneva  the  form  of  a  Calvinistic  Confession  of  Faith,  (d) 
This  was  enough,  without  the  subsequent  efforts  of  the  Jesuits,  to  excite  the 
Greek  bishops  against  him.  On  the  ordinary  accusation  of  high  treason  he 
was  strangled  (1638),  (e)  and  the  Oriental  patriarchs  execrated  his  memory.  (/) 

a)  'E|ojioXo'7T?<m  TTJS  opdo5o'|oi;  iriffTcvs.    Basil.  1559. 
6)  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  IX.  p.  921. 

c)  Acta  et  scrr.  Theoll.  Wirt  et  Patr.  Const  Vit  15S4.  4  f.    Schnurrer,  de  actis  inter  Tub.  Theoll. 
et  Patrr.  Const  (Orr.  acad.  ed.  Paulas.  Tub.  1828.) 

d)  'AvaroXtK^  ono\oyia  TTJS  XP-  ™reu><>.     Gen.  (iat  1629.  Kimmel  p.  24.)  1633. 

«)  Aymon,  Monumens  anthent  de  la  rel.  des  Grecs.  Haye.  1708.  4.  Th.  Smith,  Collect  de  Cyr. 
Luc.  Loud.  1707.  JSohnsted.t,  de  Cyr.  Luc.  HaL  1729.  4.  Mohnike,  Cyr.  Luc.  "(Stud.  u.  Krit.  1882.  P. 
8.)  Twest&n  Cyr.  Luc.  (Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  W.  1850.  N.  39ss.) 

/)  Kimmel,  p.  398.  408.  825. 


CHAP.  VIII.    ORIENTAL  CHUECH.    §  404.  EUSSIA.  48 1 

§  404.     The  Russian  Church. 

For  Lit  see  §  282.  StraM,  Beitrr.  z.  russ.  KGesch.  Hal.  182T.  vol.  I.  Ullmann  a.  fetrahl.  (Stud. 
n.  Krit.  1831.  P.  2.)  H,  J.  Schmitt,  krlt.  Gesch.  d.  neugr.  u.  d.  russ.  K  Mayence  1840.  A.  N.  Mu> 
raurieff,  H.  of  the  Church  of  Russia,  transl.  (in  Russian.  Petersb.  1838.)  by  Blackmore,  Oxf.  1842. 
[P.  Hycaut,  The  present  State  of  the  Arm.  &  Greek  Churches.  LoncL  1679.  8.] 

In  the  course  of  political  development  the  Eussian  Chnrch  necessarily 
became  independent  of  the  see  of  Constantinople.  As  the  Patriarch  Jere- 
inias  was  much  embarrassed  for  want  of  funds,  it  was  not  difficult  to  obtain 
his  consent  that  a  patriarch  should  be  appointed  for  Moscow,  as  the  third 
Eome  (1589).  (a)  The  Eussian  patriarchs  were  however  obliged,  until  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  to  obtain  confirmation  at  Constantinople. 
The  Eoman  Church,  ever  since  the  time  of  Gregory,  has  had  its  eye  upon  a 
union  with  the  Eussian  Church.  A  hope  of  such  a  union  was  encouraged  by 
the  Tzar  Iwan  Wasiljewitsch,  as  he  was  anxious  to  obtain  the  assistance  of 
the  emperor  and  the  mediation  of  the  pope  in  an  unsuccessful  war  which  he 
was  carrying  on  against  the  Poles  (1581).  But  in  spite  of  the  artful  policy 
of  the  Jesuit  Possevino,  (5)  the  hope  became  extinguished  in  proportion  as  the 
necessities  of  the  Tzar  diminished.  The  efforts  of  that  emissary  were,  how- 
ever, more  successful  in  some  Eussian  provinces,  which  fell  with  Lithuania 
into  the  hands  of  the  Poles.  Michael  Rahosa,  the  Metropolitan  of  Kiew,  to- 
gether with  a  portion  of  the  clergy,  at  the  Synod  of  Brzesc  (1596),  su  omitted 
to  the  pope,  hoping  they  might  share  the  advantages  of  the  Catholic  clergy, 
and  save  the  orthodox  Church  from  the  apostasy  which  had  commenced 
among  the  nobility.  The  Union  was  effected  in  conformity  with  the  agree- 
ment which  had  been  formed  at  Florence,  with  a  great  respect  at  first  for  old 
ancestral  usages,  (c)  But  gradually  the  forms  of  worship  became  latinized 
through  the  influence  of  the  Eoman  monks,  who  entered  the  convents  be- 
longing to  the  Union,  while  all  those  churches  which  did  not  enter  that  con- 
nection sunk  under  the  temptations  and  persecutions  to  which  they  were  sub- 
jected. To  confirm  the  views  and  feelings  of  the  Oriental  Church  in 
opposition  to  the  encroachments  of  Eoman  and  Protestant  elements,  a  Eus- 
sian catechism  was  composed  (1642)  by  Petrus  Mogilas  the  orthodox  Metro- 
politan of  Kiew,  and  was  confirmed  by  all  the  associated  patriarchs  of  the 
Greek  Church,  as  the  confession  of  the  Oriental  Catholic  Church.  In  this, 
the  doctrines  of  the  Church  are  simply  presented  in  the  manner  and  style  of 
the  ancient  Church ;  but  in  accordance  also  with  the  latest  developments  they 
had  gradually  attained,  and  as  the  reception  of  it  was  ranked  among  the  three 
cardinal  theological  virtues,  it  has  become  prominent  in  the  practical  system 
of  the  Church,  (d)  The  accession  of  the  false  Demetrius  to  the  throne  of  the 
Tzars  was  favored  by  the  Poles  on  the  ground  of  its  being  a  Catholic  enter- 
prise, and  failed  at  Moscow  (1606)  principally  for  the  same  reason,  (e)  Ger- 

a)  Karamsin  vol.  IX.  p.  181.        I)  Ant,  Possevini  Moscovia.  (Viln.  1586.)  Antu.  1587. 

c)  Jura  et  privilegia  genti  Ruthenae  cath.  a  M.  Pontiflcibus  Poloniaeque  Regibus  concessa.  Lemb. 
1787. 

d)  'Op&o8o£os  OjJioXoyia  rr)s    iritfTGus   rris    KO&.   Kal  airotrr.   CKK\.  TTJS    O.VO.TO}  Krjs. 
(Kimmel  p.  56.) 

«)  Cilli,  H.  di  Moscovia.  p.  llss.  G.  F.  Mueller,  Samml.  russ.  Geschichten.  Petersb.  1732ss.  vol.  V, 
Karamsin  vol.  X.  p.  109ss.  [M.  Merimee,  The  Russ.  Impostors,  or  The  False  Demetrius.  Lond.  1S52.  8.] 
31 


482  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY     PER,  V.    A.  D.  1517-1648. 

man  colonists,  Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic,  sometimes  entered  Eussia,  and 
enjoyed  full  liberty  with  respect  to  private  religion,  but  seldom  possessed  tho 
privilege  of  holding  public  worship.  (/) 

§  405.    Abyssinians  and  Maronitcs. 

Job.  Luddfi  II.  aethiopica.  Frcf.  1681.  f.  <fe  Crnt  ad  H.  aeth.  Frcf.  1691.  f.  Veyssiere  de  la  Oroce, 
II.  du  Chr.  d'Ethlople  et  d'Armenle.  Haye.  1733.  Danz.  1740.  Comp.  C.  W.  Isenberg,  Abcss.  u.  i  ev. 
Mission,  bearb.  v.  C.  J.  Jfitzsch,  Bonn.  1844.  2  vols.— Schnurrer,  de  Ecc.  Maronitica.  Tub.  1810s.  2 
P.  4.  (Archlv.  t  KGesch.  vol.  I.  sect.  1.)  2T.  Murad,  Notice  hist  ear  1'origine  de  la  nation  Mar.  et 
Bur  ees  rapports  avec  la  France.  Par.  1844.  [J.  Ludolphua,  H.  of  Ethiopia.  Lond.  1680.  f.] 

The  attempt  made  by  the  Roman  Church  to  make  up  for  its  losses  in  the 
West  by  a  reconciliation  with  the  Oriental  churches,  was  encouraged  for  only 
transitory  and  selfish  purposes,  or  was  used  to  conceal  real  designs.  The  only 
country  which  appeared  to  come  up  to  a  sincere  union  with  the  Roman 
Church  was  Abyssinia.  As  a  Christian  land,  this  country  had  been  almost 
forgotten  by  European  nations,  and  the  Jndaizing  Christianity  which  once 
prevailed  there  had  now  sunk  so  low  as  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  system  of 
magic.  The  Emperor  Seltam  Segfied  was  induced,  by  his  peculiar  relations  to 
the  Portuguese,  to  break  off  the  connection  of  the  Abyssinian  Church  with 
the  Coptic  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  (1621),  and  to  accept  of  a  Jesuit  from 
Rome  as  the  patriarch  of  that  Church.  But  the  displeasure  created  by  this 
movement  was  so  much  increased  by  tho  influence  of  the  hermits  and  monks 
that  it  soon  amounted  to  an  insurrection,  during  which  the  Jesuits  were  ban- 
ished, and  all  connection  with  Rome  was  broken  off  (1634).  The  Maronitcs 
still  remained  in  connection  with  the  Roman  Church,  as  the  possession  of 
their  own  patriarch,  the  use  of  their  sacred  language,  the  marriage  of  their 
priests,  the  reception  of  the  cup  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  their  other  sacred 
usages,  had  been  conceded  to  them.  Their  college  at  Rome  (after  1584)  be- 
came an  emporium  for  all  kinds  of  Syrian  and  "Western  learning. 

/)  J.  C.  Grot,  Bemerkungon  Q.  d.  Rel.  Frelh.  d.  Auslander  Im  russ.  Reich.  Petarsb.  u.  Lpz.  179788. 
Srols. 


SIXTH    PERIOD. 


FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

I.  Acta  historico-ecc.  Weim.  1736-58.  24  vols.    Nova  Acta  hist  ecc.  W.  1758-73.  12  vote.    Acta 
hist.  ecc.  nostri  temp.  "W.  1774-87. 12  vols.    Rep.  d.  nst  KGesch.  (Index  to  all  the  preceding.)  W. 
1790.    Acten,  Urkunden  u.  Nachr.  z.  nst  KGesch.  W.  1789-93.  5  vols.    Neueste  Rel.  Gesch.  ed.  by 
Walch,  Lemg.  1771-83.  9  vols.    Fortge?.  v.  Planck,  L.  1787-93.  3  vols.    Le  Bret,  Mag.  d.  Staaten-u. 
KGesch.  Ulm.  1771-88. 10  vols.  (Koster.)  Die  nst  Rel.  Begebenheiten.  Giess.  1778-95. 18  vols.  Ilenke:, 
Archiv.  f.  d.  nst.  KGesch.  Weim.  1794-9.  6  vols.    Rel.  Aunal.  Brnschw.  1800-2.  6  St  u.  Beitrr.  z.  nst. 
Gesch.  d.  Rel.  Brl.  1806.  2  vols.    Archiv.  f.  alte  u.  neue  KGesch.  ed.  by  Stdudlin  u.  TzscMrner  L. 
1813-22.  5  vols.  Vater,  Anbau  z.  nst  KG.  BrL  1820ss.  2  vols.  Stdudlin,  Tsschirner  u.  Vater,  KHist. 
Archiv.  HaL  1823-6.  4  vols.    Acta  hist  ecc.  Saec.  XIX.  (1835.  36.  87.)  ed.  by  Rheinwald.  Hamb. 
1838-40.— Archives  du  Christianisme.  Gen.  et  Par.  since  1817.  Allg.  KZeitung,  Darmst  ed.  by  E.  Zim- 
mermann  since  1822,  by  K.  Zimmermann  u.  Bretschneider  since  1833,  by  Palmer  since  1850,  and 
by  Schenkel  since  1853.  Ev.  KZeitung.  Brl.  ed.  by  Hengsteriberg  since  1827.   Zeitschr.  f.  hist.  Theol. 
Lpz.  ed.  by  Illgen  since  1832.  v.  Niedner  since  1846.    Berliner  allg.  KZeitung,  ed.  by  Rheinwald 
since  1839.  v.  Bruns.  184G.^June  1853.    Among  the  polit  journals,  especially  the  Augsb.  allg.  and  tho 
Leipsic,  more  recently  Deutsche,  allg.  Zeitung. 

II.  J.  A.  v.  Einem,  KGesch.  d.  18.  Jahrh.  Lps.  (1776ss.)  1782ss.  8  vols.    J.  R.  Scldegel,  KGesch. 
d.  18.  Jhh.  Heilb.  1784ss.  2  vols.  u.  v.  Fraas*  3  vols.  1  Abth.  (Both  as  TJebers.  u.  Forts,  v.  of  Mosheim.) 
P.  J.  v.  Hutli,  KGesch.  d.  18  Jhh.  Augsb.  1807ss.  2  vols.    Unparth.  KGesch.  A.  u.  N.  T.  v.  Jleinsius 
&  oth.  Jen.  1735-60,  2-4  vols.    Hagenlach :  Wesen  u.  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  4  vols.  Lps.  1839,  Die  KGesch. 
d.  18.  u.  19.  Jahrh.  Lps.  (1842s.)  1848s.  2  vols.— Robiano*  Continuation  de  1'Hist  de  1'egl.  de  Berault- 
Bercastel,  1721-1830.  Par.  1836.  4  vols,    Neueste  Gesch.  d.  K.  Chr.  1800-83.  from  the  Ital.  3  ed.  Augsb. 
(1832ss.  1836.)  1841.  6  vols.    F.  A.  Scharpff,  Voriess.  u.  neueste  KGesch.  (since  1789.)  Freib.  1852.— 
Gregoire,  H.  de  Sectes  religieuses  depuis  le  commencement  du  siecle  dernier.  Par.  (1810.  2  vols.) 
1828ss.  5  vols.    In  the  abstract  by  TsscMrner  (Archiv.  f.  KGesch.  1813.  voL  L  St  Is.)    Stdudlin. 
Wiggers.  (p.  5.)—^.  G.  Schlosser,  Gesch.  d.  18  Jahrh.  u.  d.  19.  b.  z.  Sturz  d.  franz.  Kaiserr.  HeidHx 
1836-44.  5  vols.  till  1797.   (The  general  view  of  1823  is  revised  in  the  1st  &  2d  vol.  of  the  3d  ed.  1843.) 
[Schlosser's  Hist  of  the  18th  and  a  part  of  the  19th  cent*,  has  been  transl.  by  D.  Davidson,  Lond. 
1846.  6  vols.  8.    Wm.  Russell,  Alison,  De  Koch,  Lord  John  Russell,  and  Raumer,  have  written  His- 
tories of  Europe  during  this  period.] 

§  406.     General  View. 

As  the  violence  of  the  struggles  occasioned  by  the  Reformation  was  now 
much  abated,  the  secular  tendency  of  the  public  life  which  had  already  be- 
come prominent  in  the  departments  of  art  and  literature,  now  extended  its 
influence  wherever  it  could  properly  find  place.  The  efforts  of  public  men 
were  at  first  confined  to  the  enterprises  of  the  princes  to  maintain  the  balance 
of  power,  i.  e.,  each  state  gained  as  large  conquests  as  the  power  and  jealousy 
of  other  states  would  permit.  The  result  of  these  contests  was  the  division 
of  the  Southern  States  of  Europe  between  the  two  Houses  of  Hapsburg  and 
Bourbon,  the  violent  interference  of  Eussia  in  all  the  national  assemblies  of 
"Western  Europe,  the  intellectual  and  military  elevation  of  Prussia,  the  naval 
•supremacy  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  partition  of  Poland.  But  the  struggle 


484  MODERN  CHTJECH  HISTORX     PER.  VL    A.  D.  1648-1858. 

for  national  liberties  which  had  commenced  in  England  and  the  Netherlanda 
simultaneously  with  the  Reformation,  hecame,  through  the  influence  of  the 
North  American  Revolution,  the  grand  idea  of  the  age,  and  hy  means  of  the 
French  Revolution  the  central  point  of  all  public  affairs.  The  Church  was 
deeply  affected  by  these  convulsions,  no  longer,  however,  as  the  first,  but  only 
as  the  second  of  those  powers  which  were  involved  in  these  popular  move- 
ments. Its  work  now  was  to  assist  the  people,  sympathize  with  them,  and 
administer  consolation*.  Indeed,  within  its  own  pale  was  completed  the  samo 
struggle  which  was  reserved  for  the  whole  world,  a  conflict  between  religious 
independence  and  ancestral  usages.  Three  great  periods  are  distinctly 
.marked  out  by  the  great  Crisis  of  this  struggle;  the  supplanting  of  ancient 
usages  until  near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  overthrow  of 
the  existing  state  of  things  until  1814,  and  the  renewal  of  the  struggle  in  its 
most  earnest  form  and  the  commencement  of  an  adjustment  of  affairs  until 
1853.  Still  the  mathematical  limits  assigned  to  intellectual  influences  could 
not  be  more  important  than  the  active  elements  originated  during  this  pe- 
riod, or  those  which  attained  to  a  complete  sphere  of  activity.  Both  the 
original  forms  of  the  Western  Church  passed  through  this  contest,  not  so 
much  in  conflict  with  each  other  as  each  by  themselves,  struggling  with  their 
own  internal  forces.  Germany  was  the  special  battle-field  of  Protestantism, 
and  France  of  Catholicism. 


CHAP.  I.— THE  PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  UNTIL  1760. 

§407.     German  Orthodoxy. 

Among  those  who  belonged  to  the  school  of  the  strictest  faith  there  were 
still  some  persons  of  eminence  who  showed  that  they  were  truly  sincere  in 
their  efforts  to  live  a  life  of  piety.  An  example  of  an  excellent  Christian 
prince  was  especially  presented  in  the  life  of  Ernest  the  Pious  (1601-75), 
who,  with  a  royal  solicitude  worthy  of  St.  Louis,  healed  the  wounds  inflicted 
on  his  people  during  the  thirty  years'  war ;  and  not  only  in  the  spirit  of  his 
theologians,  but  in  the  higher  spirit  of  an  apostle,  labored  affectionately  for 
the  welfare  of  the  Church  at  home  and  abroad,  (a)  His  brother,  John  Fred- 
eric, on  the  other  hand,  who  doubted  the  existence  of  a  God,  but  believed 
in  that  of  the  devil,  in  consequence  of  the  secret  rancor  and  proselyting  zeal 
of  the  theologians,  fell  a  victim  to  the  darkest  influences  of  the  popular  faith 
(1628),  (Z>)  rivalling  even  that  of  the  Catholic  countries  of  that  period,  in  its 
zeal  for  burning  witches.  Paul  Gerhardt  (d.  1676),  who  committed  his  way 
to  God,  and  betook  himself  to  foreign  countries,  because  his  tender  conscience 
would  not  allow  him  to  remain  in  Berlin,  where  his  Lutheranism  was  in  dan- 
ger, was  the  first  of  a  vast  chorus  of  harmonious  voices  to  express  the  emo- 


a)  Gelbke,  Herzog  Ernst  d.  Fr.  Qotha  1810.  3  vols.  comp.  Hunnius,  Consultatio,  ob  und  wie  man 
die  in  d.  luth.  K.  schwebenden  R.  Streitigk.  beilegen  moge.  Lub.  (1632.)  1683. 
V)  £.  Rose,  Job.  Friedrich  VI.  Neust  1827. 


CHAP.  L  EVANG.  CHUECH.  §  407.  P.  GEEHAEDT.          485 

tions  of  the  Christian  heart  in  all  its  relations  to  God,  by  popular  hymns,  (c) 
But  the  German  Protestantism  of  that  period  gave  forth  its  sublimest  utter- 
ance in  the  severe,  but  harmonious  and  seraphic  music  of  John  Sebastian 
Eacli  (d.  1750),  the  chorister  of  Leipsic.  Though  contented  in  the  contracted 
sphere  of  domestic  life,  lie  longed  correctly  to  convey  to  others  the  unuttera- 
ble feelings  which  were  struggling  in  his  own  heart.  The  Passion-Oratorios 
which  he  composed  were  the  direct  offspring  of  the  Protestant  mode  of  wor- 
ship. Contemporary  with  him  was  Handel  (d.  1759),  whose  ambition  was 
displayed  both  in  private  life,  and  in  the  style  of  his  art,  whose  works  are  of 
the  richest  and  most  brilliant  character,  and  in  whose  celebration  of  the  Mes- 
siah was  employed  an  array  of  musical  instruments  which  had  never  before 
been  collected.  Both  composers  lived  in  seclusion,  but  were  highly  honored 
during  their  lives,  (d)  In  consequence  of  the  war,  however,  and  the  exclu- 
sive prevalence  of  an  orthodoxy  confined  to  the  strict  letter  of  the  standards, 
there  was  nothing  whatever  of  literature,  or  of  its  popular  elements  during 
this  period.  The  theology  6f  the  Form  of  Concord  was  developed  entirely 
in  a  controversial  style  with  reference  to  opposing  systems,  and  might  be 
called  a  new  scholasticism,  without  the  philosophical  acuteness  of  the  old. 
This  orthodoxy  may  have  been  the  language  of  sincere  piety,  but  it  was  vio- 
lently maintained  by  means  of  a  contracted  education,  by  an  unscientific 
course  of  instruction,  by  oaths,  and  by  censorships.  As  every  deviation  from 
it  was  closely  watched  and  threatened,  all  intellectual  movements  became 
constrained,  and  were  animated  only  when  engaged  in  controversy,  and  in 
accusations  for  heresy.  Even  Calovius,  Koenig,  and  Quenstedt,  who  were 
leaders,  only  transcribed  the  productions  of  their  predecessors,  and  of  each 
other.  But  with  all  their  subtilties  one  can  scarcely  refrain  from  thinking 
that  they  have  described  God  very  much  like  some  mighty  Lutheran  pastor 
who  is  obliged  to  save  his  honor  by  blows,  (e)  The  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures was  actually  felt  only  through  certain  passages  much  used  in  contro- 
versy, the  explanation  of  which  was  firmly  settled  by  each  party  for  itself. 
The  pure  and  powerful  prose  which  Luther  had  used  was  forgotten,  men  of 
learning  wrote  in  a  tolerable  Latin,  and  the  sermons,  though  sometimes  pow- 
erful, unrestrained,  and  alarming,  were  generally  disputatious,  allegorical, 
insipid,  pedantic,  or  ordinary.  (/)  Orthodoxy,  and  the  most  unwearied  eccle- 
siasticism,  were  compatible  with  a  worldly  spirit  and  the  rudest  manners. 
The  zealots  for  orthodoxy  assailed  each  other  with  reference  to  some  atten-1 
uated  definitions  of  subjects  which  lay  beyond  the  bounds  of  human  knowl- 
edge, (g)  and  the  exhortation  to  unity  in  essentials,  freedom  in  non-essentials, 
and  charity  in  both,  was  only  as  a  voice  in  the  desert.  (7i) 

e)  K  G.  Roth,  P.  G.  Lps.  1829.    E.  C.  Langbecker,  Leben  u.  Leiden.  P.  G.  Brl.  1841.    O.  SchuU, 
P.  G.  geistl.  Andachten.  Brl.  1842. 

d)  Forkel,  Leben  J.  S.  Bachs.  Lps.  1804.  4.    [£  Burney,  Memoirs  of  Handel,  and  also  by  the 
same,  Gen.  Hist  of  Music,  Lond.  1776-89.  4  vols.  8.,  condensed  by  T.  Busby,  Lond.  1819.  2  vols.  8.] 

e)  ffartmann.,  v.  Seegensprechen.  Numb.  1680.  p.  158. 180. 

/)  Schuler,  Gesch.  d.  Geschmacks  im  Pred.  Hal.  1792.  voL  I.  p.  165ss. 

g)  A.  Tholuck :  D.  Gelst  d.  luth.  Theologen  Witt  im  17.  Jhh.  Hmb.  1S52.    D.  akad.  Leben  d.  17. 
Jhh.  Hal.  1853. 

K)  F.  Lucke,  u.  Alter,  Yerf.  urspr.  Form  u.  Sinn  des  kirchl  Friedensspruches,  Gott  1850. 


486  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S5&. 

§  408.     George  Calixtus.    1586-1656. 

Do  causa  hodicrnt  odil  pbilos.  et  solidae  erudit  Helmst  1619.  Epit  Theol.  Him,  1619.  &  often. 
Coinmercli  liter.  Calixt  Fasc.  1-3.  ed.  K  Henke,  Hal.  Jen.  Marb.  1883-40.— Calovii  H.  syncretistica 
d.  i.  chr.  Bedenken  u,  d.  lieben  KFrieden.  1682  conflscirt  (Giess.)  16S5.  4,  Matter,  Cimbria  liter. 
Hafn.  1744.  t  Tb.  IIL  p.  12188.  E.  ITenke,  d.  TTniv.  Holmst  1m  16  Jhh.  Hal.  1888.—  Walch,  K.  Str. 
vol.  I.  p.  21688.  IV,  666ss.  Planck,  Gesch.  d.  prot  Th.  v.  d.  Konkordienf.  p.  90ss.  Jl  Schmid,  Gescli. 
I  synkret  streitigk.  In  d.  Zelt  d.  CaL  ErL  1846.  W.  £a««,  Cal  a.  d.  Synkret  Brl.  1846. 

The  University  of  Helmstadt  had  been  accidentally  exempted  from  the 
operation  of  the  Form  of  Concord,  (§  351,)  and  by  the  protection  which  ita 
princes  had  afforded  it,  it  became  for  a  long  time  an  asylum  for  the  Humanists. 
Here  contemptuous  language  with  respect  to  human  reason  and  philosophy, 
'  such  as  was  ventured  upon  by  Daniel  Hoffmann,  was  punished  as  an  offence 
against  the  philosophical  faculty,  (a)  From  this  school  sprung  Calixtm,  an 
upright  and  extensively  educated  man,  who,  for  nearly  half  a  century  was  a 
professor  in  Helmstadt,  where,  in  the  spirit  of  Melancthon,  he  sought  in  the 
historical  method  for  a  more  unfettered  form  of  theology.  By  his  doctrine 
of  the  necessity  of  good  works,  by  his  separation  of  ethics  from  theology, 
and  by  his  assertion  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  not  plainly  revealed 
in  the  Old  Testament,  suspicions  'of  his  orthodoxy  were  awakened,  first 
among  his  pupils  at  Koonigsberg,  and  finally  led  to  a  denial  of  an  honorable 
burial  to  his  lifeless  remains.  He  endeavored  to  strengthen  the  power  of  tho 
Protestants  in  Thorn  by  a  fraternal  connection  with  the  members  of  the  Be- 
formed  Church  (p.  420.)  He  was  regarded  by  the  Catholics  as  their  most 
sagacious  opponent,  and  the  whole  Catholic  Church  of  Germany  was  invited 
by  him  to  escape  from  the  power  of  the  pope.  But  he  had  become  ac- 
quainted with  a  Christianity  unfettered  by  the  subtleties  of  the  Form  of  Con- 
cord, and  made  known  in  the  Scriptures,  in  the  primitive  Church,  and  in 
Christian  experience.  Conscious  that  he  had  thus  attained  a  universal  Chris- 
tianity, he  demanded  that  the  various  churches  should  recognize  it,  and 
thought  that  they  might  once  more  be  united,  or  at  least  might  mutually  tole- 
rate each  other,  if  they  could  all  be  induced  to  return  to  the  oecumenical 
symbols  and  laws  of  the  first  five  centuries.  This  plan  was  called  by  the  zeal- 
ous Lutherans  Syncretism.  Calovius,  an  exasperated  but  honest  watchman 
of  Zion,  with  his  colleagues  in  Luther's  chair,  furiously  and  indefatigably  as- 
Bailed  this  heresy  of  one  whom  they  regarded  as  a  papist  and  Mameluke,  who 
should  be  cut  off  from  the  body  of  the  Church  by  a  new  creed.  (5)  But 
Helinstadt  adhered  to  its  beloved  instructor,  he  was  also  protected  by  his 
prince,  and  Jena  protested  against  the  unreasonable  reproaches  of  his  adver- 
saries, (c)  These  reproaches  were  supposed  to  be  justified  by  his  assertion 
that  the  Eeformation  was  merely  a  particular  mode  of  return  to  the  ancient 
Church,  and  by  the  references  made  to  him  by  many  then  going  over  to  the 

a)  De  Deo  et  Chr.  Hlmst  1593.  On  the  other  hand :  J.  Martini  Vernunftspiegel,  d.  i.  Bericht, 
was  d.  Vft  sammt  drs.  Perfection,  Phil.  sey.  Witt  1618.— €f.  Thomasius,  de  controv.  Hofmanniana. 
ErL  1844 

I)  Consensus  repetitus  fldei  vere  Lutheranae.  1655.  (Consilia  theol.  Wittenb.  Frkf.  1664.  f.  voL  L) 
Penuo  ed.  E.  L.  T.  Henke,  Marb.  1846.  4. 

c)  Musaeus,  ausf.  Erkl.  u.  93  vermeinte  RcL  Fragen.  Jen.  1677. 


CHAP.  L    EVANG.  CHURCH.    §  408.  CALIXTUS.    §  409.  SPENEE.  487 

Catholic  Church.  He  was  much  respected  by  the  higher  classes,  and  his 
reputation  at  home  was  much  increased  by  the  honors  which  he  gained  in 
foreign  countries.  His  influence  upon  the  theology  of  his  own  times  was  al- 
most imperceptible,  but  ho  seemed  rather  a  type  of  what  was  about  to  pre- 
vail in  the  succeeding  age. 

§  409.    Pietism.     Spener.     1635-1705. 

I.  Spener :  Das  geistl.  Priestertb.  Frkf.  167T.  12.  and  oth.  Brl.  1830.    Allg.  Gottesgel.  aller  glaub. 
Chr.  n.  rechtsch.  Thcol.  Frkf.  1680. 12.  and  often.    Die  Freih.  d.  Glaubigen  v.  Ansehn  d.  Menschen 
in  Glaubenssach.  Frkf.  1691.    TheoL  Bedenken.  Hal.  ITOOss.  4  vols.    Consilia  et  jud.  th.  Frcf.  1T09. 
3  vols.  4.    Lat  u.  deutsche  th.  Bed.  in  zeitgem.  Ausw.  v.  JTennicfce,  Hal.  1838.    Wahrh.  Erzabl.  des- 
sen,  was  wcgen  d.  sogen.  Pict  vorgegangen.  Frkf.  (1697.)  1698.  Amst  1700.  12.—Loscher,  Timotb. 
Verinus.  Witt.  1718ss.  2  vols.  u.  vieles  in  d.Unscbuld.  Nachrr.  1701-20.  Work  written  to  compose  the 
strife  of  parties :   (Suddens)  Wahrh.  u.  griindl.  Erzahl  was  zw.  d.  sog.  Piet.  geschehen.  Without 
place.  1T10. 

II.  C.  IT.  v.  Canstein,  Muster  e.  rechtsch.  Lehrers  in  d.  Leben  Sp.  Hal.  1740.    Suabedissen,  Sp. 
(Eochlitz,  jahrL  Mitth.  1823.  vol.  III.)     W.  Hossbach,  Sp.  u.  s.  Zeit  Brl.  (1828.)  ed.  by  G.  Sehweder, 
1853.  2  vols.    Knapp,  Leben  u.  Char,  einigcr  frommen  u.  gel.  Manner  d.  vor.  Jhb.  Hal.  1829.—  W. 
Tfulo,  Sp.  als  Katechet.  Brl.  1840.—  WalcTi,  E.  Str.  vol.  I.  p.  540ss.  II,  Iss.  IV,  1030ss.  V,  Iss. 
Planck,  Gesch.  d.  prot.  Th.  p.  180ss.    [A  new  Life  of  Spener  has  been  announced  as  in  preparation 
by  K.  Horsbach,  in  2  vols.  Lps.  1854.]    Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  W.  1853.  N.  23s. 

Philip  Jacob  Spener  received  a  pious  and  liberal  education  in  the  city  of 
Strasbourg,  and  while  yet  a  youth  became  the  first  among  the  clergy  in 
Frankfort  (1666).  He  subsequently  became  the  superior  court  preacher  in 
Dresden  (1686),  but  fell  into  disgrace  on  account  of  his  zeal  as  a  confessor, 
and  was  appointed  (1691)  Provost  in  Berlin.  He  was  deeply  impressed  with 
the  conviction  that  practical  piety  was  in  danger  of  being  lost  in  a  conform- 
ity to  the  outward  letter  of  Christianity.  By  devotional  explanations  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  Christian  conversation  in  private  religious  meetings  (collegia 
pietatis,  after  16TO),  a  high  degree  of  religious  earnestness  was  awakened. 
His  "Pious  Desires"  (a)  encouraged  the  hope  of  reforming  the  corrupt 
Church.  In  that  work  he  showed  that  the  Church  should  be  once  more 
built  up  under  the  influence  of  the  Scriptures,  that  the  spiritual  priesthood 
of  the  congregation  should  be  restored,  and  that  the  clergy  should  be  edu- 
cated to  live  a  life  of  personal  godliness.  Then  Christianity  would  be 
preached  in  apostolical  simplicity,  and  become  a  religion  of  the  heart  and  of 
daily  conduct.  In  Leipsic,  where  the  exposition  of  the  Scriptures  had  long 
been  discontinued,  a  society  of  educated  young  men  was  formed  under  the 
influence  of  Spener,  for  the  scientific  explanation  and  practical  application  of 
the  Scriptures  (July  18,  168V).  (£)  The  German  devotional  lectures  upon  the 
]STew  Testament  opened  (1689)  by  three  men  who  had  obtained  the  degree 
of  Magister,  among  whom  was  Aug.  Herm.  Fmncke,  were  attended  with 
great  diligence  by  large  numbers  of  students  and  citizens.  On  account  of 
their  excessive  displays  of  piety  in  their  outward  conduct,  these  persons  were 
called  Pietists,  and  were  accused  of  aiming  to  bring  public  worship  and  sci- 
ence into  contempt.  They  were  therefore  compelled  by  the  theologians  to 
leave  Leipsio  (1690),  and  in  connection  with  Thomasius  they  founded  a  new 

«)  Pia  desideria  o.  hertzl.  Verlangen  nach  gottgefall.  Besserung  d.  wahren  ev.  K.  (First  pubL  as 
u  praef.  to  Arndt's  Postilla  ev.  1675.)  Frkf.  1675.  lat  Frkf.  1678. 12. 
V)  C.  F.  Illgen,  Hist.  Collegii  philobiblic!  Lips.  Lps.  1836s.  3  P.  4. 


488  MODEBN  CHUECH  HISTOET.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1G4S-1858. 

salt-spring  at  Halle  (1691).  After  the  first  exhibitions  of  popular  favor  had 
passed  away,  the  rigid  demands  which  Spener  made  in  behalf  of  morality, 
and  his  liberal  but  logical  system  of  doctrines,  raised  up  against  him  many 
opponents  not  only  among  the  worldly  classes,  but  among  .the  orthodox. 
Once  more  "Wittenberg,  now  enfeebled  by  age,  defended  its  Lutheranism,  (c) 
and  the  theology  of  the  schools  with  almost  one  voice  exclaimed  against 
Pietism  as  against  a  new  sect.  The  controversy,  however,  was  carried  on  not 
by  seizing  and  attacking  the  thing  itself,  but  according  to  the  polemical  fash- 
ion of  the  times,  by  accusing  it  of  many  erroneous  sentiments,  and  enlisting 
in  petty  quarrels  against  it  the  passions  of  the  people,  the  civil  courts,  and 
even  the  divine  decisions.  Those  tendencies  which  had  been  originated  by 
Spener,  but  which  had  been  kept  within  due  limits  by  the  mildness  of  his 
disposition,  were  soon  carried  to  an  extreme  by  his  followers.  They  con- 
tended that  all  true  regeneration  must  be  preceded  by  a  high-wrought  peni- 
tential conflict,  that  none  but  a  regenerated  divine  should  be  allowed  to  min- 
ister in  holy  things,  a  proud  sectarian  spirit  was  awakened,  injury  was  done 
to  the.  serious  pursuit  of  literature  by  the  pure  devotional  form  which  theol- 
ogy then  assumed,  some  were  led  to  indulge  in  enthusiastic  hopes  of  a  mil- 
lennial kingdom,  and  of  the  final  extinction  of  hell,  (d)  and  many  high- 
sounding  pious  expressions  were  introduced  which  really  had  no  meaning.  It 
must,  however,  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Orphan  House  was  the  result  of 
Francke's  pietism,  and  will  ever  commemorate  the  triumph  of  his  faith  in 
God  and  his  benevolence  toward  men.  (e)  As  soon,  however,  as  the  opposi- 
tion began  gradually  to  abate  (after  1720),  the  energy  as  well  as  the  free 
reforming  spirit  of  Pietism  was  gone,  and  it  appeared  to  bo  merely  a  languid 
religion  of  feeling,  which,  while  it  shrunk  from  every  semblance  of  worldly 
pleasure  and  splendor,  regarded  Christianity  under  the  single  aspect  of  a  sys- 
tem which  proclaimed  the  naturally  miserable  state  of  man  in  consequence 
of  sin,  and  the  necessity  of  justification  through  the  expiatory  death  of 
Christ.  Protestantism,  by  its  influence,  penetrated  the  hearts  of  men  more 
profoundly,  and  the  pious  morality  of  domestic  life  was  strengthened  by  it, 
but  especially  in  the  courts  of  some  of  the  inferior  princes  it  degenerated 
into  a  miserable  system  of  legality  and  ceremony  before  God.  Registers 
were  kept  for  souls,  and  many  idle  persons  supported  themselves  comfort- 
ably by  using  the  new  language  respecting  breaking  into  the  kingdom,  and 
the  sealing  of  believers,  while  serious-minded  persons  were  utterly  unfitted 
for  their  ordinary  social  duties,  until  in  despair  they  committed  suicide.  (/") 
The  orthodox,  on  the  other  hand,  in  their  opposition  to  such  fanaticism,  gave 
their  countenance  to  an. extraordinary  degree  of  cheerfulness,  and  thought 
the  condition  of  their  Church  was  remarkably  flourishing,  (g) 

c)  Cbristluth.  Vorst  in  anfrlcht.  Lehrsatzsen  n.  Gottos  Wort  n.  d.  symb.  KBuchern  u.  unricb 
tigen  Gcgensatzen  aus  H.  Dr.  Spener's  Scbrr.  Witt  1695. 

d)  J.  W.  Petersen^  Mvo-rrjpiov  aTro/carao'Tao'ews  irdvTuv,  d.  L  Geheimn.  d.  Wiederbr.  allei 
Dinge.  Offenb.  ITOlsa.  3  vols. 

«)  A.  H.  Francke,  by  A.  H,  Niemeyer,  Hal.  1794.  by  Guerike,  Hal.  1827. 

/)  Semler,  Lebensbeschr.  voL  I.  p.  47es. 

0)  ffossbach,  vx)l.  II.  p.  126.     Tholwk,  Geist  d.  luth.  Th.  p.  272ss.  27& 


CHAP.  L    EVANG.  CHUBCH.    §  410.  PHILOSOPHY.    LEIBNITZ.  489 

§  410.    Philosophical  Influences.     Cartesius  to  Wolf. 

Although  science  received  from  the  hand  of  Bacon  of  Verulam  (d.  1626) 
a  tendency  toward  physics  and  the  useful  arts,  (a)  many  divines  long  thought 
it  absurd  to  concede  an  authority  to  Copernicus  which  was  superior  to  that  of 
the  word  of  God.  (5)  The  more  modern  philosophy  had  its  origin  with  Des 
Cartes  (d.  1650),  in  an  inquiry  proceeding  from  doubt,  after  something  abso- 
lutely true  and  certain,  and  which  the  reflecting  mind  might  find  in  itself 
alone,  without  reference  to  theology.  It  was,  however,  employed  in  the 
Netherlands  for  the  representation  of  the  doctrines  of  revelation,  and  took 
the  place  of  the  formulae  of  Aristotle.  The  consciousness  of  a  knowledge 
of  God  which  from  its  own  nature  was  satisfactory,  was  awakened  there  by 
this  philosophy,  but  as  it  soon  became  suspected  of  political  liberalism,  it  was 
prohibited  by  the  Orange  party  (after  1650).  (c)  The  tragical  philosophy  of 
Spinoza  was  founded  on  a  profound  religious  basis  independent  of  all  dog- 
mas, but  Christianity  was  utterly  foreign  to*  his  speculations,  and  during  the 
century  in  which  he  lived  he  was  regarded  as  an  atheist,  (d)  In  England, 
the  doctrines  of  a  sound  common  sense  were  reduced  by  Locke  (d.  1704)  to  a 
philosophical  system,  which  asserted  for  the  experience  of  the  senses  at  least 
a  paramount  influence  in  the  intellectual  world,  and  demanded  a  complete 
toleration  for  every  kind  of  religious  opinions.  He  himself,  however,  never 
intended  to  advocate  any  sentiment  inconsistent  with  the  creed  of  his 
Church,  (e)  In  Germany,  Leibnitz,  fully  confiding  in  the  primogeniture  of 
the  human  mind,  rescued  philosophy  from  the  abyss  of  Spinoza  by  defending 
a  free  individuality  originally  determined  only  by  the  prime  monad,  and  a 
necessary  agreement  of  revejation  with  the  everlasting  truths  of  reason.  He 
however  conceded  that  the  historical  mysteries  of  Christianity  were  beyond 
the  reach  of  reason,  and  with  a  character  in  its  special  peculiarities  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  ordinary  German  spirit,  he  kept  aloof  from  all  ecclesiastical 
controversies.  (/)  His  philosophy  became  intelligible  to  ordinary  minds  by 
the  labors  of  Wolf  (d.  1V54),  who,  though  he  lived  in  perfect  harmony  with 
the  Church,  sometimes  demonstrated  its  doctrines  in  a  mathematical  style, 
and  sometimes  allowed  them  to  pass  as  mysteries  adapted  only  to  the  world 
of  sense.  But  on  account  of  the  dread  which  Pietism  displayed  toward  the 


a)  Novmn  Organon  Scientiarum.  1620.  ed.  Bruck,  Lps.  1830.  Gfrorer,  Stuttg.  1831.  [Bacon's 
Nov.  Org.,  or  True  Suggestions  for  the  Interpret,  of  Nature.  Lond.  1850.  8.  Also  in  Works,  3  vols.  8. 
Philad.  1S40.  Account  of  Bacon's  Nov.  Org.  in  Lib.  of  Us.  Knowledge.  Lond.  1S27.  8.] 

6)  Calo'o.  Syst.  vol.  III.  p.  103S.    Hollas.  Exam.  ed.  Teller,  p.  369. 

c)  Cartesii  Opp.  Frcf.  1692ss.  2  vols.  k—Huetii  Censura.  Par.  1689.  12.  ed.  4. 1694.    J.  E.  Erd- 
mann,  Darst  u.  Kritik  d.  Cart  Ph.  Eiga.  183-1.    C.  F.  Hook,  Cart  u.  seine  Gegner.  Vienna.  1835. 
Bordas  Demoulin,  le  Cartesiiinisme.  Par.  1843.    [  W.  Whewell,  Hist  of  the  Inductive  Sciences. 
Lond.  2  ed.  1847.  3  vols.  8.     Tennemanri's  Manual,  p.  305-8.    Henry's  Transl.  of  the  Hist,  of  Phil, 
vol.  IL  p.  48-60.] 

d)  Opp.  ed.  Paulus,  Jen.  1802.  2  vols.     Gfrorer,  Stuttg.  1830.    IT.  C.  W.  Sigwart,  d.  Spinozi- 
mus.  Tub.  1839.    Amand  Saintes,  H.  de  la  vie  et  des  ouvr.  de  Sp.  fondateur  de  1'exegese  et  de  la 
phil.  moderue.  Par.  1842. 

e)  Works  of  J.  L.  Lond.  1T14.  3  vols.  1824.  9  vols.    [Philos.  works,  with  prel.  disc,  by  St.  John, 
Lond.  1843.  8.] 

/)  Opp.  lat  gall.  germ.  ed.  Erdmann,  Ber.  1839s.  2  vols.  4.— L.  Feuerlach,  Darst  u.  Krit.  d. 
Leibn.  Ph.  Ansp.  1837.  G.  E.  Gu/irauer,  G.  W.  v.  Leibn.  Brsl.  (1842.)  1S46.  2  vols.  A.  Hdffricli, 
Spin.  u.  Leibn.  Hamb.  1846.  [«/.  M.  Mackie,  Life  of  G.  W.  von  L.  Boston.  1848.  ISmo.] 


492  MODERN  CHTJECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  1>.  164S-1SM. 

§  412.  Law  and  Legal  Views  in  the  German  Church. 
The  deputies  of  the  Protestant  states  at  the  permanent  Diet  of  Ratisboc 
(after  1663)  formed  a  tribunal  (Corpus  Evangelicorum),  which  possessed  no 
real  power,  but  was  designed  to  secure  the  rights  guarantied  by  the  Peace,  (a) 
The  jurisdiction  over  the  individual  national  Churches  remained  with  the 
secular  authorities,  and  was  exercised  by  the  consistories' and  ministerial  coun- 
cil, with  the  co-operation  of  the  states  of  the  respective  countries,  and,  in 
some  provinces  of  the  Reformed  Church,  with  the  aid  of  the  minor  synods. 
Every  ecclesiastical  usurpation  was  therefore  easily  repelled,  the  Church  was 
sometimes  used  as  a  police  for  the  execution  of  the  laws,  and  the  property  of 
the  Church  was  sometimes  used  for  secular  objects.  The  press  was  the  only 
organ  by  which  ecclesiastical  privileges  and  wants  were  made  known,  and 
even  this  was  placed  under  the  restraints  of  a  censorship.  In  the  literary 
works  of  that  period,  the  fact  that  princes  exercised  so  much  ecclesiastical 
power  is  variously  explained.  When  the  internal  inconsistencies  of  the  epis- 
copal system  (p.  441)  had  become  evident,  the  formation  of  a  Territorial  sys- 
tem naturally  followed  from  the 'right  of  reforming  the  Church  which  had 
been  assumed  by  the  imperial  diet,  from  the  advancement  of  political  rights, 
and  from  the  ascendency  of  a  worldly  spirit.  According  to  this  system,  the 
ecclesiastical  was  merely  an  element  of  the  civil  power.  This  legal  view  of 
the  subject  was  generally  adopted  about  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  in  consequence  of  the  liberal  use  which  Thomasius  made  of  it,  and 
the  judicious  limitations  assigned  to  it  by  Boehmer.  Still  the  consciousness 
of  her  own  rights  which  the  Church  possessed,  confirmed  by  the  records  of  a 
thousand  years,  soon  occasioned  a  theological  opposition  to  this  view.  Chan- 
cellor Pfaff  of  Tubingen  was  the  author  of  the  Collegial  System  (1719),  ac- 
cording to  which  the  Church  is  an  independent  corporation,  whose  power  can 
be  lawfully  assumed  by  princes  only  by  treaty  with  it.  Both  views  have 
contended  with  each  other  side  by  side,  and  have  alternately  exerted  an 
important  influence  upon  the  administration  of  the  Church.  (&) 

§  413.    Legal  delations  to  the  Catholic  Church. 

Although  the  modern  state  was  inclined  to  compromise  the  religious  dif- 
ferences among  its  subjects,  both  Churches  tolerated  each  other  only  so  far 
as  they  could  not  invalidate  a  right  actually  acquired  during  the  recent  con- 
flicts. In  Germany,  this  hostility  was  fostered  especially  by  the  oppressions 
which  members  of  the  evangelical  Church  sustained  from  their  Catholic 
rulers,  and  by  the  enticement  of  some  princes  to  the  Catholic  Church,  (a) 
Catholic  dynasties  were  established  in  the  Electoral  Palatinate  when  the 
Catholic  line  of  the  Palatine  house  of  Neuberg  came  to  the  throne  (1685), 
and  in  Electoral  Saxony  when  Frederic  Augustus  became  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  the  Catholic  faith  on  his  becoming  a  candidate  for  the  Polish  crown 

a)  Schauroth  u.  fferrich,  Samml.  aller  Conclusorum  u.  VerhandL  d.  Corpus  Evv.  Eegensb. 

1751-86.  4  vols.  f.    H,  W.  c.  Zulow,  Gescb,  u.  Vert  d.  Corpus  Ew.  Eegensb.  1T95. 

&)  Nettelbladt,  de  tribns  systematibns  doctr.  de  juresacr.  dirigendorum.  (Obss.  jnr.  ecc.  Hal.  1783.) 
a)  Struve,  Eel.  Beschwcrden  zwiscbcn  den  Kath.  u.  Evangelischen.  Lps.  1722.  2  vols.     Oertel, 

vollst.  Corpus  gravamm.  ev.  Eegensb.  1771ss.  5  vols.  £ 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1750.    §  413.  CONVERTS.  493 

(1697).  The  oppression  of  the  Protestants  became  legalized  in  the  Palatinate, 
when  a  clause  in  the  Peace  of  Eyswick  (1697)  required  that  public  worship 
should  henceforth  be  conducted  in  the  same  manner  in  which  it  had  been 
performed  while  the  French  occupied  that  territory.  It  was  only  by  the 
reprisals  which  Prussia  made,  that  the  Reformed  Church  recovered  any  por- 
tion of  its  immunities.  (5)  In  Saxony,  all  the  privileges  of  the  Protestant 
Church  were  maintained  by  the  zeal  of  the  people  and  the  states,  so  that  not 
even  a  verse  in  any  of  their  highly  animated  hymns  would  they  suffer  to  be 
stricken  out.  The  reigning  family  in  its  subsequent  generations  was  sincerely 
and  piously  attached  to  its  Church,  but  its  precarious  and  foreign  throne  was 
purchased  by  a  renunciation  of  its  important  position  in  Protestant  Germany, 
and  its  success  in  drawing  over  some  individuals  was  gained  at  the  expense 
of  the  alienation  of  a  loyal  people.  In  J5rz/,7ismc£-Wolfenbuttel,  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  was  induced  to  forswear  her  vow  at  confirmation  (1707),  that  she 
might  become  the  mother  of  an  imperial  family,  and  her  grandfather  Anthony 
Ulrich,  whose  counsel  she  had  followed  in  this  matter,  embraced  the  same 
faith  with  a  policy  which  could  then  have  referred  to  no  consequences  except 
in  another  world,  (c)  In  Wurteniburg,  when  Charles  Alexander  went  over 
to  the  Catholic  Church,  the  courage  of  a  single  officer  was  sufficient  to  give 
a  check,  though  in  a  somewhat  tumultuous  manner,  to  the  progress  of  the 
defection  (1735).  (d)  In  Salzburg,  certain  peaceable  congregations  which  had 
been  inclined  to  the  evangelical  Church,  and  had  been  tolerated  as  industri- 
ous subjects  ever  since  the  sixteenth  century,  fell  under  the  notice  of  the 
Archbishop  Count  Firmian,  who  undertook  their  conversion  by  violent  means 
(1729).  One  hundred  elders  then  assembled,  at  early  dawn  on  Sabbath 
morning,  in  a  lonely  cave  of  the  Schwarzach,  and  swore  on  the  sacred  host 
and  the  consecrated  salt  that  they  would  be  faithful  to  the  evangelical  faith 
and  the  triune  God,  and  that  in  every  misfortune  they  would  maintain  a  fra- 
ternal affection  for  each  other.  An  arehiepiscopal  patent  of  emigration  (Oct. 
31st,  1731)  drove  them  under  the  severest  circumstances  from  their  houses 
and  their  estates.  Public  sympathy  was  enlisted  to  console  the  sad  train  of 
these  confessors  for  the  loss  of  their  beautiful  mountain  homes,  and  twenty 
thousand  of  them  found  a  hospitable  reception  in  Prussia,  (e)  In  Hungary, 
few  magnates  long  resisted  the  temptations  to  apostasy  presented  to  them,  in 
the  form  of  bishops'  sees  and  offices  in  Church  and  State.  The  Protestants 
of  that  country,  although  protected  by  the  laws,  were  robbed  by  those  who 
professed  to  administer  those  laws,  not  only  of  their  churches,  but  even  of 


V)  J.J.  Moser,  Bericht  v.  d.  clausula  A.  IV.  Pacis  Kysu.  Frkf.  1T32.  4    Putter,  syst  Darst  <L 
pfalz.  Rol.  Beschwerden.  Gott  1T93. 

c)  Codex  August.  Th.  I.  p.  846s.  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  I.  p.  118ss.     Wei-sse,  neues  Mus.  f.  sachs. 
Gesch.  vol.  I.  P.  2.    F.  Forster,  Fr.  Aug.  II.  Potsd.  1839.— Aug.  TTieiner,  Gesch.  d.  Zuruckk.  d. 
reg.  Hauser  v.  Braunschw.  u.  Sachsen  in  d.  Schooss  d.  kath.  K.  Einsied.  1843.    To  be  corrected  by : 
W.  Q.  Soldan,  dreissig  Jahre  des  Proselytism.  in  Sachs,  u.  Br.  Lps.  1845.     W.  ffoeck,  A.  Ulrich  u. 
Ella.  v.  Br.  Wolfenb.  1845. 

d)  J.  v.  Moser,  Lobens-Gesch.  3  ed.  Frkf.  u.  Lps.  177T.  vol.  L  p.  184ss. 

e)  Schelhorn,  de  rel.  ev.  in  prov.   Salisb.  ortu  et  fatis.  Lps.  1732.  4.  M.  Zus.  v.  Stubner,  L. 
1732.    J.  Moser,  actenm.  Ber.  v.  d.  schweren  Vert  d.  Evv.  in  S.  Erl.  1732.  12  St     Goking,  Emigra- 
tionsgesch.  Frkf.  u.  L.  (1732.)  1737.  2  vols.  4.— JT.  Pause,  Gesch.  d.  Ausw.  d.  ev.  S.  Lps.  1827.  Zeit- 
Bchr.  f.  hist  Th.  1S32.  vol.  II.  P.  2. 


494  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

their  children.  Opce  more  at  the  Diet  of  Oedenburg  (1681)  their  religious 
freedom  was  solemnly  acknowledged,  but  with  a  reservation  in  favor  of  the  right 
of  the  proprietors  of  the  soil.  In  order  to  break  down  the  national  aristocra- 
cy, whose  exorbitant  privileges  were  principally  maintained  by  the  Protestant 
nobility,  a  murderous  tribunal  was  instituted  at  Eperies  (1687),  and  the 
Jesuits,  by  their  crafty  policy  for  conversion,  destroyed  the  soul  together 
with  the  body.  By  the  exclusion  of  its  complaints  from  the  general  diet,  the 
evangelical  Church  was  completely  abandoned  (1715),  and  reduced  to  less 
than  one  half  its  former  size  by  a  process  of  bloodless  martyrdoms.  In  the 
other  patrimonial  countries  of  Austria  the  evangelical  mode  of  worship  was 
utterly  annihilated.  The  few  who  remained  secretly  faithful  to  their  reli- 
gion, and  endeavored  to  transmit  it  to  those  who  should  come  after  them,  as 
soon  as  they  were  detected,  were  banished  to  Transylvania,  the  only  asylum 
now  left  for  evangelical  Christians  and  exiles.  (/)  In  Poland,  the  Dissi- 
dents, gradually  abandoned  by  the  aristocracy,  gradually  lost  also  their  eccle- 
siastical and  civil  rights.  In  1717,  a  law  was  enacted  which  forbade  them  to 
build  any  new  churches,  and  another  passed  in  1783  excluded  them  from  the 
general  diet  and  from  all  civil  offices.  The  superior  clergy,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Jesuits,  now  went  so  far  as  to  think  of  their  complete  extermina- 
tion. The  power  of  the  Jesuits  was  exhibited  in  the  terrible  vengeance  they 
inflicted  (1724)  upon  the  Protestant  city  of  Thorn,  when  the  general  hatred 
broke  out  in  a  popular  insurrection  against  the  Jesuit  college  in  that  place. 
Despairing  of  all  other  relief,  the  Dissidents  threw  themselves  under  Kussian 
protection  (1767),  from  which  they  obtained  a  restoration  of  their  rights. 
They  were,  however,  so  persecuted  on  account  of  this  proceeding,  that  they 
never  found  peace  until  they  obtained  it  under  the  favor  of  a  foreign  rule  at 
the  dissolution  of  the  Polish  kingdom  (after  1772).  (</)  As  soon  as  Louis 
XIV.  began  to  reign  independently  in  France  (1661),  the  work  of  restoring 
unity  of  faith  was  commenced.  The  Huguenots  were  deprived  of  many 
churches  and  schools  under  the  pretence  of  reviving  the  privileges  granted 
by  the  edict  of  Nantes.  In  a  fit  of  repentance  for  his  excesses,  the  king 
allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  to  atone  for  them  by  purifying  his  kingdom 
from  all  heretics.  Many  conversions  among  the  nobility  to  obtain  the  favor 
of  the  court,  and  among  the  people  for  trifling  sums  of  money,  seemed  to 
promise  an  easy  accomplishment  of  this  undertaking.  Children  were  taken 
from  their  parents,  "  booted  missions  "  of  dragoons  were  sent  in  every  direc- 
tion (after  1681),  and  the  whole  mighty  power,  of  the  monarchy  was  enlisted 
in  the  work  of  conversion.  In  spite  of  the  terrible  penalties  denounced 
against  all  emigration,  the  evangelical  classes,  wherever  it  was  possible,  fled 
to  other  lands.  A  home  was  offered  to  the  fugitives  in  every  part  of  Pro- 
testant Europe,  but  especially  in  Holland  and  Brandenburg.  France  lost 

/)  §  857.  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  XVII.  p.  223.  476ss.  Walch.  nst  R.  Gesch.  voL  IV.  p.  227.  VI,  209. 
IX,  Iss.  Gesch.  d.  Prot  in  Ung.  (Archiv.  £  KG.  vol.  I.  St  2.)  Die  Schlachtbank  v.  Eperies.  (J.  v. 
Hormayr,  Taschenb.  £  vaterL  Gesch.  Lps.  1837.)  [A  Hist  of  the  Prot  Church  in  Hung,  to  1850, 
with  reference  also  to  Transylvania,  with  Preface  by  D'Aubigne,  transl.  by  J.  Craig,  was  pubL  in 
Lond.  1854.  8.] 

0)  §  360.  (JaUonsky*)  Das  betrubte  Thorn.  Brl.  1725.  LUienthal,  3  Actus  v.  Thorn.  Trag6d. 
Konigsb.  1725.  Walch,  nst  Pv.  Gesch.  vol.  IV.  p.  1.  VII,  Sss. 


CHAP.  L    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1750.    §  413.  LOUIS  XIV.    CEVENNES.       495 

more  than  half  a  million  of  its  most  industrious  and  trusty  citizens.  The 
edict  of  Nantes  had  long  been  disregarded,  hut  it  was  at  last  formally  re- 
voked in  the  year  1685.  In  the  Cevennes  alone,  a  mountain  tribe  which  had 
descended  from  the  "Waldenses,  and  had  been  excited  to  enthusiasm  by  a  series 
of  abuses,  took  up  arms  against  their  king.  A  young  artisan  at  the  head  of 
his  Oamisards  exposed  his  naked  bosom  to  the  swords  of  the  marshals  of 
France.  Prophetic  visions  produced  by  an  epidemic  disease  of  the  imagina- 
tion and  the  boldest  military  exploits,  were  witnessed  in  the  same  persons. 
But  as  many  of  these  prophets  and  heroes  as  escaped  the  slaughter  of  the 
battle-field  and  the  axe  of  the  executioner,  were  allowed  only  the  privilege, 
which  many  of  them  scorned,  of  freely  going  into  exile  (1704).  The  former 
were  known  in  England  under  the  appellation  of  the  Little  Prophets,  pro- 
claimed the  approach  of  the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  subversion  of  the 
pope  and  of  the  Turks,  and  created  much  astonishment  among  the  people,  until 
with  honest  confidence  they  tested  their  pretensions  by  an  attempt  to  raise 
the  dead.  Two  millions  of  the  Reformed  still  remained  in  France,  bereft  of 
all  civil  rights,  and  with  no  congregations  except  in  the  wilderness.  ,  The  ter- 
rible laws  of  1724  could  not  be  carried  into  effect  upon  a  whole  population, 
but  examples  were  made  of  individuals,  and  many  pious  preachers  were 
hung.  But  Protestantism  heroically  re-collected  its  energies,  and  again  held 
its  first  national  synod  in  1744.  (ft)  In  Switzerland,  a  civil  war  was  the  con- 
sequence of  the  protection  which  Zurich  extended  to  a  few  converts  in 
Schweitz.  The  evangelical  party  was  beaten  near  Yilmergen  (1656),  but 
without  producing  any  permanent  change  in  the  strength  of  either  party. 
Once  again  the  old  grudge  broke  forth  on  account  of  the  oppression  of  the 
Eeformed  inhabitants  of  Toggenburg  by  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall,  and  an  un- 
seasonable religious  war  grew  out  of  an  insignificant  brawl  respecting  a 
church.  A  second  bloody  battle  at  Yilmergen  (1712)  was  decisive  against 
the  Catholics,  religious  liberty  was  proclaimed  in  Toggenburg,  and  the  super- 
fluous wealth  of  the  abbot  was  shared  between  Zurich  and  Berne,  (i) 

§  414.     Attempts  at  Union. 

K.  W.  Bering,  (p.  4C8.)  TTnionsversuche  s.  d.  Eef.  v.  G.  E.  G.  (Deutsche  Vierteljahrscbr.  Stuttg. 
1846.  N.  Slss.)  a  G.  Neudecker,  d.  Hauptvers.  z.  Pacific,  d.  ev.  K.  in  Deutsclil.  1846. 

Some  attempts  at  union  were  now  made  which  proceeded  sometimes  from 
the  action  of  individuals  and  sometimes  rather  from  circumstances.  The 
ultimate  object  of  these,  generally,  was  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  the 
Protestant  and  the  Catholic  Churches,  but  the  only  result  was  to  show  how 

/i)  §  866.  Soulier,  H.  du  Calvinisme,  sa  naissance,  son  progres,  sa  decadence  et  sa  fin  en  France. 
Par.  1686.  4. — Rulhieres,  ^claircissements  hist,  eur  les  causes  de  la  revocat  de  1'edit  de  N.  Par. 
1782.  2  vols.  Ancillon,  H.  de  l'6tablissement  de  Francois  refugies  dans  les  etats  de  Brandenb.  Ber. 
1690. — De  la  Haume,  H.  des  rev.  des  Cevennes.  Par.  1709.  Brueys,  H.  du  fanaticisme  on  des  C6v. 
Par.  1718.  2  vols.  12.  J.  C.  K.  ITofman,  Gesch.  d.  Aufruhrs  in  d.  Sev.  Nordl.  1837.  Comp.  WalcJi, 
Bibl.  vol.  II.  p.  105ss.— Oh.  Coquerel,  II.  des  eglises  du  desert  depuis  la  fin  du  regne  de  Louis  XIV. 
'usqu'k  la  rev.  Par.  1841.  2  vols.  \_Oh.  Weiss,  G.  de  Felice  (p.  426).  Edinb.  Review,  April, 
1S54.  in  Eclectic  Mag.  Aug.  1854.  p.  434ss.  Memoirs  of  the  Wars  of  the  Cevennes,  professedly  by 
Cavallier  himself,  and  transl.  into  Engl.  Dublin.  1826.] 

t)  ffottinger,  Helv.  KGosch.  vol.  IV.  J.  v.  Mueller's  Schw.  Gesch.  fortges.  v.  Vuillemin  Ziir. 
1845.  vol.  X.  p.  4S2ss. 


496  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

profound  was  the  gulf  between  these  bodies.  A  more  immediate  and  practi- 
cable object  was  to  unite  by  more  intimate  bonds  of  association  the  Lutheran 
and  the  Reformed  Churches.  The  feelings  of  the  Romish  party  were  princi- 
pally enlisted  in  the  recovery  of  those  who  had  departed  from  them,  and 
who  on  their  professed  return  to  their  Mother  Church  were  often  obliged  to 
anathematize  the  objects  of  their  former  veneration,  (a)  while  those  of  the 
Protestants  were  directed  to  the  attainment  of  national  unity.  Spinola, 
Bishop  of  Tina,  with  a  commission  from  both  the  emperor  and  the  pope, 
visited  (after  1675)  many  of  the  Protestant  courts  of  Germany  that  ho  might 
lay  before  them  certain  ambiguous  proposals  of  accommodation.  (V)  The 
only  country  in  which  any  hope  of  success  seemed  to  present  itself  was  Han- 
'  over,  where  the  reigning  family  was  anxious  to  live  on  terms  of  closer  inti- 
macy with  the  emperor.  Leibnitz  also,  that  he  might  give  peace  to  the 
world  and  advance  the  cause  of  science,  availed  himself  of  some  plans  which 
had  been  handed  down  by  tradition  from  Galixtus,  and  entered  into  some 
negotiations  with  Bossuet.  The  latter  was  willing  to  concede  the  marriage 
of  the  clergy,  the  cup  in  the  sacrament,  and  the  mass  in  the  common  lan- 
guage of  the  people,  while  the  former  thought  the  Catholic  form  of  govern- 
ment might  be  received  as  a  human  institution,  and  by  the  play  of  his  fancy 
•wrought  himself  into  a  belief  of  the  Catholic  dogmas,  (c)  He  however  was 
anxious  that  the  question  of  the  reception  of  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of 
Trent  should  remain  open  until  the  decision  of  a  general  council,  in  which 
Protestants  might  have  a  seat,  and  then*  votes  might  be  given  respecting  it. 
As  Bossuet  was  of  course  obliged  to  adhere  to  these  decrees,  and  the  pros- 
pect of  a  succession  to  the  British  throne  was  opened  to  the  house  of  Han- 
over, all  hopes  of  success  in  such  negotiations  were  necessarily  frustrated,  (d) 
John  Fabricius:,  who  had  taken  upon  his  conscience  the  responsibility  for  the 
action  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth  in  going  over  to  the  Catholic  (e)  Church, 
was  so  overwhelmed  by  the  contempt  of  the  Protestant  world,  that  he  was 
obliged  to  resign  his  professorship  in  the  University  of  Helmstadt  (1709).  It 
was  not  long,  however,  before  he  was  abundantly  compensated  for  this  latter 
step.  For  nearly  half  a  century,  John  Duraeus  (d.  1680),  an  Anglican  cler- 
gyman and  an  apostle  of  Protestant  union,  travelled  about  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  his  great  object.  But  each  of  the  three  great  Protestant 
Churches  contended  not  only  for  a  faith  in  the  Christ  revealed  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, which  was  the  only  basis  of  union  insisted  upon  by  him,  but  for  all 
those  peculiarities  which  separated  it  from  the  others.  An  agreement  for 
mutual  ecclesiastical  recognition  (tolerantia  ecclesiastica)  was  formed  on  the 
principles  of  Calixtus  at  the  religious  conference  at  Cassel  (1661),  and  re- 

a)  Mohnike,  z.  Gesch.  d.  ungar.  Fluchformul.  Greifsw.  1823.    Zeitsch.  £  hist  Th.  1842.  H.  1. 
V)  That  which  was  made  public :  Concordia  Christiana.  Vien.  1681. 

c)  Oeuvres  posthumes  de  M.  Bossuet  Amst  1753.  4. 1  vol.— Systema  theol.  Leibnitzii.  Par.  1819. 
mit  Uebrs.  v.  Rasa  u.  Weiss,  Mainz.  1820.  8  ed.  1825.  comp.  O.  K  Schutee,  u.  d.  Entd.  dass  L. 
Katholik  gewesen.  Gott  182T.    Pert*,  u.  L.  kirchl.  GL  Bekenntn.  Brl.  1846.    \Mackie,  Life  of  L. 
p.20888.] 

d)  0.  G.  Schmidt,  perlcula  conjungendarum  Ecc.  a  Leibn.  facta  c.  similibus  nostrao  aetatis  moll- 
minibus  comparata.  Grim.  1844. 

e)  Erorterte  Frage  Hn.  Fabricii,  dass  zwischen'der  Augsb.  Conf.  u.  romischkath.  Rcl.  kein  son 
dcrl.  Untcrschied  sei.  1706. 


CIIAP.  L    EVANG.  CHUKCH  TILL  1T50.    §414.  UNION.    LEIBNITZ.  497 

suited  in  the  transfer  of  the  University  of  Rintelen  to  the  Reformed  Church. 
The  members  of  that  Church  were  always  inclined  to  recognize  others  as 
brethren,  but  the  Lutheran  divines  would  rather  hold  communion  with  the 
papists,  and  regarded  the  hope  that  even  Calvinists  might  be  saved  as  a  temp*, 
tation  of  the  devil.  (/")  Frequently  also,  though  not  without  remonstrance, 
individuals  of  the  Reformed  Church  participated  in  the  sacred  Supper  in  the 
Lutheran  churches.  (#)  After  the  Peace  of  Ryswick,  the  urgent  importance 
of  fraternal  connections  between  the  Protestant  nations  as  a  security  against 
the  dangerous  exaltation  of  the  Catholic  powers,  became  still  more  apparent, 
and  upon  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Prussia  was  especially  devolved  the 
task  of  adjusting  the  dissensions  which  prevailed  principally  among  the  Lu- 
therans, by  a  union  of  the  two  Protestant  Churches.  But  as  long  as  the 
energies  of  Lutheranism  continued  unabated,  every  attempt  at  reconciliation 
only  seemed  to  widen  the  breach  between  them,  (h)  The  appointment  of  a 
few  bishops  constituted  a  part  of  the  ceremonial  at  the  coronation  of  the 
first  king  of  Prussia  (1700),  but  this  suggested  the  idea  of  a  union  by  the 
introduction  of  the  form  of  government  which  prevailed  in  the  Anglican 
Church,  (i)  Temples  of  peace  and  union  churches  were  however  consecrated 
in  vain ;  but  although  Leibnitz  broke  off  the  negotiations,  it  was  in  the  full 
confidence  that  the  object  would  one  day  be  brought  of  itself  to  a  successful 
conclusion. 

§  415.     The  English  Revolution.     Cont.  from  §  364. 

E.  Hyde  of  Clarendon,  H.  of  the  Eebellion  in  Engl.  1649-66.  Oxf.  1667.  3  vols.  f.  Burnet,  H.  of 
his  own  times,  1660-1T13.  Lond.  1724.  2  vols.  4.  and  often.  [Secret  H.  of  Charles  II.  Lond.  1722.  2 
vols.  Clarke,  Life  of  James  II.  Lond.  1816.  2  vols.]  Oh.  F,  Wurm,  d.  Engl.  K.  1689-1702.  Hmb. 
1S34.  F.  C.  Dahlmann,  Gesch.  d.  engl.  Eev.  Lps.  1843.  5  ed.  1853.  [H.  of  the  Engl.  Eev.,  from  the 
German  of  Dahlmann  by  E.  Lloyd,  Lond.  1844.]  T.  JB.  Maeaulay,  Hist  of  Engl.  from  the  accession 
of  James  II.  Lond.  1848-33.  4  vols.  [J.  Mclntosh,  H.  of  the  Eev.  in  Engl.  Lond.  1834.  4.  A.  H.  Tre- 
vor, Life  and  Times  of  William  III.  of  Engl.  Lond.  1885-6.  2  vols.  8.  P.  Grimblot,  Letters  of 
William  III.,  Louis  XIY.  and  their  Ministers,  &c.  Lond.  1847.  8.  J.  Vernon,  Court  and  Times  of 
William  III.  in  Letters  to  the  Duke  of  Shrewsbury,  ed.  by  G.  P.  E.  James,  Lond.  1841.  3  vols.  8. 
A.  Currel,  H.  of  the  Counter-Eev.  for  the  Ee-estab.  of  Popery  under  Charles  II.  and  James  II.,  and 
G.  J.  Fox,  H.  of  James  II.  (in  Bogue'.s  Eur.  Lib.)  Lond.  1846.  8.] 

On  the  death  of  Cromwell,  the  English  people,  weary  of  the  tyranny  of 
a  theocratic  republic,  recalled  the  Stuarts  to  the  throne  (1660).  Charles  //., 
though  he  wavered  between  infidelity  and  Catholicism,  followed  in  the  foot- 
steps of  his  father,  and  the  majesty  of  the  kingdom  trembled  under  the  inju- 
ries inflicted  by  a  dissolute  despotism.  The  Episcopal  Established  Church 
was  restored,  and  the  Puritans  had  to  bear  the  blame  for  the  blood  shed  dur- 
ing the  revolution.  Bishops  were  forced  even  upon  the  Scottish  Church, 
and  if  any  royal  favor  was  shown  to  the  dissenters,  it  was  only  from  a  regard 

/)  ThoUcTc,  Geist  d.  luth.  Th.  Witt  p.  115. 169.  211. 

g)  Ibid.  p.  122ss.  and  Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1S52.  N.  5s. 

7<)  Erinnerungen  aa  d.  Kurf.  v.  Braudenb.  u.  Konige  v.  Preussen  bins,  ihres  Verhaltens  in  Ange- 
Jeg.  d.  Eel.  u.  K.  Hamb.  1838.  E.  Ilelwing,  u.  F.  W.  des  grossen  Kurf.  rel.  Ansichten  u.  kirchl 
Politik.  Lemgo.  1847. 

f)  Eelation  des  mesures,  qui  furent  prises  dans  les  annees  1711-13  pour  introduire  la  liturgie 
Angl.  dans  le  E.  de  Prusse  et  dans  1'Elect.  de  Hannovre.  Extrait  d'ur  manusc.  d.  Dr.  Sharp,  Lond. 
1767.  4.    Ilerike,  Mag.  1795s.  vol.  IV.  p.  158ss.  V.  p.  219ss.    Darlegung  der  irn  vor.  Jahrh.  wegen  Ein- 
fuhr.  d.  angl.  KVerf.  in  Pr.  gepflognen  Unterhandl.  Lpz.  1842. 
32 


498  MODERN  CHUBCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1858. 

to  the  Catholics.  The  Test  Act  was  therefore  passed  in  Parliament  (1673) 
by  which  every  one  was  prohibited  from  holding  any  public  office  unless  he 
had  acknowledged  the  king's  ecclesiastical  supremacy,  and  had  received  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  an  Episcopal  church.  Leighton  (d.  1684), 
who  had  always  kept  the  gospel  free  from  any  connection  with  politics,  re- 
signed the  archbishopric  of  Glasgow  as  soon  as  the  violent  measures  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  had  cut  off  all  hope  of  its  reconciliation  with  the  Presby 
terians.  (a)  Milton,  having  published  a  treatise  in  which  he  endeavored  to 
justify  the  sentence  of  death  which  had  been  passed  upon  the  king,  gave  in 
his  darkness  and  solitude  a  bright  picture  of  his  severe  puritanic  Christian- 
ity in  his  poem  of  Paradise  Lost.  (&)  James  II.  (after  1685)  publicly  pro- 
fessed his  adherence  to  the  Catholic  Church,  received  a  Roman  nuncio  at  his 
court,  proclaimed  free  toleration 'of  all  religions,  imprisoned  those  bishops 
who  protested  against  it,  called  around  him  a  retinue  of  Catholic  officers,  and 
formed  the  design  of  governing  a  disaffected  people  without  the  aid  of  Par- 
liament. That  people,  however,  soon  forsook  him.  His  son-in-law  William 
III.  of  Orange,  the  great  champion  of  the  Republic  and  of  Protestantism, 
became  king  by  an  agreement  in  which  the  constitution  of  the  empire  and 
of  the  Church  was  distinctly  settled  (1689).  England  retained  the  Episcopal 
form  of  government  for  its  established  Church,  Ireland  was  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  most  of  the  dissenters  obtained 
the  privilege  of  public  worship.  Socinians  and  Catholics,  however,  were 
excepted,  and  were  never  placed  on  a  level  with  other  dissenters  until  177'J. 
The  Test  Act  also  remained  in  full  force.  In  Scotland,  where  the  inclina- 
tions of  the  people  were  in  favor  of  it,  a  Presbyterian  form  of  government 
was  maintained.  The  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority  is  vested  in  a  General 
Assembly,  composed  of  commissioners  from  the  fifteen  provincial  Presby- 
teries, assembled  annually  at  Edinburgh. 

§  416.    Freethinkers  or  Deists. 

J.  Leland,  View  of  the  Principal  Delstical  Writers.  1751  2  vote  Triniu*  Freydenker-Lcxicou. 
L.  u.  Brnb.  1759.  Zugabe,  1765.  U.  ThorecJtmid,  Vers.  e.  vollst  cngL  Freyd.  Bibl.  HaL  1765ss.  4 
vols.  G.  Less,  neuste  Gcsch.  d.  Ungl.  (Walcfi,  nst  ReL  Gesch.  vol.  IL  p.  8ss.  Ill,  375ss.)  ScMosscr, 
Gescb.  d.  18.  Jahrb.  vol.  L  p.  882ss.  G.  V.  Lechler,  Gesch.  d.  engl.  Deisuius.  Btuttg.  1841.  \Noack, 
Die  Freidenker  in  Engl.  Lpe.  1854.  12.  ffagenbach,  KGesch.  des  18.  u.  19.  Jhh.  Vorles.  10.  voL  I. 
Lps.  1848.] 

It  was  in  England  that  we  discover  the  first  efforts  of  the  mind  to  break 
away  from  all  traditionary  theology.  The  struggle  between  the  two  Churches 
there  was  severe,  and  the  established  clergy  did  not  hesitate  to  defend  their 
Catholic  position  directly  in  the  face  of  their  Protestant  faith.  But  the  civil 
freedom  there  enjoyed  gave  to  every  one  full  opportunity,  not  indeed  with- 

a)  Rob.  Leighton  e.  apost.  Mann  in  Sturm  Zeit  Brl.  1835.  [Jerment,  Life  and  Remains  of  L. 
Lond.  J.  Pearson,  Life  prefixed  to  Works.  Lond.  1846.  Works  with  a  Memoir,  by  Aikman,  Edinb. 
1840.  8vo.] 

Z>)  Defensio  pro  populo  Anglicano.  Lond.  1651.  Paradise  Lost  1667.  De  Doctr.  chr.  1.  II.  ed.  C. 
R.  Sumner,  Lps.  1827.—  W.  Hayley,  Life  of  Milton.  Lond.  1796.  4.  G.  Weber,  in  Raumer's  hist 
Taschenb.  1852.  \_TodcCa  Life  of  Milton.  Lond.  8.  J.  Jvimey,  Life  and  Times  of  J.  Milton.  New 
"York.  1833. 12.] 


CHAP.  L    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1750.    §  416.  FEEETHINKEES.  499. 

out  some  danger,  (a)  to  express  opinions  adverse  to  the  established  faith.  A 
series  of  authors  with  no  official  connection  with  the  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ment, but  within  the  pale  of  the  Church  itself,  defended  by  arguments  from 
common  sense,  and  in  some  instances  with  considerable  learning,  the  position 
that  the  natural  consciousness  of  the  divine  existence  and  man's  own  con- 
science was  all  that  was  necessary  for  a  perfect  religion.  Christianity  was 
therefore  regarded  by  some  of  these  writers  as  of  no  value  except  as  it  con- 
tained the  germ  of  this  natural  religion ;  by  others  it  was  resisted  as  priest- 
craft; and  by  all  its  historical  importance  and  origin  was  denied.  Lord 
Herbert  of  Cherlury  (d.  1648),  a  statesman  of  considerable  seriousness  and 
enthusiasm  with  respect  to  religion,  was  the  first  to  develope  this  idea  of  a 
natural  religion,  which  he  of  course  pointed  out  as  an  element  in  pagan- 
ism. (5)  Holies  (d.  1679),  one  of  those  vigorous  thinkers  who  deny  their 
intellects  and  sell  them  to  arbitrary  power,  endeavored  to  prove  that  Chris- 
tianity was  an  oriental  phantom,  which  had  been  raised  by  the  influence  of 
Grecian  philosophy  to  be  an  instrument  of  absolute  monarchy,  (c)  The  Earl 
of  Shaftesbury  (1713),  advocating  a  religion  of  mere  morality,  mingled  in 
his  writings  an  apparent  reverence  for  Christianity  with  the  most  delicate 
irony,  (d)  Toland  (d.  1722)  made  an  assault  upon  the  Jewish  character  of 
Christianity  and  the  genuineness-  of  its  original  records,  and  endeavored  to 
establish  a  pantheistic  religion  of  a  purely  earthly  nature,  (e)  The  peculiar 
way  in  which  Mand&ville  (d.  1783)  represented  the  passions  and  vices  of  men 
as  necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  the  state,  made  his  work  a  satire  upon  the 
morality  and  the  perfect  standard  advocated  by  the  Church.  (/)  Collins 
(d.  1729)  attacked  the  views  of  miracles,  and  the  whole  system  of  sensuous 
metaphysics  in  vogue  among  the  divines  of  that  period,  (g)  Woolston  resolved 
the  miracles  of  Jesus  into  a  series  of  allegories,  and  died  in  defence  of  his 
opinions  in  prison  (1733).  (A)  Tindal  (d.  1733)  contended  that  the  Scriptures 
were  nothing  but  original  documents  of  natural  religion,  that  Christianity 
was  as  old  as  creation,  and  that  the  Church  was  an  institution  of  the 

o)  Blanco  White,  Law  of  anti-religious  libel.  Dubl.  1834. 

&)  De  veritate  prout  distinguitur  a  Eevel.  (Par.  1624.  4.)  Lond.  1633.  4.  and  often.  De  Rel.  Gen- 
tilium.  1645.  ed.  J.  Voss,  Amst.  1700.  [transl.  into  Engl.  Lond.  1705.  8.  Life  of  Lord  II.  of  C.  writ- 
ten by  himself.  Lond.  1824.  8.] 

c)  Leviathan.  Lond.  1651.  f.  (in  Lat  do  materia,  forma  et  potestate  civitatis  ecc.  et  civil.)  Amst. 
1670.  4.  and  often.  Hist  ecc.  carmine  eleg.  concinnata.  Aug.  Trinobant.  1688.  [Eng.  Works,  ed.  by 
Win.  Molexworth,  Lond.  1889-43.  9  vols.  8.  Latin  works,  ed.  by  R.  Slackbourne,  Lond.  1839.  8.]— 
Thomae  Ilotib.  Yita  Carolop.  1681. 12. 

(?)  Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners,  and  Times.  Lond.  1733.  3  vols.  12.  [Cooke,  Life  of  Shaftes- 
bury. Lond.  1836.  2  vols.  8.] 

e)  Christianity  not  mysterious.  Lond.  1696.  Adeisidaemon  s.  T.  Livius  a  superst  vindicates. 
Hag.  Com.  1709.  Nazarenus,  Jewish,  Gentile,  and  Mahometan  Christianity.  Lond.  1718.  Pantheis- 
ticon.  Cosmop.  1720.  [TolancTs  Miscell.  Works,  with  Account  of  Life  and  Writings  by  Des  Mai- 
eeaux,  Lond.  1747.  2  vols.  8.]— Mosheim,  Vindiciae  antiq.  chr.  discipL  adv.  Tol.  ed.  2.  limb.  1722.  4. 
[Theol.  and  Philolog.  Works  of  Toland.  1732.  8.] 

/)  Fable  of  the  Bees.  Lond.  1706.  2  vols.  12.  with  comm.  Lond.  1714.  [Free  Thoughts  on  Eel. 
the  Church,  &c.  Lond.  1729.  12.] 

g)  A  discourse  of  Freethinking.  Lond.  1713.  The  scheme  of  literal  prophecy  considered.  Lond. 
1726.  2  vols.  [Hist,  and  Crit.  Essay  on  the  89  Artt  &c.  Lond.  1724  8.  Grounds  and  reasons  of  the 
Chr.  Eel.  Lond.  1724  8.]— Thorsehmid,  Lebensgesch.  C.  Drsd.  1754. 

7t)  Disc,  on  the  Miracles.  Lond.  1727.  with  5  continuations  till  1729.  CurU,  Lifo  of  W.  Lond 
1733.  Lemker,  Nachr.  v.  W.  Schicks.  Lps.  1740. 


498  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 


Catholics.  The  Test  Act  was  therefore  passed  in  Parliament  (1673) 
by  which  every  one  was  prohibited  from  holding  any  public  office  unless  he 
had  acknowledged  the  king's  ecclesiastical  supremacy,  and  had  received  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  an  Episcopal  church.  Leighton  (d.  1684), 
who  had  always  kept  the  gospel  free  from  any  connection  with  politics,  re- 
signed the  archbishopric  of  Glasgow  as  soon  as  the  violent  measures  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  had  cut  off  all  hope  of  its  reconciliation  with  the  Presby 
terians.  (a)  Milton,  having  published  a  treatise  in  which  he  endeavored  to 
justify  the  sentence  of  death  which  had  been  passed  upon  the  king,  gave  in 
his  darkness  and  solitude  a  bright  picture  of  his  severe  puritanic  Christian- 
ity in  his  poem  of  Paradise  Lost.  (I)  James  II.  (after  1685)  publicly  pro- 
fessed his  adherence  to  the  Catholic  Church,  received  a  Roman  nuncio  at  his 
court,  proclaimed  free  toleration  *of  all  religions,  imprisoned  those  bishops 
who  protested  against  it,  called  around  him  a  retinue  of  Catholic  officers,  and 
formed  the  design  of  governing  a  disaffected  people  without  the  aid  of  Par- 
liament. That  people,  however,  soon  forsook  him.  His  son-in-law  William 
III.  of  Orange,  the  great  champion  of  the  Republic  and  of  Protestantism, 
became  king  by  an  agreement  in  which  the  constitution  of  the  empire  and 
of  the  Church  was  distinctly  settled  (1689).  England  retained  the  Episcopal 
form  of  government  for  its  established  Church,  Ireland  was  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  most  of  the  dissenters  obtained 
the  privilege  of  public  worship.  Socinians  and  Catholics,  however,  were 
excepted,  and  were  never  placed  on  a  level  with  other  dissenters  until  1V7D. 
The  Test  Act  also  remained  in  full  force.  In  Scotland,  where  the  inclina- 
tions of  the  people  were  in  favor  of  it,  a  Presbyterian  form  of  government 
was  maintained.  The  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority  is  vested  in  a  General 
Assembly,  composed  of  commissioners  from  the  fifteen  provincial  Presby- 
teries, assembled  annually  at  Edinburgh. 

§  416.    Freethinkers  or  Deists. 

J.  Leland,  View  of  the  Principal  Delstical  Writers.  1751  2  vola.  Triniua  Froydenker-Lcxlcon. 
L.  u.  Brnb.  1759.  Zugabe,  1765.  U.  ThorscJimid,  Vers.  e.  vollst  engL  Freyd.  Bibl.  HaL  1765ss.  4 
vols.  G.  Less,  neuste  Gcsch.  d.  Ungl.  (  Walch,  nst  Rel.  Gesch.  vol.  IL  p.  8ss.  Ill,  375ss.)  ScMosser, 
Gesch.  d.  18.  Jahrh.  vol.  L  p.  8S2ss.  G.  V.  Lechler,  Gesch.  d.  engl.  Deismus.  Stuttg.  1841.  [Noack, 
Die  Freidenker  in  Engl.  Lps.  1854  12.  ffagenlach,  KGesch.  des  18.  u.  19.  Jhh.  Vorles.  10.  voL  I. 
Lps.  1848.] 

It  was  in  England  that  we  discover  the  first  efforts  of  the  mind  to  break 
away  from  all  traditionary  theology.  The  struggle  between  the  two  Churches 
there  was  severe,  and  the  established  clergy  did  not  hesitate  to  defend  their 
Catholic  position  directly  in  the  face  of  their  Protestant  faith.  But  the  civil 
freedom  there  enjoyed  gave  to  every  one  full  opportunity,  not  indeed  with- 

er) Rob.  Leighton  e.  apost  Mann  in  sturm  Zeit  Brl.  1835.  [Jerment,  Life  and  Remains  of  L. 
Lond.  J.  Pearson,  Life  prefixed  to  Works.  Lond.  1846.  Works  with  a  Memoir,  by  Aikman,  Edinb. 
1840.  8vo.] 

5)  Defensio  pro  populo  Anglicano.  Lond.  1651.  Paradise  Lost  1667.  De  Doctr.  chr.  1.  IL  ed.  C. 
R.  Sumner,  Lps.  1827.—  W.  Hayley.  Life  of  Milton.  Loni  1796.  4.  G.  Weber,  in  Raumer's  List 
Taschenb.  1852.  [TodcTs  Life  of  Milton.  Lond.  8.  J.  Jmmey,  Life  and  Times  of  J.  Milton.  New 
•York.  1833.  12.] 


CHAP.  i.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1750.    §  416.  FEEETHINKEES.  499. 

ont  some  danger,  (a)  to  express  opinions  adverse  to  the  established  faith.  A 
series  of  authors  with  no  official  connection  with  the  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ment, but  within  the  pale  of  the  Church  itself,  defended  by  arguments  from 
common  sense,  and  in  some  instances  with  considerable  learning,  the  position 
that  the  natural  consciousness  of  the  divine  existence  and  man's  own  con- 
science was  all  that  was  necessary  for  a  perfect  religion.  Christianity  was 
therefore  regarded  by  some  of  these  writers  as  of  no  value  except  as  it  con- 
tained the  germ  of  this  natural  religion ;  by  others  it  was  resisted  as  priest- 
craft; and  by  all  its  historical  importance  and  origin  was  denied.  Lord 
Herbert  of  Cherlury  (d.  1648),  a  statesman  of  considerable  seriousness  and 
enthusiasm  with  respect  to  religion,  was  the  first  to  develope  this  idea  of  a 
natural  religion,  which  he  of  course  pointed  out  as  an  element  in  pagan- 
ism, (fr)  Eobles  (d.  1679),  one  of  those  vigorous  thinkers  who  deny  their 
intellects  and  sell  them  to  arbitrary  power,  endeavored  to  prove  that  Chris- 
tianity was  an  oriental  phantom,  which  had  been  raised  by  the  influence  of 
Grecian  philosophy  to  be  an  instrument  of  absolute  monarchy,  (c)  The  Earl 
of  SJiaftesbury  (1713),  advocating  a  religion  of  mere  morality,  mingled  in 
his  writings  an  apparent  reverence  for  Christianity  with  the  most  delicate 
irony,  (d)  Toland  (d.  1722)  made  an  assault  upon  the  Jewish  character  of 
Christianity  and  the  genuineness-  of  its  original  records,  and  endeavored  to 
establish  a  pantheistic  religion  of  a  purely  earthly  nature,  (e)  The  peculiar 
way  in  which  Mandemlle  (d.  1783)  represented  the  passions  and  vices  of  men 
as  necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  the  state,  made  his  work  a  satire  upon  the 
morality  and  the  perfect  standard  advocated  by  the  Church.  (/)  Collins 
(d.  1729)  attacked  the  views  of  miracles,  and  the  whole  system  of  sensuous 
metaphysics  in  vogue  among  the  divines  of  that  period.  (V/)  Woolston  resolved 
the  miracles  of  Jesus  into  a  series  of  allegories,  and  died  in  defence  of  his 
opinions  in  prison  (1733).  (h)  Tindal  (d.  1733)  contended  that  the  Scriptures 
were  nothing  but  original  documents  of  natural  religion,  that  Christianity 
was  as  old  as  creation,  and  that  the  Church  was  an  institution  of  the 

o)  Blanco  White,  Law  of  anti-religious  libel.  Dubl.  1834. 

6)  De  veritate  prout  distinguitur  a  Eevel.  (Par.  1624.  4.)  Lond.  1633.  4.  and  often.  De  Eel.  Gen- 
tilium.  1645.  ed.  J.  Voss,  Amst.  1700.  [transl.  into  Engl.  Lond.  1705.  8.  Life  of  Lord  II.  of  C.  writ- 
ten by  himself.  Lond.  1824.  8.] 

c)  Leviathan.  Lond.  1651.  f.  (in  Lat  do  materia,  forma  et  potestate  civitatis  ecc.  et  civil.)  Amst. 
1670.  4.  and  often.    Hist  ecc.  carmine  eleg.  concinnata.  Aug.  Trinobant.  1688.    [Eng.  Works,  ed.  by 
Wm.  Molesworth,  Lond.  1889-43.  9  vols.  8.    Latin  works,  ed.  by  R.  Blackbourne,  Lond.  1839.  8.]— 
Thomae  IIolJ).  Yita  Carolop.  1681. 12. 

d)  Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners,  and  Times.  Lond.  1733.  3  vols.  12.    [Cooke,  Life  of  Shaftes- 
bury.  Lond.  1836.  2  vols.  8.] 

e)  Christianity  not  mysterious.  Lond.  1696.    Adeisidaemon  s.  T.  Livius  a  superst.  vindicates. 
Hag.  Com.  1709.    Nazarenus,  Jewish,  Gentile,  and  Mahometan  Christianity.  Lond.  1718.  Pantheis- 
ticon.  Cosmop.  1720.    [Toland's  Miscell.  Works,  with  Account  of  Life  and  Writings  by  Des  Mai- 
eeaux,  Lond.  1747.  2  vols.  8.]— Hosheim,  Vindiciae  antiq.  chr.  discipL  adv.  Tol.  ed.  2.  Hmb.  1722.  4. 
[Theol.  and  Philolog.  Works  of  Toland.  1732.  8.] 

/)  Fable  of  the  Bees.  Lond.  1706.  2  vols.  12.  with  comm.  Lond.  1714.  [Free  Thoughts  on  Eel. 
the  Church,  &c.  Lond.  1729.  12.] 

g)  A  discourse  of  Freethinking.  Lond.  1713.  The  scheme  of  literal  prophecy  considered.  Lond. 
1726.  2  vols.  [Hist,  and  Crit.  Essay  on  the  89  Artt  &c.  Lond.  1724.  8.  Grounds  and  reasons  of  the 
Chr.  Eel.  Lond.  1724  8.]~T?ior8chmid,  Lebensgesch.  C.  Drsd.  1754. 

7t)  Disc,  on  the  Miracles.  Lond.  1727.  with  5  continuations  till  1729.  Curtt,  Life  of  W.  Lond 
1733.  Lemk&r,  Nachr.  v.  W.  Schicks.  Lps.  1740. 


500  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTOET.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

state,  (z)  Morgan  (d.  1743),  who  under  the  influence  of  motives  partaking 
very  little  of  a  spiritual  character,  had  wandered  through  every  variety  of 
the  most  heterogeneous  parties  in  the  Church,  attempted  finally  to  tear  off 
the  mask  from  every  thing  historical  in  Christianity,  and  show  that  it  was  ar» 
invention  of  priests.  (&)  Chubb  (1747)  maintained  that  Christianity  was 
originally  intended  to  be  a  revelation  of  the  moral  latv  of  nature,  the  viola- 
tion of  which  was  to  be  atoned  for  by  repentance  or  punished  at  the  final 
judgment,  but  that  it  had  been  misunderstood  and  misrepresented  by  the 
apostles.  (?)  Lord  Bolingbrcike  (d.  1761),  a  man  possessed  of  the  most  emi- 
nent social  qualities,  pointed  out  to  those  who  made  a  gain  of  religion,  that 
.the  same  worldly  policy  which  then  directed  the  events  of  history  had  done 
the  same  in  all  past  ages,  (m)  The  partial  views  which  this  author  took  from 
his  peculiar  position,  were  expressed  in  a  ridiculous  representation  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  English  kings,  written  in  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  peculiar 
views  and  manner  of  the  Jewish  chronicles,  (n)  Henry  Dodwell,  without 
attempting  any  compromise  with  science,  endeavored  to  prove  that  by  its 
very  nature,  religious  faith  excluded  the  exercise  of  all  thought,  (o)  The  nu- 
merous treatises  written  by  the  clergy  in  opposition  to  the  Deists,  called  also 
Rationalists,  exhibited  a  much  higher  degree  of  learning,  (p)  but  as  literary 
productions,  they  were  no  match  for  the  better  class  of  the  works  of  their 
opponents.  Concessions  were  made  in  them  which  rendered  others  abso- 
lutely necessary,  and  suggested  doubts  in  circles  to  which  professed  oppo- 
nents could  gain  no  access.  Many  apostasies  from  the  Church  under  the 
guise  of  indifference  took  place  among  the  higher  ranks.  The  noblest  repre- 
sentative of  this  class  was  David  Hume  (d.  1776),  a  pleasant  philosopher,  who 
in  the  uncertainty  at  which  he  had  arrived  respecting  all  human  affairs,  con- 
cluded it  best  to  be  independent  in  all  things,  (q)  Even  after  the  most 
flourishing  period  of  Deism  had  passed,  the  absurd  scheme  of  an  association 
of  deists  and  atheists,  or  the  mockery  of  a  hell-fire  club,  was  commenced  in 
London  (about  1780).  (r)  The  great  body  of  the  people  held  firmly  to  the 
ancient  Christianity,  in  behalf  of  which  a  new  enthusiasm  was  awakened 
among  the  sects.  In  Germany,  some  isolated  persons  still  went  forth  in  pur 
suit  of  adventures  against  the  Church.  Matthias  Knutzen,  an  itinerant  can- 


i)  Rights  of  the  Church  against  Romish  and  all  other  priests.  Lend.  1707.  and  often.  Christianity 
as  old  as  the  Creation.  Lond.  1780.  4.  and  often.  [Mem.  of  the  Life,  Writings,  and  Controversies  of 
Tindal.  Lond.  1783.  8.  and  often.] 

k)  The  moral  philosopher.  Lond.  1787.  8  vols.    Resurrection  of  Jesus.  Lond.  1743. 

/)  The  true  Gospel  of  J.  Chr.  asserted.  Lond.  1733.  and  others. 

«i)  Letter*  on  the  Study  and  Use  of  Hist  Lond.  1752.  2  vols.  8vo.  Philosophical  works.  Lond. 
1754.  5  vols.  4  [Works  with  Life.  Pbilad.  1S41.  4  vols.  8.—  Warlurton'a  (Bp.)  View  of  the  Philos. 
of  B.  Lond.  1756.  8.] 

n)  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  IX.  p.  293.  XL  p.  259ss. 

o)  Christianity  not  founded  on  Argument  Lond.  (1742. 1743.)  1746. 

p)  Especially  Nath.  Zardner,  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History.  Lond.  (1727.)  1738-55.  2  vols. 
[Works  with  Life  by  Eippis,  Lond.  1888. 10  vols.  8.] 

q)  Inquiry  concerning  the  Human  Understanding.  Lond.  1748.  Dialogues  concerning  Nat  Reli- 
gion. Lond.  1778.  Life  of  David  Hume,  by  himself.  Lond.  1777.  [Philos.  Works.  Edinb.  1826.  4  vols. 
8.  Essays.  Edinb.  2  vols.  8.]—  Walch,  nst  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  VIII.  p.  208ss.  Jacobi,  D.  H.  17S7 
(Werke,  vol.  II.)  ZschiescTie,  de  Humio  sceptico.  HaL  1835. 

r)  Acta  hist  ecc.  nostri  temp.  vol.  XII.  p.  843ss. 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CHUKCH  TILL  1750.    §  416.  DIPPEL.    EDELMANN.        501 

didate  for  the  ministry  from  Holstein,  asserted  (1764)  that  a  congregation 
of  persons  calling  themselves  Conscientiarians  (conscientiarii)  were  exten- 
sively spread  in  various  parts,  who  maintained  that  the  Christian  Koran  was 
quite  as  inconsistent  with  itself,  and  as  unworthy  of  confidence,  as  the  Turk- 
ish Koran,  and  that  we  should,  like  Enoch  and  Noah,  without  the  fable  of 
Christ,  depend  entirely  upon  our  reason.  This  they  contended  was  the  con- 
science which  mother  nature  has  implanted  in  the  hreast  of  every  man,  and 
which,  as  it  is  found  not  merely  in  one  but  in  many  and  all  intelligent  per- 
sons, teaches  us  to  injure  no  one,  and  to  leave  all  to  the  possession  of  what 
belongs  to  them.  Hence  they  taught  that  if  any  one  despised  this  Bible,  he 
must  necessarily  despise  himself.  They  denied  the  existence  of  a  God  and  a 
devil,  a  heaven  and  a  hell,  except  such  as  is  created  by  conscience,  and  they 
regarded  married  women  and  prostitutes  as  equally  respectable,  and  all  priests 
and  magistrates  as  useless.  These  sentiments  were  boldly  and  plainly  pro- 
mulgated by  popular  tracts  extensively  distributed  among  the  people,  (s) 
The  bitter  railings  which  Dippel  (d.  1734),  under  the  name  of  the  Christian 
Democritus,  published  against  what  he  called  the  Protestant  papacy  and  its 
vicarious  atonement,  were  the  offspring  of  a  Pietism  which  he  carried  to 
such  a  degree  of  refinement  that  every  thing  historical  and  external  in  Chris- 
tianity vanished  from  his  system,  (t)  Excited  by  his  writings,  and  following 
the  path  marked  out  by  Knutzen,  Edelmann  (d.  1767)  believed  that  he  was 
called  to  be  a  second  Luther,  and  looked  upon  the  Scriptures  as  a  collection 
of  fragments,  which  were  awkwardly  put  together  after  passing  through  hun- 
dreds and  thousands  of  credulous  lips.  In  rude  but  vigorous  language  he  denied 
the  claims  of  every  religion  founded  upon  revelation,  that  he  might  like  a  genu- 
ine freethinker,  emancipated  from  the  shackles  of  Christianity,  prepare  the 
way  for  a  religion  corresponding  with  reason  and  experience.  Such  a  reli- 
gion he  contended  would  make  a  Christ  of  every  man,  whom  he  regarded  as 
an  individual  though  imperfect  organ  of  the  universal  Spirit  and  the  divine 
Logos.  His  writings  were  burnt  by  order  of  the  emperor  (1750),  but  he  was 
protected  by  Frederic  II.  (u) 


s)  J.  Mueaeus,  Ableinung  d.  Verleumbdung,  ob  ware  in  Jena  e.  neuo  Secte  d.  Gew.  entstanden. 
Jen.  (1674.)  1675. 4.  In  the  Append,  to  Kuntzen's  "  Charteqven."  Berl.  Monatschr.  Apr.  u.  Aug.  1801. 
IT.  Rossel,  in  the  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1844.  P.  4. 

f)  Collections  of  his  writings:  Eroffn.  Weg  z.  Frieden  m.  Gott  u.  alien  Creaturen  durch  Chr. 
Democ.  (1709.)  Berleb.  1747.  8  vols.  4.  Walch,  E.  Str.  voL  II.  p.  71Sss.  H.  J.  W.  (Hoffmann)  Leben 
u.  Mein.  Dip.  Darmst  1782.  W.  Klose,  J.  Dipp.  (Zeitsch.  £  hist  Th.  1851.  H.  3.) 

«)  Unschuld.  Wahrheiten.  1735ss.  15  St  Moses  mit  aufgedeckten  Anges.  Freyb.  (Berleb.)  1740. 
3  Anblicke.  Die  Gottlichk.  d.  Vernunft.  1741.  Sendschr.  den  Vorzug.  e.  Freygeists  vor  e.  armen 
Sunder  zeigend.  Freyst  1749.— Selbstbiogr.  (1752.)  ed.  by  Klose,  Brl.  1849.— «£  H.  Pratfe,  hist 
Nachr.  v.  Ed.  Hamb.  1755.  W.  JSlster,  Erin,  an  Ed.  in  Bezug  a.  Strauss.  Clausth.  1839. 


502  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

§  417.     The  Quakers. 

Catecb.  et  fidei  Conf.  Roter.  1676.  Lps.  1752.  Rob.  Barclay,  Theol.  vere  chr.  Apol.  Amst  ltfT6. 1.  and 
oft  Penn,  Summary  of  the  List,  doctr.  and  discipL  of  Friends.  1692.  ed.  6. 1707.  m.  Anm.  v.  Seebohm, 
Pyrm.  (1792.)  179a  Rules  of  discipl.  of  the  Soc.  of  Friends.  Lond.  1783.  ed.  3. 1834.— O.  Croesii  H. 
Qnakeriana.  Amst  (1695.)  1704  Alberti,  Nachr.  v.  d.  ReL  d.  Q.  Hann.  1750.  Govghan,  H.  of  the 
people  called  Quakers.  Dubl.  1789.  4  vols.  F.  Clarkson,  Portraiture  of  Quakerisme.  Lond.  1806.  8- 
voli  JT.  Take,  [Principles  of  Religion  as  held  by  Christians  commonly  called  Quakers,  iu  Germ.  & 
Engl.  Lond.  and  Lpz.  1828.  8.]  J.  J.  Gurney,  Obss.  on  the  society  of  Friends.  Lond.  1824.  ed.  7 
1834.  [  W.  Seicett,  H.  of  the  Quakers.  Lond.  and  New  York.  1840.  2  vols.  8.  W.  Ji.  Wagstaff,  II.  o' 
the  Soc.  of  Friends.  New  York.  1886.  &] 

George  Fox  (d.  1C91),  a  shoemaker  from  the  county  of  Leicester,  who 
felt  called  by  inward  visions  to  become  a  reformer  of  the  ungodliness  which 
prevailed  around  him,  founded  (after  1649)  in  the  stormy  times  of  the  revo- 
lution the  society  of  Friends,  commonly  called  Quakers,  (d)  The  essential 
principle  of  their  faith  was  that  every  thing  of  a  religious  character  in  man 
is  the  result  of  an  immediate  operation  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  who  would 
come  to  all  who  quietly  waited  for  him.  They  therefore  look  upon  all  exter- 
nal rites  as  useless.  This  internal  revelation  proceeding  from  Christ  ever 
since  the  fall,  and  given  to  impart  everlasting  life  to  man,  they  regard  as 
of  equal  authority  with  the  Holy  Scriptures.  They  look  upon  the  sacraments 
as  merely  symbols  of  an  internal  state  of  mind,  and  therefore  not  necessary 
to  be  received  in  an  external  form ;  they  reject  the  office  of  the  regular 
clergy,  together  with  all  systems  of  theology,  on  the  ground  of  their  being 
human  inventions,  and  they  wish  to  have  no  church  but  that  of  the  Spirit. 
On  religious  grounds  they  decidedly  refuse  to  render  any  military  service,  to 
swear,  to  pay  tithes,  and  to  conform  to  the  fashions  of  the  world.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  violent  disturbances  of  public  worship  which  Fox  allowed  him- 
self and  his  followers  to  make,  and  their  refusal  to  perform  the  duties  ordi- 
narily required  of  citizens,  many  of  the  Quakers  were  thrown  into  prisons 
and  lunatic  asylums,  until  William  Penn  (d.  1718),  a  man  worthy  of  the 
crown  as  well  as  of  the  cross,  determined  to  establish  a  home  for  his  com- 
panions in  the  faith,  as  well  as  for  religious  freedom  generally.  He  purchased 
the  lands  situated  on  the  Delaware,  and  formed,  under  the  sovereignty  of 
the  English  crown,  and  by  means  of  colonies  nearly  half  of  whose  citizens 
were  Quakers,  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  for  a  long  time  the  cradle  of  lib- 
erty for  the  African  and  for  the  world.  (J)  The  same  privileges  as  were 
enjoyed  by  the  Dissenters  generally  in  England  were  acquired  (1686)  by  the 
Friends,  and  their  conscientious  scruples  were  treated  with  the  utmost  indul- 
gence. Only  a  few  congregations  still  exist  in  Holland,  in  England  they  are 
decreasing,  in  Northern  Germany  they  have  become  extinct,  and  but  a  sin- 

a)  Collect  of  Chr.  Epistles  written  by  G.  Fox,  Lond.  1698.  2  vols.  £  Journal  of  the  Life,  Travels, 
and  Sufferings  of  G.  Fox.  Lond.  1691.  and  often.  [Philad.  1836.  8.    Complete  Works  of  G.  F.  Philad. 
1831.  8  vols.  8.    H.  Tuke,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  G.  F.  Lond.  12.] 

b)  Works.  Lond.  1726.  2  vols.  f.    (W.  A.  Teller)  Lebensbeschr.  W.  P.  Brl.  1779.    Clarkson,  Me- 
moirs of  the  private  and  pnbl.  life  of  W.  P.  1813.  2  vols.    Memoirs  of  the  Hist.  Society  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Philad.  1840.  vol.  IV,  1.    [A  JT.  Draper,  Life  of  W.  P.  Lond.  1826.  24.]    Correspondence  01 
J.  Logan  with  W.  P.  collected  by  Hannah  Penn,  Philad.  1821.    [J.  M.  Janney,  Life  of  W.  P.  and 
Bel.  from  Cor.  and  Autobiogr.  2  ed.  Philad.  1882.  8.     Weenuf  Life  of  W.  P.  Philad.  12.     W.  JI. 
Dixon,  Hist  Biogr.  of  W.  P.  from  new  sources,  new  ed.  Philad.  1851. 12.] 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CIIUECH  TILL  1750.    §  413.  ZINZENDOKF.  50S 

gle  congregation  has  become  established  in  Pyrmont  (1791).  (c)  Govern- 
ment among  them  is  administered  on  democratic  principles,  by  a  series  of 
assemblies  gradually  ascending  to  the  highest,  in  each  of  which  difficulties 
between  members  are  settled  by  arbitration.  Those  who,  in  the  contest  for 
American  freedom,  in  an  admirable  enthusiasm  temporarily  laid  aside  their 
peculiar  principles  and  took  up  arms  for  their  country,  and  those  who  par- 
tially renounced  the  rude  exterior  required  by  the  society,  while  moderately 
enjoying  their  well-earned  wealth,  although  tolerated  by  the  society  as  fight- 
ing, free,  lukewarm,  or  wet  Friends,  are  never  elected  as  deputies  to  their 
superior  assemblies.  The  enthusiasm  of  an  entire  reliance  upon  temporary 
inspirations  is  somewhat  moderated  by  an  education  inculcating  stillness  as 
one  of  its  primary  principles ;  but  the  secret  inclination  which  has  always 
characterized  this  system  to  break  loose  from  all  historical  Christianity,  has 
been  developed  during  the  nineteenth  century  in  many  American  congrega- 
tions by  Elias  Hicks.  This  has,  however,  given  occasion  for  an  expression 
of  a  more  decided  adherence  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  on  the  part  of  the 
other,  and  the  most  numerous  portion  of  the  members,  (d)  In  the  com- 
munion of  this  people,  Elizabeth  Fry  found  the  strength  and  courage  which 
enabled  her  to  penetrate  the  thousand  prisons  to  which  she  conveyed  the 
contrition  and  consolation  of  the  gospel,  (e) 

§  418.     The  United  Brethren.     Zinzendorf.     1700-1760. 

Zinzendorf:  Gegeuw.  Gestalt  des  Kreuzreichs  Jesu  in  sr.  Unschuld.  Lps.  (1745.)  4.  Tlepl  eocvToO 
o.  naturelle  Keflexiones.  (1746.)  4.  Jeremias  e.  Prediger  d.  Gerecbtigk.  new  ed.  Brl.  1830.  Spangen- 
berg,  Leben  d.  G.  v.  Z.  (Barby.)  1772ss.  8  vols.  Z.  C.  v.  ScJirauteribach,  d.  Gr.  v.  Z.  u.  d.  Briider- 
gem.  sr.  Zeit.  (1782.)  ed.  by  F.  W.  Kdlbing,  Gnad.  1851.  J.  W.  Verteelf.,  d.  G.  v.  Z.  Lebeh  u.  Char. 
Gnad.  1845.—  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  Leben  d.  G.  v.  Z.  (Biogr.  Denkm.  vol.  V.)  Brl.  1830.— Bu- 
dingische  Samml.  einiger  in  d.  KHist  einschlag.  Schrr.  Bud.  1742ss.  3  vols.  Spangenberg :  Nachr. 
v.  d.  gegenw.  Yerf.  d.  ev.  Br.  U.  (  Walch,  nst.  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  III.)  5.  umg.  A.  Gnadau.  1823.  Idea 
fidei  fratr.  o.  kurtzer  Bgr.  d.  chr.  Lehre.  Barb.  1779.  Lebenslauf  v.  ihm  selbst.  (HenMs  Arch.  f.  nst. 
KG.  vol.  II.  St.  3.)  Statuten  d.  ev.  Br.  U.  Gnad.  1819.— D.  Cranz,  alto  u.  n'eue  Bruderhist.  Barb. 
1772.  (Hegner)  Forts.  B.  1791-1804.  Gnad.  1816.  3  vols.  Or.  v.  Lynar,  Nachr.  v.  Urspr.  u.  gegenw. 
Verf.  d.  B.  II.  1778.  2  ed.  Hal.  1781.  Ch.  C.  F.  Schulze,  v.  Entst.  u.  Einr.  d.  ev.  Brudergem.  Goth. 
1822.  L.  Schaaf,  d.  ev.  Brudergem.  Lps.  1825.  F.  Lititz,  Blicke  in  d.  Vergangenh.  u.  Gegenw.  der 
Briiderk.  Lps.  1846.  [A.  G.  Spanderiberg,  Expos,  of  the  Chr.  Dock  as  taught  in  the  Prot.  Church 
of  the  U.  B.  with  Pref.  by  La  Trobe,  Lond.  1796.  8.  D.  Crantz,  II.  of  the  U.  B.  Lond.  1780.  8.  K. 
IlagenlacJi,  KGesch.  des  18.  u.  19.  Jahrh.  2  ed.  Th.  L  Tories.  18.  Lps.  1849.  2  Th.  12.] 

Louis,  Count  of  Zinzendorf,  even  when  a  boy  at  the  orphan  house,  was 
filled  with  the  idea  which  Spener  had  inculcated,  of  reforming  the  Church 
and  establishing  it  among  the  heathen  by  planting  it  in  their  midst  as  a 
grain  of  mustard-seed.  His  aspirations  received  a  permanent  direction  under 
the  influence  of  the  Moravian  brethren,  who  had  formed  a  settlement  on  his 
estates  at  Berthelsdorf,  to  which  other  newly-awakened  persons  were  added, 
until  he  succeeded  in  laying  (1722)  the  foundation  of  the  congregation  of 
Herrnhut,  on  the  Hutberg.  Under  his  influence  the  hostile  spirits  -among  his 
people  were  conciliated,  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  which  he  proposed  to 

c)  J.  E.  Sclimid,  Quiikergerneinde  in  Pyrm.  Brnschw.  1805. 

d)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1828.  p.  805ss.  1829.  p.  782ss.  1840.  p.  141ss. 

«)  Leben  u.  Denkwurdigk.  der  Frau  Elis.  Fry.  Harnb.  2  ed.  1850.  2  vols.  [J.  Timpson,  Memoirs 
of  E.  Fry.  Lond.  1846.  New  York.  1847.  2  vols.] 


504  MODERN  CHTJECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI. .  A.  D.  1648-1858. 

them  was  accepted  (1727),  and  in  a  short  time  their  missionaries  wandered 
forth  among  the  heathen.  The  religion  which  he  taught  was  founded  upon 
the  Bible,  but  inculcated  very  free  opinions  respecting  it,  and  consisted  prin- 
cipally in  exercises  of  the  most  confiding  love  to  the  Saviour.  This  love 
exalted  it  above  all  distinctions  in'  ecclesiastical  creeds,  but  produced  no 
anxiety  to  abolish  them.  Hence  the  congregation  gradually  became  organ- 
ized into  three  different  tropes,  called  the  Moravian,  the  Lutheran,  and  the 
Reformed.  Their  ordinary  devotions  were  principally  taken  up  with  refer- 
ences to  the  corporeal  part  of  the  expiatory  sufferings  of  Jesus,  and  their 
natural  relations  of  conjugal  life  were  strangely  connected  with  those  of  a 
religious  character.  With  a  mind  remarkably  inclined  to  extravagance,  and 
with  inexhaustible  powers  for  communicating  with  others  on  religious  sub- 
jects by  oral  discourses,  and  singing  directly  from  the  heart,  (a)  in  the  half 
French  court  dialect  of  his  time,  and  yet  with  a  singular  facility  for  suggest- 
ing the  most  exalted  themes  by  the  use  of  the  most  common  comparisons, 
Zinzendorf  was  fond  of  playing  with  allusions  to  the  wounds  of  the  Lamb, 
and  with  the  boldest  images  of  sexual  love.  The  offence  which  this  gave  to 
the  theologians  of  his  day,  was  hardly  capable  of  augmentation  by  the  fan- 
tastic notions  which  he  advanced  respecting  the  persons  of  the  sacred  Trinity, 
and  various  suspicious  circumstances  which  became  known  in  his  commu- 
nity. (If)  It  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  the  count  broke  through  the 
prejudices  of  his  order  so  as  to  reach  the  clerical  office,  but  he  was  finally 
recognized  at  Tubingen  as  a  candidate,  and  ordained  to  the  episcopal  office 
by  a  Moravian  bishop  at  Berlin.  But  having  attained  this  official  position, 
his  rank  and  education  were  of  important  service  to  him  in  his  spiritual  du- 
ties. After  a  ten  years'  banishment  from  Saxony,  he  succeeded,  as  a  Chris- 
tian statesman,  in  inducing  the  ecclesiastical  council  of  Electoral  Saxony  to 
recognize  the  connection  of  his  congregations  with  the  churches  professing 
the  Augsburg  Confession  (1748),  and  in  obtaining  from  Parliament  a  regular 
enactment  which  recognized  them  as  constituent  members  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  (1749).  Although  the  humblest  of  the  humble,  he  demanded  implicit 
submission  to  his  official  power  of  binding  and  loosing,  (c)  and  infused  into  his 
works  so  much  of  the  principle  of  life,  that  it  could  very  soon  exist  without 
him.  After  a  brief  season  of  enjoyment,  he  generally  withdrew  from  those 
who  were  in  various  ways  excited  and  inspired,  (d)  But  although  the  Breth- 
ren established  settlements  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  Zinzendorf  was  still  pre- 
pared with  the  most  restless  and  extreme  activity  to  labor  to  win  persons  of 
every  class  in  society  to  the  love  of  his  Lord.  Each  congregation  is  divided 
into  choirs  according  to  age,  sex,  and  matrimonial  connection.  Within  the 
general  bond  of  the  congregation  is  embraced  at  once  all  civil,  and  many 

a)  Geistl.  Gedichte  d.  Gr.  Z.  gesammclt  u.  gesichtet  v.  A.  Knapp,  Stuttg.  1845.  Stud.  u.  Krit 
1848.  H.  8. 

&)  (After  Fresenius,  1747ss.  and  Bengel,  1751.)  Das  entdeckte  Geheimniss  d.  Bosh.  d.  Herrnh. 
Sectc.  Frkf.  1749.  J,  Stinstra,  Warnung  vor  d.  Fanaticism,  from  the  Dutch.  Brl.  1752.  [Stinstra'* 
Pastoral  Letter  against  Fanaticism  has  been  transl.  into  EngL  -with  a  Narr.  of  the  Else  and  Prog,  ol 
the  Moravians  by  Rimim,  Lond.  1753.  8.  Mosheim,  Eco.  H.  Cent  XVIII.  §  17.  nt  1. 
KGescb.  des  18.  u.  19.  Jhh.  Erster  Th.  Vorless.  18.  &  19. 

c)  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  VI.  p.  569ss.        d)  Hid.  vol.  IV.  p.  241ss. 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CHUKCH  TILL  1T50.    §  419.  METHODISTS.  505 

professional  and  external  relations,  but  some  who  are  called  Friends  may 
also  reside  beyond  the  limits  of  the  settlement  (tv  dia<nropa).  As  the  congre- 
gation consists  only  of  those  who  are  called  the  Awakened,  it  follows  that 
those  who  may  become  lukewarm  fall  under  the  discipline  of  the  Church. 
This  consists  in  admonition,  exclusion  from  the  Lord's  Supper,  from  church 
fellowship,  and  finally  from  the  congregation.  The  officers  are  deacons, 
elders,  and  bishops,  though  these  last  possess  no  exclusive1'  prerogatives. 
Every  settlement  is  under  the  government  of  a  conference  composed  of  its 
officers,  and  the  whole  Unity  is  governed  by  a  conference  of  the  elders,  the 
seat  of  which  is  established  at  Berthelsdorf,  and  calls  from  every  four  to  ten 
years  a  general  synod,  at  which  its  own  vacancies  are  filled  and  all  important 
measures  are  decided  upon.  Every  thing  beyond  the  reach  of  human  calcu- 
lation is  intrusted  to  a  decision  by  the  lot,  as  they  believe  that  Jesus  has  such 
a  direct  connection  with  their  affairs,  that  in  such  a  proceeding  he  directs  the 
result.  0)  The  system  of  government  among  the  United  Brethren  is  the 
same  with  that  of  the  Pietists,  although  the  mild  and  cheerful  disposition  of 
Zinzendorf  could  not  accede  to  the  requirement  of  penitential  convulsions, 
and  he  therefore  was  not  on  intimate  terms  with  the  Orphan  House.  The 
objectionable  expressions  which  Zinzendorf  had  used  in  the  early  part  of  his 
course,  were  finally  recalled  by  himself,  and  still  more  decidedly  by  his  judi- 
cious and  learned  successor,  Spangeiiburg  (d.  1792).  (/)  The  piety  of  the 
Herrnhutters  soon  degenerated  into  a  peculiar  mannerism,  and  it  became  per- 
vaded by  a  commercial  worldly  spirit,  (g}  Yet  many  a  quiet  or  broken 
heart  found  a  home  among  them,  and  the  genuine  Christ  of  earlier  days 
found  there  a  sanctuary  in  times  of  infidelity  and  unbelief. 

§419.     The  Methodists.     Wesley.    1703-91.     WhitefieU.    1714-70. 

The  works  of  J.  "Wesley.  Bristol.  1771ss.  32  v.  R.  SoutJiey,  Life  of  J.  W.  &  the  rise  and  progress 
of  Methodism,  ed.  8.  Lond.  1846.  2  vols.  8.  II.  Moore,  Life  of  J.  W.  Lond.  1824s.  2  vote.  R.  Watson, 
Obss.  on  Southey's  Life  of  W.  Lond.  ed.  4.  1833.— Life  of  G.  Whitefield.  Edinb.  1S26.  edited  after  the 
Engl.  by  Tholuck  in  Germ.  Lpz.  1834.  [J.  Gillies,  Memoirs  of  G.  W.  Hartford.  1S35.  8.  R.  Philip, 
Life  &  Times  of  G.  W.  Lond.  1S3T.  12.  New  York.  1838. 12.]— J.  G.  SurcMa-rd,  vollst.  Gesch.  d. 
Metb.  in  Engl.  Nurnb.  1T95.  2  vols.  J.  Crowther,  Portraiture  of  Meth.  Lond.  1815.  J.  W.  Baum,  der 
Meth.  Zur.  1838.  T.  Jackson,  [Hist  of  the  Commencement,  Prog.  &  Present  State  of  Meth.  Lond. 
1838.  Isaac  Taylor,  Wesley  &  Meth.  Lond.  1851.  8.  S.  Wliitehead,  Lives  of  J.  &  C.  Wesley.  Lond. 
1T93.  2  vols.  8.  Moore's  Lives  of  J.  &  C.  W.  &  Account  of  Great  Revivals,  Lond.  1824.  2  vols.  8.  J. 
Ilampson,  Mem.  of  Wesley  &  H.  of  Methodism.  Lond.  1791.  3  vols.  8.  Doc.  &  Hist  Invest  of  Meth. 
in  its  Connectional  Prin.  &  Pol.  2  ed.  Lond.  1852.  Minutes  of  Conferences  in  Engl.  from  1744  to 
1824  Lond.  1824.  5  vols.  8.  £  Warren,  Chronicles  &  Digest  of  Laws,  &c.  of  Meth.  Lond.  1827.  2 
vols.  12.] 

A  revival  of  great  importance  with  respect  to  England  and  North  Amer- 
ica had  its  origin  in  an  association  of  pious  students  whom  John  "Wesley  col- 
lected around  him  at  Oxford  (1729),  and  who  were  called  Methodists,  on 
account  of  their  precise  and  strictly  holy  lives.  During  his  long  life  the  only 
thought  that  seemed  to  fill  the  mind  of  "Wesley  was  that  of  the  salvation  of 
souls.  In  connection  with  him  was  Whitefield,  under  whose  preaching  the 


«)  Yet  comp.  Allg.  K.  Z.  1882.  N.  118.    Schrautenbaeh,  p.  85s. 

/)  K.  F.  Ledderhose,  d.  Leben  A.  G.  Spang.  Heidlb.  1846. 

0)  Die  Herrnh.  in  Leben  u.  Wirken,  v.  e.  ehem.  Mitgliede.  Weim.  1839. 


506  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  lWS-lS5a 

hearts  of  multitudes  were  shaken,  and  who  felt  that  he  needed  more  tongues 
and  bodies  and  souls  in  the  service  of  the  Lord  than  was  bestowed  on  mei 
for  ordinary  purposes.  As  he  travelled  from  land  to  land,  wherever  the  Eng- 
lish language  was  understood,  this  seraphic  preacher  flung  his  words  like 
firebrands  among  all  classes  in  every  extreme  of  society.  The  Methodists  did 
not  at  first  desire  a  separation  from  the  Episcopal  Church ;  but  when  they 
were  persecuted  in  various  ways  in  that  church,  they  began  to  form  a  society 
embracing  many  congregations,  subject  to  a  rigid  system  of  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline, and  under  the  jurisdiction  of  superintendents  and  synods.  At  an  early 
period  they  held  some  communication  with  the  Pietists  and  Herrnhutters,  but 
they  soon  withdrew  from  the  latter,  as  their  religious  life  did  not  commence 
with  a  gentle  development  of  the  feelings,  but  with  a  violent  assault  upon  the 
selfishness  of  human  nature,  and  a  painful  process  of  regeneration.  They 
therefore  required  that  their  converts  should  be  able  to  tell  of  a  distinct  time 
in  which  they  found  divine  grace,  and  they  preferred  to  hear  that  that  period 
was  one  of  even  violent  corporeal  excitement.  On  this  account  their  elo- 
quence, which  glowed  with  pictures  of  hell,  had  the  greatest  success  among 
those  who  had  hitherto  lived  lives  of  irreligion,  or  at  least  were  then  incapa- 
ble of  feeling  any  higher  appeal.  As  "Wesley  was  Arminian,  and  Whitefield 
Calvinistic  on  the  subject  of  divine  grace,  they  finally  separated  from  each 
other  (1740),  but  the  "Wesleyans  were  the  most  numerous.  Their  principal 
danger  was  perceived  and  guarded  against  by  Wesley,  and  consisted  in  an 
indifference  to  the  moral  law  while  the  mind  was  taken  up  with  the  blessed- 
ness of  a  lively  faith.  It  became  most  developed  in  the  case  of  Fletcher,  a 
man  who  may  be  truly  called  a  mirror  of  a  ministerial  life,  wholly  lost  in 
God.  (a)  The  special  providential  mission  of  this  people  was  to  act  as  leaven 
in  the  midst  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  then  sunk  in  the  deepest  formality,  and 
to  take  an  interest  in  the  poor  and  neglected  classes  among  the  people.  Hence, 
although  their  number  at  the  present  time  in  both  hemispheres  probably 
amounts  to  a  million,  their  influence,  principally  by  means  of  uneducated  itin- 
erant preachers,  is  probably  still  more  extensive.  The  sacred  struggle  for 
liberty  which  was  so  long  sustained  by  Wilberforce,  originated  to  a  great  ex- 
tent among  the  Methodists.  (5) 

§  420.     TJie  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem.    Swederiborg.    1688-1772. 

Swederiborg :  Arcana  coelestla.  (Llhd.)  1749ss.  7  v.  4.  ed.  Tafel,  Tub.  1833ss.  5  v.  Vera  chr.  rel. 
compl.  univ.  Theol.  novae  Ecc.  AmsL  1771.  2  v.  4.  A  series  of  writings  by  &  respecting  Sw.  commu- 
nicated by  Imm.  Tafel  &  Ludw.  Hofacker,  especially:  GottL  Offenbb.  from  the  Lat  Tub.  1823ss.  8 
vols.  Die  ChristusreL  in  ihrer  Aechth.  Tub.  1831s.  4  vols.  Katochismns  u.  d.  Lehre  d.  N.  K.  Tub. 
1830.  (After  the  Catechism  of  the  General  Conference.  Lond.  1828.)  Tafel,  vergl.  Darst  u.  Beurth. 
cl.  Lehrgegens.  der  Kath.  u.  Prot  Zugliech.  Darst.  d.  UnterscheidungsL  Sw.  Tub.  1835.  Tafel,  8.  u. 
6.  Gegner.  Tub.  1841.  2  vols.— Mohler,  Tub.  Quartalschr.  1830.  P.  4.  revised  in  his  Symbolik.  Older 
matters  in :  Sia/udlin,  kircbl  Geogr.  voL  L  p.  246ss.  Latest  liter,  accounts  in  Jiheinwalcf,  Eep.  1834. 
vol.  IX.  p.  2163S,  A.  K  Z.  Lit  Bl.  1836.  N.  95ss.  ffaug,  d.  Lehre  d.  neuen  K.  (Studien  d.  ev.  Geist!. 
Wurt  1842.  voL  XIV.)  C.  F.  Nans,  E.  Sw.  d.  nord.  Seher.  Schw.  Hall.  2  ed.  1S50.  [Many  Works 


a)  Leben  Fleischers,  m.  Vorr.  v.  Tholuck.  BrL  1833.     [J.  Eenson,  Life  of  F.  Lond.  12.— Checkj 
to  Antinom.  by  J.  Fletcher.  New  York.    Works  of  J.  F.  New  York.  4  v.  8.] 

&)  Life  of  W.  Wilb.  by  his  sons.  Lond.  1S3S.  4  v.    [Philad.  revised  by  C.  Morris.  1841.  2  v.  12.1 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CIIUKCH  TILL  1750.    §  420.  SWEDENBOKG.  507 

of  Sw.  1m  e  been  translated  by  different  persons  &  publ.  by  0.  dapp  of  Boston.  1848-51.  J".  G. 
Wilkinson,  Biogr.  of  E.  Sw.  Boston.  1S49. 12.  A.  Clissold,  Practical  nat  of  the  Doctt.  of  E.  S.  Bost, 
1S39. 12.  A".  Ilageribacli,  KGescb,  (p.  498.)  Th.  I.  Tories.  21.] 

Emanuel  von  Swederiborg,  who  was  an  assessor  in  the  Miners'  College  at 
Stockholm,  had  been  highly  educated  in  many  branches  of  science,  and  had 
contributed  much  to  increase  a  knowledge  of  mechanics  and  mining  opera- 
tions in  general.  As  he  was  continually  pursuing  his  researches  farther  and 
farther  into  the  mysteries  of  nature,  during  his  internal  religious  conflicts, 
he  attached  himself  to  every  kindred  spirit  of  whom  he  could  learn  any  thing, 
from  the  time  of  Birgitte  to  that  of  Jacob  Boehme,  and  he  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  he  was  himself  honored  by  an  intercourse  with  the  spirits  of  another 
world,  who  manifested  themselves  to  him  inwardly,  but  with  the  necessary 
semblance  of  an  external  form,  (a)  Sometimes  in  quaint,  but  sometimes  also 
in  very  ingenious  language,  in  the  style  of  a  Northern  Dante  he  described  his 
visions,  in  which  were  pictures  of  every  terrestrial  state,  and  in  a  few  in- 
stances of  rare  sagacity  he  made  it  appear  as  if  he  really  had  such  an  inter- 
course with  spirits.  (V)  It  was  not,  however,  until  he  received  a  revelation 
directly  from  the  Lord  that  he  felt  called  upon  to  attempt  the  deliverance  of 
Christianity  from  the  corruption  into  which  it  had  fallen  from  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Nicsea,  and  to  establish  the  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem  as  tho 
third  Testament  of  God  to  man,  and  the  spiritual  second  advent  of  Christ. 
A  few  congregations  of  this  new  church,  principally  formed  on  the  basis  ol 
his  writings,  which  were  regarded  as  sacred  books,  were  collected  togethei 
in  England  and  in  North  America  (after  1788),  and  were  represented  in  an 
nual  General  Conferences  (after  1815).  In  Sweden  his  views  have  obtained 
extensive  prevalence  among  the  educated  classes,  and  in  Wurtemberg  they 
hav.e  been  promulgated  by  Oetinger,  (c)  and  revived  by  the  enthusiastic  co 
operation  of  the  pious  librarian,  Tafel.  The  doctrines  of  Swedenborg  are  a 
fantastic  species  of  rationalism,  which,  in  place  of  the  expiatory  sacrifice  of 
Christ  and  the  Trinity,  substitutes  a  three-fold  revelation  of  the  one  God,  who 
was  obliged  to  become  man,  that  he  might  give  a  human  character  to  the  doc- 
trines of  faith,  and  drive  back  the  powers  of  hell.  There  is  an  organ  in  every 
man  for  communication  with  the  spiritual  world,  which  can  be  emancipated. 
The  secret  and  spiritual  sense  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  are  of  no  use  except 
to  illustrate  the  truths  derived  from  the  literal  sense,  and  to  elevate  them  to 
the  view  of  reason,  (d)  The  friends  of  this  system,  therefore,  might  on  the 
one  hand  be  fond  of  every  mysterious  phenomenon  in  nature  and  in  the 
spiritual  world,  and  on  the  other,  receive  Christianity  as  a  religion  of  reason,  (e) 
It  was  possible  also  for  them  to  regard  their  views  as  the  gradual  and  con- 
tinued development  of  Protestantism,  and  while  they  merely  contended  for 

a)  (Kant)  Traume  eines  Geistersehers,  erlautert  durch  Truume  der  Metaphysik.  Konigsb.  1766. 
Kieser,  in  s.  Archir.  vol.  III.  St.  1.  Vol.  VIII.  St  2.  J.  Gorres,  Sw.  s.  Visionen  u.  Verb.  z.  K.  Strassb. 
1827. 

6)  Samml.  d.  Urkunden  betr.  Leben  u.  Charakter  Sw.  m.  Anm.  v.  Tafel.  Tub.  1839. 

c)  Oetinger,  Sw.  u.  andrer  ird.  n.  himml.  Phil.  Frkf.  u.  L.  1765. 

d)  Tafel,  d.  Gdttlichk.  d.  H.  S.  o.  d.  tiefere  Schriftsinn.  Tub.  1838. 

e)  La  rel.  da  bon-sens,  exposo  prelim,  k  la  doctr.  de  la  nouv.  J6r.  Par.  1832.    Oegger;  nouv.  ques- 
tions phil.  Bern.  1S35. 


508  MODEEN  CIIUECH  HISTOET.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

the  laying  aside  of  creeds,  they  preached  that  theirs  was  the  Johannic  ehurcl 
of  the  future.  (/) 

§  421.    Minor  Fanatical  Parties. 

F.  W.  Krug,  krit  Gescb.  d.  prot  rel.  ScbwSrmerei.  Sectir.  n.  widerkirchl.  Neaer  im  Grossh.  Verg 
Elbcrt  1851.  M.  Gobel,  Gesch.  dcs  chr.  Lebens  in  d.  rhein.  westph.  K  1852.  vol.  II.  f.  W.  Bar 
t/wld,  d.  Erweckten  im  proL  DeutschL  Ansgang.  d.  17.  u.  erste  IlJilfte  d.  18.  Jbh.  bes.  d.  frommen 
Grafenhofe.  (Eaumers  bist  Taschenb.  1852  &  53.) 

1.  John  Laladie,  a  canon  of  Amiens,  dissatisfied  with  the  Jesuits  anc 
their  opponents,  sought  in  the  Reformed  Church  a  people  of  God,  who  wor- 
shipped Christ  in  sincerity  (1650).  He  agreed  with  that  Church  in  its  doc- 
trinal views,  and  he  was  anxious  to  revive  the  external  organization  whicl 
prevailed  in  the  apostolic  age.  The  germ  of  his  church  was  composed  of 
certain  regenerate  persons,  whom  he  formed  into  a  devotional  family,  anc 
which  followed  the  deposed  pastor  of  Middleburg  as  an  independent  congre- 
gation. The  Mary  of  this  community  was  the  eminently  gifted  Schurman,  (a] 
but  he  himself  was  every  where  rejected,  until  an  asylum  was  granted  him  ic 
Altona  (1674).  Deprived  of  its  leader  the  congregation  soon  dwindled  awaj 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  became  the  forerunners  of  the  Pietists  in  a  sectarian 
form.  (&)  2.  A  gloomy  flame  was  occasionally  kindled  in  different  places  b^ 
the  writings  of  Boehme.  Quirinus  KuJilmann  of  Breslau,  a  poet,  whose  life 
was  itself  a  continual  poem,  wandered  over  the  earth  full  of  glowing  love  for 
the  Redeemer,  and  urged  on  by  a  vague  impulse  that  ho  was  to  revolutionize 
the  world,  until  he  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  Moscow  (1689.)  (c)  Gichtel 
(d.  1710)  of  Ratisbon  broke  up  all  his  civil  and  social  connections,  that  he 
might,  like  an  oriental  saint,  abstract  himself  from  nature,  and  lose  himself 
entirely  in  the  Deity.  The  results  of  his  efforts  among  a  class  of  persona 
aiming  to  be  a  priesthood  after  the  order  of  Melchisedek,  to  expiate  the  sins 
of  other  men,  and  an  angelic  brotherhood  striving  to  live  free  from  earthly 
cares,  pleasures,  and  toils,  have  come  down  through  a  series  of  individuals  in 
Lower  Germany  to  the  nineteenth  century,  (d)  Daniel  Mueller  (1716-82) 
thought  that  sacred  history  was  intended  to  be  an  allegory  to  represent 
general  ideas,  that  Adam  and  Christ  were  the  same  human  formation  of  the 
one  all-pervading  Deity,  that  the  sacred  writings  of  all  nations  were  equally 
divine,  and  that  he,  like  an  Elias,  was  called  to  redeem  the  world  from  the 
yoke  of  the  letter.  He  travelled  through  the  whole  northern  part  of  Ger- 
many to  announce  that  the  external  church  was-  about  to  be  subverted,  and, 
although  he  died  under  an  impression  that  God  had  deceived  him,  he  has  even 
now  some  followers  who  reject  the  historical  Christ,  look  upon  infidels  as  their 
brethren,  and  are  waiting  for  Mueller's  return  to  set  up  a  universal  kingdom,  (e) 

/)  G.  A.  Werner,  since  1S40 :  Ev.  K.  Z.  1845.  p.  431s.  Zeitsch.  £  unirte  ev.  K.  1851.  N.  81. 

a)  EvK\T)pta  s.  melioris  eortis  electio.  Alton.  1673.  Dess.  1782.  2  vols. 

6)  Declarationsch.  o.  ErkL  d.  reinen  Lehre.  Hervord.  1671.  Walch,  E.  Str.  ausserh.  vol.  IV.  p. 
853.  Moeller,  Cimbr.  lit  vol.  III.  p.  85ss. 

c)  Bayle,  Art  Kuhlm.  u.  Kuhlpsalter.  Unsch.  Nacbrichten  1711.  p.  755. 1748.  p.  965ss.  Harenberg 
de  Q.  K.  (Mns.  Brem.  Th.  L  p.  651ss.)  Adelung,  Gesch.  menscbl.  Narrh.  vol.  V.  p.  Sss. 

d}  Kindervater,  neue  Engelbrnderscb.  Nord.  1719.  Reiribeck,  Nacb.  v.  G.  LebensL  u.  Lebrc 
Brl.  1782.  (Earless)  G.  Leben  u.  Irrthumer.  (Ev.  K  Z.  1831.  N.  77ss.) 

e)  Keller,  Dan.  Mueller,  rel.  Scbwarmer  d.  18  Jahrh.  Lpz.  1834. 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1750.    §  421.  SECTS  &  FACTIONS.          509 

3.  The  Hebrews,  founded  by  a  candidate  whose  narna  was  Verschooren,  ap- 
peared (about  1730)  in  Leyden,  as  quiet  separatists,  who  held  that  every  one 
was  bound  to  read  the  Scriptures  in  the  original  languages,  and  that  the  merit 
of  Christ  was  so  great  that  his  elect  people  were  freed  from  all  guilt.  (/) 

4.  The  peasant  Janssen  carried  his  notions  of  predestination  to  such  an  ex- 
treme that  he  contended  that  every  thing  proceeded  from  God,  and  would 
finally  return  to  God,  consequently,  that  even  all  sin  was  effected  by  God, 
and  that  human  guilt  was  only  a  fiction  of  the  imagination.     On  his  expul- 
sion from  East  Friesland  (174:0)  he  returned  thither  professedly  by  the  divine 
command,  and  proclaimed  that  the  country  was  soon  to  be  reduced  to  desola- 
tion.   As  the  measures  taken  by  the  authorities  were  of  no  great  force,  he 
succeeded  in  maintaining  himself  with  a  small  band  of  bold  followers  for  sev- 
eral years,  (g)    5.  Elias  Eller,  criminally  connected  (1729)  with  Anna,  a 
baker's  daughter,  afterwards  converted  by  him,  promised  a  pietistic  circle  of 
epicures  at  Elberfeld  that  the  Messiah  should  be  born  a  second  time.    She  also, 
in  the  character  of  the  woman  clothed  with  the  sun,  knew  how,  in  direct  con- 
tradiction to  the  laws  of  nature,  to  show  from  the  Apocalypse  what  her  for- 
tune was  to  be.    The  city  of  Ronsdorf  was  constructed  by  them,  she  was 
much  esteemed  as  the  mother  of  Zion,  and  he  died  in  the  midst  of  the  high- 
est honors  (1744,  1750).  (7i)    6.  In  Brueggle,  in  the  Canton  of  Berne,  sprung 
up  an  excitement  among  the  children,  accompanied  by  pretended  prophecies 
and  visions.     In  this  movement  the  two  brothers  Kohler,  who,  while  boys, 
had  been  employed  in  various  kinds  of  magical  delusions,  made  themselves 
known  as  the  two  witnesses  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse,  and  fixed  upon  a 
certain  day  in  which  they  declared  that  Christ  would  return  to  the  world. 
This  day,  however,  was  subsequently  postponed,  as  they  alleged,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  prayers.    They  poured  forth  the  most  abusive  epithets  upon 
the  Church,  and  rioted  upon  the  donations,  and  shamefully  abused  the  wives 
of  those  who  were  duped  by  them.    Jerome  Kohler  was  strangled  at  the  gib- 
bet for  blasphemy  (1753),  and  although  he  confessed  himself  an  impostor,  hia 
followers  thought  he  was  invulnerable,  and  they  expected  him  to  rise  again 
on  the  third  day.  (i)    7.  From  the  conventicles  still  proceeded  many  persons 
under  the  influence  of  religious  excitement ;  Prophets,  to  prepare  the  way 
for  the  speedy  return  of  Christ  to  the  world ;  Separatists,  who  protested 
against  the  corruptions  of  the  Church,  and  those  who  under  the  sensuous  re- 
action of  pietistic  feelings,  abused  the  liberty  of  God's  children  in  the  indul- 
gence of  the  most  unbridled  licentiousness.    The  Counts  of  Witgenstein,  from 
financial  as  well  as  pious  considerations,  till  almost  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  opened  their  little  principality  to  all  who  were  oppressed  on  account 
of  religion.  There  Socinians  and  inspired  persons  lived  together,  and  those  who 
had  been  awakened  under  the  most  diverse  influences,  met  together  with  all 

/)  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  I.  p.  360.  VI,  1060ss. 

g)  Acta  hist.  ecc.  vol.  V.  p.  13.  212ss.  VI,  lOGSss.  Mas.  Brem.  vol.  II.  p.  144ss. 

ft)  Grauel  d.  Verwust  heil.  Statte  o.  d.  Geheimniss  d.  Bosh.  d.  Eonsd.  Secte.  Frkf.  1750.  D, 
Schleiermacher,  Apologie.  Arnh.  1750.  J.  W.  Knevel,  Gesch.  d.  Bosh.  d.  Eller-Secte  zn  E.  Marb. 
1751.  2  vols. 

i)  Das  entd.  Gch.  d.  Bosh,  in  d.  Brugglersecte.  Zur.  1753.  2  vols.  Acta  hist.  ecc.  vol.  XVII.  p. 
906.  lOSlss. 


510  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1648-1858. 

* 

their  peculiarities.  (&)  It  was  there  that  Mother  Ere  (of  Butler),  as  the  new 
incarnation  of  the  three  divine  persons,  with  her  seducer  and  those  whom  she 
had  seduced,  hoped  to  establish  her  empire  (1702.)  Even  when  surrendering 
herself  to  natural  indulgences  of  the  flesh,  as  well  as  to  shameful  crimes 
against  nature,  she  endeavored  to  lose  herself  in  the  wounds  of  Jesus,  and 
misused  the  words  of  Scripture  in  the  boldest  manner.  The  company  which 
she  assembled  were  plundered  by  the  count's  police,  and  were  soon  lost  in  the 
Catholic  Church,  to  which  they  fled  for  protection.  (I) 

§  422.    Spread  of  Christianity. 

J.  Triggers,  Gesch,  d.  prot  Mission.  Hamb.  1845s.  2  vote. 

As  long  as  the  Catholic  powers  had  the  dominion  of  the  seas,  Protestant 
missions  were  necessarily  of  a  very  limited  extent.  The  United  Brethren 
formed  a  central  point,  from  which  went  forth  missionaries  to  every  quarter 
of  the  world  (since  1732) ;  but  the  gospel,  as  it  was  presented  by  the  Herrn- 
hutters,  could  captivate  only  a  few  individuals,  and  could  operate  only  in  a 
very  narrow  circle,  (a)  1.  The  conversion  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  to 
Christianity  was  indispensable  to  the  safety  of  the  English  colonies  in  North 
America.  It  was  commenced  (1646)  by  John  Eliot,  with  the  conviction  that 
all  things  were  possible  to  those  who  diligently  toiled  and  prayed  with  faith 
in  Christ.  The  Puritans,  who  then  possessed  the  supreme  power,  established 
a  society  for  planting  Christianity  in  foreign  countries  (1647),  and  the  Method- 
ists also  forthwith  crossed  the  sea.  America,  however,  has  become  Christian, 
not  so  much  in  consequence  of  its  conversion,  as  of  its  colonies.  (&)  2.  "With 
the  continual  assistance  of  the  Orphan  House  at  Halle,  Denmark  has  main- 
tained (since  1706)  a  mission  for  its  East  Indian  possessions  at  Tranquebar, 
from  which  also  were  obtained  the  first  missionaries  to  the  English  East  In- 
dies and  the  "West  India  Islands.  In  the  East  Indies  the  success  has  not  been 
very  great,  and  in  the  West  Indies  it  has  been  confined  wholly  to  the  slaves,  (c) 
3.  In  Lapland  missionaries  had  to  be  continually  sent  and  sustained  from 
Denmark  and  Sweden  to  uphold  Christianity  against  the  severe  exactions  of 
nature.  (<Z)  4.  Since  the  fifteenth  century  Greenland  (p.  247)  had  been  com- 
pletely lost  sight  of  by  the  nations  of  Europe.  A  Norwegian  minister,  Hans 
Egede,  became  possessed  with  a  strong  desire  to  win  back  this  legendary 
country  to  the  fellowship  of  European  and  Christian  society.  He  finally  suc- 

*)  J.  W.  Winkel,  Casimir  reg.  Graf  zu  Sayn-Witt  Vielefeld.  1850. 

0  Abstract  of  the  public  acts  in :  Vernunftige  u.  chr.  aber  nicht  scheinbeil  Thomasische  Gedanken. 
Hal  1725.  voL  III.  p.  20Sss.— G.  F.  Keller,  d.  Bnttler'sche  Rotte.  (Zeitscb.  f.  hist  Th.  1845.  H.  4.) 

«)  Spangenberg  in  Walcb,  nst  ReL  Gescb.  voL  VIII.  p.  251ss.  Uebersicbt  d.  Missionsgesch.  d. 
ev.  Bruderk.  Gnad.  1833.  [J.  Holmes,  H.  of  Missions  of  tbe  U.  B.  Lond.  ISIS.  Periodical  Accounts 
of  the  Missions  of  U.  B.  from  1T90.  Lond.  10  vols.] 

&)  Eliot,  Chr.  Commonwealth,  or  the  rising  kingdom  of  J.  Ch.  1652s.  2  v.  4.  Mather,  Ecc.  H.  of 
New  EngL  Lond.  1702.  f.  [&  Boston.  1853.  2  vols.  8.]— J.  G.  Muller,  d.  Vorst  v.  grossen  Geiste  unter 
d.  Indianern.  (Stud.  u.  E>it  1849.  H.  4.)  [Life  ofJ.  Eliot,  (Sparks'  Am.  Biogr.)  Boston.  8.  D.  Neal, 
H.  of  New  Engl.  Lond.  1747.  2  vols.  8.] 

c)  Hall.  Missionsberlchte  s.  1708  in  verschiedener  Gestalt  bis  jetzt    Walch,  nst  Rel.  Gesch.  voL  V. 
p.  119ss.    [Memoirs  of  Chr.  F.  Swartz  &  H.  of  Rel.  in  India.  Lond.  1826. 12.] 

d)  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  XL  p.  I.  XV.  230ss.    [J.  Shefferus,  H.  of  Lapland  .with  Sketches,  &<x  Oxon, 
1674.  f]  Leem,  Lappen  in  Finnmark,  from  the  Dan.  Lpz.  1771.  Rudelbach  in  Knapp's  Christoterpe. 
1833. 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CHUKCH  TILL  1750.    §  422.  MISSIONS.    GREENLAND.       5 1  1 

ceeded  in  obtaining  the  support  of  the  Danish  government,  and  of  a  commer- 
cial society  (1721).  On  the  western  coast,  the  only  part  accessible,  he  found 
a  country  bound  up  in  ice,  where  a  few  thousand  Esquimaux,  with  no  tra- 
ditions of  the  past,  wrest  from  the  hand  of  nature  the  scantiest  means  of 
subsistence.  Egede  dedicated  himself  to  the  work  of  their  improvement  and 
conversion.  Since  that  time  civilization  and  Christianity,  as  far  as  was  pos- 
sible in  such  a  sterile  soil,  has  been  planted  and  maintained  there,  (e)  5.  An 
Institution  was  established  (1728)  by  Prof.  Calleriburg  of  Halle,  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  but  as  its  sphere  of  operations  was 
contracted,  the  results  were  of  course  inconsiderable.  (/) 


CHAP.  II.— THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  UNTIL  1750. 

§  423.     The  Papacy. 

Guarnacci,  Vitae  et  res  gestae  E.  Pontiff  et  Cardd.  a  Clem.  X.  usque  ad  Clem.  XI.  Eom.  1751ss. 
2  vols.  f.  Sower,  Rambach,  vol.  X.  Th.  2.  L.  Ranke,  die  rom.  Papste.  vol.  III.  p.  3Sss.  Respecting 
the  memoirs  of  the  Conclaves :  Ibid.  vol.  III.  p.  346ss. 

When  the  hope  of  once  more  subjecting  the  world  to  the  dominion  of 
Catholicism,  and  the  enthusiasm  which  sprung  from  it  had  passed  away,  the 
papacy  gradually  retired  from  the  prominent  position  it  had  formerly  held  in 
the  affairs  of  the  world,  and  assumed  the  station  of  an  Italian  principality. 
And  yet  it  could  not  bring  itself  down  to  a  complete  renunciation  of  the  vast 
claims  which  it  had  once  set  up.  In  civil  affairs  the  political  tendencies  be- 
gan to  predominate  over  the  ecclesiastical.  Hence,  nothing  remained  for  the 
popes  but  to  enter  their  impotent  protest  in  opposition  to  the  undeniable  and 
necessary  facts  of  history.  As  they  continued  to  urge  the  usual  claims  for 
money  and  jurisdiction  upon  the  states,  which  were  then  rearranging  and 
deciding  upon  their  own  affairs,  they  fell  into  perpetual  conflict  with  the  Cath- 
olic princes.  The  states  of  the  Church  inherited  also  the  burden  of  a  debt 
which  had  increased  under  nearly  every  administration.  According  to  the 
selfish  policy  of  the  Conclave,  and  in  consequence  of  the,right  of  exclusion 
always  exercised  by  the  crowns  of  France,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  no 
cardinals  could  ordinarily  be  elevated  to  the  papal  chair  except  they  belonged 
to  the  great  Italian  families,  had  grown  gray  in  the  service  of  the  Romish 
prelates,  and  were  not  very  powerful  for  good  or  for  evil.  Such,  indeed,  was 
uniformly  the  case,  except  when  the  pious  party  were  sufficiently  strong  to 
carry  the  election.  Innocent  X.  (Pamfili,  1644-55)  was  made  pope  on  the 
ground  that  he  had  never  said  much,  and  had  done  still  less.  He  commenced 

e)  IT.  Egede,  Nachr.  v.  d.  Groenl.  Miss.  limb.  1740.  [Hans  Egede,  A  descrip.  of  Greenland  & 
Life  of  the  Author.  Lond.  1818.  8.J  Paul  Egede,  Nachr.  v.  Gr.  a.  e.  Tagebuch.  v.  1721-40.  Copenh. 
1790.  (Extracts  in  tne  Acten  z.  nst  KG.  vol.  III.  p.  1.  Sl$s.)—Rudelbach,  H.  Eg.  Gronl.  Bischof 
(Chr.  Biogr.  1850.  vol.  I.)  [Iceland,  Greenland,  &  the  Faroe  Isles.  New  York.  1830. 12,]  KolMng, 
Gesch.  d.  Miss,  in  Gr.  Gnad.  1731.  D.  Ausland.  1834.  N.  lOlss.  [Miss.  Records  resp.  Greenland,  La« 
brador,  <kc.  (Pres.  Board.)  Phil.  1830.  8.] 

/)  Accounts  of  the  Institution  till  1791.  Steph.  Schulz,  Leitungen  des  Hiichsten  n.  s.  Rath.  a. 
Seisen  d.  Europa,  Asien.  Afr.  Hal.  1771ss.  5  vols. 


5  1 2  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1648-1353. 

his  reign  with  completely  destroying  Roman  agriculture,  hy  granting  to  the 
papal  exchequer  the  entire  monopoly  of  the  trade  in  corn,  and  hy  his  depend- 
ence upon  Donna  Olympia  gave  occasion  for  the  taunt  that  the  vicar  of  Christ 
was  in  petticoats,  and  that  j,  new  Joanna  was  in  possession  of  St.  Peter's 
keys,  (a)  Alexander  VII.  (Chigi,  1655-67)  lived  to  enjoy  the  triumph  of 
welcoming  the  accomplished  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  to  the  Capi- 
tol. This  extraordinary  woman  had  become  tired  of  Protestantism  and 
of  the  Swedish  crown,  and  had  resigned  them  both,  that  she  might  inde- 
pendently enjoy  the  glories  of  art  and  science  in  the  midst  of  the  natural  lux- 
uriance of  a  southern  clime.  Though  of  a  masculine  temperament,  she  still 
loved  a  system  of  faith  which  made  a  merit  of  celibacy,  and  while  she 
spurned  all  restraints  upon  thought,  she  nevertheless  felt  the  need  of  a  present, 
infallible  authority.  Hence,  while  she  humbled  herself  to  embrace  with  full 
confidence  the  abstract  notion  of  the  papacy,  her  imperious  disposition  and 
her  keen  wit  came  not  unfrequently  into  collision  with  the  actual  pope.  The 
negotiations  of  the  papal  court  with  Louis  XIV.  respecting  portions  of  terri- 
tory belonging  to  Parma  and  Modena,  the  royal  prerogative  of  appointing  the 
superior  ecclesiastical  officers  in  the  newly  acquired  provinces,  and  the  insult 
to  the  dignity  of  the  French  ambassador  at  Rome,  were  terminated  of  course 
in  the  humiliation  of  the  pope  by  the  treaty  of  Pisa  (1C64),  since  the  king 
was  already  in  possession  of  Avignon,  and  threatened  to  advance  upon  Romo 
itself.  During  his  pontificate  he  lost  the  reputation  of  a  saint,  but  acquired 
that  of  a  poet,  and  was  regarded  by  the  Roman  people  as  a  great  man  in  lit- 
tle things,  but  a  little  man  in  great  things.  "While  the  Jesuits  attempted  to 
prove  that  the  pope  was  infallible,  even  in  matters  of  fact,  the  Florentine  am- 
bassador decided  that  a  true  word  never  passed  his  lips.  (J)  Clement  IX. 
(Rospigliosi,  1667-69)  filled  once  more  the  important  position  of  a  mediator 
between  the  ecclesiastical  and  the  civil  powers.  He  endeared  himself  to  the 
people  by  the  mildness  of  his  disposition,  but  the  affairs  of  government  went 
on  as  they  best  might,  without  his  direction.  Clement  X.  (Altieri,  1670-76), 
a  feeble  octogenarian,  was  saluted  pope  by  all  parties,  as  if  by  inspiration, 
after  a  long  struggle,  but  did  nothing  except  to  weep  over  the  administration 
of  his  family  favorites.  Innocent  XL  (Odeschalchi,  1676-89)  adopted  vigor- 
ous measures  for  the  restoration  of  strict  morals  both  in  Church  and  state. 
He  endeavored  to  relieve  the  iinances,  but  seemed  to  think  that  nothing  was 
needful  but  to  save  as  much  as  possible.  A  few  bishops  hi  France  had  re- 
sisted the  royal  claim  to  administer  the  revenues  of  even  those  churches 
which  had  not  been  founded  by  the  crown  during  a  vacancy  in  the  diocese 
to  which  they  belonged,  and  to  appoint  persons  to  the  livings  dependent  upon 
such  vacant  bishoprics.  The  pope  gave  his  countenance  to  their  appeal. 

a)  JtotsttuscTier,  H.  Inn.  X.  Vit  1674.  4  Gualdi  (Lett),  Vita  della  D.  Olympia  MaldachlnL 
Without  place.  1666. 12.  u.  v.  Richerz,  Lps.  17S3,  but  not  to  be  depended  upon. 

1)  PMlomati  labores  juveniles.  Par.  1656.  l—Conring,  H.  elect.  Al.  Hlmst  1657. 4  (Opp.  vol  V.) 
— Arkenholz,  Mem.  concern.  Christine  R.  de  Suede.  Amst  1751s.  4  v.  4,  u.  v.  Jteifttein,  Lps. 
1753ss.  4  vols.  4.  Grauert,  Chr.  u.  ihr.  Hof.  Bonn.  1837s.  2  vols.— Relation  de  tout  ce  qui  se  passa  en- 
tre  le  P.  Al.  et  le  Roi  de  France.  Col.  1670. 12.  Desmarais,  H.  des  demelez  de  la  cour  de  France 
avec  la  cour  de  Romo.  Par.  1706.  4.  (Leti)  H  sindicato  dt  AL  con  il  suo  via^gio  nell'  altro  mondo. 
Gen.  1C63.  12. 


CHAP.  IL    CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TILL  1750.    §423.  POPES.  513 

Louis  XIV.  took  possession  of  Avignon,  and  threatened  to  sunder  all  connec- 
tion between  France  and  the  Roman  See.  Innocent  refused  to  grant  canoni- 
cal confirmation  to  all  those  bishops  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  king. 
That  he  might  be  master  of  his  own  city,  and  restore  the  administration  of 
justice,  he  abolished  the  privilege  which  ambassadors  had  sometimes  exer- 
cised, of  making  their  quarters  at  Eome  an  asylum  (la  franchise).  On  this 
the  French  ambassador,  whose  retinue  was  equal  to  an  army,  abused  both  the 
ecclesiastical  and  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  pope.  Innocent  died  without 
being  moved  from  his  purposes,  hated  by  the  great  and  by  the  Jesuits,  cursed 
by  the  people  as  a  miser,  and  yet  revered  as  a  saint,  (c)  Alexander  VIII. 
(Ottoboni,  1689-91),  who  was  elected  through  French  influence,  re-established 
the  whole  system  of  nepotism  and  simony,  supported  his  native  city  of  Venice 
in  its  war  against  the  Turks,  and  obtained  by  the  favor  of  France  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  freedom  of  its  ambassador's  quarters,  but  he  could  come  to  no 
agreement  respecting  the  royal  prerogative  in  the  French  Church.  Innocent 
XII.  (Pignatelli,  1 691-1  700)  took  the  predecessor  whose  name  he  bore,  for 
his  model,  and  endeavored  to  secure  by  laws  the  whole  succeeding  century 
against  nepotism  and  simony.  His  nepotes  were  the  poor,  and  the  Lateran 
was  his  hospital.  His  efforts  for  the  restoration  of  Church  discipline  ex- 
tended to  so  high,  and  yet  to  such  minute  subjects,  that  some  scoffers  boasted 
that  he  had  reformed  the  Church  in  its  head  and  members.  In  the  peace 
which  he  concluded  with  France  the  king  kept  possession  of  the  royal  prero- 
gative he  had  previously  claimed.  Clement  XL  (Albani,  1700-21),  an  inde- 
pendent prince  and  a  zealous  pathetic  preacher,  endeavored  without  success, 
in  the  complicated  mazes  of  the  war  of  succession,  to  obtain  by  spiritual  or 
carnal  weapons  some  share  in  the  inheritance.  His  protest  against  the  as- 
sumption of  the  crown  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  was  regarded  in  Ger- 
many as  a  papal  extravagance.  When  the  aversion  of  the  bishops  to  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  Sicilian  monarchy  had  come  to  an  open  rupture,  the  pope 
imagined  that  he  could  destroy  the  ecclesiastical  sovereignty  of  the  crown  by 
interdicts.  But  the  only  effect  which  they  produced  was  that  he  was  obliged 
to  support  at  Eome  the  three  thousand  clergymen  who  were  expelled  from 
the  Two  Sicilies  for  their  observance  of  the  interdict,  (d)  Innocent  XIII. 
(Conti,  1721-24),  a  kind  prince  and  a  conscientious  bishop,  on  the  pledge  that 
he  should  receive  the  palfrey  and  the  feudal  quitrents,  invested  the  emperor 
with  the  sovereignty  of  Naples,  vainly  protested  against  the  bestowal  of 
Parma  and  Piacenza  as  imperial  fiefs,  and  from  respect  to  France  was  obliged 
to  appoint  a  contemptible  wretch  to  the  cardinalship.  Benedict  XIII.  (Orsini, 
1724-30),  who  could  be  induced  to  accept  of  the  papal  office  only  by  a  regard 
to  his  monastic  vow  of  obedience,  seemed  always  to  have  regarded  the  con- 
vent of  the  Dominicans  as  his  world,  while  his  hypocritical  favorite,  Coscia, 
bartered  away  both  Church  and  state,  until  primitive  Christian  simplicity  be- 


c)  Vita  <TInn.  XL  Yen.  1690.  4.  Honamici,  de  vita  et  rebus  gestls  Inn.  XI.  Rom.  1776.  L'etat 
da  stege  de,  Eome.  Col.  1767. 

a-)  Opp.  (Bulls,  Discourses,  Letters)  Rom.  1722.  Frcf.  1729.  2  vols.  t.—Buder,  Leben  u.  Thaten  tl. 
klugen  u.  beruhmten  Cl.  XI.  Frkf.  1721.  3  vols.  (P.  Polidoro)  L.  VI.  de  vita  et  rebus  gestis  Cl.  Xt 
Urb.  1727.  4.  Reboulet,  H.  de  Cl.  XI.  Avign.  1752.  2  vols.  4. 

33 


5  1  4  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

came  utterly  ridiculous  in  a  court  so  recklessly  conformed  to  the  world.  A 
peace  was  concluded  with  Naples,  by  which  it  was  stipulated  that  the  Sicilian 
monarchy  should  be  recognized,  but  that  important  cases  of  dispensatior 
should  be  reserved  for  the  Roman  Curia,  (e)  Clement  XII.  (Corsini,  1730-40), 
who,  after  a  brilliant  career  was  raised  to  the  throne  when  old  and  blind,  was 
the  patron  of  justice,  art,  and  literature,  as  far  as  he  could  be  so  through  his 
family  favorites.  He  secretly  favored  the  conquest  of  Naples  for  a  Spanish 
prince.  (/)  Benedict  XIV.  (Lambertini,  1740-58),  a  learned,  well  meaning, 
and  facetious  master,  but  averse  to  public  affairs,  set  an  example  to  his  people 
of  noble  yet  simple  manners.  As  an  author  he  diminished  the  number  of  the 
saints  of  the  Romish  Church,  as  a  pope  he  abolished  many  of  their  festivals, 
and  lived  in  harmony  with  the  great  heretical  king,  (g)  and  endeavored  to 
preserve  the  dignity  of  the  Roman  court  by  judicious  concessions  to  the  Cath- 
olic princes,  that  they  might  not  become  unwilling  to  present  their  petitions 
there.  (h) 

§424.     The  Gallican  Church. 

(Picof)  Essftl  hist  sur  rinflnence  do  la  rcl.  en  Franco  pendant  le  17.  8.  Par.  1824.  2  vols.  translate'! 
as  Dcnkwurdigkelten  d.  franz.  K.  by  Rdss  &  Weis,  Frnkt  1828s.  2  vols. 

In  France  all  the  splendors  of  an  absolute  monarchy  were  developed  under 
Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715),  in  the  midst  of  a  wealthy  and  intellectual  nation, 
which  found  consolation  for  its  secret  wounds  in  the  gratification  of  its  vanity 
and  frivolity.  During  the  contest  with  Innocent  XI.  the  king  convoked  an 
assembly  of  bishops  and  barons  at  Paris  (1682),  in  which  the  legal  views 
which  ordinarily  prevailed  in  France  were  formally  pronounced.  It  was  there 
maintained:  1.  That  Peter  and  his  successors  have  received  power  from  God 
in  spiritual,  but  not  in  secular  affairs.  2.  That  this  power  is.  limited,  not  only 
by  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Constance  relating  to  the  authority  of  Gen- 
eral Councils,  but.  3.  By  the  established  prescriptions  and  usages  of  the  Gal- 
lican Church ;  and,  4.  That  the.  decisions  of  the  pope,  when  not  sustained  by 
the  authority  of  the  Church,  are  not  infallible.  These  propositions  of  the 
Gallican  clergy  were  proclaimed  by  a  royal  ordinance,  to  which  all  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  schools  were  to  be  conformed,  but  in  Rome  they  were  publicly 
burned  by  the  common  hangman.  The  whole  power  of  the  pope  was  founded 
on  the  opinion  that  no  bishop  elect  could  be  consecrated  without  the  papal 
sanction.  All  newly  elected  bishops  were  therefore  very  zealous  for  the  re- 
conciliation which  was  soon  effected  with  Innocent  XII.  by  the  revocation 
of  the  four  propositions.  Public  opinion,  however,  in  France,  has  never 
drawn  back  from  the  positions  assumed  in  them,  (a)  The  prelates  appointed 

e)  Opp.  theol.  Rom.  1728.  8  vols.  f.— Icona  et  mentis  et  cordis  Ben.  XIII.  Frcf.  1725.    Leben.  u, 
Thaten  Ben.  XIII.  Frkf.  1731.    Alex.  Borgia,  Ben.  XIIL  vita.  Rom.  1752.  4. 
/)  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  IV.  p.  1003ss. 

g)  Aug.  Tkeiner,  Zustiinde  d.  kath.  K.  in  Scblesien.  1740-53.  a.  d.  Archive  d.  b.  Stubls.  Ratisb. 
1852.  2  vols. 

K)  Opp.  ed.  Azevedo,  Rom.  1747ss.  12  vols.  4— Acta  bist  ecc.  vol.  IV.  p.  105Ss=.    Vie  du  P.  Ben. 
XIV.  Par.  1783. 12.    Hist  poL  Bl.  1853.  vol.  81.  H.  8. 

a)  E.  du  Pin,  de  pot.  ecc.  ettemp.  s.  declaratio  cleri  gall.  den.  rep.  Vind.  1776. 4.  Mog.  17S3. 4.  £o* 
*uet,  Defensio  declarations.  Lux.  (Gen.)  1730.  2  vols.  4.  &  oft  In  bis  Oeuvresl836.  vols.  IX.  JBaum- 


CHAP.  IL    CATHOEIC  CHUECn  TILL  1T50.    §  424.  FEANCE.    LOUIS  XIV.      5 1 5 

according  to  the  vacillating  policy  of  the  king  and  his  favorites,  formed  a 
spiritual  nobility  in  the  court  so  completely  submissive  that  even  their  liberal 
position  with  respect  to  Eome  depended  entirely  upon  the  royal  will.  But 
when  secular  literature  became  flourishing  and  subjected  the  intellect  of  Eu- 
rope to  its  sway,  the  consequences  of  the  restoration  of  Catholicism  entirely 
disappeared,  and  many  learned,  profound,  and  brilliant  writers  were  produced 
within  the  Church  itself.  As  the  great  historical  works  published  by  the 
monks  of  St.  Maur  and  in  the  Oratory  at  Rome,  were  generally  undertaken  in 
an  ecclesiastical  spirit,  and  without  a  wish  to  sacrifice  their  learned  leisure  to 
the  prejudices  of  an  inquisitorial  tribunal,  they  seldom,  and  never  intentionally, 
contained  any  thing  displeasing  to  the  hierarchy.  Petamus  (d.  1652)  com- 
posed his  work  on  the  history  of  doctrines  (p.  6,  nt.  c.}  with  the  hatred  to 
heretics  which  is  peculiar  to  the  Jesuits,  but  the  power  of  Catholicism  derives 
very  little  support  from  the  medley  of  opinions  he  has  brought  together  from 
the  ancient  Church.  Peter  de  Marco,,  Archbishop  of  Paris  (d.  1662),  attempted 
to  justify  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church  by  examples  derived  from  past 
ages  (p.  6,  nt.  5).  Mabillon  (d.  1707)  wrote  against  the  impudence  with  which 
the  bodies  taken  from  the  catacombs  were  honored  and  sold  at  Rome  for 
relics.  (5)  France  was  so  much  beloved  by  this  man  of  documents  that  even 
the  prayers  of  the  hierarchy  could  only  prevail  upon  him  slightly  to  mitigate 
the  form  of  his  expressions.  Huet  (d.  1721),  at  one  time  Bishop  of  Avranches, 
attempted  to  prove  the-  truth  of  Christianity  by  pointing  out  vestiges  of  it  in 
all  antiquity,  and  the  uncertainty  of  all  human  knowledge,  (c)  Richard  Si- 
mon (d.  1712),  with  a  bold  and  subtle  learning,  ventured  beyond  the  views 
then  commonly  entertained  respecting  the  origin,  preservation,  and  interpre- 
tation of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  He  forsook  the  Oratory  of  his  own  accord, 
was  violently  assailed  by  the  Protestants,  and  although  he  could  not  survive 
the  loss,  he  burned  his  manuscripts  on  account  of  the  displeasure  of  his  con- 
temporaries, and  for  fear  of  the  Jesuits,  (d)  Salignac  de  la  Motte  Fenelon, 
the  swan  of  Cambray  (d.  1715),  apostolical  in  his  spirit,  intellectual,  and 
guided  only  by  the  impulses  of  his  own  affectionate  heart,  described  an  edu- 
cation conformed  to  man's  nature,  in  contrast  with  the  mode  of  training  pur- 
sued by  the  Jesuits,  (e)  Bossuet  (d.  1704),  the  eagle  of  Meaux,  made  conces- 
sions to  the  court  and  to  the  world  without  injury  to  his  own  dignity  or  to 
his  Church.  In  the  service  of  the  king  he  defended  the  freedom  of  the  Gal- 
lican Church,  and  for  the  advantage  of  the  pope  he  attacked  the  Protestants. 
*!is  attractive  representation  of  Catholicism  was  made  to  show  that  the  lat- 
ter had  abandoned  the  Church  only  because  they  were  ignorant  of  its  true 
character.  Language  was  subject  to  his  control  as  if  he  were  its  king,  his 

qarten,  v.  d.  Freih.  d.  gall.  K.  Hal.  1752.  Gregoire,  Essai  hist  sur  les  libertes  de  1'egl.  gallicano. 
Par.  1817. 

1)  EuseMi  Romani  Ep.  de  cultu  Sanctorum  ignotor.  Par.  1CS8.  4.  ed.  2. 1705.  4.    Both  in  Ouv- 
rages  posthumes.  Par.  1724.  vol.  1.  p.  209ss. 

c)  Huetii  Coinmentar.  de  rebus  ad  eum  pertinent.  Amst.  1718. 12. 

d)  H.  crit  du.  V.  T.  (Par.  1678.  4.)  Eot  1685.  4.  II.  crit  du  N.  T.  Eott  1689.  4.— Life  prefaced  to 
Lettres  choisies  de  M.  Simon  par  de  la  Martiniire,  Amst  1730.  4  vols.  12.    K,  H.  Graf,  u.  E.  8. 
(Boitrr.  zu  d.  Th.  Wiss.  Jena  1851.  vol.  I.) 

a)  Oeuv.  Spirituelles.  Antv.  1718.  2  v.  &  often.  Correspondance  de  Fen.  Par.  1827.  3  vols,— Rwn- 
at*?/,  H.  de  Fen.  Hay.  1723. 12.  OobL  1826.    De  Beausset,  H.  de  Fen.  Par.  1809.  3  vols. 


5 1 6  MODERN  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1853. 

eloquence  was  lofty,  ingenious,  on  difficult  subjects  sometimes  wonderfully 
fine,  and  in  consequence  of  a  strain  of  sadness  which  prevails  in  it,  generally 
pathetic.  (/)  The  pulpit  orators  contemporary  with  him  were :  Flechier, 
Bishop  of  Nismes  (d.  1710),  whose  cool  considerateness  made  every  exalted 
thing  on  earth  bow  to  the  doctrine  of  the  cross ;  the  Jesuit,  Bourdaloue 
(d.  1704),  whose  discourses,  with  no  brilliant  passages,  and  with  no  effort  to 
obtain  applause,  move  all  hearts  by  their  vigorous  beauty ;  Massillon,  Bishop 
of  Clermont  (d.  1742),  who,  while  revealing  in  the  noblest  language  of  an 
accomplished  education,  the  secrets  of  the  human  heart,  the  captivating  mid- 
dle path  between  the  extremes  of  good  and  evil,  and  the  intricacies  of  daily 
life,  made  virtue  seem  attractive,  and  even  the  king  dissatisfied  with  himself ; 
and  finally  the  missionary,  Bridaine  (about  1750),  who,  with  popular  vigor  as 
a  messenger  of  God,  gave  utterance  to  the  thunders  of  the  eternal  world.  (?) 

JANSENISM. 

Leydecker,  H.  Jansenlsmi.  TraJ.  ad  Eh.  1695.  (Gerlerori)  II.  g6n6rale  de  Jans.  Amst  1TOO.  Lit- 
chesini,  II.  polem.  Jans.  Eom.  1711.  8  vols.  Abr6g6  hist  des  detours  et  dcs  variat  da  Jam-.  With- 
out place.  1789.  4  Dofn.  tb  Colonia,  Diction,  des  livrcs  Jansenlstcs.  Lyon.  1752.  4  vols.  12.  [Art. 
in  Kltto's  Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit  vol.  VII.] 

§  425.    I.  Port-Royal. 

Fontaine,  Mum.  pour  servir  u  I'll,  de  P.  R.  Col.  (Utr.)  1783.  2  vols.  12.  J.  Eacine,  H.  d.  P.  11. 
Par.  1767.  2  vols.  More  complete  in  bis  Oeuvr.  Par.  1799.  4  vols.  Eolation  de  la  paix  de  1'egl.  sous. 
Cl.  IX.  avec  dcs  lettres,  actes  etc.  1706.  2  vols.  (Quesnell)  La  paix  de  Cl.  IX.  Brux.  1701.  2  vols.  12. 
If.  Rtuchlin,  Gescb.  v.  P.  E.  Hmb.  1889-44  2  v.  C.  A.  Saint*  Beuve,  P.  E.  Par.  1340-2.  2  vols. 
[EoL  Mag.  vol.  3.  p.  869.  Art  in  Meth.  Quart.  Eov.  April  1853.  p.  191-212.] 

A  controversy  which  had  for  some  time  been  slumbering,  was  revived  by 
Jansenius,  a  deceased  Bishop  of  Ypres.  His  work,  which  together  with  his 
testament  was  edited  by  a  friend,  (a)  contained  an  exact  representation  of  the 
Augustinian  and  Pelagian  systems  of  doctrine,  from  which  it  appeared  that 
many  of  the  scholastic  writers  and  popes  approached  much  nearer  the  heretic 
than  the  saint.  To  the  system  of  external  accommodation  which  so  exten- 
sively prevailed  in  the  ethical  system  of  the  Jesuits,  was  here  opposed  the 
cordial  sincerity  of  a  spirit  wrought  by  God,  which,  being  freed  by  grace 
from  the  power  of  concupiscence,  and  implanted  in  the  soil  of  divine  love, 
cannot  sin,  and  finds  its  freedom  in  the  service  of  God.  The  Jesuits  attacked 
the  book  as  soon  as  it  appeared,  and  Urban  VIII.  directed  against  it  the  bull 
In  eminenti  (1642).  The  University  of  Louvain,  however,  in  behalf  of  the 
Netherlandic  clergy  suggested  the  inquiry,  whether  the  pope  condemned  the 
rejected  propositions  as  the  propositions  of  Jansen  or  of  Augustine  ?  When 

/)  Oeuv.  Von.  1736ss.  5  vols.  4.  Par.  1744.4  vols.  f.  Oenv.  postb.  Amst.  (Par.)  1753. 3  vols.  4.  Oeuv. 
compl.  Par.  1S36. 12  vols.  4.—De  JBeaueset,  H.  de  Boss.  Par.  1814  4  vols.  Tabaraud,  Suppl6m.  aux 
H.  de  Boss,  et  de  Fen.  Par.  1822.  A.  Caillot,  Vie  de  Boss.  Par.  1836.  Eespecting  his  allowed  mar- 
riage: (Weis)  Katholik.  1827.  P.  6.  N.  1.  A.  K  Z.  1827.  N.  83.  [A  work  by  H.  Floquet  on  the  Life 
&  Writings  of  Bossuet  Is  announced  in  Paris  in  1854,  and  is  said  to  contain  important  discoveries.] 

g)  Mawry,  Essai  snr  1'eloquence  de  la  chaire.  Par.  1810.  vol.  I.  Lit.  hist  will  be  found  in  Am 
man,,  Handb.  d.  Kanzelberedts.  Nurnb.  1812.  p.  48s.  Examples:  Musterpred.  franz.  Kanzelredner 
ubers.  v.  Lincke,  m.  Vorr.  v.  Krehl.  Meiss.  1833. 

a)  Augustinus  s.  doctrina  Aug.  do  humanae  naturae  sanitate,  aegritudine  et  medicina  adv.  Pelaf 
et  Massilienses.  Lev.  1640.  f.  &  often. 


CHAP.  II.    CATHOLIC  CHUECH  TILL  1750.    §  426.  PORT-KOYAL.  5 1 7 

the  government  had  decided  in  favor  of  the  bull  (1647)  it  was  generally  re- 
ceived in  all  parts  of  Belgium.  In  France,  the  Abbot  of  St.  Cyran  (d.  1643) 
the  early  friend  of  Jansen,  a  John  in  the  prison  of  Eichelieu,  and  with  a 
higher  ambition  than  that  ancient  preacher,  had  already  collected  a  band  of 
youthful  disciples,  whose  enthusiasm  for  the  liberty  of  the  Church  had  been 
excited  by  a  severe  doctrine  and  discipline.  (5)  Anthony  Arnauld  (d.  1694), 
the  shrewd  and  profound  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  with  an  hereditary  hatred 
of  the  Jesuits,  took  his  stand  in  favor  of  Augustine,  (e)  "With  him  stood, 
after  a  brief  struggle  in  youth,  his  sister  Angelica,  the  Abbess  of  the  Cister- 
cian convent  of  Port-Royal,  and  a  convent-mother,  whose  gentle  spirit  was 
pervaded  by  the  most  thorough  earnestness  of  monastic  life,  (d)  Engaged  in  the 
same  cause  was  also  a  community  of  highly  educated  men,  who  lived  in  the 
manner  of  the  ancient  anachorets  in  the  vicinity  of  Port-Royal  des  Champs. 
Innocent  X.  condemned  five  propositions  taken  from  the  work  of  Jansen 
(1653).  Arnauld's  friends  explained  that  the  five  propositions  were  not  in- 
tended by  the  author  to  be  understood  in  the  sense  in  which  they  were  con- 
demned by  the  pope.  But  Alexander  VII.  assured  the  world  (1656)  that 
they  were  actually  condemned  in  the  sense  intended  by  Jansen.  The  party 
at  Port-Royal  and  four  bishops  objected  that  this  was  a  simple  question  re- 
specting an  historical  fact  (la  question  du  fait),  on  which  the  Church  could  de- 
cide with  no  higher  authority  than  science4.  This  revival  of  Augustinism 
originated  in  the  same  spirit  which  had  induced  the  Reformers  to  revive  it,  a 
deep  religious  earnestness  in  opposition  to  the  extreme  levity  which  prevailed 
in  the  Church.  The  general  duty  of  seeking  edification  in  the  perusal  of  the 
sacred  Scriptures  was  defended,  and  the  absolute  recognition  of  the  sove- 
reignty of  God  was  a  shield  against  the  absolute  authority  of  the  papacy  and 
the  monarchy.  But  the  Port-Royalists  denied  that  there  was  any  such  affin- 
ity between  themselves  and  the  reformers,  and  entered  with  peculiar  zeal  into 
the  conflict  with  Calvinism.  They  also  acknowledged  that  the  principle  of 
all  good  works  must  lie  in  a  pious  disposition,  (e)  and  yet  they  were  models 
of  the  severest  penances  and  self-denials.  Their  devotional  books,  written  in 
the  purest  style  of  the  most  accomplished  French  authors,  very  soon  took  the 
place  of  the  Jesuitical  literature.  Pascal  (1623-62),  an  eminent  mathemati- 
cian even  in  early  youth,  had  his  religious  spirit  awakened  during  a  dangerous 
illness,  and  in  the  midst  of  continual  debility,  to  consider  the  natural  condi- 
tion of  the  Christian.  In  opposition  to  a  sceptical  world,  and  in  brilliant 
flashes  of  thought,  he  proved  from  the  very  contradictions  of  men  the  neces- 
sity and  truth  of  Christianity  as  a  restoration  of  religion  to  those  who  longed 
to  know  the  divine  will.  By  the  enthusiasm  and  wit  of  his  Letters,  the  ori- 
gin of  which  was  then  so  mysterious,  but  exhibited  a  perfect  sympathy  with 
the  Port-Royalists,  the  public  mind  was  completely  carried  against  the  lax 
piety  and  licentious  confessional  morality  of  the  Jesuits,  (/)  although  these 

I)  Oeuvres  chretiennes  et  spirituelles.  Lyon.  16T9.  4  vols.  16. 

c)  Oeuvres  d'Arnauld,  Laus.  1773.  48  vols.  4.   After  Lanjuinais  etudes  biogr.  (Par.  1823.)    Set* 
'del,  in  the  KHist.  Archiv.  1824  vol.  II.  P.  1. 

(T)  Entretiens  ou  conferences  de  la  mere  Ang61ique.  Brux.  1757. 12. 

e)  A.  Arnauld,  de  la  frequente  communion.  Par.  1643.  &  often. 

/)  Pens6es.  Par.  1669. 16.  &  often.  Brl.  1836.  transl.  into  Germ,  (by  Kleuker)  Brem.  1777,  by  Blech. 


518  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  YI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

were  the  representatives  of  -worldly  interests,  and  in  some  respects  of  ever, 
sound  common  sense,  (g)  Clement  IX.  gave  the  Jansenists  an  opportunity, 
by  means  of  certain  equivocal  expressions,  to  reconcile  their  convictions  with 
the  papal  will  (1669).  Innocent  XI.  was  at  heart  not  very  far  from  them. 
But  Clement  XL  and  Louis  XIV.  were  determined  upon  their  extermination. 
Most  of  them  fled  to  the  Netherlands,  Port-Royal  was  abolished,  and  so  com- 
pletely destroyed  that  even  the  graves  were  rifled  of  their  contents,  (h) 

§  426.    II.  The  Constitution  Unigenitus. 

AcU  Const  Unlg.  od.  Pfaff,  Tub.  1721.  4.  Col  nova  Actt  Const  U.  ed.  Dulois,  Lugd.  B.  1725. 
4.— Anecdotes  secretes  de  la  Const  U.  Utraj.  1782.  8  vols.  Magd.  and  Lpz.  1755s».  6  v.  La  Const  U. 
d6foree  a  1'egl.  univ.  Col.  1760.  4  vols.  [Papae  dementis  XL  famoelssima  Bulla  sic  dicta  Unig.  &c. 
Rom.  17ia] 

The  illustrations  of  the  New  Testament  published  by  Paschasius  Qucsnell 
(d.  1719),  a  Jansenist  who  had  been  expelled  from  the  Oratory,  was  a  book 
much  beloved  by  the  people,  and  recommended  by  many  high  authorities*of 
the  Church  for  devotional  uses.  («)  But  the  Jesuits  deemed  it  of  great  im- 
portance for  the  overthrow  of  Jansenism  that  this  book  should  be  con- 
demned. The  same  thing  was  also  demanded  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  Clement 
XL  was  finally  induced  to  condemn,  by  the  Constitution  Unigenitus  (1713), 
101  propositions  taken  from  Quesnell's  New  Testament  as  heretical,  danger- 
ous, or  offensive  to  pious  ears.  Among  these  were  many  doctrines  of  the 
fathers,  and  even  of  the  Scriptures,  but  which  were  capable  of  a  Jansenist 
explanation.  Hence  a  large  portion  of  the  French  clergy  and  people,  with 
the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  the  Cardinal  de  Noailles  at  their  head,  publicly 
resisted  the  Constitution.  The  king  commenced  the  work  of  executing  it  by 
force,  and  died,  not  without  some  misgivings  that  he  might  have  gone  too  far 
in  this  matter.  Under  the  regency  of  Orleans,  who  cared  no  more  for  the 
pope  than  he  did  for  Christ  himself,  many  bishops,  in  opposition  to  the  papal 
enactment,  appealed  to  a  future  council.  But  as  the  minister  Dubois  was 
anxious  to  attain  the  dignity  of  Cardinal,  the  regency  decided  (after  1719) 
against  the  appellants,  and  when  Louis  XV.  undertook  the  government  under 
the  Cardinal  A.  H.  Fleury,  those  who  had  made  the  appeal  were  compelled 
by  depositions,  imprisonments,  and  banishments,  to  withdraw  it,  and  the 
Constitution  was  by  an  act  of  royal  sovereignty  enforced  as  a  law  of  the 
kingdom  (1730).  The  last  attempt  in  behalf  of  Jansenism  was  by  means  of 
miracles  and  wild  convulsions  at  the  grave  of  a  popular  saint,  Francis  of 

•with  Pret  by  Neander.  Bcrl.  1840.  Pens6es  (in  their  orig.  form),  fragments  et  lettres  publ.  p.  Prosp. 
faugere,  Par.  1844  2  vols.  Les  Provinciales,  Par.  1656s.  4  &  often.  Lemgo.  1774  8  v.  Oeuvres. 
Hay.  1779.  Dijon.  1835.  2  vols.  [Pascal's  Thoughts  on  Rel.  ed.  by  Bickersteth.  Lond.  1847.  8.  New 
York,  &  Provincial  Letters.  Edinb.  1847.  New  York  &  Philad,  1847.]— La  vie  de  P.  par  sa  soeur 
Mad.  Perier.  (Prefixed  to  Pensees.  Ainst.  16S4.  &  often.)  Bossut,  Discours  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvr.  do 
P.  (Oeuv.  de  P.  1779. 1819.)  U.  Reuchlin,  P.  Leben  u.  Geist  ST.  Schrr.  Stuttg.  1840.  JSordaa  De~ 
moulin,  Eloge  de  P.  Par.  1843.  Neander  In  Wiss.  Abhh.  Brl.  1851.  p.  74ss.  J.  Mueller  in  d.  D. 
Zcitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1853.  N.  30.  [Art  in  Kitto's  Journ.  of  Bibl.  Lit  voL  III.] 

g)  Dumas,  H.  des  cinq,  proposs.  do  Jans.  Liege.  1699.  2  vols. 

h)  M6m.  sur  la  destruction  de  P.  R.  des  Champs.  1711.     Gregoire,  les  mines  de  P.  R.  Par.  1809. 

a)  Partially  publ.  after  1671,  but  the  whole  issued:  Le  Nouv.  Test,  en  Francois  avec  des  ^flec- 
tions morales.  Par.  1687.  2  vols.  12.  and  often. 


CHAP.  II.    CATHOLIC  CHUECH  TILL  1750.    §426.  JANSENISM.  519 

Paris,  who  had  died  with  the  appeal  in  his  hand  (172V).  Strange  things 
were  related,  which  made  a  deep  impression  upon  even  unbelievers,  but  the 
miracles  found  a  grave  in  the  dungeons  which  the  government  provided  for 
those  who  asserted  them.  (5)  Beaumont,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  gave  orders 
that  all  dying  persons  who  could  not  prove  in  their  certificate  of  confession 
that  they  had  accepted  of  the  Constitution,  should  be  denied  the  sacrament, 
and  it  was  accordingly  refused  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  The  archbishop  was 
summoned  to  answer  for  this  act  at  the  bar  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  (1752). 
All  interference  in  spiritual  affairs  on  the  part  of  that  body  was  then  forbid- 
den by  the  king.  The  Parliament  appealed  to  their  oath,  which  bound  them 
to  assist  every  citizen  in  the  maintenance  of  his  rights.  A  peace  was  finally 
mediated  by  means  of  a  mild  pastoral  letter  from  Benedict  XIV.  (1756).  (c) 
Jansenism  has  however  subsequently  propagated  itself  in  three  different 
forms.  In  the  Netherlands  it  has  a  peculiar  form  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment, with  no  connection  with  the  Eoman  Church,  but  with  the  Archbishop 
of  Utrecht  presiding  over  the  two  Bishops  of  Harlem  and  Deventer.  (d)  The 
mystical  element  has  been  continued  among  a  few  enthusiasts  (Convulsion- 
naires),  who,  having  elevated  their  feelings  to  a  high  degree  of  spasmodic 
exhilaration  by  a  certain  amount  of  corporeal  abuses,  wounds  and  crucifix- 
ions, pour  forth  predictions  of  the  overthrow  of  the  throne  and  of  the 
Church,  (e}  The  liberal  element  in  the  form  of  a  theological  spirit  has  ex- 
tensively prevailed  among  a  large  portion  of  the  clergy  in  France,  Germany, 
and  Italy. 

§  427.    Mysticism,  Quietism,  and  Pious  Humor. 

Antoinette  Bourignon  (d.  1680)  of  Eyssel,  proposed  to  God  at  first,  that 
she  would  love  him  and  his  creatures  at  the  same  time,  but  afterwards,  under 
an  impression  that  she  loved  him  alone,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  busy  scene  of 
external  confusion,  she  held  continual  conversation  with  God  like  a  woman 
in  the  society  of  her  husband.  She  would  consent  to  be  judged  by  no  other 
authority  than  the  Bible,  although  she  herself  professed  to  stand  in  no  need 
of  a  written  word  of  God,  and  had  herself  saluted  as  the  mother  of  all  be- 
lievers with  a  new  revelation  to  man.  She  was  persecuted  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  had  some  connections  with  the  Jansenists,  but  she  was  herself  indifferent 
with  respect  to  both  Churches,  and  had  many  admirers  and  bitter  opponents 
in  both,  (a)  The  Alombrados.  who  may  almost  be  regarded  as  the  Quakers 

I)  Vie  de  M.  Franc,  de  Paris  Utr.  1729.  and  often.  Eecueil  des  inir.  sur  le  tombeau  de  P.  Par. 
1784s.  3  vols.*  Montfferon,  la  v6rit6  des  mir.  (Par.  1787.)  Col.  1745ss.  8  vols.  4.  Mem.  de  Me.  de 
Pompadour.  Par.  1830.  vol.  I.  p.  57.— Proces  verbaux  des  plusieurs  medecins,  dress6s  par  ordre  de  sa 
Majeste  au  sujet  de  quelques  personnes  soidisantes  agitees  des  convulsions.  Par.  1732.  Mosheim  Dss. 
ad  H.  ecc.  vol.  II.  p.  807ss. 

c)  Apologie  des  jugemens  rendus  contre  le  schisme  par  les  tribunaux  seculiers.  Par.  1752.  3  vols. 
Walch,  nst.  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  I.  p.  58.  4S9ss. 

d)  Dupac  de  Bellegarde,  H.  de  1'egl.  metropol.  d'Utrecht.  Utr.  1784  ed.  3.  1852.     Walch,  nst. 
Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  VI.  p.  82ss.    Theol.  Quartalsch.  Tub.  1826.  P.  Is.    Augusti,  d.  Erzb.  Utrecht 
Bonn.  1S38. 

e)  Oregoire  vol.  I.  p.  878ss.  (Archiv.  f.  KG.  vol.  I.  St.  2.  p.  189ss.) 

a)  Oeuvres  p.  P.  Poiret,  Amst.  1679ss.  19  vols.  In  the  first  vol.  is  her  Life  by  herself  and  by 
Poiret.—  Walch,  Eel.  Streit.  auss.  d.  luth.  K.  voL  I.  p.  621.  IV,  891ss.  W.  Klose,  A.  Bur.  (Zeitsch. 
f.  hist.  Th.  1851.  II.  3.)  [Apol.  for  Mad.  Bourignon.  Lond.  1699.  8.  Translations  :  Acad.  of  Learned 


520  MODERN  CHUKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

of  Catholicism,  have  at  different  times  (since  1575),  but  probably  under  the 
excitement  of  Protestant  influences,  made  their  appearance  in  Spain.  Michael 
Molinos  of  Saragossa,  a  zealous  curate  at  Kome,  recommended  as  the  true 
way  of  salvation  that  the  soul  should  seek  to  become  affectionately  one  with 
God  by  quiet  prayer  and  a  complete  annihilation  of  its  own  independent  ex- 
istence. The  French  ambassador,  in  the  name  of  the  Jesuits,  demanded  that 
this  Quietism  should  be  rejected  by  the  Church  (1687).  Molinos,  after  abjur- 
ing the  condemned  propositions,  died  while  suffering  a  severe  imprisonment 
in  a  convent  (1696).  (If)  Madame  Guyon  of  Paris  (d.  1717)  followed  in  his  foot- 
steps, and  even  went  beyond  him  in  some  respects,  but  with  a  love  to  God 
so  exceedingly  ardent,  that  few  have  equalled  it  even  in  their  earthly  attach- 
ments, (c)  Bo&tuet,  whose  clear  understanding  could  see  nothing  but  a  dan- 
gerous fanaticism  in  a  love  which  had  so  completely  surrendered  all  regard 
for  self,  that  in  its  longings  after  God  it  had  no  desires  even  for  salvation, 
prepossessed  the  mind  of  the  court  against  her.  But  Fenelon  denied  the  jus- 
tice of  her  condemnation,  and  showed  how  true  mysticism  was  to  be  under- 
stood in  accordance  with  the  models  of  Catholic  antiquity,  and  how  it  should 
be  looked  upon  as  the  genuine  worship  of  God  in  the  heart,  and  therefore  the 
basis  of  all  the  external  forms  of  the  Church,  (d)  Twenty-three  propositions 
extracted  from  his  book,  Bossuet  had  condemned  at  Rome.  Fenelon  received 
a  copy  of  this  condemnation  just  as  he  was  ascending  the  pulpit  of  his  cathe- 
dral. AVith  the  humility  so  natural  to  his  disposition,  he  immediately  sub- 
mitted to  it,  and  exhorted  his  congregation  to  conform  to  its  directions 
(1699).(e)  In  Germany,  Angelas  Silcsius  (Scheffler  of  Breslau,  d.  1677),  a 
physician,  but  subsequently  a  priest,  although  he  renounced  the  Protestant 
Church  and  the  friendship  of  Jacob  Boehme,  carried  with  him  an  intense 
love  of  the  Saviour.  Although  the  extreme  longings  of  his  heart  threw  him 
Into  the  abyss  of  Pantheism,  his  profound  speculations  are  so  transparent, 
his  bold  expressions  are  so  childlike,  and  his  poetry  is  so  delightful,  intellec- 
tual, and  affectionate,  that  they  have  always  been  looked  upon  as  sacred  in 
both  Churches.  (/)  Abraham  a  S.  Clara  (U.  Megerle,  d.  1707)  has  given  a 
bold  and  ingenious  expression  of  the  popular  humor  which  prevailed  in  Sua- 


Divines.  Lond.  1703.    Confusion  of  the  Builders  of  Babel.  Lond.  1T08.    Light  of  the  World.  1696. 
Light  risen  in  Darkness.  1703.  abridged,  Lond.  1786.    Eenov.  of  the  Gosp.  Spirit.  Lond.  1817. 12.] 

6)  Guida  spirituale.  Eom.  1681.  In  Spanish  even  in  1675,  in  Lat  \>j  Francke,  1687,  and  in  Germ. 
by  Arnold,  1699.— Eecueil  des  div.  pieces  concernant  le  Quictisme.  Amst  1688.  Other  things  in 
Weiasmann,  II.  ecc.  P.  II.  p.  641.  C.  E.  Scharling,  Mystikeren  M.  Molinos's  Laero  og  Skjaebne. 
Kjobenh.  1852.  4 

c)  La  Bible  de  Me.  Guyon.  Col.  (Amst.)  1715ss.  20  vols.— La  vie  de  M,  de  la  Mothe  Guyon,  ecrite 
par  elle-meme.  Col.  1720.  3  vols.  12.  and  often.  Brl.  1826.  3  vols.     C.  Hermes,  Zuge  a.  d.  Leben  d.  Fr. 
7.  G.  Magdeb.  1845.    \T.  C.  Upham,  Life,  Opinions,  and  Experience  of  Me.  G.  New  York.  1851. 
2  vols.  12.    Eclect.  Mag.  Aug.  1853.  p.  431ss.    Life  and  Eel.  Opinions  of  Mad.  G.  and  of  Fenelon. 
Lond.  1851.  2  vols.  12.    L.  M.  Child,  Lives  of  Lady  Eussell  and  Mad.  G:  Boston.  1880. 12.] 

d)  Explication  des  inaximes  de  Saints  sur  la  vie  interieure.  Par.  1697.  12.  and  often. 

f)  (Jurieu)  Jugement  sur  la  Theol.  mysL  et  sur  les  demelez  de  1'eveque  de  Meaux  avee  Tarche- 
veque  de  Cambray.  (Amst.  1699.)  JBeausset  and  Tdbaraud.  (p.  515-16.) 

/)  Cherubinischer  Wandersmann.  Brsl.  1657.  and  often.  Munich.  1815.  1827.  Brl.  1820.  1S33. 
Heilige  Seolenlust  o.  geistl.  Hirtenlieder  der  verliebten  Psyche.  Brsl.  1657.  Munich.  1826.  Witt- 
mann<  A.  S.  als  Convertit,  myst  Dichtei  u.  Polemiker.  Augsb.  1S42.  (W.  Schroder,  A.  S.  Hal.  1858 
t.)  A.  Kahlert,  A.  S.  Brsl.  1853. 


CHAP.  II.    CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TILL  1750.    §  428.  NEW  OKDEES.  521 

bia  and  Vienna  with  respect  to  the  perversities  of  the  world,  and  in  favor  of 
the  pious  morality  of  his  native  land,  (g) 

§  428.    Newly  Established  Orders. 

BoutJiillier  de  la  Ranee  (d.  1700),  after  a  dissipated  youth,  became,  in 
consequence  of  a  painful  accident,  dissatisfied  with  the  world,  distributed  his 
wealth  among  the  poor,  resigned  all  his  livings  except  that  of  La  Trappe,  of 
which  he  had  been  an  abbot  even  in  his  boyhood,  and  betook  himself  to  a 
residence  in  that  convent  (1662).  That  he  might  revive  the  original  rule  of 
Cisteaux,  he  imposed  upon  the  monks  there  a  terrible  system  of  self-denial, 
which  deprived  them  even  of  the  pleasures  of  conversation  and  reading.  A 
few  colonies  of  the  Trappists  were  founded  in  Italy,  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
and  America,  and  some  were  formed  for  nuns,  (a)  In  France,  where  popular 
instruction  was  not  regularly  attended  to  by  either  the  Church  or  the  State, 
the  Society  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  (Ignorantins)  was  found- 
ed for  that  purpose  by  Baptist  de  la  Salle  (1724),  but  more  especially  for  the 
education  of  future  teachers.  A  Neapolitan  named  Liguori  (d.  1787),  with 
whom  the  will  of  the  pope  was  equivalent  to  the  will  of  God,  formed  the 
Congregation  of  the  Most  Sacred  Redeemer  (Redemptorists,  Liguorists),  a 
friendly  variety  of  the  Jesuits,  and  in  subsequent  times  affording  to  them  a 
refuge  and  a  hope.  (5)  In  addition  to  the  associations  without  regular  vows, 
were  established  sisterhoods  for  the  Adoration  of  the  Heart  of  Jesus  and 
Mary,  for  the  cultivation  of  a  sensuous  kind  of  worship  which  had  been 
recommended  ever  since  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  Jesu- 
its, at  the  suggestion  of  love-intoxicated  nuns.  The  establishment  of  this 
order  had  been  frequently  declined,  but  it  was  finally  (1765)  authorized 
at  Rome,  and  was  introduced  in  some  places.  It  was  a  subject  of  debate 
among  divines  whether  the  actually  bleeding  heart,  or  a  mere  symbol  of 
divine  love,  was  the  object  of  adoration.  By  the  people,  however,  these 
votaries  were  often  ridiculed  as  Cordicolatras  or  Marionettes,  (e) 

§  429.    Spread  of  Christianity.     Cont.  from  §  394&?. 

.  1.  The  Church  in  China  continued  to  make  some  gradual  advances,  prin- 
cipally through  the  assistance  of  the  missionary  seminary  at  'Paris  (after 
1663).  Instances  of  oppression  were  not  numerous,  and  were  generally  of 
short  duration.  But  the  mendicant  friars  were  more  and  more  urgent  in 
their  complaints  at  Rome  against  the  mingling  of  Christianity  with  idolatry. 


g)  Judas  der  Erzschelm.  Bonn.  Salzb.  IGSTss.  4vols.  and  often.  Huy!  u.  Pfuy!  der  Welt.  Wurtz. 
1707.  4.  and  often.  Eeim  dich  o.  ich  liss  dich,  d.  i.  allerly  Materien,  Discurs  u.  Predigtcn.  Salzb. 
17S7.  4.  and  often.  Das  Gediegenste  a.  s.  W.  Blaubeuren.  1840ss.  Werke,  Lindau  1846ss. 

a)  Ranee :  Lettres,  publ.  par  B.  Gonod,  Par.  1846.  Tr.  de  la  saintete  et  des  devoirs  do  la  viemonas- 

•  tique.  1683.  2  vols.  4.   On  the  other  side :  MaMllon,  Tr.  des  etudes  monast.  1691.  and  often.— Marsol* 

Her,  Vie  de  I1  Abbe  de  la  Trappe.  Par.  1703.  2  vols.  12.     Chateaubriand,  Vie  de  Ranee.  Par.  1844. 

Ulm.  1845.    L.  D.  B.  Hist,  civile,  rel.  et  litter,  de  1'abbaye  de  la  Tr.  Par.  1824.    Jtitsert,  Orden  d. 

Trappisten.  Drmst.  1833.     Gaillardin,  les  Trappistes.  Par.  1844.  vol.  I. 

&)  Oeuvres  completes.  Par.  1835.  14  vols.  8.  and  12.  A.  Giatini,  vita  del  b.  Alfonso  Lig.  Bom. 
1815.  4.  Vienna.  1835.  Jeancard,  Vie  du  b.  Alf.  Lig.  Louvain.  1829. 

c)  Benedicti  XIV.  de  server.  Dei  beatif.  IV,  30.  Archiv.  f.  KG.  vol.  I.  St.  2.  p.  177es.  WactUfr 
In  2-eitscb.  f.  hist.  Th.  1834.  St.  1. 


522  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1853. 

For  a  long  time  the  Jesuits,  however,  succeeded  by  craft  and  power  to  de- 
fend themselves  against  the  orders  sent  to  them  from  Rome  on  this  suhject 
The  legate  Tournon  died  while  enduring  a  confinement  at  Macao,  brought 
upon  him  by  their  means  (1710).  At  last  their  adversaries  were  successful 
(1740).  No  sooner,  however,  were  the  sacred  usages  of  the  nation  rejected, 
than  a  persecution  seldom  suspended  was  commenced,  from  which  only  a  few 
unimportant  fragments  of  the  Church  were  ever  saved.  2.  In  the  East 
Indies  likewise,  the  hope  of  success  depended  upon  the  compliance  of  the 
missionaries  with  the  customs  of  the  Brahmans,  and  their  incorporation  of 
the  religious  and  social  usages  of  the  people  into  the  system  of  Christianity. 
When  the  Jesuits  at  Pondichery  represented  in  one  of  their  sacred  dramas 
the  destruction  of  the  Indian  gods  by  the  Knight  St.  George  (1V01),  a  perse- 
cution was  immediately  commenced  in  that  country;  and  when  the  bull 
against  the  admixture  of  heathenish  customs  with  the  Christian  religion  was 
enforced  (1742),  the  progress  of  the  mission  was  at  an  end.  (a)  3.  In 
Thibet,  the  gospel  was  preached  (after  1707)  by  the  Capuchins,  and  they 
were  allowed  to  erect  a  hospitium  there.  But  the  worship  of  the  Dalai 
Lama  was  itself  too  much  like  an  ascendant  papacy,  to  present  much  hope 
of  success  in  the  proclamation  of  a  Roman  Christianity.  (5)  4.  In  South 
America,  a  splendid  church  organization  according  to  the  European  style 
was  developed.  In  a  portion  of  North  America,  where  the  dominion  of 
Franco,  was  extended,  were  also  established  component  parts  of  the  Gallican 
Church. 


CHAP.  III.— ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  UNTIL  1814. 

I.    MATTEES  PBELIMINABY  TO  THE  REVOLUTION. 

§  430.    French  Philosophy.    Cont.from  §  416. 

Correspondance  liter,  phil.  et  crit  par  Grimm  et  Diderot,  Par.  1818ss.  16  vote  Extracts :  Bran 
dcnb.  1820.—  Walch,  nst  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  I.  p.  473ss.  (J.  A.  v.  Stark)  Triumph  d.  phil.  im  18.  Jahrh. 
Frkf.  1808.  2  vote  recently  edit  by  Buchfdner,  Landsh.  1834.  (c.  Schulz)  Gesch.  v.  Staatsveriindr. 
unter  Ludwig  XVL  o.  Entet  Fortsch.  u.  Wirks  d.  sogen.  neuen  Phil.  Lps.  1826-33.  6  vols.  L.  Ler- 
minier,  de  1'inflnence  de  la  phil.  da  18.  8.  Par.  1833.  Lps.  1835.  Schlosser,  vol.  L  p.  477.  II.  443ss.— Liter, 
of  the  French  Classics  in  Ebert.  [J.  D.  MoreU,  Hist  and  Crit  View  of  the  Spec.  Phil,  of  Ear.  in 
the  19th  cent  Lond.  1847.  2  ecL  8.  New  York.  1848.  8.  P.  Damiron,  Essai  sur  1'H.  de  la  phil.  en  Fr. 
au  XVIIe.  S.  3  ed.  Par.  1846.  2  vols.  8.  G.  If.  Lewes,  Biog.  H.  of  Phil.  Ser.  II.  vol.  IV.  Lond.  1845. 
4  vote  18.  Tennemann's  H.  of  PhiL  Lond.  1850.  8.] 

The  government  of  royal  mistresses  (Pornocracy)  in  the  court,  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Protestants,  the  maltreatment  of  piety  in  the  Jansenist  contro- 
versy, the  natural  development  of  the  national  mind,  and  the  influence  of 
English  Deism,  conspired  to  form  in  France  an  opposition  similar  to  that 
Deism,  but  such  as  naturally  sprung  up  against  an  infallible  Church  in  a  des- 
potic and  corrupt  state.  Bodins  Septiloquia  recognized  the  claims  of  all 
religions,  that  the  religion  of  godliness  and  rectitude  in  them  all  might  be 


o)  §  397.  nt  d. 

6)  Eelazione  del  prlncipio  et  stato  presente  della  miss,  del  Tibet  Bom.  1742.  4    StautUin  in? 
Archiv.  f.  KGesch.  vol.  L  St.  8. 


CHAP.  IIL    CATHOLIC  CHUECH  TILL  1814.    §  480.  FEENCH  PHILOSOPHY.     523 

acknowledged,  (a)  In  a  fictitious  book  of  travels,  Vairasse  distinguished 
between  true  Christianity  and  the  hierarchy,  against  which  his  book  was 
directed.  (J)  Even  in  the  canting  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  finally  gave  his 
consent  that  even  Tartufe  should  be  performed  in  his  presence,  it  was  not 
looked  upon  as  inconsistent  with  the  rules  of  good  society  to  ridicule  religion 
as  well  as  hypocrisy.  Voltaire  (d.  1778)  was  not  quite  insensible  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  existence  of  a  God,  in  whose  honor  he  erected  a  plain  church, 
nor  to  the  beauty  of  Christianity,  but  in  a  series  of  sprightly  essays  (after 
1715),  with  the  most  naive  simplicity  and  ignorance  of  facts,  he  gave  up  all 
its  historical  relations,  and  sacrificed  the  life  of  religion  itself  to  a  spirit  of 
universal  scoffing.  Montesquieu,  before  laying  the  foundation  of  his  future 
government,  presented  the  mirror  of  an  unbiased  common  sense  before  the 
received  doctrines  and  the  compulsory  measures  of  the  Church  (1721).  Phi- 
losophy so  entirely  withdrew  to  the  territory  presided  over  by  the  five  senses, 
that  the  mind  of  man  was  finally  regarded  as  a  dream  of  the  flesh,  and  love 
as  the  hypocrisy  of  selfishness.  This  worldly  philosophy  was  carried  to  its 
complete  results  by  Condillac  (d.  1780),  in  Holbach's  circle  it  was  fearlessly 
applied  to  practical  life,  (c)  while  Helvetius  (d.  1771)  tempered  it  with  an 
elevated  humanity.  In  this  spirit,  Diderot  (d.  1784),  whose  religion  it  was 
to  destroy  all  religion,  edited  the  Encyclopedic  (after  1751),  intended  to  be  a 
general  survey  of  all  human  knowledge,  clear  and  grand  with  respect  to  the 
worldly  tendencies  of  the  mind  and  in  its  efforts  against  all  kinds  of  slavery, 
but  hostile  to  all  eternal  realities  and  aspirations  above  the  world.  Besides 
these  were  a  host  of  inferior  works,  in  which  the  oriental  simplicity  of  the 
Scriptures  was  made  the  subject  of  amusement  either  by  bold  derision  or  by 
sentimental  wantonness,  and  all  systems  of  faith  were  ridiculed  as  priestcraft. 
Raynal  deprived  history  of  its  true  glory  as  a  picture  of  a  divine  household ; 
even  in  Bufforis  sublime  researches,  the  Creator  is  placed  far  behind  a  self- 
producing  nature ;  Lalande  proclaimed  the  laws  of  a  heaven  without  a  God ; 
and  in  fact  the  gospel  was  generally  regarded  as  a  mere  astronomical 
myth,  (d)  The  enthusiastic  spirit  of  Rousseau  (1712-78)  found  many  things 
in  the  gospel  for  which  his  nature  had  a  strong  affinity,  but  in  consequence 
of  his  rejection  of  all  history,  he  was  compelled  to  oppose  every  thing  in  it 
of  a  historical  character.  By  holding  up  a  state  of  nature  in  contrast  witli 
the  artificial  condition  of  human  society,  the  Jesuitic  education  then  in 
vogue,  and  the  supernatural  revelation  of  the  Scriptures,  he  contributed  more 
than  all  the  scoffers  to  endanger  the  Church,  since  he  thus  showed  how  one 
could  speak  with  earnestness  and  even  transport  of  divine  things,  without 
being  a  Christian,  (e)  This  opposition  was  powerful  at  that  time,  because 
those  who  were  the  favorites  of  the  nation,  who  gave  laws  to  the  fashion- 


a)  Colloquium  heptaplomeres  do  abditis  rerum  sublim.  arcanis.  1593.  Guhrauer,  das  Heptapl. 
dcs  Jean  Bodin.  Brl.  1841. 

Z>)  Hist  des  Severances.  Par.  1677ss.  3  vols.  12.  Sulzb.  1689.  3  vols. 

c)  Systeme  de  la  nature.  Lond.  (Atnst)  17TO.  2  vols.  and  often.  Liegn.  1783.  2  vols. 

<0  Dupuis,  Origine  de  tous  les  cultes.  Par.  1795.  3  vols.  and  often.  1837.  In  the  Extracts  by  Bhe, 
Slnttg.  1839. 

e)  Me.  de  Stall,  Lettres  sur  les  ouvr.  et  le  caractere  d.  E,  Gen.  1789.  (Musset-Pathay)  H.  do  la 
vie  et  des  ouvr.  de  E.  Par.  1821.  2  vols.  Wackier,  biogr.  Aufs.  1835.  p.  Slss. 


524  MODERN  CnUBCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-lS5a 

able  world,  and  were  honored  with  the  friendship  of  the  northern  monarchy 
were  its  principal  representatives,  and  spoke  of  Christianity  as  a  superannu- 
ated stage  of  civilization.  The  measures  adopted  by  the  government  against 
them  were  but  partial,  and  generally  operated  in  their  favor.  As  the  hier- 
archy, who  had  little  else  at  command  but  learned  lore,  were  no  longer 
allowed  to  burn  the  authors,  they  defended  themselves  by  burning  the  books. 
These  works,  however,  expressed  the  general  sentiment  of  the  French  nation. 
On  the  side  of  the  hierarchy  were  the  civil  power,  immense  wealth,  and  a 
nobility  with  which  it  was  in  numerous  ways  connected.  On  the  other  side 
was  nearly  a  whole  nation,  including  a  majority  even  of  the  hierarchy  and 
the  nobility,  with  the  conviction  that  their  power  was  founded  upon  a  de- 
ception, and  that  their  wealth  had  been  unjustly  drawn  from  a  heavily 
taxed  people. 

§  431.     Clement  XIII.  (1758-69)  and  the  Jesuits. 

Bower,  Ramlach,  vol.  X.  2.  p.  SSlss.  (Le  Itref)  Sauiml.  d.  Schrr.  d.  Auf  beb.  d.  Jcsultenord. 
betr.  Frkf.  u.  L.  (Ulm.)  1778-84.  4  vols.  [J.  Poynder,  IT.  of  tho  Jesuits.  Lond.  1816.  2  vols.  8.  A. 
Arnould,  Les  Jesuites,  Hlstoire,  Types,  Moeure,  Mysteries  Par.  1846.  2  vols.  8.] 

Clement  XIII.  (Rezzonico)  was  chosen  pope  through  the  influence  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  with  pious  conscientiousness  exposed  the  papal  authority  to  tho 
most  imminent  hazard,  that  he  might  avert  their  fate.  They  had  indeed 
gained  a  victory  over  the  Jansenists,  but  it  was  at  the  expense  of  the  popular 
favor.  On  account  of  their  influence  at  courts  they  were  hated  by  states- 
men, their  engagements  in  trade  involved  them  often  in  difficulties  with  the 
merchants,  and  their  power  over  the  conscience  made  them  obnoxious  to  all 
classes.  The  very  dislike  which  so  many  of  that  age  felt  toward  Christian- 
ity, and  the  whole  spirit  of  the  coming  generation  now  making  itself  percep- 
tibly felt,  seemed  to  demand  them  as  the  first  sacrifice.  The  result  was  by  no 
means  certain,  since  all  the  nations  of  Southern  Europe  had  been  educated  in 
their  school.  On  the  request  of  the  Portuguese  government,  Benedict  XIV. 
had  forbidden  them  to  engage  in  commerce,  and  when  dying,  he  committed 
to  the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  the  work  of  reforming  them.  The  order  to  this 
effect  was,  however,  revoked  by  Clement.  By  an  exchange  with  Spain,  Por- 
tugal had  obtained  a  portion  of  Paraguay  (1753).  The  Portuguese  were 
however  driven  back  by  an  Indian  army,  and  although  the  Jesuits  denied 
any  participation  in  an  insurrection  which  then  occurred,  it  was  certain  that 
the  insurrection  was  impossible  without  their  connivance.  Carvalho,  Mar- 
quis of  Pomlal,  was  anxious  to  withdraw  the  monarchy  and  the  nation  from 
all  connection  with  the  hierarchy  and  the  nobility.  But  although  the  minis- 
ter possessed  unlimited  power,  he  knew  he  could  not  effect  such  a  revolution 
while  surrounded  by  the  Jesuits.  An  attempt  to  assassinate  the  king  supplied 
an  occasion  for  impeaching  them  of  high  treason.  The  result  was  that  they 
were  for  ever  excluded  (Sept.  3, 1759)  from  Portugal,  and  their  property  was 
confiscated.  The  pope  interceded  for  them  in  vain  ;  his  nuncio  was  sent  out 
of  the  country  (1760),  and  all  connection  with  Rome  was  broken  off.  (a)  It 

«)  L'administration  de  M.  de  Pombal.  Amst  1789.  4.  J.  Smith,  Memoirs  of  the  M.  de  Pombal. 
Lend.  1843.  2  vols.  8.— (Klausing)  Saminl.  d.  nst  Schrr.  d.  Jes.  in  P.  betr.  A.  d.  Ital.  Frkf.  u.  L 


CHAP.  III.    CATHOLIC  CHUECH  TILL  1814.    §  431.  THE  JESUITS.  525 

was  thus  proved  that  the  overthrow  of  the  Jesuits  was  not  impossible.  The 
bankruptcy  of  the  Jesuit  la  Vedette  in  France,  was  seized  upon  as  an  occasion 
for  making  the  whole  order  responsible  for  the  unfortunate  speculation  in 
trade  by  one  of  its  members,  and  for  examining  its  constitution.  The  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris  summoned  the  Jesuits  before  its  bar  (1762),  an  apostolical 
brief,  in  which  the  holy  Father  unburdened  his  heart  of  its  troubles,  and 
Jesuitism  was  identified  with  Catholicism,  was  laid  aside  as  if  it  were  the 
letter  of  a  private  individual,  and  when  public  opinion  had  been  gained  over 
by  the  publication  of  the  dangerous  doctrines  of  which  the  Jesuits  were  ac- 
cused, they  were  banished  from  France  as  dangerous  to  the  state  (1764).  (5) 
The  other  Bourbon  courts  ordered  them  to  be  hastily  and  violently  seized  and 
transported  beyond  the  boundaries  of  their  respective  territories  (1767).  It 
was  in  vain  that  the  pope  issued  a  bull  (1765),  in  which  he  showed  that  the 
order  was  sacred,  and  indispensable  to  the  interests  of  the  Church.  He  only 
ventured  to  annul  the  edicts  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  and  to  threaten  others 
with  an  excommunication  (1768).  France,  however,  took  possession  of  Avig- 
non ;  Naples,  of  Benevento ;  and  all  the  Bourbon  princes  declared  such  fanati- 
cal decrees  of  excommunication  utterly  unreasonable,  (c) 

§  432.     Clement  XIV.  (1769-74)  and  the  Jesuits. 

Lettres  interessantes  da  P.  Clem.  XIV.  trad,  du  latin  et  do  Tital.  p.  le  Marq.  de  Caraccioli,  (not 
altogether  authentic.)  Par.  1776s.  3  vols.  and  often,  ital.  u.  deutsch.  Lettere  ed.  altre  opero  di  Ganganelli. 
Firenze.  1829.  Clem.  XIV.  Epp.  et  Brevia  selectiora,  ex.  secret,  tabb.  Vatic,  ed.yl.  Theiner,  Par. 
1852.—  Walch,  nst.  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  I.  p.  8.  201ss.  Caraccioli,  Vie  du  P.  Clem.  Pan  1775.  Leben 
Clem.  XIV.  Frcf.  u.  L.  1775.  (by  Reumonf)  Gang.,  Clem.  XIV.  u.  s.  Zeit  Brl.  1847.  A.  Theiner, 
H.  du  Pontif.  de  Clem.  XIV.  Par.  1852.  2  vols.  [M.  PAlembert,  An  Account  of  the  Destruction 
of  the  Jesuits  in  France,  from  the  Fr.  Lond.  1766. 12.] 

In  the  Conclave  there  was  a  severe  struggle  between  the  parties  of  the 
king  and  of  the  Jesuits.  The  Bourbons  were  however  victorious,  and  se- 
cured the  election  of  Ganganelli,  a  Minorite,  who  had  always  disapproved 
of  the  measures  of  his  predecessor,  on  the  ground  that  they  sacrificed  th*e 
interests  of  the  papacy  itself  to  those  of  the  Jesuits.  Clement  XIV.  was  of 
low  origin,  his  character  was  not  very  commanding,  but  he  possessed  consid- 
erable talents,  a  noble  manliness,  and  at  the  same  time  a  general  mildness  of 
disposition,  and  for  a  pope  he  was  eminently  liberal.  He  governed  without 
the  aid  of  cardinals  or  nepotes,  and  instead  of  aiming  to  build  magnificent 
edifices,  he  endeavored  to  alleviate  distress  in  cottages.  He  abolished  the 
reading  of  the  sacramental  bull  (in  coena  Domini),  and  it  was  never  after- 
wards resumed,  (a)  By  some  concessions  made  to  Portugal  and  the  Bourbon 

1759-62.  4  vols.  Deductio  chronol.  et  analytica,  ubi  horrendae  manifestantur  clades  a  Jes.  Soc.  Lusi- 
taniae  ejusque  coloniis  illatae,  ed.  J.  de  Seabra  /Silvivs,  Olisip.  1771.  2  vols.  Walch,  nst  Eel.  Gesch. 
vol.  II.  p.  57ss.  G.  v.  Murr,  Gesch.  d.  Jes.  in  P.  unter  Pomb.  Nurnb.  1787.  2  vols.  J.  F.  H.  v. 
Olfers,  ii.  d.  Mordvers.  gegen  d.  Konig  Joseph  v.  P.  Berl.  1839.  4. 

Z»)  Extraits  des  assertions  dangereuses  et  pernicieuses,  que  les  Jes.  ont  enseign6es  avec  1'approba- 
tion  de  leurs  Superieurs.  Verifies  par  les  commissaires  du  Parlement:  Par.  1672.— Choiseitl,  Staats 
Denkwiird.  v.  ihm  selbst.  from  the  Fr.  Bern.  1790.  Nova  Acta  hist,  ecc.  vol.  XIII.  p.  433se.  Taba, 
raud,  Essai  sur  l'6tat  des  Jes.  en  France.  6d.  2.  Par.  1S28. 

c)  Walch,  nst.  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  III.  p.  109ss. 

a)  At  least  not  until  Easter,  1830,  according  to  the  author's  personal  observation. 


526  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

courts,  harmony  was  once  more  established  with  them.  When  they  urged 
him  to  abolish  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  he  hesitated  for  a  while,  debating 
whether  it  were  better  to  destroy  than  to  reform  it,  but  at  last,  on  the  16th 
Aug.,  1773,  the  brief  called  Dominus  acEedemtor  noster  (fy  announced  its  abo- 
lition, on  the  ground  that  the  peace  of  the  Church  required  such  a  step.  In 
Home,  the  execution  of  this  bull  was  secured  by  the  employment  of  a  mili- 
tary force.  The  number  of  members  connected  with  the  order  at  that  time 
in  twenty-four  provinces  was  22,589.  Their  treasures  and  papers  had  been 
placed  where  they  could  not  be  found.  The  suppression  was  enforced  in  all 
the  Catholic  courts,  and  even  Maria  Theresa  acquiesced  in  it  when  copies  of 
her  own  confessional  secrets  had  been  transmitted  to  her  from  Borne,  (c) 
.  Frederic  II.,  however,  had  so  much  pride  that  he  would  not  put  down  the 
order  for  a  while  in  Silesia,  and  it  was  favored  in  the  Polish  provinces  of 
Russia,  under  a  vicar  general,  (d)  In  other  countries  also  the  order  main- 
tained a  secret  existence,  waiting  for  a  revival  which  it  was  taught  by  some 
old  legends  to  expect,  and  individuals  have  every  where  been  found  protest- 
ing against  the  lawfulness  of  its  abolition.  The  fate  of  the  Jesuits,  like  that 
of  the  Templars,  was  not  altogether  undeserved ;  but  like  the  latter,  they  were 
condemned  without  a  legal  sentence  or  a  process  of  law,  and  many  merito- 
rious persons  connected  with  them  were  rewarded  with  a  helpless  old  age. 
The  missionary  and  educational  operations  of  all  Catholic  countries  were 
much  embarrassed  by  their  suppression.  Avignon  and  Benevento  were  re- 
stored to  the  pope,  but  he  could  not  prevent  the  governments  of  Spain, 
Naples,  and  Venice  from  doing  as  they  pleased  with  the  Church  and  its  pro- 
perty in  those  countries.  He  was  well  aware,  that  by  the  decree  for  the  abo- 
lition of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  he  had  signed  his  own  death-warrant,  and 
he  died  (Sept.  22)  abandoned  by  all,  with  some  evidence  of  having  been 
poisoned,  (e) 

§  433.    Pius  VI.  (1774-99)  and  his  Age,  until  1789. 

• 

Conclave.  ( Walch,  nst  Eel.  Qcsch.  vol.  V.  p.  259ss.)  (C.  C.  Ade)  Lebens-  u.  Eegierungsgescli. 
P.  VI.  Cesena.  (Ulm.)  1781-96.  6  vols.  P.  P.  Wolf,  Gescb.  d.  rotn.  K  unter  P.  VI.  Zur.  1793ss.  Lps. 
1802.  7  vols.  (J.  F.  Bourgoing)  Mem.  sur  Pie  VI.  Par.  1799.  2  vols.— Ueber  die  gegenw.  Lago  d. 
rorn.  Kath.  (Plancke,  nst.  EeL  Gescb,  voL  I.) 

The  Bourbons  consented  to  the  election  of  Angela  Braschi,  because  they 
felt  assured  from  his  moderation  that  his  partiality  for  the  Jesuits  would  not 
be  sufficient  to  induce  him  to  attempt  their  restoration.  The  treasures  Pius 
VI.  acquired  from  the  states  of  the  Church  during  the  first  tranquil  years  of 
his  reign,  were  spent  in  building  and  in  draining  the  Pontine  marshes.  His 
liberality  is  extolled  by  numberless  inscriptions.  The  convents  were  at  that 
time  assailed  by  innumerable  caricatures,  and  were  regarded  as  no  longer  tol- 
erable except  as  hospitals  for  diseased  minds,  (a)  Many  princes  saw  that  they 

I)  Dated  from  July  21.  Acta  hist  ecc.  voL  I.  p.  145ss. 

c)  After  Fessler  and  Hormayr :  A.  K.  Z.  1832.  N.  160. 

d)  Lutteroth,  EussL  u.  d.  Jes.  1770-1800.  Uebers.  v.  Birch,  Lps.  1845. 

«)  Walch,  nst  Eel.  Gesch.  voL  V.  p.  282ss.  Le  Bret,  Mag.  vol.  VI.  p.  144ss.  On  the  other  hand. 
v. :  Wie  lebte  u.  starb  Gang.,  by  J.  Reicheribach.  (?)  Neust  1831. 

a)  E.  g.  Trop.  est  trop.  Capitulation  de  la  France  avec  ses  Moines.  Haye.  1767.  12.  (by  Born) 
Naturgesch.  d.  Monchth.  1783. 


CHAP.  III.    CATHOLIC  CHUECH  TILL  1814.    §  433.  PIUS  VI.  527 

might,  without  the  least  infringement  of  their  faith,  and  very  much  to  their 
credit  as.  friends  of  general  improvement,  take  possession  of  the  immense 
wealth  in  the  hands  of  the  monks.  The  pope  himself  appeared  to  he  a  civil 
prince,  and  the  head  of  the  Church  merely  from  the  favor  of  other  princes. 
The  bishops,  however,  clearly  saw  that  if  they  became  independent  of  the 
pope,  they  must  become  dependent  upon  the  kings.  The  clergy  foresaw  that 
the  property  of  the  Church  would  be  quite  as  acceptable  to  the  secular  lords 
as  the  wealth  of  the  convents.  Even  those  who  cared  nothing  about  the 
matter,  were  of  the  opinion  that  barracks  were  not  much  more  desirable  than 
convents.  The  faith  or  the  superstition  of  a  large  portion  of  the  people  was 
such  as  to  make  them  entirely  dependent  upon  the  clergy  for  their  religion. 
Accordingly,  the  great  masses  were  gradually  formed  into  parties  favorable 
or  opposed  to  a  reform.  In  Portugal,  the  system  of  things  established  by  the 
violence  of  Pombal  was  immediately  terminated  when  he  was  himself  over- 
thrown, on  the  death  of  the  king  (1777).  In  Spain,  Count  Aranda,  who,  in 
accordance  with  his  French  education,  had  made  (after  1762)  the  inquisition 
and  the  system  of  education  dependent  upon  the  government,  was  removed 
from  his  station  (1772),  and  Don  Olamdes  repented  in  the  dungeons  of  the 
inquisition  (after  1776)  that  he  ever  attempted  to  cultivate  by  Protestant 
colonies  the  Sierra  Morena,  which  was  now  restored  to  the  robbers.  But 
germs  of  hostility  to  the  hierarchy  still  remained  in  all  parts  of  the  penin- 
sula, combined  with  a  disposition  to  strive  after  a  political  constitution.  In 
Germany,  conflicting  powers  were  measuring  their  strength.  Isenbiehl,  who 
had  brought  from  Gottingen  to  Mayence  his  doubts  respecting  the  Messianic 
prophecies,  was  deposed  and  abused  (1774).  (6)  SteinbuJiler,  a  young  lawyer, 
was  imprisoned  at  Salzburg  for  some  jest  at  the  Catholic  ceremonies,  was 
condemned  to  death  as  a  blasphemer  (1781),  had  his  sentence  commuted  to 
banishment  from  the  country  and  ecclesiastical  penance,  and  finally  died 
under  his  ill-treatment,  (c)  "When  the  preacher  Gassner  cast  out  devils  (after 
1 773)  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  thousands  of  persons  were  found  at  Ellwanger 
and  Eatisbon  possessed  and  insane.  Some  of  the  patients  appeared  to  be 
cured,  but  few  received  permanent  benefit.  Those  who  believed  in  the  mira- 
cles, appealed  to  them  as  proofs  againsj;  the  Protestants  and  in  favor  of  the 
Jesuits.  Most  of  the  neighboring  bishops,  then  the  emperor,  and  finally  even 
the  Roman  court  condemned  the  whole  proceeding,  (d)  In  Bavaria,  the 
Order  of  the  Illuminati  was  founded  by  Weisliaupt  (1777),  on  a  Masonic 
basis  and  with  Jesuitic  forms,  by  which  an  intelligence  superior  to,  and  irre- 
spective of  all  ecclesiastical  divisions  might  be  diffused  among  the  people. 
This  powerful  association  was  destroyed  by  the  government  (1785).  (e)  In 
.Nov.  1780,  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  obtained  the  long-desired  sovereignty 
over  the  hereditary  provinces  of  Austria.  His  administration  was  equivalent 


&)  Acta  hist  ccc.  nost.  temp.  vol.  III.  p.  902ss.     Walch,  nst.  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  VIIL  p.  7ss. 

c)  After  Muchler :  Menzd,  Eeise  n.  Oestr.  1832.  p.  103. 

d)  General  view  and  Literature :   Walch,  vol.  VI.  p.  871.  541ss. 

€)  (Weishaupt)  Gesch.  d.  Verfolgung  d.  111.  Frkf.  u.  L.  1786.  vol.  I  and  oth.  Einige  Originalsch, 
d.  111.  O.  auf  bochst  Befehl.  Munich,  1787.  Anhang  z.  d.  Originalsch.  Frkf.  1787.  System  u.  Folgen 
d.  111.  0.  Munich,  1787. 


528  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1853, 

to  a  revolution,  in  consequence  of  his  dictatorial  measures.  With  respect  to 
the  Churcb,  his  plan  required :  that  it  should  be  separated  from  all  foreign 
influence,  and  made  subject  to  the  government ;  that  it  should  be  made  a 
school  for  the  instruction  of  the  people ;  and  that  all  institutions  which  could 
not  be  made  subservient  to  the  public  welfare  should  be  destroyed.  Law 
upon  law  was  enacted  for  the  attainment  of  these  objects,  and  the  represen- 
tations of  the  bishops  and  the  protests  of  the  nuncio  were  alike  ineffectual. 
It  was  then  that  the  pope,  a  fine-looking  and  eloquent  man,  vain  of  both 
these  qualities,  and  confiding  much  in  the  power  of  his  personal  address, 
resolved  to  conquer  the  heart  of  the  emperor,  and  awaken  the  respect  whicn 
prevailed  in  former  times  among  the  people  beyond  the  Alps,  by  the  presence 
of  the  vicar  of  Christ.  He  entered  Vienna  on  the  22d  March,  1782,  with  a 
splendid  procession.  He  could  not  indeed  deliver  by  his  intercessions  even 
one  of  the  convents  devoted  to  destruction  as  useless.  But  as  the  prelates 
thought  it  better  for  them  to  obey  the  pope  than  the  emperor,  and  as  under 
their  influence  the  people  valued  their  ancient  ancestral  usages  more  than 
the  liberty  and  equality  which  had  been  forced  upon  them,  the  dying  empe- 
ror (1790)  found  that  all  he  had  created  was  annihilated,  and  that  only  what 
he  had  destroyed  remained  unchanged.  (/)  The  feeling  of  constitutional 
independence  in  Rome  had  gained  a  solid  basis  by  the  labors  of  Nic.  v. 
Hontheim,  and  a  recantation  extorted  from  the  frightened  old  man  (1778) 
could  not  invalidate  the  influence  of  his  proofs  with  respect  to  the  origin  of 
the  papal  power,  (g)  The  four  archbishops,  offended  at  the  establishment  of 
a  new  nunciature  at  Munich  (1785),  took  ground  against  every  extraordinary 
jurisdiction  of  the  pope  on  German  territory,  and  associated  themselves  at 
Ems  on  the  principle  of  an  independent  national  church  (1786).  They  were 
immediately  sustained  by  the  emperor  himself.  The  University  of  Bonn  was 
founded  by  the  Elector  of  Cologne  as  a  school  for  enlightened  Catholicism. 
The  bishops,  however,  thought  themselves  safer  in  obeying  the  distant  pope 
than  the  archbishops ;  the  Bavarian  Palatinate  followed  its  ancient  policy  of 
receiving  advantages  over  the  national  Church  directly  from  the  hand  of  the 
pope,  and  when  the  archbishops  became  frightened  at  the  storms  which  took 
place  beyond  the  Rhine  in  behalf  of  freedom,  they  also  hastened  to  become 
reconciled  with  Rome  (1789).  (A)  Leopold  of  Tuscany,  in  the  same  spirit  as 
his  brother  had  exhibited  in  Austria,  attempted  by  the  agency  of  Scipio 
Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoia  and  Prato,  to  reform  the  polity  of  the  Church.  At 
a  synod  of  his  clergy  at  Pistoia  (1786),  the  principles  of  the  Gallican  Church 

/)  Acta  a  Pio  VL  causa  itineris  Viudob.  Rom.  1732.  (Acta  hist.  ecc.  nost  temp.  vol.  IX.  p.  283. 
449ss.)  A.  F.  Bauer,  Gesch.  d.  Reise  P.  VI.  Viet).  1782s.  3  vols.  Walch,  nst  Rel.  Gesch.  vol.  IX.  p. 
118ss.— Codex  J.  ecc.  Josephini.  Frkf.  u.  L.  (Prsb.)  178S.  Jos.  II.  Briefe.  Lps.  1822.  (Caraccioli) 
La  vie  de  Jos.  Par.  1790.  Gross- Hoffinger,  Gesch.  Jos.  Stuttg.  1885.  8  vols. 

g)  Justini  Febronii  de  statu  Ecc.  et  legitima  potestate  Rom.  Pontiflcis  L.  ad  reuniendos  dissi- 
dentes.  Bullioni.  (Frcf.)  1763-74.  4  vols.  4.  and  often,  in  different  forms.  Commentarius  in  suam  re- 
tractat  Frcf.  17S1.  4.  Walch,  nst  Rel.  Gesch.  vol.  L  p.  147.  VI,  171.  VII,  192.  455.  VIII,  529ss. 
Briefw.  zw.  d.  Kurf.  v.  Trier  u.  N.  v.  Honth.  u.  Febr.  Frkf.  1813. 

7i)  Resultate  d.  Eraser  Congr.  in  Actenst.  Frkf.  u.  L.  1787.  4.  Pragin.  u.  actenm.  Gesch.  d.  Nun- 
tiatur  in  Munch.  17S7.  8.  Dom.  Pii  VI.  respbnsio  ad  Metropolitanos.  Rom.  1789.  Pacca,  (Memorio 
vol.  IV.)  hist  Denkw.  u.  s.  Aufenth.  in  Deutsch.  17SG-94.  from  the  Ital.  Augsb.  1S32.  K  v.  MuncJi, 
Gesch.  d.  Emscr  Congr.  Carlsr.  1840. 


CHAP.  III.    CATHOLIC  CHUECH  TILL  1814.    §  434.  FEENCH  EEVOLUTION.      529 

and  of  the  most  liberal  Jansenism  were  adopted,  all  superstitions  ceremonies 
were  abolished,  and  it  was  determined  that  public  worship  should  be  con- 
ducted in  the  language  of  the  people,  and  that  the  Scriptures  should  be  circu- 
lated among  them.  But  these  enactments  were  opposed  by  most  of  the  bish- 
ops in  Tuscany,  the  populace  in  Pistoia  stormed  the  episcopal  palace,  and 
when  Leopold  ascended  his  brother's  throne,  the  hierarchy  obtained  a  com- 
plete victory,  (i)  In  Naples,  the  convents  were  abolished,  the  prerogatives 
of  the  monarchy  were  enlarged,  and  the  feudal  tenure  of  the  pope  was  de-' 
nied.  The  controversy  on  these  subjects  was  finally  brought  to  a  compro- 
mise (1790),  in  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  feudal  relation  should  be  given 
up,  but  that  whenever  a  new  king  ascended  the  throne,  he  should  present  an 
offering  to  St.  Peter  of  500,000  ducats.  (£) 

II.   THE  FEENCH  REVOLUTION. 

Vollst.  Samml.  d.  Schrr.  seit.  Eroffn.  d.  Eeichst.  Fr.  in  Eiicks.  a.  cl.  Cler.  (according  to  Barruel, 
Col.  Eccl.)  Kempt.  1795ss.  4  vols.— Barruel,  II.  du  Clerge  en  France  pend.  la  rev.  Lond.  1794.  1804. 
2  vols.  J.  T,  Dutac,  Pie  VI.  et  VII.  considered  dans  leurs  rapports  avec  la  r6v.  franc.  S.  Omer.  1839. 
Jager,  H.  d.  1'egl.  de  France  pendant  la  rev.  Par.  1852.  3  vols.  Comp.  the  pol.  histt  of  Hignet, 
TJiiers,  and  Wachsmuth,  liaumer,  Dahlmann.  [all  of  which,  except  the  last,  have  been  transl.  into 
Engl.  See  also :  T.  Carlyle,  Mlchelet,  Lamartine  (Girondins),  Alison,  and  Scott  (Life  of  Nap. 
Prelim.  Chap.)] 

§  434.     The  National  Assembly  (Constituent}.     1789-1791. 
Planch,  neueste  Eel.  Gesch.  1793.  vol.  III. 

The  Revolution  was  not  actually  occasioned  by  the  disorders  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  Church,  but  without  these  it  would  hardly  have  been  possible. 
The  superior  clergy  were  the  natural  allies  of  the  higher  nobility,  but  since 
even  the  court  was  obliged  to  demand  great  sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the 
Church,  the  electoral  law  was  so  contrived,  that  among  the  representatives 
of  the  ecclesiastical  estate  the  pastors  had  the  numerical  majority.  These, 
with  Talleyrand,  the  Bishop  of  Autun,  who  never  failed  to  discover  on  which 
side  victory  was  about  to  turn,  at  their  head,  at  an  early  day  and  with  hon- 
est intentions  became  connected  with  the  third  estate.  There  was  a  philo- 
sophical party  which  had  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  Christianity,  but 
it  had  no  idea  of  contending  against  the  faith  of  the  people.  Its  object  was 
to  destroy  the  hierarchy  only  as  a  political  power,  and  to  effect  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  state  by  the  wealth  of  the  Church.  The  very  central  point  of 
interest  at  the  national  festival  on  the  field  of  Mars  (July  14,  1790)  was  a 
high  altar,  and  there  were  pious  Jansenists,  who  hoped  in  the  decrees  of  the 
national  assembly  to  realize  their  ideal  of  a  Church.  Such  were  the  honest 
Camus,  who  wished  to  bring  every  thing  back  to  the  simplicity  of  apostolic 
times,  the  enthusiastic  Carthusian  Dom  Gerle,  who  vainly  demanded  that 
Catholicism  should  be  acknowledged  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  and  Gre- 
goire,  who,  confiding  in  the  democratic  humane  spirit  of  Christianity  even  in 

i)  Acta  Syn.  Pistoiens.  Ticin.  1790.  2  vols.  Planck,  vol.  I.  p.  263.  II,  229ss.  De  Potter,  Tie  et 
Mem.  de  Eicci.  Par.  1826.  4  vols.  Stuttg.  1826.  4  vols.  [Memoirs  of  Scipio  de  Eicci,  Bp.  of  P.  and 
Rcf.  of  Cath.  in  Tuscany.  Lond.  1852.  2  vols.  12.] 

k)  fValch,  nst.  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  V.  p.  5ss.    Planck,  vol.  I.  p.  Sss. 

34 


530  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1S53. 

the  time  of  the  most  sanguinary  outrages,  did  not  shrink  from  exposing  him- 
eelf  to  derision  and  deadly  peril  in  behalf  of  the  Church,  (a)  In  the  declara- 
tion of  human  rights,  which  constituted  the  new  gospel,  freedom  of  religious 
faith  was  proclaimed.  The  hierarchy,  determining  to  submit  with  dignity  to 
what  was  now  inevitable,  proposed  that  their  property  should  be  proportion- 
ally taxed,  and  that  all  superfluous  vessels  belonging  to  the  Church  should  be 
melted  down.  On  the  celebrated  night  of  the  4th  Aug.,  they  also  consented 
that  the  tithes  should  be  discontinued,  and  the  pastors  agreed  that  the  sur- 
plice fees  should  bo  renounced.  In  the  discussion  upon  the  law  relating  to 
these  subjects,  it  was  decided  that  the  tithes  should  be  abolished  as  soon  as 
the  state's  treasury  should  be  in  a  condition  to  sustain  the  expenses  of  public 
worship.  All  ecclesiastical  property  was  declared  to  be  the  property  of  the 
nation  (Nov.  2d,  1789).  It  was  in  vain  that  Montesquieu,  with  insinuating 
moderation,  and  Maury,  with  severe  argument,  urged  the  utter  futility  of 
this  proceeding  as  a  financial  speculation,  the  dilemmas  to  which  a  pecuniary 
salary  would  reduce  the  clergy,  the  inviolability  of  this  kind  of  property,  and 
the  saeredness  of  such  pious  institutions,  and  that  even  Sieyes  himself  warned 
the  deputies  that  if  men  would  be  free  they  must  be  just.  It  was  determined 
(Dec.  19th)  that  two  hundred  millions  of  the  Church  property  should  be  sold, 
and  that  the  administration  of  every  thing  belonging  to  the  Church  should 
be  committed  to  the  secular  authorities  (April  14th,  1790).  The  state  under- 
took, on  the  other  hand,  the  support  of  the  Church  and  of  the  poor.  A 
house  and  garden,  and  at  least  1200  livres,  were  secured  to  every  pastor. 
The  salaries  of  the  bishops  were  ample,  but  moderate  only  when  compared 
with  the  affluence  which  they  formerly  possessed.  All  sinecures  were  abol- 
ished. Monastic  vows,  being  looked  upon  as  inconsistent  with  human  rights, 
and  not  needful  to  the  public  worship,  were  no  longer  protected  by  the  laws 
(Feb.  13th),  but  adequate  annuities  were  provided  for  those  who  belonged  to 
the  monasteries,  and  they  were  at  liberty  to  reside  in  the  convents.  The 
kingdom  was  divided  into  eighty-three  departments  of  equal  extent,  to  which 
the  Church  was  to  be  so  conformed  that  each  department  was  to  constitute  a 
bishopric.  It  appeared  equally  consonant  with  primitive  Christianity  and 
the  newly-established  principles  of  freedom,  that  all  bishops  and  pastors 
should  be  elected  by  the  people.  All  fears  of  evils  attending  a  popular  elec- 
tion which  was  not  even  then  directly  with  the  people,  were  answered  by 
appeals  to  the  disgraceful  concomitants  of  former  elections.  Every  bishop 
was  required  to  be  the  pastor  of  the  cathedral  church,  and  in  all  legal  mat- 
ters to  listen  to  the  counsel  of  his  vicars,  the  old  system  of  the  provincial 
synods  was  revived,  and  ah1  interference  from  neighboring  bishops  was  pro- 
hibited ;  still  the  unity  of  the  Church  and  its  connection  with  a  visible  uni- 
versal head  was  not  impaired.  The  party  of  the  bishops  solemnly  protested 
against  this  spoliation  of  the  Church,  and  this  derangement  of  the  episcopal 
jurisdictions  by  the  hands  of  the  civil  power.  To  destroy  their  opposition, 
it  was  decreed  (Nov.  27th)  that  all  ecclesiastical  officers,  under  penalty  of 
losing  their  offices,  should  take  an  oath  to  observe  these  laws  as  a  civil  con 


"on- 

'' 


a)  Memoires  de  Gr.  precedes  d'une  notice  hist  sur  1'auteur  par  M.  ff.  Carnot,  Par.  1837.  2 
<?.  Kruger,  Gr.  nach  s.  Denwiirdigk.  Lps.  1838. 


CHAP.  III.    CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TILL  1814.    §  435.  GOBET.    EOBESPIEKKE.    531 

ititution  of  the  clergy.  A  large  majority  of  tlie  clergy  refused  to  take  this 
oath  until  the  Church  should  declare  its  assent  to  the  laws.  Mirdbeau  lifted 
tip  his  prophetic  voice,  predicting  that  the  selfishness  of  the  priests  would 
bring  down  ruin  upon  the  Church,  if  Catholic  France  was  induced  to  contend 
against  emancipated  France.  Some  bishops,  chosen  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  the  new  law,  were  consecrated  (Feb.  24,  1791).  After  considerable 
delay,  Pius  VI.  declared  (April  13th)  that  the  oath  for  the  constitution  was 
inadmissible,  and  that  every  one  who  took  it  should  forfeit  his  office  in  the 
Church.  (5)  From  this  time  the  Catholic  Church  became  the  avowed  enemy 
of  the  revolution,  and  when  the  pastors  were  obliged  to  choose  between  the 
Church  and  their  native  land,  they  began  to  emigrate  to  foreign  countries. 
Avignon  was  declared  a  constituent  part  of  France  (Sept.  14th). 

§  435.     Legislative  Assembly  and  National  Convention.     1791—95. 

Grtgoire,  sur  les  diffamateurs  et  persdcuteurs  dans  la  rel.  Par.  8.  (1800.)    Carron,  les  confesseuis 
de  la  foi  dans  1'egl.  gall,  k  la  fin  da  la  S.  Par.  1S20,  4  vols. 

The  Legislative  Assembly  decreed  that  every  priest  who  refused  the  con- 
stitutional oath  should  be  excluded  from  the  churches  and  deprived  of  his 
salary.  Those  who  excited  the  people  to  resistance  were  declared  subject  to 
banishment  or  imprisonment.  The  king  refused  to  ratify  these  decrees  as 
long  as  it  was  in  his  power  to  do  so,  and  priests  who  had  not  taken  the  oath 
officiated  in  his  chapel.  Under  the  National  Convention,  when  France  was 
betrayed  by  priests  and  barons  into  the  hands  of  foreigners,  and  involved  in 
all  the  horrors  of  a  civil  war,  when  in  this  contest  every  venerable  usage 
was  annihilated,  when  the  sacrament  of  royalty  was  desecrated,  and  the  su- 
preme power  was  exercised  by  a  Parisian  mob,  Christianity  itself  was 
regarded  as  a  mere  usage  hostile  to  liberty,  and  the  doctrines  of  the  French 
philosophy  were  embraced  and  reduced  to  practice  by  the  populace  in  its  own 
way.  In  the  mean  time,  some  noble-minded  persons  like  the  Girondists  and 
Charlotte  Corday,  found  their  ideals  only  in  the  virtues  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, A  new  mode  of  reckoning  time  was  introduced  (Oct.  6th,  1793),  all 
Christian  manners  and  morals  were  abolished  by  actual  legislation,  marriage 
was  treated  merely  as  a  civil  contract,  liable  to  dissolution  on  notice  by  one 
of  the  parties,  all  ecclesiastical  utensils  were  sold  as  national  property,  and  an 
idolatrous  worship  of  reason  was  solemnized,  in  which  venal  prostitutes  were 
the  priestesses  and  goddesses,  Golet,  Bishop  of  Paris,  appeared  with  his 
priests  before  the  bar  of  the  Convention  (Nov.  7th),  to  declare  that  their 
previous  lives  had  been  a  deception.  The  existence  of  God  was  publicly 
denied,  his  vengeance  was  boldly  challenged,  and  above  the  cemeteries  the 
inscription  was  raised,  "Death  is  an  eternal  sleep."  At  last,  Robespierre, 
true  even  in  this  to  his  character,  and  believing  that  nothing  could  supply 
the  place  of  the  religious  feeling  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  as  a  safeguard 
for  all  civil  virtues,  induced  the  Convention  to  declare  that  the  French  na- 
tion recognized  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being,  whose  highest  worship 
sonsisted  in  the  faithful  performance  of  relative  duties,  and  the  immortality 

2>)  (ffulet)  Col  Brevium  et  Instrr.  Pii  VI.  ad  praes.  Gall  ecc.  calamitates.  Aug.  1796  2  voto. 


532  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1853. 

of  the  soul.  In  honor  of  this  Supreme  Being  an  absurd  national  festival  waa 
celebrated  (July  8th,  1794).  After  the  subversion  of  the  reign  of  terror, 
liberty  for  the  exercise  of  all  kinds  of  religion  was  restored  (Feb.  21st,  1795), 
with  a  view  to  favor  Christianity,  which  had  never  been  wholly  suppressed 
among  the  people,  especially  in  the  southern  provinces  of  France. 

§  436.     The  Theophilanthropists.     1796-1802. 

Manuel  des  Theopb.  Par.  1797.  Ann6e  rellgleuse  des  Th6oph.  (Eecuell  des  disconrs.)  Par.  1797. 
Gregoire,  Gescb.  d  Theoph.  fibers,  v.  Staudlin  in  s.  Mag.  vol.  IV.  p.  257ss.  and  Hann.  1806.  [Hist, 
des  Sectes  reL  Par.  1828.  «  vols.  8.  J.  Evans,  Sketch  of  Chr.  Denoin.  with  an  Outline  of  Atheism, 
Tbeophll.  Ac.  15th  ed.  Lond.  Amherst  1882. 12.] 

As  the  state  was  indifferent  to  all  forms  of  religion,  and  the  Republican 
Directory  was  afraid  of  the  Christianity  which  prevailed  in  the  Church,  the 
increasing  consciousness  of  the  necessity  of  some  religion  led  many  to  adopt 
a  form  of  worship  adapted  to  a  natural  religion.  This  was  gradually  intro- 
duced into  ten  churches  of  Paris,  and  became  extended  into  most  of  the 
provinces.  God,  immortality,  morality,  and  the  ever-changing  life  of  nature, 
were  the  objects  of  this  system,  which,  as  it  was  never  sustained  by  any  vigor- 
ous religious  character,  was  soon  found  unable  to  cope  with  either  the  Chris- 
tianity or  the  spirit  of  indifference  which  existed  in  society.  Hence,  after  a 
brief  period  of  success,  when  the  First  Consul  declared  that  this  mode  of 
worship  could  no  longer  be  tolerated  in  the  churches  belonging  to  the  nation, 
it  was  ridiculed  by  -the  public  and  entirely  discontinued. 

§  437.     The  Roman  Republic.     Cont.  from  §  433. 

Every  kind  of  influence  had  been  brought  into  requisition  by  Pius  VI.,  to 
foster  by  religious  fanaticism  the  flame  of  civil  war  in  France.  Buonaparte, 
who  had  become  master  of  Italy  by  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Austrian 
army,  demanded  that  the  pope  should  annul  all  his  decrees  against  France. 
"When  the  latter  refused,  and  ventured  to  make  preparations  for  resistance, 
the  French  republican  general  threw  himself  upon  the  States  of  the  Church. 
At  Tolentino  (Feb.  19,  1797),  a  treaty  of  peace  was  obtained  at  the  expense 
of  all  the  possessions  of  the  Roman  court  in  France,  of  its  legations  in  Fer- 
rara,  Bologna,  and  Romagna,  of  thirty  millions  of  francs,  and  of  an  immense 
selection  from  the  Roman  treasures  of  art.  A  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment was  bestowed  upon  Lombardy.  Even  in  Rome  a  party  was  formed  in 
favor  of  a  republic.  When  a  popular  insurrection  with  this  object  in  view 
took  place  in  the  city,  and  a  French  general  had  been  killed  in  the  fray,  Ber- 
thier  was  sent  into  the  states  of  the  Church  to  obtain  satisfaction  from  the 
government.  Under  the  protection  of  his  arms  a  Roman  republic  was  formed, 
and  the  pope  was  informed  that  his  civil  authority  was  at  an  end  (Feb.,  1798). 
The  sympathy  generally  expressed  for  the  misfortunes  of  the  citizen  pope 
made  him  an  object  of  suspicion,  and  led  to  his  removal  from  Rome.  Finally 
this  mild  and  devout  pontiff  died  a  French  prisoner  at  Valence  (Aug.  29th, 
1799)* 

*  Saldassari,  Hist,  de  1'enlevement  et  de  la  captivito  dc  Pie  VL,  trad,  de  Tltalien  p.  de  Lacou- 
mrf,  Par.  1840.  A.  d.  Fr.  v.  X.  Steck,  Tub.  1S44 


CHAP.  III.    CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TILL  1814.    §488.  PIUS  VII.    NAPOLEON  I.    533 


III.  THE  EEA  OF  NAPOLEON. 

§  438.    Pius  VII.  and  the  Re-establishment  of  the  Galilean  Church. 

Storia  di  Pio  VII.  (with  orig.  docc.)  Ven.  1815.  2  vols.  Simon,  Vie  polit.  et  privde  de  Pie  VII 
Par.  1823*  Gwadet,  Esquisses  hist  et  polit.  sur  Pie  VII.  Par.  1824.  Jdger,  Leb.  P.  VII.  m.  Urk. 
Frkf.  1824  Artaud  de  Montor,  H.  du  Pape  P.  VII.  Par.  1836s.  2  vols.  ed.  8.  Par.  1839.  3  vols.- 
(Caprara)  Concordat  entre  le  Gouvernement  franc,  et  le  Pape.  Par.  1802.  Cologne,  1802.  Reinliard, 
neue  Organis.  d.  Eel.  Wes.  in  Fr.  CoL  J«02.  JBarruel,  du  Pape  et  de  ses  droits  rel.  a  Toccas.  du  Con- 
cord. Par.  1803.  2  vols. 

Pius  VII.  (Chiaramonti)  was  elected  pope  at  Venice  (March  14,  1800), 
under  the  protection  of  Austria.  By  Ms  apparent  concession  to  the  revolu- 
tion (d)  while  he  was  Bishop  of  Imola,  he  had  shown  himself  a  man  of  a 
crafty  and  obstinate  spirit.  Under  the  armed  escort  of  the  allied  powers  he 
was  brought  to  Borne  (July  3d),  where  he  was  by  the  treaty  of  Luneville  put 
in  possession  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  but  without  the  legations  (1801). 
He  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  work  of  healing  the  wounds  inflicted  by 
the  revolution.  Napoleon  was  at  that  time  convinced  that  the  true  end  of 
all  his  victories  was  to  secure  the  liberties  of  the  country  by  the  establish- 
ment of  order,  and  to  frustrate  the  conspiracies  formed  against  them  in 
Europe  by  extending  them  throughout  the  continent  by  wars  of  conquest. 
Though  personally  perhaps  indifferent  toward  all  churches,  he  saw  that  it 
was  indispensable  to  the  tranquillity  of  the  country  that  Catholicism  should 
be  re-established  as  the  religion  of  the  state.  For  the  revolution  had  dis- 
tinctly shown,  that  even  after  a  nation  has  broken  all  bonds,  it  cannot  exist 
without  a  God ;  and  from  the  sea  of  blood  into  which  the  innocent  and  the 
guilty  had  alike  been  plunged,  the  recollection  of  the  Church  of  their  fa- 
thers emerged  like  the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day.  Hence,  when  the  aims  of  the 
future  emperor  were  not  satisfied  at  a  national  synod  at  Paris,  of  those  bish- 
ops who  had  taken  the  oath,  a  Concordat  was  agreed  upon  (July  15,  1801), 
after  mutual  concessions,  with  the  papal  minister  Consalm.  Its  stipulations 
were :  Catholicism  is  the  religion  of  the  majority  of  the  French  nation ;  the 
property  of  the  Church  shall  not  be  restored,  but  the  state  undertakes  to 
sustain  the  Church  by  a  suitable  and  ample  provision ;  all  priests  who  have 
taken  the  constitutional  oath,  as  well  as  those  who  have  emigrated,  shall 
resign  their  offices,  but  be  eligible  for  a  re-election ;  a  division  of  dioceses, 
conformed  indeed  to  the  political  departments,  but  having  reference  to  the 
old  bishop's  sees,  shall  be  made ;  the  first  consul  shall  appoint  the  archbish- 
ops and  fifty  bishops  in  France,  but  the  pope  alone  shall  have  the  power  of 
bestowing  upon  them  a  canonical  confirmation;  the  pastors  shall  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishops ;  the  first  consul  shall  possess  the  same  prerogatives 
as  were  possessed  by  the  former  government ;  and  the  pope  shall  be  the  tem- 
poral sovereign  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  and  the  head  of  the  Church.  In 
addition  to  these  stipulations,  Napoleon  enacted  by  organic  laws :  the  pro- 
clamation of  papal  decrees  depends  upon  the  discretion  of  the  government ; 
there  shall  always  be  an  opportunity  for  an  appeal  to  the  council  of  state 
against  the  abuses  of  ecclesiastical  power;  the  teachers  in  the  seminaries 


a)  Homelie  du  citoyen  Card.  Chiaranwnti,  1797,  trad,  de  1'Ital.  par  Gregoire.  Par.  (1814.)  1818. 


634  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1853. 

shall  be  bound  by  the  four  propositions  of  the  Gallican  clergy ;  and  marriage 
ceremonies  shall  be  performed  by  the  priests  only  after  a  previous  act  of  the 
civil  authorities.  The  introduction  of  the  Concordat  was  solemnized  on  tho 
Easter  festival  of  1802.  The  Democrats  and  the  old  companions  in  arms  of 
the  first  consul  ridiculed  the  new  capucinade.  But  even  while  the  work  of 
destruction  had  been  going  on,  St.  Martin  (d.  1804)  had  borne  witness  to  the 
mysteries  of  the  human  heart,  and  its  aspirations  after  a  God,  who  could 
alleviate  the  disorders  of  the  head,  even  after  Christ  had  healed  the  distress 
of  the  heart  of  our  race.  lie  however  labored  only  for  certain  initiated  per- 
sons, leaving  tho  Church  to  an  inferior  kind  of  prescriptions.  (&)  Chateau- 
briand  (d.  1848),  in  the  midst  of  the  sorrows  of  the  revolution,  had  found 
the  Christianity  which  he  had  previously  lost,  and  with  many  tears  he  now 
believed.  In  the  primitive  American  forests,  under  tho  Grecian  sky,  and  at 
the  holy  sepulchre,  he  extolled  the  beauties  of  Christianity,  and  what  it  had 
accomplished  for  humanity.  His  inner  life  continued  subject  to  the  alterna- 
tions of  doubt  and  faith,  and  the  faith  which  he  possessed  was  always  artifi- 
cially excited,  and  tricked  out  with  the  tinsel  of  a  worldly  vanity  ;  but  even 
amid  the  ruins  of  the  temples,  his  Genius  of  Christianity  appears  as  a  long- 
forgotten  spiritual  reality,  and  a  new  glorification  of  an  awakening  as  well  as 
a  witnessing  Catholicism,  (c)  Even  Napoleon  perceived  that  the  imperial 
crown  he  was  placing  upon  a  head  already  crowned  by  fame,  would  be  more 
firmly  fixed  were  it  consecrated  by  the  pope,  and  accordingly  he  became  one 
of  the  Lord's  anointed  (Dec.  2d,  1804).  The  Catechism  designed  for  the 
youth  of  France,  (d)  enumerated  devotion  to  the  emperor  among  the  divine 
commandments,  and  it  was  in  fact  the  religion  of  young  France. 

§  439.    Dispute  between  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope. 

&  Sdioell,  Recucil  des  pieces  officielles.  Par.  1815.  Pieces  hist  relatives  a  Pie  VII.  Par.  1814. 
(Archiv.  f.  KGesch.  vol.  IL  p.  172.  403ss.)  Correspondance  de  la  cour  de  Rome  avec  la  France.  Par. 
1314  Beauchamp,  II.  des  malheurs  de  Pie  VII.  Par.  1814.  R61ation  auth.  de  ren!6vement  da  P. 
Pie  VII.  de  1'Ital.  p.  Lemierre  cCArgy,  Par.  1814.  Memorle  del  Card.  Pacca,  Orvieto.  1828.  ed.  8. 
1833.  1-3  vols.  [Notes  on  the  Ministry  of  Card.  B.  Pacca,  Sec.  of  State  to  P.  VII.  DubL  1848.  8.] 

It  was  in  vain  that  the  pope  demanded,  as  the  price  of  his  obedience,  that 
the  Church  in  France  should  be  entirely  under  his  control,  and  complained  of 
the  violation  of  the  Concordat  by  the  organic  laws,  and  of  the  infringement  of 
the  canonical  laws  by  the  Code  Napoleon.  That  he  might  cope  with  the  superior 
power  of  France,  he  formed  a  league  with  the  enemies  of  the  emperor,  and  pre- 
vented the  union  of  all  Italy  for  common  measures  against  Austria  and  Eng- 
land. This  induced  the  emperor  to  send  troops  to  take  possession  of  the 

b)  Des  erreurs  et  de  la  v6rite.  17T5.  Edinb.  1782.  2  vols.    L'homme  de  desir.  Lyon.  1790.    Ecce 
homo.  Par.  1792.  Lps.  1819.    De  Tesprit  des  choses.  Par.  1800.  2  vols.    Oeuvres  posthumes.  Tours. 
1807.  2  vols.  comp.  Varnhagen,  Denkw.  Lps.  1840.  vol.  V.  p.  125. 191ss. 

c)  Atala  ou  les  amours  de  deox  sauvages.  Par.  X.  (1801.)    Le  Genie  da  Christianisme  ou  bcautea 
de  la  rel.  chr.  Par.  1802.  5  vols.    Les  martyrs.  Par.  1809.  3  vols.    Itineraire  de  Paris  a  J6rusal.  Par. 
1811.  3  vols.    Oeuvres.  Par.  1830.  22  vols.    Memoires  d'outre-tombe.  Par.  1848.  (Berl.  1848ss.)  12  vols. 
[Tho  Gen.  of  Chr.,  The  Martyrs,  The  Itinerary  to  Jerus.,  Congress  of  Verona,  his  Memoirs  by  him- 
self,  Sketches  of  Eng.  Lit  and  various  other  works  of  C.  have  been  transl.  into  Engl.  and  pubL  in 
Lond.  1846-50.    His  Recollections  of  Italy,  Engl.  and  Amer.  -were  transl.  and  publ.  Philad.  1816.  8.1 

d)  Catech.  a  1'usage  de  toutcs  les  6gL  de  IVmpire.  Par.  1806. 


CHAP.  III.    CATHOLIC  CIITDKCH  TILL  1814.    §  439.  PIUS  VII.    NAPOLEON  I.    535 

states  of  the  Church  (Feb.,  1808),  and  after  many  acts  of  violence  to  declare 
that  the  donations  of  his  predecessor,  the  Emperor  Charles,  were  then  re- 
voked on  account  of  the  abuse  which  had  been  made  of  them  (May  17th, 
1809).  He  however  allowed  the  pope,  as  the  supreme  head  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  to  have  possession  of  all  domains  belonging  to  the  Roman  Curia,  of 
a  palace  in  Paris,  and  of  two  millions  of  yearly  revenues.  Pius  VII.  rejected 
every  offer  of  a  salary  as  an  insult,  depended  for  his  support  entirely  upon 
the  alms  of  the  faithful,  and  declared  every  one  who  laid  his  hand  upon  the 
patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  excommunicated  from  the  Church.  He  was  then 
arrested  (July  6th),  taken  to  Savona,  where  he  opposed  to  the  prayers  as  well 
as  the  threats  of  the  emperor  an  inflexible  resignation,  which  could  do  noth- 
ing while  he  was  not  at  liberty,  and  while  deprived  of  the  counsel  of  his  car- 
dinals. He  also  refused  to  confirm  those  who  had  been  appointed  bishops. 
In  connection  with  the  Cardinal  Maury,  then  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who 
thought  an  honest  reconciliation  of  the  Church  with  him  into  whose  hand 
God  seemed  to  have  given  the  world  was  absolutely  indispensable,  (a)  Napo- 
leon now  attempted,  by  means  of  a  synod  at  Paris  (1811),  to  render  the  im- 
perial Church  independent  of  the  pope.  The  bishops,  however,  perceived 
that  their  own  protection  against  the  arbitrary  power  of  the  emperor  was  to 
be  found  in  the  obstinacy  which  the  pope  then  maintained,  and  the  synod 
was  therefore  dissolved.  (5)  As  far  as  the  sovereignty  of  France  extended  in 
the  Spanish  and  Italian  peninsulas,  most  of  the  convents,  together  with  the 
inquisition,  were  abolished,  the  property  of  the  Church  was  confiscated,  and 
the  liberal  form  of  the  Gallican  Church  was  introduced.  It  was  for  this  rea- 
son that  the  Spanish  clergy  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  national 
movement  in  which  the  first  resistance  was  made  against  the  emperor,  and 
that  they  might  gain  their  point,  they  took  part  with  the  advocates  of  a  lib- 
eral Constitution,  and  with  England.  The  same  reason  induced  Cardinal 
Euffo  (d.  1827"),  among  the  southern  peaks  of  the  Apennines,  to  bestow  his 
blessing  upon  the  arms  of  the  robbers.  After  his  misfortunes  in  Russia,, 
Napoleon  was  obliged  once  more  to  pay  some  deference  to  public  opinion. 
He  then  gained  the  heart  of  the  pope,  and  concluded  (Jan.  25th,  1813)  a  Con- 
cordat a,tFontainebleau,  by  which  the  investiture  of  bishops  was  made  no  longer 
dependent  on  the  arbitrary  papal  will,  and  in  which  nothing  was  said  of  the 
temporal  government  of  the  pope.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the 
heart  of  the  holy  Father  was  seized  by  a  paroxysm  of  deep  despondency  on 
account  of  this  surrender  of  his  last  weapon,  and  following  the  counsel  of  the 
liberated  cardinals,  he  revoked  all  that  he  had  done.  On  the  very  next  day 
(March  25th),  the  emperor  published  the  Concordat  as  a  law  of  the  empire. 
But  the  nationalities  which  had  been  destroyed  by  him  now  rose  up  against 
him,  and  this  military  prince  began  to  totter  from  his  eminence.  Then  it 
was  that  he  concluded  to  liberate  the  pope,  and  restore  to  him  the  possessior 
of  the  states  of  the  Church. 

a)  From  the  Life  of  Maur.  by  bis  Nephew.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1831.  P.  3.  p.  663ss.) 
I)  Melchers,  Nationalconc.  zu  Paris  m.  Actenst  Munich.  1814. 


536  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VL    A.  D.  164S-185S. 

§  440.     OvertJirow  of  the  German  Ecclesiastical  Constitution. 

Martens,  Eecueil  des  princ.  traitds.  voL  VII.  p.  688ss.  Suppl.  voL  III.  p.  248ss.  Eeichsdeputations. 
HanptschL  ed.  by  Cdmmerer,  Eatisb.  1804  4.  Gaspari,  d.  K.  D.  Eecess  m.  Erlautr.  limb.  1803.  2 
vols.— Karl,  Deutschl.  nst  Stflats-  u.  K.  Verfinder.  Brl.  1804.  Planck,  Betr.  Q.  d.  nst  Veriindr.  d. 
kath.  K.  Ilann.  1S08.  (Paulus)  Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  katb.  K.  im  19.  Jabrh.  Heidelb.  (1818.)  1823. 
Kopp,  d.  kath.  K.  im  19.  Jbb.  Mayence,  1830. 

The  ecclesiastical  Electorates,  which  had  been  places  of  rendezvous  for 
the  emigrants,  and  for  all  who  wished  to  devise  intrigues  against  France, 
were  swallowed  up  in  the  republic,  and  by  the  Peace  of  Luneville  (1801)  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine  was  ceded  to  France.  The  secular  princes,  who 
were  losers  by  this  arrangement,  or  who  for  other  reasons  had  found  favor  at 
Paris,  were  indemnified  by  the  gift  of  territories  belonging  to  the  Church. 
To  accomplish  this,  the  ecclesiastical  principalities  and  charitable  foundations 
were  secularized  by  a  recess  of  the  imperial  deputies  (1803).  Dalberg,  the 
electoral  arch-chancellor,  who  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  the  conqueror  for  his 
pliancy,  of  the  German  people  for  his  goodness  of  heart,  and  of  artists  and 
learned  men  for  his  sympathy  with  them  in  their  studies,  and  his  freedom 
from  all  petty  considerations,  was  the  only  one  who  maintained  his  elevated 
ecclesiastical  and  political  position ;  and  in  his  episcopal  see  at  Ratisbon,  to 
which  £ho  metropolitan  rights  of  Mentz  had  been  transferred  (1805),  he  en- 
deavored to  reconcile  the  Church  with  the  spirit  of  the  new  age.  After  the 
papacy  had  been  secularized,  Napoleon  declared  (1810)  (a)  that  the  princi- 
pality belonging  to  it  possessed  only  a  secular  and  personal  character. 
Although  the  nobility  were  more  affected  by  the  loss  than  Catholicism,  yet 
the  Church  was  in  these  various  ways  obliged  to  expiate  the  offences  of  the 
empire.  It  was  however  obvious  that  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  was  dis- 
solved. The  dioceses  had  been  dismembered,  the  chapters  and  convents  had 
been  abolished,  the  ecclesiastical  princes  of  the  empire  had  even  thrown  away  the 
crosier,  Protestant  princes  claiming  to  be  the  heirs  of  the  bishops  had  usurped 
the  right  of  patronage,  bishops  were  not  appointed  to  vacant  offices,  nor  were 
the  dioceses  re-organized,  and  finally,  with  the  quiet  subversion  of  the  holy 
Roman  empire,  there  were  no  more  securities  for  the  laws  of  the  empire.  In 
this  way  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  was  completely  terminated.  Even  in 
Bavaria  (since  1799),  the  spirit  of  Illuminism  destroyed  the  monasteries,  and 
induced  the  government  to  issue  enactments  against  every  thing  it  regarded 
as  superstition.  (&)  In  consequence  of  the  extravagant  claims  set  up  by  each 
party,  all  negotiations  between  the  princes  of  Southern  Germany  and  the 
Roman  court,  which  always  insisted  that  heretical  princes,  instead  of  gaining 
ecclesiastical  property,  should  lose  their  own,  (c)  were  utterly  fruitless,  and 
provisional  ecclesiastical  governments  were  formed  according  to  the  spirit  of 
the  civil  authorities. 

— , : 

a)  (Dalberg)  De  la  paix  de  Peglise  dans  les  etats  de  la  confederation  rhenane.  Fret  1810.  Eatisb. 
IS10.  A.  Kramer,  Karl  Theod.  Dalb.  Lps.  1821.  Dalberg.  Die  letzten  Lebenstage  e.  deutscben 
Bischofs,  by  II.  M.  E.  Carlsr.  1846.  Liter  Nacblass  d.  Frau  v.  Wolzogen.  vol.  IL  p.  66s. 

6)  IIenke'8  Eel.  Ann.  vol.  I.  p.  127.  II,  201ss.  A.  Z.  1803.  N.  253, 1804.  N.  151. 

c)  Instructions  to  the  Nuntius,  in  Vienna,  in  Paulus,  Beitrr.  1823.  p.  87. 


CHAP.  IV.    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1814.     §  441.  EEIMAEUS.    BAHEDT.       537 

CHAP.  IV.— THE  PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL   CHURCH   UNTIL 

1814. 

§  441.     The  Age  of  Enlightenment.     Cont.  from  §  416,  430. 

(<?.  V.  Brasfberger}  Erzahl.  u.  Beurth.  d.  Verandr.  d.  Lehrbeg.  d.  Prot  in  Deutschl.  Hal.  1790. 
J.  A.  U.  Tittmann,  pragm.  Gesch.  d.  chr.  E.  u.  Th.  in  d.  prot.  K  2  Halfte  des  18.  Jahrh.  Brsl.  1805. 
(New  Title)  Lps.  1824.  only  1  vol.  Gieseler,  Euckbl.  a.  d.  kirchl.  u.  th.  Eicht.  u.  Entw.  d.  letzten  50 
J.  Gott  1837.  Tholuck,  Abriss  e.  Gesch.  d.  Umwulzung  s.  1750.  a.  d.  Gebiete  d.  Th.  in  Deutschl. 
(Verm.  Schrr.  Hal.  1839.  vol.  II.)  [ffagenMch  (§  416.)  vol.  I.  Vorless.  11-17.  vol.  II,  1-9.] 

The  same  spirit  which  was  in  other  places  breaking  loose  from  all  re- 
straints, attempted  in  Germany  to  overthrow  Christianity.  The  Wolfenbtittel 
Fragments,  originally  composed  by  Reimarus  (d.  1V68)  for  himself  and  a  few 
friends  in  a  town  zealous  for  ancestral  usages,  and  edited  by  Lessing,  con- 
tended with  much  intellectual  acuteness  against  the  habit  of  decrying  reason 
which  prevailed  in  the  pulpit,  and  against  the  possibility  of  a  revelation 
which  should  possess  sufficient  evidence  to  render  it  worthy  of  universal  con- 
fidence, and  represented  the  undertaking  of  Jesus  as  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
at  an  insurrection  which  finally  gained  credit  by  a  pretended  resurrection,  (a) 
Among  other  decisive  conclusions  respecting  Christianity,  Maumllon  put 
forth  one  in  which  not  only  its  divine  origin,  but  even  the  moral  principles 
of  the  gospel  were  assailed.  (&)  BaTirdt  (1Y41-92),  -always  clever  and  light- 
minded  not  only  in  his  scientific  pursuits  but  in  his  daily  life,  having  gradu- 
ally broken  loose  from  the  restraints  of  the  ecclesiastical  creed,  endeavored 
by  strange  fancies  sometimes  to  destroy  the  Scriptural  history,  and  sometimes 
to  make  it  harmonize  with  the  views  and  sentimentality  of  the  age  by  repre- 
senting Socrates,  Jesus,  Semler,  and  himself,  as  equally  the  instruments  of  divine 
providence,  (c)  He  addressed  himself  to  the  common  people ;  others  en- 
deavored to  move  the  middle  classes  of  society ;  the  higher  classes  had  im- 
bibed the  same  spirit  in  a  more  ingenious  form  from  France ;  while  those  who 
were  intellectually  of  a  still  higher  order,  though  they  looked  from  a  position 
of  an  entirely  secular  character,  regarded  the  efforts  of  these  modern  Titans 
with  derision  and  mockeries.  This  merely  destructive  school  was  not  over- 
come by  the  numerous  replies  its  productions  called  forth,  nor  by  the  petty 
persecution  to  which  its  adherents  were  subjected,  but  by  the  free  develop- 
ment of  German  theology.  German  literature,  with  some  respect  for  the 
blessings  of  Christianity  and  what  were  called  the  dreams  of  its  youthful 
days,  prosecuted  the  discovery  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  was  perhaps 
different  in  important  respects  from  that  of  primitive  Christianity,  and 
indulged  the  expectation  that  when  theology  should  be  properly  developed, 

a)  [K  Hase,]  Leben  Jesu.  p.  81.  (Zur.  Gesch.  u.  Lit.  a.  d.  Schatzen  d.  Wolf.  Bibl.  Beitr.  8.  4. 
Wolfenb.  1777.)  Fragm.  d.  Wolf.  Ungenannten,  hrsg.  v.  Lessing,  4  ed.  BrL  1835.  Selection  of  all 
important  papers  from  the  Hamburg  MSS. :  Apologie  o.  Schutzsch.  fur  die  Vernunft.  Verehrer  Gottes 
v.  II.  S.  Eeim.  ed.  by  W.  Klose.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1850.  H.  4. 1851.  H.  4. 1852.  H.  3.) 

I)  Dos  einzig  wahre  System  d.  chr.  Eel.  Brl.  1787. 

c)  [K.  Ifase,]  Leben  Jesn.  p.  81.  K  F.  Sahrdt,  Glaubensbek.  Hal.  1779.  K.  u.  Ketzer-Alma- 
nach  for  1781.  Haresiopel.  Gesch.  s.  Lebens,  by  himself.  Brl.  1790s.  4  vols.  Mit  Berichtgg.  v.  Vol- 
land,  Jen.  1791.  u.  Lauckhard,  Hal.  1761.  Briefe  anges.  Gelehrten,  Staatsmanner  u.  a.  an  den  be- 
ruhmten  Miirtyrer  Bahrdt.  Lps.  1791.  5  vols. 


538  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S58. 

it  would  be  consistent  with  the  dictates  of  a  mature  reason.  Michaelis 
(1719-91),  from  the  Orphan  house,  with  some  assistance  from  England,  pre- 
sented an  historical  estimate  of  the  original  text  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and 
interpreted  the  Old  Testament  by  oriental  illustrations,  and  the  Mosaic  laws 
by  the  principles  of  Montesquieu.  His  diffuse  and  easy  style  was  very  agree- 
able to  the  Germans ;  in  his  best  days  he  had  the  reputation  of  being  an 
innovator,  though  when  an  old  man  he  was  considerably  behind  his  age,  and 
he  himself,  without  moral  courage,  assures  us  that  he  always  conformed  his 
instructions  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  (d)  Ernesti  (1707-81)  applied 
the  results  of  classical  philology  to  the  settlement  of  more  precise  rules  for 
the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  to  which  he  once  more  conducted  the 
creed  of  the  Church,  (e)  Sender  (1725-91),  who  had  by  extreme  diligence 
advanced  from  the  pietistic  and  contracted  spirit  of  his  youth,  when  he  ex- 
hibited neither  fancy  nor  genius,  to  a  maturity  in  which  he  displayed  im- 
mense treasures  of  an  independent,  but  irregular  and  undigested  knowledge, 
presented  various  examples  fortified  by  all  the  weight  of  the  original  histori- 
cal documents,  of  the  misunderstandings,  the  delusions,  and  violence  in  which 
he  thought  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  in  many  instances  had  originated. 
In  his  estimation,  the  Bible  was  full  of  many  minor  ideas  peculiar  to  the 
places  in  which  it  was  written,  and  he  seemed  to  think  it  was  proper  to  admit 
any  doctrine  into  it  which  might  serve  to  improve  the  morals  of  men.  He 
never  imagined  that  he  was  doing  any  thing  calculated  to  produce  a  revolu- 
tion, and  he  was  pervaded  by  the  pious  feelings  which  formed  the  habit  of 
his  youth.  Hence,  when  the  very  system  for  which  ho  had  contended  and 
suffered  became  triumphant  (1779),  and  he  saw  how  far  beyond  all  bounds 
it  was  carried  by  Bahrdt,  he  was  alarmed  at  his  own  course,  and  came  into 
conflict  with  the  very  spirit  of  the  age  which  he  had  done  so  much  to  pro- 
duce. For  in  his  subsequent  works  he  maintained  that  in  public  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  were  to  be  absolutely  upheld,  although  in  private  each  one 
was  to  be  allowed  full  freedom  in  his  religious  views.  (./)  Frederic  //.,  the 
German  hero  with  a  French  education,  who  would  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  Christian  faith,  although  he  was  not  without  some  regard  for  Christian 
morality,  for  the  strength  of  religious  feelings,  for  Protestantism  as  the  reli- 
gion of  his  country,  and  for  every  individual  of  ability  in  the  Church,  de- 
spised every  thing  like  priestcraft,  gave  all  the  influence  of  his  great  name  to 
those  who  were  opposing  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  allowed  every  one 
full  liberty  to  be  saved  after  his  own  fa$on.  (g)  The  General  German 

d)  Eichhorn,  J.  D.  Mich.  (Allg.  Bibl.  d.  bibl.  Lit  1799.  v.  III.  p.  827ss.)   Lebensbeschr.  von  ihm 
selbst  m.  Anm.  v.  Hassenkamp,  RinL  &  L.  1793.   [Introd.  to  the  N.  T.  from  the  Germ,  of  J.  D.  Mich, 
by  Marsh,  Lend.  1818. 6  vols.  Comment,  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  transl.  from  the  Germ,  of  J.  D.  Mich, 
by  Smith,  Lond.  4  vols.  8.  Eichhorn'8  Life  and  Writings  of  J.  D.  M.  has  been  transl.  Edinb.  1835. 18.] 

e)  A.  Teller,  Ern.  Verdienste  urn  Th.  u.  EeL  Lps.  1783.    Semler,  Zus.  zu  Teller.  Hal.  1783.    J.  v. 
Vornt,  Or.  de  Ern.  optimo  post  Grotium  dace  interpretum  N.  T.  Lugd.  B.  1804.  4.    [Ernestl,  Ele- 
ments of  Interp.  transl.,  with  Notes  and  App.  by  M.  Stuart,  Andover,  1827. 12.] 

/)  Lftbensbeschr.  von  ihm  selbst  Hal.  1781s.  2  vols.  Niemeyer,  S.  letzte  Aeusserungen.  Hal.  1791. 
Eichhorn,  Semi.  (Allg.  Bibl.  1793.  vol.  V.) 

0)  Preuss,  Fr.  d.  G.  Brl.  1832ss.  5  vols.  F.  •».  Raumer :  Fr.  IL  u.  s.  Zeit  (Beitrr.  z.  neu 
Gesch.  Lps.  1836.  v.  II.)  Eedon  z.  Gedachtnissf.  Fr.  II.  Lps.  1843.  &  1847.  J.  O.  Johannsen,  Fr.  d. 
G.  Eel.  u.  Toler.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1849.  11. 1.)  [K  Moriarty,  H.  of  Fr.  Thool.  Lond.  &  Philad. 


CHAP.  IV.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1814    §  442.  REACTION.  539 

Library,  which  under  Nwolai,  during  the  first  ten  years  of  its  publication 
(after  1765),  exercised  an  absolute  sway  as  a  tribunal  of  literature,  always 
exerted  its  secret  influence  in  opposition  to  the  ancient  system  of  faith,  (K) 
and  rejected  every  thing  which  exceeded  the  limits  of  its  own  bald  intelli- 
gence and  morality,  on  the  ground  of  a  liability  either  to  the  reproach  of  su- 
perstition or  the  suspicion  of  Jesuitism,  (i)  It  professed  to  regard  Christian- 
ity only  as  an  historical  development  of  natural  morality  and  religion,  and  a 
popular  system  of  instruction  in  the  best  way  to  become  happy  in  this  world 
and  the  next.  In  consequence  of  the  power  possessed  by  the  opposition 
among  the  influential  classes,  and  its  continued  adherence  to  the  general  basis 
of  Christianity,  it  would  neither  be  discarded  as  a  heresy,  nor  attempt  to  set 
lip  a  peculiar  Church  of  its  own,  but  on  the  principles  of  Protestantism  it 
was  looked  upon  as  simply  one  among  many  theological  views,  and  as  hetero- 
doxy by  the  side  of  orthodoxy.  Besides,  the  sacred  Scriptures  were  upheld 
by  it  in  opposition  to  the  fallible  doctrine  of  the  Church,  although  the  de- 
velopment of  the  experimental  sciences  made  many  doubt  whether  the  whole 
of  the  sacred  text  could  be  the  immediate  word  of  God.  Enlightenment,  by 
which  was  meant  an  elevation  above  the  childish  prejudices  of  education  by 
a  courage  which  induces  one  to  rely  upon  his  own  understanding,  now  be- 
came the  watchword  of  the  age,  (&)  and  Germany  once  more  saw  its  sanc- 
tuary of  faith  torn  down  by  the  hands  of  its  own  priests. 

§  442.  Christian  Reaction.  Prussian  Religious  Edict. 
Societies  were  now  established  for  .the  maintenance  of  the  ancient  faith, 
by  publications,  by  schools  for  the  education  of  the  young,  and  by  fraternal 
admonitions.  One  of  these  was  formed  at  Stockholm,  1771 ;  another  at  the 
Hague,  1785  ;  and  a  very  extensive  German  society  for  the  diffusion  of  Chris- 
tianity was  started  by  Urlsperger  (after  1779),  with  its  principal  seat  at 
Basle,  and  without  regard  to  differences  of  creed,  including  all  who  acknowl- 
edged Jesus  as  their  God  and  Saviour,  (a)  The  Suabian  prelate  Oetinger 
(1702-82),  whose  mind  was  inclined  to  every  thing  mysterious  and  fanciful, 
and  yet  was  always  practical  and  fond  of  general  principles,  was  unwearied 
in  turning  the  attention  of  the  people  of  Berlin,  to  that  of  which  they  knew 
nothing,  and  proclaimed  the  mysteries  of  God  as  a  sacred  philosophy,  in  which 
all  material  things  were  pervaded  by  spirit.  (5)  Those,  however,  who  con- 
tended against  the  innovations  in  an  intelligent  manner,  were  themselves 
affected  by  the  general  literature  of  the  day,  and  forsook  many  fundamental 
principles  of  the  old  Protestantism.  Individual  instances  of  persecution  were 

2  vols.  Campbell's  Life,  &c.  of  Fr.  the  Gr.  Lond.  4  vols.  8.  2  vols.  p.  8.  Lord  Dover,  Life,  &c.  of 
Fr.  the  Gr.  Lond.  2  Vols.  8.  D.  Thiebault,  Orig.  Anecdd.  of  Fr.  the  Gr.  from  the  French.  Philad. 
1806.  2  vols.  8.] 

7t)  Briefe  an  Job.  Mueller,  ed.  by  Maurer- Constant.  Schaffh.  1840.  vol.  IV.  p.  ISss.  esp.  23. 

i)  F.  Nic.  Ueber  meine  Gelehrte  Bildung.  Brl.  1799.  J.  G.  Fichte,  Nic.  Leben  u.  sonderb.  Mein- 
ungen.  Tub.  1801.  Gockingk,  Nic.  Leben  u.  lit  Nachlass.  Brl.  1820. 

k)  Kant,  Was  ist  Aufklarung?  (Berl.  Monatschr.  1T84.  Dec.) 

a)  J.  A.  Urlsp.  Beschaffenh.  u.  Zwecke  e.  zu  errichtenden  deutschen  Gesellsch.  thutiger  Beford. 
reiner  Lehre  u.  Gottselligk.  Bas.  1781. 

6)  Bibl.  Worterbuch.  (177G.)  ed.  with  Explan.  by  Hamberger,  Stuttg.  1849.  AutoDiog.  ed.  the 
same.  Stuttg.  1845.  K.  A.  Auberlin,  d.  Theoscphie  Get.  with  Praef.  by  R.  Rothe,  Tub.  1848. 


540  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

not  indeed  wanting,  and  the  legal  censorship  and  the  public  prosecutor  wore 
sometimes  appealed  to ;  but  generally  instead  of  a  resort  to  the  civil  or  the 
ecclesiastical  sword,  the  most  timid  intrigues  were  carried  forward,  and  the 
people  were  indifferent  to  the  whole  matter.  An  attempt  to  suppress  the 
new  freedom  of  instruction  at  the  University  of  Jena  (1794)  was  quietly  sup- 
pressed by  Charles  Augustus,  (c)  The  most  decided  hostility  was  displayed 
in  the  very  place  where  the  professed  enlightenment  originally  found  a  home. 
Frederic  William  II.,  painfully  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  position  of  his 
illustrious  ancestor  with  respect  to  the  Church,  and  himself  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  faction,  was  anxious  to  aid  what  he  regarded  as  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  published,  by  the  advice  of  his  ecclesiastical  minister  Woellner, 
a  religious  edict  (July  9,  1778),  which,  for  the  protection  of  the  congrega- 
tions, threatened  every  clergyman  with  deposition,  and  even  with  severer 
punishments  according  to  circumstances,  who  should  presume  to  teach  any 
thing  inconsistent  with  the  symbols  of  the  Church  to  which  he  belonged,  (d) 
The  execution  of  this  edict  was  to  be  secured  by  a  national  catechism,  and  a 
commission  for  examination  (1791)  under  the  immediate  direction  of  Woell- 
ner.  (e)  But  even  the  law  passed  at  the  same  time  for  the  censorship  of  the 
press,  (/)  could  not  prevent  such  a  general  expression  of  disapprobation,  (g) 
that  Woellner,  to  escape  the  reproach  of  having  established  a  Protestant 
inquisition,  only  ventured  on  the  execution  of  the  edict  by  way  of  experi- 
ment, since  he  called  in  the  high  authority  of  the  chancery  to  aid  him  against 
the  opposition  of  the  superior  consistory.  The  decision  in  an  individual  case 
was  to  settle  the  validity  of  the  threatened  rule  for  all  others.  The  supreme 
court  was  directed  by  an  order  of  the  cabinet  (1791)  to  inquire  whether 
Schulz,  a  preacher  of  Gielsdorf,  (/)  who  had  assailed  the  fundamental  truths 
of  Christianity,  (h)  and  in  accordance  with  the  new  fashion  of  the  times 
wore  a  queue,  was  to  bo  regarded  as  an  evangelical  preacher  ?  Although 
many  influences  were  brought  to  bear  upon  the  court,  and  it  was  threatened 
in  various  ways,  it  refused  to  act  inconsistently  with  its  long-established  repu- 
tation, and  decided  that  the  Christian  conduct  of  this  preacher,  and  the  love 
which  his  respectable  congregation  exhibited  toward  him,  would  not  warrant 
his  removal  from  them.  As  the  accused  was  however  deposed,  and  an  order 
was  issued  by  the  cabinet  directing  that  those  members  of  the  court  who 
gave  the  obnoxious  votes  should  be  punished,  the  general  dissatisfaction  was 
much  increased,  (i)  It  had  now  become  evident,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the 
Church  was  established  on  no  legal  basis,  and  was  dependent  on  the  arbi- 
trary caprice  of  a  minister ;  and  on  the  other,  that  no  external  force  was  suf- 
ficient to  repress  the  intellectual  power  of  this  development.  "When  Frederic 
William  III.  ascended  the  throne  (1797),  the  edict  lost  all  the  power  it  ever^ 

c)  (Rohr)  Wio  Karl  August  sicb  bei  Verketzerrungsversuchen  gegen  akad.  Lehrer  benahm. 
Hann.  1830. 

d)  Acten  z.  nst  KGescb.  voL  I.  p.  461ss.    Das  prenss.  R.  Edict.  Eine  Gesch.  a.  d.  18.  Jahrh.  fur 
d.  19.  Lps.  1842. 

e)  (Wald)  Ann.  d.  Pr.  Rel.  Wes.  1796.  voL  I.  SL  4.        /)  Acten  z.  nst  KGesch.  vol.  II.  p.  154s& 
£/)  ffenke,  Beurth.  aller  Schriften  welche  durch  das  pr.  K.  Edkt.  veranlasst  sind.  Kiel,  1793. 

/O  Erweia  d.  himmelweiten  Unterschieds  d.  Moral  u.  d.  Rel.  v.  c.  unerschrockenen  Wahrheita 
freunde.  Frkf.  1788. 

t)  Henke,  Arch.  vol.  I.  Qu.  2.  p.  84ss.     Voter,  Anbau,  vol.  I.  p.  237ss. 


CflAP.  IV.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1814.    §443.    LESSING.    HERDER.        541 

possessed,  and  it  was  proclaimed  by  this  pious  king,  that  as  religion  was  ex- 
clusively an  affair  of  the  heart,  it  needed  no  compulsory  enactments,  and 
that  with  reason  and  philosophy  for  its  inseparable  companions,  he  could  not 
doubt  that  it  would  by  its  unaided  energies  maintain  its  existence  in  the 
nation.  (&) 

§  443.    Revolution  in  German  Literature. 

The  affectionate  reverence  with  which  Gellert  (1715-69)  was  surrounded, 
notwithstanding  the  contracted  and  sickly  spirit  he  possessed,  showed  that 
the  simple  utterance  of  a  pure  Christian  heart  found  much  that  was  conge- 
nial in  the  minds  of  others.  The  admiration  also  with  which  the  first  cantos 
of  the  Messias  were  received  (1748),  could  never  have  been  awakened  if 
there  had  not  been  a  general  confidence  in  an  incarnate  God,  who  had  given 
himself  a  sacrifice  for  man.  At  the  same  time,  however,  in  which  this 
theological  revolution  took  place,  the  intellect  of  the  German  people  be- 
came much  elevated.  No  longer  unmindful  of  its  former  glory,  nor  de- 
voting itself  to  the  pursuit  of  monstrosities  and  miserable  imitations,  its  full 
and  profound  spirit  now  awoke  to  a  consciousness  of  its  powers,  and  began 
to  form  a  polished  national  literature,  by  means  of  which  the  nation  once 
more  assumed  an  important  position  in  the  history  of  the  world,  (a)  Among 
the  leaders  in  this  intellectual  movement  were  some  who  stood  foremost  in 
the  theological  world.  Lessing  (1729-81),  who  never  aspired  to  the  charac- 
ter of  a  theologian,  but  only  to  that  of  an  amateur  in  theology,  with  power- 
ful native  talent  and  character,  threatened  to  overthrow  the  formal  principles 
of  the  old  Protestantism,  by  proving  that  Christianity  rested  not  upon  the 
Bible,  but  upon  the  internal  experience  of  men.  Although  he  entertained  a 
profound  respect  for  the  religion  of  the  people,  and  the  serious  earnestness 
of  genuine  orthodoxy,  he  annihilated  the  pretensions  of  the  Lutheran  pas- 
torate by  the  most  terrible  weapons  of  thought  and  learning.  (5)  He  was 
unwilling  to  accept  of  a  religion  on  the  veracity  and  faith  of  others,  and  by 
his  Nathan  he  persuaded  the  whole  nation  to  elevate  itself,  as  he  had  clone, 
above  all  regard  for  historical  traditions.  Herder  (1744  1803),  as  long  as  he 
was  in  advance  of  his  age,  and  after  a  season  of  prophetic  youthful  extrava- 
gance, became  animated  with  the  same  enthusiasm  for  the  Scriptures  which 
he  had  felt  for  Homer  and  Ossian,  and  having  redeemed  the  gospel  of  human- 
ity from  the  dogmas  of  the  schools,  he  announced  and  gave  a  personal  repre- 
sentation of  it  among  his  fellow-men,  (c)  And  yet  this  triumphant  literature 
was  merely  a  glorification  of  the  world,  and  in  its  most  ardent  efforts  after 
ideal  excellence  had  no  very  definite  relation  to  Christianity.  From  holding 

k)  A.  K.  Z.  182T.  N.  25. 

a)  //  Gelser,  d.  deutsche  poet.  Lit  s.  Klopst.  Nach  ihren  ethischen  u.  rel.  Gesichtspunkten.  Lps. 
1841.  Corap.  Gervinus  and  Vilmar. 

6)  Eine  Parabel  nebst  e.  kleinen  Bitte  u.  eventualen  Absagungschreiben.  Anti-Goeze.  1773.  and 
oth.  in  the  10  and  11  v.  of  Lessing's  Schrr.  ed.  by  Lachmann,  Brl.  1889.— fiohr,  Less,  in  theol.  Bo- 
ziehung.  (Kleine  theol.  Schrr.  Schleos.  1S41.  vol.  I.)  Itiendcker,  u;  Less,  als  Hrsgebr.  d.  "Wolfenb. 
Fraginm.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1844.  H.  4.) 

c)  (Cbristl.  Schrr.  Rig.  1794ss.  5  Samml.)  Werke  z.  Eel.  u.  Th.  ed.  by  J.  G.  Mueller,  Tub.  (lS05ss. 
12  v.)  1827ss.  18  v.  Danz  u.  Gruter,  Characteristik  H.  Lps.  1805.  M,  C.  v.  Herder,  Erin,  an  d. 
Leben  H.  Tub.  1S20.  2  vols.  Weimarisches  Herder-Album.  Jen.  1845. 


542  MODERN  CHUBCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  YI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

a  seraphic  kind  of  orthodoxy,  Wieland  suddenly  embraced  a  lax  system  of 
freethinking  (after  1760),  not  only  in  matters  of  faith,  but  in  those  of  morals. 
Goethe  took  some  interest  as  a  poet  in  the  various  manifestations  of  the  Chris- 
tian spirit,  occasionally  he  himself  assumed  a  pastoral  style  of  address  while 
defending  practical  and  sincere  piety  principally  against  the  reckless  spirit  of 
the  innovators,  (d)  and  he  abhorred  all  negative  criticism  with  respect  to  the 
original  authorities  of  antiquity ;  but  the  idea  of  any  interruption  of  those 
natural  laws  by  which  the  Deity  reveals  himself  to  men,  was  highly  repug- 
nant to  his  feeling  of  exclusive  sympathy  with  nature,  and  the  decoration  of 
a  single  bird  of  Paradise  was  inconsistent  with  his  views  of  the  multiplicity 
in  which  all  things  appear.  For  himself,  therefore,  he  never  felt  the  need  of 
sucli  a  system  as  that  of  Christianity,  (e)  Schiller  has  sometimes  used  strong 
language  respecting  the  inconsistency  of  Christianity  with  the  adoration  of 
an  independent  Ruler  of  all  things,  with  which  the  age  had  made  him  ac- 
quainted, yet  in  his  mature  years  he  himself  postponed  the  categorical  impera- 
tive to  the  religion  of  free  inclination,  and  perceived  the  important  part 
which  the  gospel  sustains  in  the  history  of  the  world.  His  own  hopes  of  the 
world's  salvation,  however,  were  built  wholly  upon  the  influence  of  moral 
freedom  and  beauty.  (/)  But  by  the  side  of  these  highly  endowed  children 
of  the  world,  the  prophets  also  found  a  friendly  position  on  account  of  the 
kindred  spirit  of  enthusiasm  which  they  seemed  to  possess.  Among  these 
were :  Hamann  (1780-88),  a  powerful  child  of  nature,  and  yet  one  filled  with 
the  spirit  of  the  Scriptures,  who,  with  a  style  as  abrupt  and  fragmentary  as 
was  -his  actual  life,  poured  forth  his  prophecies  against  the  Babel  of  the 
Enlightenment  on  the  Spree ;  (g)  Lavater  (1741-1801),  who  with  a  magical 
versatility  of  talent  ingeniously  mingled  the  earthly  and  the  heavenly ;  (A) 
in  his  better  days,  Jung-Stilling  (1740-1817),  idyllic  in  his  style,  powerful 
in  prayer,  and  credulous  with  respect  to  modern  miracles ;  (0  and  Claudius 
(1743-1815),  with  his  humble  and  yet  humorous  sincerity.  (/.') 

d)  Brief  d.  Pastors  *  *  an  den  ncucn  P.  zu  *  *  Zwo  bibl  Fragen  an  e.  Landgelstl.  in  Schwaben. 
Fragments 

«)  Comp.  e.  g.  Giithes  u.  Lav.  Briefw.  ed.  by  ffirtel,  Lps.  1833.  and  GGthe's  last  letter  to  Augnste 
v.  Stolberg  in  tho  Urania.  1839.  [Autobiog.  of  Goethe,  transl.  by  P.  Godwin,  New  York.  1846.  2 
vols.  12.  Works,  transl.  into  EngL  Lond.  1862.  4  vols.  8.] 

/)  It.  Binder,  Scbiller  im  Verb.  z.  Cbristenth.  Btuttg.  1889.  2  vols.  Comp.  C.  Uttmann  and  <?. 
Schwab,  d.  Cultus  d.  Genias.  Hamb.  1840.  p.  Slss.  Tendency  to  Christianity :  F.  J.  Gunther,  Sch. 
Lied.  v.  d.  Glocke.  Elbrf.  1853.  [Worship  of  Genius,  transl.  from  the  Gerrn.  of  C.  Ullmann.  Lond. 
1S45. 12.  Life  of  Schiller  and  Exam,  of  Works.  Loud.  1825.  8.  Carlyle,  Life  of  S.  Lond.  and  New 
York.  12.] 

0)  Werke,  ed.  by  Rothe,  BrL  1821ss.  7  vols.  and  8  vols.  (Nachtr.  u.  Erlauti.)  v.  G.  A.  Wiener. 
BrL  1842.    Holler,  chr.  Bekenntnisse  u.  Zeugn.  v.  H.  Munst  1826.    F.  ITerlst,  Bibl.  chr.  Denker 
Lps.  1S30.  vol.  L     W.  Bauer,  de  Ham.  vita  et  Scrr.  Vrat  1842. 

A)  Geheimes  Tagebucb.  Von  e.  Beobachter  sr.  selbst  Lps.  17T2ss.  2  vols.  Ausgowahlte  Schrr.  ed. 
by  Orelli,  Zur.  1841s.  6  vols.  F.  fferbst,  Bibl.  chr.  Denker.  1832.  voL  II.  Goihe,  a.  m.  Lebea. 
(Nacbgcl.  W.  1833.)  vol.  VI1L  p.  142ss.  U.  Hegner,  Beitrr.  z.  Kenntniss.  Lav.  Lps.  1836. 

1)  (Jngend,  JQnglingsj.  Wandersch.  1778.)  Lebensgescb.  new  ed.  Stuttg.  1835.  (voL  I.  d,  eammtl. 
Schrr.  ed.  by  Grollmann.)    Sendschr.  geprufter  Christen  an  J.  St  Carlsr.  1833.    Schwartz,  St  Alter 
u.  Lebensende.  Hdlb.  1817.    Goethe  a.  m.  Leben.  (Werke.  1829. 12.)  vol.  XXV.  p.  245.    JacoWs 
Brr.  vol.  IL  p.  487.    [Stilling's  "Childhood,"  "Interesting  Tales,"  and  " Pneumatology,"  have  been 
translated  by  Jackson.  Lond.  4  vols.  12.  Autobiogr.  New  York,  1838.  8.] 

*)  Silmmtl.  W.  d.  Wandsbecker  Bothen.  1774-1812.  7  ed.  Hamb.  1844.  8  vols.  16.  Comp.  Hist  pot 
Blatter.  1839.  vol.  IV.  P.  66s. 


CHAP.  IV.    EVANG.  CHUKCH  TILL  1814.    §  441  KANT.    JACOBI.    FICHTE.    543 
§  444.    Reformation  of  Philosophy  in  Germany. 

C.  M.  Mlchelet,  Gesch.  d.  Phil.  v.  Kant  b.  Hegel.  Brl.  183Ts.  2  vols.  IT.  M.  Clialylaeu*,  hist 
Entw.  d.  Spec.  Phil.  v.  Kant  b.  Hegel.  Drsd.  (1837-39.)  4  ed.  1848.  [transl.  intoEngl.  by  A.  Ederaheim, 
Edinb.  1854.]  K.  Biedermann,  d.  deutsche  Phil.  v.  Kant,  b.  a,  unsre  Z.  Lps.  1843. 

As  the  mind  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  highest  of  all  powers,  the  spirit 
of  the  age  pressed  most  ardently  forward  in  its  efforts  to  ascertain  its  *aature. 
In  view  of  all  that  Wolf  and  Hume  had  said,  Kant  (1724-1804)  went  into  a 
careful  investigation  of  our  faculty  of  understanding,  and  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  we  cannot  know  things  in  themselves,  and  things  above  the 
reach  of  the  senses,  but  that  the  only  thing  certain  in  itself  is  the  moral  law, 
which  conducts  us  to  a  practical  faith  in  God  and  immortality.  He  also  ac- 
knowledged that  it  is  our  duty  to  connect  ourselves  with  Christianity,  on 
the  ground  that  it  is  a  popular  school  for"  moral  education,  and  because  its 
sacred  books,  as  well  as  its  received  doctrines,  are  an  excellent  explanation 
of  the  great  object  of  morality,  (a)  Jacoli  (1743-1819)  agreed  with  Kant 
respecting  the  limitations  of  all  knowledge,  but  he  shrunk  from  the  direct, 
strict  way  of  reason,  which  that  philosopher  had  marked  out,  and  pointed 
out  in  a  dilettanti  c  and  exalted  style  the  certainty  of  those  religious  ideas 
which  are  found  in  the  sentient  part  of  man's  nature,  and  which  neither 
have  nor  need  any  proof.  He  was  himself  profoundly  studying  a  problem 
which  has  employed  the  mind  of  man  as  long  as  it  has  had  an  existence,  with 
the  heart  of  a  Christian  but  the  understanding  of  a  heathen,  (i)  A  theo- 
logical school  was  founded  by  Kant,  but  as  his  influence  on  philosophy  con- 
sisted principally  in  the  scientific  and  moral  earnestness  of  the  movement 
commenced  by  him,  some  more  popular  results  have  been  produced  in  the 
department  of  theology,  by  the  combination  of  the  critical  philosophy  with 
the  philosophy  of  faith.  Fichte  (1762-1814)  showed  that  the  ultimate  point 
toward  which  the  critical  religious  philosophy  tended,  was  faith  in  a  univer- 
sal moral  government.  But  as  he  was  not  satisfied  with  the  resignation 
which  both  Kant  and  Jacobi  required,  he  conceived  of  all  existence  merely 
as  the  voluntary  creation  of  the  mind.  Having  been  accused  of  atheism  in 
Electoral  Saxony,  his  self-respect,  which  identified  his  own  person  with  the 
cause  of  science,  led  him  to  use  an  incautious  expression  which  produced  his 
dismission  from  his  professorship  at  Jena  (1799).  It  was  not,  however,  the 
existence  of  God,  but  the  existence  of  the  world  that  he  denied ;  and  the 
omnipotence  of  the  /  in  the  religion  of  cheerful  virtue,  together  with  his 
confidence  in  the  approaching  end  of  Christianity  which  he  assumed  in  all 

a)  Kritik  d.  reinen  Yernunft.  1781.  Kr.  d.  prakt  Yft  1788.  Kr.  d.  Urtheilskr.  1790.  Eel. 
Innerh.  d.  Grenzen  d.  bl.  Yft  Kimigsb.  1793.  and  often.  Sammtl.  Schrr.  ed.  by  liosenkrans,  Lps. 
1837ss.  12  vols.  Ifartenstein,  Lps.  1838s.  10  vols.  Diettein,  Bedeut  d.  Kant  Phil,  fur  d.  neuere  Th. 
(Stud.  u.  Krit.  1847.  H.  4.)  [Kant's  Critick  of  Pure  Eeason.  Lond.  1838.  8.  An  Analysis  of  the  C. 
of  P.  B.  Lond.  1844.  8.  Logic  with  Life,  by  Richardson,  Lond.  1836.  8.  Metaphysic  of  Ethics, 
transl.  by  Semple,  Edinb.  1836.  8.  Prolegomena  to  every  future  Metaphysic.  Lond.  1S38.  8.  and 
Theory  of  Eel.  Iransl.  by  Semple,  Edinb.  1837.  8.  A.  F.  M.  Willich,  The  Critical  Phil,  of  Kant. 
Lond.  1798.  Wirgmann,  Prince,  of  the  C.  Phil.  Lond.  1824.] 

&)  Hume  u.  d.  Glauben.  1787.  Yon  d.  gottl.  Dingen  u.  ihrer  Offenb.  Lps.  (1811.)  1822.  Werke. 
Lps.  1812ss.  6  vols.  Briefw.  Lps.  1825ss.  2  vols.  Briefw.  zw.  Goethe  u.  Jac.  Lps.  1846.  J.  £u?in, 
Jac.  u.  d.  Ph.  sr.  Zeit  Mentz,  1824. 


544  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

his  speculations,  became  finally  transformed  into  the  omnipotence  of  love. 
Christianity  was  recognized  by  him  as  the  gospel  not  only  of  freedom  and 
equality,  but  of  indifference  to  the  world,  though  he  always  expressed  a  spe- 
cial preference  for  the  writings  of  John,  (c)  His  school  is  of  importance  in 
the  history  of  the  Church  only  because  it  was  an  important  point  of  progress 
in  philosophy,  and  because  it  imparted  an  heroic  strength  to  the  human  mind. 

§  445.     nationalism  and  Supernaturalism. 

Stdudlin,  Gesch.  d.  Rat  u.  Supr.  GiitL  1826.  E.  B.  Pusey,  Causes  of  the  lato  rationalist  charac- 
ter of  the  Theol.  in  Germany.  Lend.  182838.  2  vols.  Amand  Saintes,  Hist  crit  du  rationalisme  en 
Allemagne.  Par.  (1841.)  1848.  m.  Anmerk.  u.  Excursen.  v.  C.  G.  Picker,  Lps.  1817.  [A  Crit  Hist 
of  Rationalism  in  Germ,  from  its  Origin  till  uow.  transl.  from  the  French  of  Am.  Saintes,  by  J.  /?. 
•  Beard,  Lend.  1849.  8.  Art  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  BibL  Lit  voL  L] 

The  theology  which  now  had  the  ascendency  in  the  German  Church,  had 
avoided  an  open  rupture  with  that  which  the  Church  set  forth  in  her  creeds, 
and  yet  had  appropriated  to  itself  all  which  it  thought  intelligible  and  useful 
in  them.  A  living  representation  of  it  was  exhibited  in  the  person  of  the 
mild  and  venerable  Spalding  (1714—1804).  (a)  But  the  original  opposition 
which  will  always  be  found  to  exist  between  a  merely  sacerdotal  religion 
and  a  religion  of  mature  reason,  became  developed  near  the  commence- 
ment of  the  nineteenth  century  as  the  principal  subject  of  controversy  in 
the  Christian  world,  under  the  scholastic  names  of  nationalism  and  Super- 
naturalism.  This,  instead  of  being  a  discussion  respecting  some  peculiar 
doctrines  of  religion,  referred  to  the  primary  principles  which  lie  at  its  foun- 
dation. In  general,  Rationalism  found  the  supreme  law  of  all  religion  in  the 
reflecting  mind,  which  it  regarded  as  a  natural  revelation  from  God ;  whereas 
Supernaturalism  found  it  in  a  sacred  tradition,  which  was  looked  upon  as  a 
supernatural  revelation.  The  tendency  of  the  age  was  unquestionably 
rational,  and  it  was  contending  for  liberty  and  intelligible  ideas  in  opposition 
to  merely  prescriptive  usages.  But  so  far  as  nationalism  constituted  a  dis- 
tinct school,  it  maintained  the  supremacy  of  a  sound  common  sense,  as  it  was 
defended  by  "Wolf,  Kant,  and  Jacobi ;  it  appropriated  to  itself  the  natural  reli- 
gion and  earnest  system  of  morality  found  in  the  Scriptures ;  and  it  regarded 
this  as  all  that  was  essential  to  Christianity.  Every  thing  else  in  the  Bible 
it  set  aside  as  the  various  kinds  of  outward  covering  which  the  truth  assumed 
during  the  process  of  its  birth.  The  last  representatives  of  this  school  were : 
Paulus  (1761-1851),  the  influence  of  whose  character  as  an  expounder  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  his  conscientious  earnestness  in  the  formation  of  his  specula- 
tive creed,  was  precisely  the  same  in  various  directions  as  if  he  had  been  an 
avowed  freethinker  ;  (&)  Wegscheider  (1771-1849),  who  as  a  didactic  theolo- 

c)  Vers.  e.  Kritik  aller  Oflfenb.  Konigsb.  (1792.)  1793.  Grundl.  d.  Wisscnschaftsl.  Weim.  1794 
Appell.  an  d.  PubL  u.  die  ihm  beigemessenen  atheist.  Aeusser.  Jena,  1799.  Anw.  z.  sel.  Leben.  BrL 
1S06.  J.  H.  Fichte,  J.  G.  Fichte's  Leben  u.  Briefw.  1830s.  2  vols.  Goethe,  Werke.  voL  XXXL  p. 
153.  Paulus,  Skizzen.  p.  170ss.  J.  U.  Fichte,  Paulns  u.  Fichte.  (Freihafen.  1840.  P.  2.)  Paulus  im 
N.  Sophron.  1841.  vol.  I.  P.  1.  [Fichte's  Destination  of  Man,  The  Nature  of  the  Scholar,  The  Voca- 
tion of  the  Scholar,  The  "Way  to  a  Blessed  Life,  and  Characteristics  of  the  Age,  have  been  transl.  and 
publ.  with  a  Memoir  of  the  Author.  Lond.  1846ss.  8.] 

a')  J.  J.  Sp.  Lebensbeschr.  v.  ihm  selbst  ed.  by  his  son.  Hal.  1804. 

1)  Skizzen  a,  m.  Lebensgesch.  z.  Andenken  an  inein  50jiihr.  Jubil.  Ileidelb.  1839.  K.  A.  v,  Reich- 
Un-Heldegg,  II.  E.  G.  Paalus  u.  s.  Zeit.  Stuttg.  1853.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  IV.  EVASG.  CHUECH  TILL  1814.    §445.  RATIONALISM.  545 

gian,  (e)  together  with  Eohr  (1777-1848),  a  high  officer  in  the  Church  and  a 
popular  author,  showed  how  this  style  of  speculation  can  be  made  consistent 
with  an  ecclesiastical  professorship,  (d)  On  the  other  hand,  Supernaturalism 
abandoned  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  former  orthodoxy,  but  firmly 
maintained,  though  with  many  concessions,  that  the  historical  contents  of 
Christianity  were  a  supernatural  revelation  from  God,  and  employed  itself  in 
substituting  a  biblical  for  an  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy.  «  In  the  department  of 
German  literature,  the  older  Tubingen  school,  which  collected  together  out 
of  various  authors  the  mildest  views  respecting  the  writings  transmitted  by 
the  hands  of  the  Church,  (e)  appeared  to  be  the  only  support  by  which  the 
cause  of  Supernaturalism  was  preserved  from  an  entire  defeat.  In  the  ranks 
of  common  life,  however,  and  in  churches  of  other  countries,  this  system  was 
the  prevalent  mode  of  communication  between  ancient  and  modern  times. 

§  446.     The  Ecclesiastical  Party  in  Germany. 

Bretschneider.  d.  Unkircblicbk.  dieser  Zeit.  Goth.  (1820.)  1822.  A.  KZ.  1828.  N.  Iss. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  new  century,  the  pious  morals  and  manners 
of  the  preceding  times  had  become  seriously  impaired  in  consequence  of  the 
sudden  relaxation  of  the  former  system  of  faith,  the  unrestrained  mode  of 
life  which  the  revolution  had  produced,  and  the  universal  tendency  to  mate- 
rial or  political  interests.  The  religion  of  the  Bible  seemed  to  have  no  ele- 
ments in  common  with  the  modern  views  of  the  world,  and  the  religion  of 
the  cross  was  utterly  estranged  from  the  new  pleasures  and  glories  of  human 
society.  The  school,  as  established  by  JBasedow  (1723-90),  who  attempted  in 
a  rather  awkward  manner  to  realize  the  plan  suggested  by  Rousseau,  (a)  was 
inclined  to  assume  the  position  which  properly  belonged  to  the  Church,  since, 
instead  of  contending  against  an  innate  tendency  to  sin,  it  put  confidence  in 
the  general  goodness  of  human  nature,  and  instead  of  instructing  its  pupils 
in  the  Christianity  of  the  Catechism,  it  educated  them  as  reflecting  beings, 
by  agreeable  entertainments  and  by  pleasant  views  of  actual  life.  Pestalozzi 
(1746-1827),  on  the  other  hand,  devoted  himself  so  thoroughly  to  his  employ- 
ment, that  in  receiving  him  to  their  affections  they  also  accepted  of 
Christ.  (7>)  The  Church,  indeed,  still  possessed  the  confidence  and  love  of  the 
great  body  of  the  people ;  and  some  were  yet  firmly  attached  to  ecclesiastical 
principles,  and  scattered  blessings  all  around  them.  The  best  among  many 
of  a  similar  character  were :  Eeinhard  (1753-1812),  who  presided  over  the 
Saxon  Church,  preaching  the  gospel  with  a  scholastic  and  precise  rhetoric, 
with  many  concessions  to  the  new  spirit  of  the  day,  but  with  an  earnestness 
worthy  of  the  former  times  of  the  Church,  doing  justice  to  every  order  of 


c)  Institutions  Th.  Dogm.  Hal.  1815.  edL  8. 1844. 

d)  Briefe  u.  d.  Eationalism.  Aach.  (Zeitz)  1813.    Krit.  Predlger-Bibl.  s.  1820. 

e)  Tub.  Zeitscb.  unter  versch.  Titel  1796-40,  ed.  by  Flatt,  Suskind,  Bengel,  SteodeL  Comp, 
Rheinw.  Rep.  1833.  p.  174. 190.  203.  216ss. 

a)  (Meyer)  Bas.  Leben  u.  Charakter.  Hamb.  1791. 

1)  Lienhard  u.  Gertrud.  Zur.  (1781.)  1790ss.  3  vols.  Bucb  d.  Mutter.  Ifert.  1803.  [Autobiogr. 
Scenes  of  iny  Life  at  Bergdorf  and  Yferdun.  Lond.  1830.  E.  Biber,  Memoirs  of  P.  and  bis  Plan  ol 
Ed.  Lond.  1831.] 

35 


5  46  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  TL    A.  D.  1648-1358. 

talent,  and  moderating  every  injurious  influence  from  without ;  (c)  and  Ober- 
lin  (1740-1826),  the  pastor  of  the  Steinthal,  and  a  Protestant  saint,  who 
showed  how  much  an  active,  fervent,  and  simple-hearted  man  can  do,  with 
the  divine  assistance,  for  the  spiritual  and  temporal  welfare  of  a  congrega- 
tion, (d)  But  the  educated  and  the  half-educated  classes  turned  silently 
away  from  God,  or  at  least  from  Christ ;  and  even  those  who,  like  all  truly 
exalted  minds,  had  at  least  some  longings  after  eternal  things,  congratulated 
themselves  with  the  author  of  the  Titan,  that  they  could  penetrate  much  fur- 
ther into  the  Infinite  than  could  either  Peter  or  Paul,  (e)  Rectitude  of  ex- 
ternal conduct,  in  connection  often  with  great  self-complacency  and  easy 
conformity  to  usage,  was  now  substituted  for  justification  by  faith.  Many 
sermons  were  nothing  but  moral  lectures,  or  sought  for  the  practical  in  some 
region  far  beyond  the  province  of  religion.  The  lifeless  condition  of  the 
Church  may  be  seen  in  the  vandalism  with  which  the  old  hymns  were  muti- 
lated. (/)  Many  pious  persons,  as  well  as  freethinkers,  were  apprehensive 
that  Christianity  was  about  to  be  subverted. 

§  447.    Small  Fanatical  Parties. 

A  strange  mode  of  divine  worship  practised  by  the  Jumpers,  a  class  of 
persons  who  sprung  up  among  the  Methodists  of  "Wales  (about  1760),  now 
made  its  appearance,  and  consisted  in  a  wild  leaping  upward  in  honor  of  the 
Lamb.  This  enthusiasm  received  a  regular  form  from  Anna  Lee,  who,  in 
consequence  of  the  oppression  she  endured  in  England,  emigrated  with  her 
adherents  to  New  York.  Although  her  prediction  that  she  should,  as  the 
Lamb's  wife,  give  birth  to  a  new  Messiah,  remained  unfulfilled  at  the  time  of 
her  death  (1782),  her  followers  continued  to  praise  God  by  chastity,  commu- 
nity of  goods,  and  by  dances  like  those  of  David  before  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant. These  Slialcers  have  their  principal  settlement  in  a  few  busy  and  neat 
villages  .near  the  Hudson,  where  men  and  women  lodge  in  the  same  dwell- 
ings, but  most  strictly  separated  from  each  other,  with  countenances  immova- 
ble, eyes  dull,  trusting  to  immediate  inspirations,  and  as  the  only  true  Church 
waiting  for  a  wonderful  development  throughout  the  world,  (a)  Joanna 

c)  Gestandnisse  s.  Predigten  u.  a.  Bildung  z.  Prediger  betr.  Sulzb.  (1810.)  1811.    K.  IT.  L.  Polite, 
F.  V.  Reinhard  nach  s.  Leben  n.  Wirken.  Lps.  1813ss.  2  vols. 

d)  Notice  sur  Ob.  Par.  1826.  Strassb.  1826.   H.  Schubert,  Zuge  a.  d.  Leben  Ob.  Nurnb.  1826.  6  ed. 
1838.    Ibid,  aus  d.  Nachlnsse  eines  Vifionars.  Lps.  1837.    Ob.  Lebensgesch.  u.  Gesamm.  Schrr.  zu- 
eammengestellt  v.  W.  Burckhardt,  Stuttg.  1843.  4  vols.    [Memoirs  of  J.  F.  Oberlin.  Lond.  1830. 
Mark  Wilkes,  The  Ban  de  la  Roche  and  its  Benefactor,  J.  F.  Ob.  Lond.  1820.  8.  L.  HaUey,  Memoirs 
of  J.  F.  Ob.  Pittsburgh.  1832.  18.    II.  Ware,  Mem.  of  J.  F.  Ob.  Boston.  1838.  12.    Artt  in  Quart. 
Rev.  1S31.  and  Eclectic  Rev.  1824  in  Rel.  Mag.  1828.  and  Littell's  Mus.  Philad.  1S81.] 

e)  Briefw.  zwischen.  H.  Voss  u.  Jean  Paul  Heidelb.  1833.  p.  133.  68.    [Autobiogr.  of  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  from  the  Germ.  Lond.  and  Boston.  2  vols.  12.    E.  Lee,  Life  of  J.  P.  R.  Boston,  1842.  2  vols. 
12.    Most  of  his  works  are  translated.] 

/)  BUlroth,  Beitr.  z.  wissensch.  Crlttk  d.  herrsch.  Theol.  Lps.  1831.  12.  Stier,  die  Gcsangbuchs- 
noth.  Lps.  1838. 

a)  Henke,  Rel.  Ann.  P.  1.  p.  105ss.  Archiv.  f.  KGesch.  vol.  I.  St.  1.  Stdudlin,  Beitr.  vol.  V.  p. 
899.  Duke  Bernhard,  Reise  nach  Nord-Am.  p.  ITSss.  Blatter,  f.  lit  Unterh.  1833.  N.  61.  Pred.  BibL 
1844.  V.  25.  P.  5.  [Calvin  Green  &  Seth  Y.  Wetts,  Millennial  Church,  or  View  of  the  Society  called 
Bhakers.  Albany.  1823. 12.  T.  Brown,  Account  of  the  people  called  Shakers.  Troy.  1812. 12.  IF:  J. 
Hackett,  Shakerism  unmasked,  &c.  Pittsfield.  1828-12.] 


CHAP.  IV.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1814    §  447.  SECTS.    HAUGE.  547 

Soutlicote  also  promised  the  people  of  England  that  she  would  give  birth  to 
one  who  was  to  he  the  Shiloh  of  the  world,  and  made  it  the  duty  of  believ- 
ers to  observe  the  Jewish  law,  that  they  might  receive  the  Messiah  in  a  wor- 
thy manner.  Although  after  waiting  for  a  long  time  she  died  (1814)  in  her 
delusion,  and  the  splendid  cradle  which  had  been  prepared  for  the  Messiah 
still  remained  empty,  the  New  Israelites  continued  till  1831  to  observe  the 
Jewish  Sabbath,  in  hope  of  the  future  Messiah.  (&)  Among  the  peasantry 
of  Norway  a  powerful  religious  movement  was  produced  by  Nielsen  Hauge 
(1771-1824),  who  felt  called  to  be  a  prophet  like  the  herdman  of  Tekoa  (after 
1795).  The  law  of  God  was  the  principal  theme  of  his  discourses,  and  he 
judged  of  others  as  well  as  wished  himself  to\be  judged,  exclusively  by  the 
Scriptures,  and  the  catechism.  Community  of  goods  was  required  only  on 
the  principles  which  he  believed  to  have  prevailed  in  the  Apostolic  Church, 
and  whatever  property  was  intrusted  to  his  hands  he  employed  in  objects  of 
general  utility.  He  became  odious  to  the  clergy  on  account  of  the  suspicions 
which  his  conduct  threw  upon  their  order,  and  under  a  law  of  1741  he  was 
severely  abused  by  heavy  fines  and  a  long  imprisonment  for  preaching  with- 
out a  license.  This  law  was  finally  abolished  by  the  Storthing  (1842),  and 
the  law  of  1845  gave  full  toleration  to  all  Christian  sects.  A  powerful  party 
has  sprung  up  under  Hauge's  influence,  which  contends  earnestly  against  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  on  account  of  the  laxness  they  exhibit  with  respect 
to  the  terms  of  salvation,  (c)  In  Sweden  the  special  need  of  family  worship 
on  account  of  the  great  extent  of  the  parishes  led  to  the  formation,  after  1803, , 
of  a  party,  which  from  its  perusal  of  the  Scriptures  and  Luther's  Postills, 
were  called  Laesare,  Their  pious  zeal  was  proved  by  their  Lutheran  ortho- 
doxy, their  rigid  morals,  and  their  devotional  meetings.  A  few  zealots 
among  them  who  claimed,  to  be  infallible,  on  account  of  their  possession  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  therefore  dealt  out  their  curses  upon  all,  and  especially 
upon  the  clergy  who  thought  differently  from  themselves,  who  burned  the 
books  of  devotion  they  had  previously  used  because  such  works  were  useless 
to  those  who  had  the  Bible,  and  who  paid  no  regard  to  the  edicts  of  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities  were  fined  according  to  law,  and  many  of  them  endea- 
vored (after  1846)  to  find  their  Zion  in  America,  (d) 


§  448,     Civil  Relations  of  Protestants  under  CatJwlic  Governments,     Cont. 

from  §  413, 


The  indifference  which  generally  prevailed  on  religious  subjects  had  the 
effect  to  bring  about  what  the  reason  of  the  age  demanded.  From  inclina- 
tion as  well  as  from  policy,  Frederic  IL  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  Pro 
testant  Germany,  As  an  individual  event  it  was  of  no  great  importance  that 

I)  Niemeyer,  Beob.  a.  Kelsen.  Ed.  2.  vol.  II.  p.  93ss.  A.  K.  Z.  1831.  N.  67.  \P.  Mathias,  J.  South 
cote's  Prophecies  and  case  stated.  Lond.  1S30.  12.] 

c)  Jens  Moeller :  Archiv,  f.  KGesch,  vol.  II.  p.  354ss.    Schubert :  Ibid.  vol.  V.  p.  237ss.  Ev.  K.  2. 
1831.  N.  64.  1834.  N.  57.  61.    (K  Surwey)  Godanken  e.  Suddeutschen  A.  d.  K.  Norw.  (Stud.  u.  Krit. 
1849.  H.  2s.) 

d)  Schubert:  Archiv.  f.  KGesch.  vol.  IV.  p.  624ss.  V,  227ss.  A.  K.  Z.  1822.  N.  5. 1830.  N.  38.— Brl 
K.  Z.  1846.  N,  9s.  1849,  N.  4.  D.  A.  Z.  1852.  N,  167, 


548  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-lS5a 

the  oppression  of  their  Protestant  subjects  by  the  princes  of  Hohenlohe  was 
prevented  by  the  imperial  troops  (1750),  (a)  but  German  Protestantism  gained 
once  more  by  the  proud  position  maintained  by  Prussia  a  consciousness  of  its 
political  power  and  security.  Joseph  II.,  full  of  philosophical  zeal  for  the 
general  rights  of  man,  gave  to  the  Evangelicals  in  all  his  dominions  the  com- 
plete privileges  of  citizenship,  and  the  freedom  of  a  quiet  worship  (1781).  (&) 
This  edict  of  toleration  was  not  accepted  in  Tyrol  and  Hungary.  But  the 
Hungarian  Diet  of  1791  recognized  the  religious  freedom  of  the  Protestants 
by  the  restoration  of  all  their  former  privileges,  although  the  Catholic  ma- 
jority would  never  allow  complete  justice  to  be  actually  administered  in  this 
matter,  (c)  As  late  as  1762  religious  intolerance  was  still  so  strong  in  Tou- 
louse that  sentence  of  death  was  passed  upon  the  honest  John  Galas.  Then 
it  was  that  Voltaire  came  forward  in  defence  of  murdered  innocence,  and 
convinced  the  French  nation  that  Christianity  was  not  a  barbarous  religion, 
but  one  that  enjoined  toleration  upon  all  its  votaries,  (d)  The  Parliament  of 
Toulouse  in  1769  recognized  the  legality  of  a  Protestant  marriage,  and  the 
civil  rights  of  Protestants  were  acknowledged  in  1787 ;  but  the  complete 
equality  of  the  rights  of  the  Protestant  with  those  of  the  Catholic  Church 
was  not  fully  proclaimed  until  the  revolution.  Napoleon  granted  the  Pro- 
testants a  Synodal  Constitution  (1802),  though  he  subjected  it  to  great  limita- 
tions and  a  rigid  supervision.  "When  the  German  empire  was  broken  up,  the 
permanency  of  the  peace  of  "Westphalia  became  doubtful.  But  the  right  of 
possession,  which  had  been  acknowledged  for  years  under  it  in  the  individual 
states,  was  maintained  until  the  higher  privilege  of  a  complete  legal  equality 
was  received  and  enforced  by  Napoleon,  especially  in  favor  of  the  Catholics, 
as  far  as  the  terror  of  his  cannons  prevailed,  (e) 


CHAP.  V.— THE  PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  UNTIL  1853. 
§  449.     Development  of  Protestantism. 

Gieseler.  (p.  637.)  A.  Neander,  d.  verflossene  halbe  Jahrh.  in  s.  Verb.  d.  Gegenw.  (Deutsche 
Zeitsch.  C  cbr.  Wiss.  1850.  N.  l^.)—(ITunde8Jtagen)  Der  deutscbe  Protestantismus.  Frkf.  1847.  8  ed. 
1850. 

"In  times  of  extreme  trouble  and  great  commotion,  when  the  insufficiency 
of  all  human  aid  was  evident,  the  people  sought  consolation  and  safety  in  that 
which  was  everlasting.  From  the  retirement  of  quiet  families  and  sects  a 
love  for  the  Church  of  former  days  was  openly  proclaimed.  "When  the  Ju- 
bilee of  the  Reformation  was  celebrated  (1817)  the  hearts  of  the  people  were 
turned  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  and  Luther  was  looked  upon  as  something 
more  than  a  mere  hero  of  freedom.  German  theology  had  gone  forward  to 

a)  Barnmlnng  der  hohenlohischen  Rel.  gravaminnm.  Heilbr.  1751. 
Z>)  Helfert,  Recbte  u.  Verf.  d.  Akatholikeu  in  Oestr.  Vien.  1827. 

c)  TibiAcanus,  Rel.  Bescbwerden  d.  Prot  in  Ung.  Lps.  1883.  p.  190ss. 

d)  Memoire  de  Donat  Galas  pour  son  pere.  1762.     Voltaire,  Tralte  sur  la  tolerance  &  Toccas.  de  1« 
mort  de  J.  Calas.  Par.  1763.  Brl.  1789.    [ffagenbach  (§  416)  vol.  I.  Vorles.  2.] 

e)  Kluber,  off.  Recbt  d.  deutscben  Bundes.  Frkf.  ed.  2. 1822.  p.  849. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  449.  MODERN  PROTESTANTISM.    549 

express  the  negative  side  of  Protestantism,  with  none  to  obstruct  its  progress1 
or  embitter  it  by  opposition,  and  it  now  lost  its  interest  in  mere  negations.  In 
all  departments  of  intellectual  effort  a  new  historical  spirit  had  been  awakened, 
and  had  drawn  the  hearts  of  men  to  subjects  connected  with  past  times.  It 
was  therefore  not  surprising  that  this  spirit  should  have  had  an  influence  upon 
the  common  feeling  of  the  Church.  The  old  Protestantism,  seizing  the  wea- 
pons of  the  new  age,  endeavored  once  more  to  win  the  empire  it  had  too  soon 
given  up  for  lost.  While  engaged  in  conflict  with  it  the  opposition  first  ex- 
hibited its  bitterest  earnestness,  and  like  the  warrior  spirits  after  the  battle  of 
the  Huns,  they  once  more  entered  the  deadly  strife.  Many  persons  were  of 
course  painfully  wounded  in  this  contest,  and  acted  inconsistently  with  their 
own  former  course,  (a)  But  a  fresh  feeling  of  life  now  pervaded  the  Church, 
the  poetry  of  the  old  Church  hymns  was  appreciated,  (5)  the  system  of  popu- 
lar schools  was  carefully  formed  on  a  Christian  basis,  and  theology  disclosed 
her  most  ample  treasures,  especially  in  Germany.  Holland,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  America  participated  in  these  blessings  with  joyful  emulation ; 
but  England  did  so  with  caution,  and  even  resistance.  This  progress  of  the 
new  age,  however,  could  not  be  arrested ;  and  it  was  found,  therefore,  that  the 
established  forms  of  the  ecclesiastical  creeds  which  had  been  for  a  time  aban- 
doned, could  not  as  such  be  re-established.  Hence,  as  Protestantism  was 
obliged  at  some  time  to  discover  the  essential  contradiction  which  existed  in 
its  original  form,  and  to  develope  its  nature  as  the  Christianity  of  freedom, 
the  true  ideal  of  this  development  was  presented  in  the  religious  indepen- 
dence whose  power  was  rooted  in  the  Church.  But  the  perfected  idea  which 
could  not  be  realized  by  the  age  without  many  a  severe  conflict  and  extrava- 
gance, was  exhibited  even  then  in  a  few  personalities,  types  of  the  future, 
which,  though  deeply  agitated  in  the  struggles  of  science  and  piety,  stood 
firmly  established  in  intellectual  freedom  in  the  church  of  their  fathers.  Thus 
TzscTiirner  (1778-1828)  openly  abandoned  the  precise  letter  of  Luther's  theo- 
logical system,  but  in  the  very  spirit  and  honesty  of  that  reformer,  conducted 
the  cause  of  Protestantism,  aroused  the  common  sentiments  and  feelings 
which  had  slumbered  in  the  hearts  of  its  friends,  and  showed  in  his  polished 
and  stately  discourses  that  every  thing  truly  human  in  the  past  or  present 
should  be  considered  as  having  a  relation  to  Christianity,  (c)  In  like  man- 
ner De  Wette  (1780-1849)  investigated  the  Scriptures  with  an  independent 
spirit,  allowed  the  understanding  full  liberty  in  his  judgment  of  the  creeds  of 
'the  Church,  and  in  morality  laid  great  stress  on  the  right  of  a  subjective  con- 
viction. He  has  also  pointed  out  with  a  judicious  spirit  the  peculiarities  of 
antiquity,  and  the  style  of  sacred  poetry  which  the  received  doctrines  of  the 
Church  must  necessarily  assume,  that  they  may  be  accommodated  to  the  ordi- 
nary feelings  of  the  Church.  He  did  not  fail  also  to  show  how  real  Chris- 
tianity had  proceeded  in  the  form  of  the  practical  spirit  and  life  of  the 


a)  Lutzelberger,  d.  Grande  d.  frehv.  Niederl.  m.  Amtes.  Nurnb.  1838.— Giese,  Bekenntniese  eincs 
Frjjgewordnen.  Altenb.  1846. 

I)  (C.  Gruneisen)  Die  Gesangbuchsreform.  (Stuttg.)  1838. 

c)  Polity,  Tzsch.  Abriss  s.  Lebens  u.  Wirkens.  Lps.  1828.  J.  D.  GoldJiorn,  Mitth.  a.  Tzsch.  letztcn 
Amta-und  Leidenq'ahren.  Lps.  182S. 


550  MODERN  CHtTKCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1G4S-1S53. 

Church  without  disturbance,  through  all  the  changes  of  human  speculation,  (d) 
Above  all,  SchleiermacJier  (1768-1834)  pointed  out  the  various  revolutions 
through  which  the  age  had  passed,  by  proving  to  the  self-complacent  party 
of  the  Enlightenment,  to  which  he  was  always  a  match  and  superior  in 
every  thing  which  they  regarded  as  supreme,  that  even  on  their  own  ground 
and  when  every  thing  untenable  had  been  boldly  conceded,  a  lifo  without 
God  and  Christian  communion  was  utterly  unsatisfying.  Having  spent  a 
portion  of  his  early  life  at  Herrnhut,  piety  toward  the  Redeemer,  even  in  its 
peculiar  features,  was  the  predominant  trait  of  his  character.  He  was,  how- 
ever, familiar  not  only  with  Plato  but  with  Spinoza,  and  in  the  full  conscious- 
ness of  his  freedom,  and  with  the  highest  esteer:  for  genuine  character 
wherever  he  found  it,  his  piety  was  exercised  toward  every  thing  in  the  uni- 
verse. It  did  not,  however,  assume  a  Christian  character  until  his  own  eccle- 
siastical relations  were  developed.  Hence  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
Reformed  Church  he  drew  from  the  living  fountain  of  universal  Christian 
feeling.  This  was  an  experience  acquired  in  a  domain  inaccessible  to  philoso- 
phy. And  yet  he  never  surrendered  his  rights  to  exercise  his  analytical  criti- 
cism upon  those  enactments  of  the  Church  in  which  it  had  gone  aside  from 
the  truth,  and  even  upon  those  portions  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  which  he 
regarded  as  fallible.  Those  portions  which  were  addressed  to  the  feelings  he 
held  under  the  most  absolute  control  of  the  understanding,  (c) 

§  450.     The  Philosophy  of  the  Absolute  and  its  Ramifications. 

In  direct  opposition  to  the  philosophy  of  faith  Fichte  had  exalted  human 
knowledge  until  it  took  the  place  of  divine.  When  Schelling  (b.  1775),  start- 
ing from  this  position,  had  construed  nature  as  if  it  were  a  shadowy  reflection 
of  the  spirit,  he  became  deeply  interested  in  its  actual  living  movements,  and 
as  his  highly  gifted  mind  was  engaged  in  the  contemplation  of  them,  he  came 

e?)  Idee  u.  d.  Stadium  d.  Tbeol.  (1801)  ed.  by  Stieren.  Lps.  1850.  Com.  u.  d.  Psalmen.  Heidlb 
1811.  8  ed.  1829.  Lehrb.  d.  bebr.  Jnd.  ArchuoL  Lps.  (1814.)  1S30.  Ue.  Eel.  u.  Thcol.  BrL  (1815.)  1821. 
EtnL  in  d.  A.  T.  Brl.  1817.  4  ed.  1S38.  in  d.  N.  T.  Brl.  1826.  4  ed.  1842.  Theodor.  o.  d.  Zweiflers  Weihe. 
BrL  1822.  3  ed.  1828.  Lebrb.  d.  Sittenl.  BrL  1888.  Die  H.  8.  ibersetzt  Hdlb.  (180983.)  3  ed.  1888a. 
8  v.  Exeg.  Handb.  z.  N.  T.  1836-48.  Das  Wesen  d.  cbr.  GL  Baa.  1846.— ActensammL  u.  d.  Entlass- 
ting  d.  Profl  de  "Wette  v.  theol.  Lebramt  zu  Berlin.  Lps.  1820.  F.  Lucke,  z.  Erin,  an  de  W.  (Stud.  u. 
Krit  1850.  H.  8.)  [Human  Life  or  Practical  Ethics,  transl.  by  S.  Osgood,  Boston,  1842. 2  v.  12.  Theo- 
dore, or  the  Skeptic's  Conversion.  Boston.  1841.  2  v.  12.  Introd.  to  the  O.  T.  tr.  &  enlarged  by  Theod. 
Parker.  Boston.  1843.  2  v.  8.] 

e)  (Vertr.  Briefe  u.  d.  Lucinde.  1800.  first  publ.  in  the  Athenaeum  with  Vorr.  by  Gulzkow,  Hamb. 
1835.)  Ue.  d.  EeL  Eeden  an  d.  Gebildeten  unter  ihren  Yerachtern.  Brl.  1799.  5  ed.  1843.  Monologen. 
Brl.  1800.  6  ed.  1843.  Die  Weihnachtsfeier.  BrL  1803.  3  ed.  1837.  Ue.  d.  sogen  I  Br.  an  Timoth.  BrL 
1807.  Darst  d.  theoL  Studiums.  BrL  (1811.)  1S30.  Der.  chr.  Glaube.  BrL  (1821s.)  1830s.  2  v.  Werke 
s.  1834.  in  3  Abth.  Briefw.  m.  J.  Gass,  ed.  by  W.  Gass,  1852.  Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1850. 
N.  51.  Selbstbiogr  (in  his  26th  year)  communicated  by  Lomrnatzsch.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S51.  II.  1.) 
—Baumgarten-Crusius,  u.  Schl.  Denkart  u.  Verdienst  Jen.  1834,  Lucke  Erin,  an  Schl.  (Stnd.  u.  Krit. 
1834.  P.  4)  Sdiweiteer,  SchL  Eigenthuml.  als.  Pred.  Hal.  1834.  Thiel,  ScbL  d.  Darst.  d.  Idee  e.  sittl. 
Ganzen  anstrebend.  Brl.  1S35.  F.  Delbruck,  Schl.  Bonn.  1S37.  J.  Schaller,  Vorl.  u.  Schl.  Ual.  1844. 
G.  Weissenborn,  u.  SchL  Dial.  u.  Dogm.  Hal.  1847.  2  vols.  Rienacker,  zu  Ehren  SchL  (Stud.  u. 
Krit.  1848.  H.  1.)  [Eng.  translations  of  S.  are :  Crit.  Essay  on  Luke  by  C.  Thirlwall,  Lond.  1825.  8. 
Introd.  to  Plato's  Diall.  by  Dodson,  Lond.  1327.  8.  Obss.  on  Sabellius,  with  notes,  by  M.  Stuurt,  in 
Bib.  Eepos.  vol.  V.  p.  265ss.  VI.  Iss.  and  Outline  of  the  Study  of  TheoL  with  Liicke's  Bcminiscences 
of  SchL  by  Farrar,  Edinb.  1850.  8.] 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CIIUECH  TILL  1853.    §  450.  SCHELLING.    HEGEL.         55 1 

to  regard  the  whole  history  of  the  universe  as  the  process  by  which  divinity 
was  developed  in  the  parallel  spheres  of  nature  and  of  mind.  In  his  subse 
quent  researches  after  truth  he  viewed  the  world  as  an  apostasy,  and  as 
Burning  that  it  was  originally  in  opposition  to  God,  he  explained  its  origin  in 
God,  and  its  distinction  from  God.  In  the  estimation  of  this  philosophy  re- 
ligion is  the  immediate  coming  of  the  deity  to  self-consciousness,  Christianity 
divested  of  its  scriptural  simplicity  is  the  turning  point  of  human  history,  and 
the  system  of  faith  which  the  Church  has  formed  respecting  revelation,  the 
Trinity,  and  reconciliation,  is  the  explanation  which  it  makes  of  the  great 
problem  of  the  universe,  and  by  which  it  expresses  its  presentiments  with  regard 
to  the  final  result,  (a)  Closely  resembling  Schelling  in  the  reflective  and  tranquil 
manner  of  his  life,  Hegel  (1770-1831)  assumed  that  the  law  of  logic  was  the 
law  of  the  universe,  according  to  which  all  opposites  are  elevated  until  they 
become  lost  in  a  higher  unity, — until,  in  fact,  they  become  merely  an  idea, 
which,  that  it  may  recognize  itself  as  spirit,  places  the  universe  as  an  object- 
ive reality  apart  from  itself,  and  by  constantly  thus  raising  and  separating 
new  opposites  which  occur  in  the  history  of  the  world,  it  reveals  to  itself  its 
own  infinite  abundance  of  life.  In  the  view  of  this  philosophy  the  popular 
religions  which  have  existed  in  the  world  have  been  the  several  points  by 
which  the  divine  self-consciousness  has  developed  itself.  Christianity  being 
the  religion  in  which  the  unity  of  the  divine  and  the  human  is  presented,  con- 
tains the  ultimate  point  of  all  truth,  but  in  the  lower  form  of  the  idea,  as  it 
remains  essentially  to  those  who  see  things  at  the  stand-point  where  God  and 
the  world,  the  present  and  the  future,  remain  in  opposition,  and  general  ever- 
lasting truth  is  possessed  only  in  the  individual  facts  of  Christianity.  (&)  The 
personal  influence  and  manner  of  Schelling  after  the  brilliant  period  of  his 
residence  at  Jena,  was  powerful  on  society  in  the  south  of  Germany  ;  while 
Hegel,  as  a  Prussian  state  philosopher,  even  when  idealizing  the  actual  world, 
produced  a  profound  impression  upon  the  theology,  principally  of  the  north. 
The  Rationalists  were  astonished  to  find  themselves  assailed  by  opponents 
quite  equal  to  them,  both  in  freethinking  and  in  science,  and  who  yet  gave  to 
Christianity  an  historical  importance  and  an  ecclesiastical  form  far  superior  to 
what  they  were  willing  to  concede  to  it.  They  therefore  accused  their  an- 
tagonists of  a  pantheism  which  concealed  its  inconsistency  with  morality  and 
religion  under  the  semblance  of  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy.  To  this  it  was  re- 
plied, that  Rationalism  was  a  stage  of  improvement  which  had  now,  with 
Kant,  become  utterly  obsolete ;  and  that  although  it  extolled  reason  as  the 
supreme  law  in  matters  of  faith,  it  had  never  attempted  in  a  scientific  man- 
ner, even  in  its  most  elaborate  works,  to  inform  men  what  reason  is,  and  what 


«)  Lit.  in  Michelet,  vol.  II.  p.  212ss.  &  esp.  in  Zeitschr.  f.  specul.  Physik.  1801.  voL  II.  P.  2.  Me- 
thode  d.  akad.  Studiums.  Tub.  1S03.  2  ed.  1813.— Phil.  u.  Eel.  1804.  Phil.  Schrr.  Landsh.  1809.  Dcnk- 
mal  d.  Schr.  v.  d.  gottlichen  Dingen.  Tub.  1812.  [Hforell,  Hist.  &  crit.  View  of  Spec.  Phil,  in  the 
19th  cent.  (New  York.  1848.)  p.  433ss.  Epit  of  the  H.  of  Phil,  transl.  from  the  French,  &c.  by  O.  8. 
Ilenry,  (New  York.  1841.  2  v.)  v.  II.  p.  195ss.] 

Z>)  Lit  in  Michelet,  vol.  II.  p.  Cllss.  Differenz  d.  Ficteschen  u.  Schell.  Systems.  Jena.  1801. 
Phanomenologie  d.  Geistes.  Bamb.  180T.  Encyklop.  d.  phil.  Wiss.  Hdlb.  1817.  3  ed.  1831.  Vorless.  iL 
t  Phil.  d.  Eel.  Brl.  (1882.)  1840.  2  v.  Werke  s.  1832. 17  vols.  Rosenkrans,  Hegel's  Leben.  Brl.  1844 


552  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VL    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

is  its  province  in  religion,  (e)  After  Hegel's  death  his  school  became  divided 
into  those  who  used  an  orthodox,  and  those  who  used  a  heterodox  mode  of 
expression.  The  former  class  explained  its  theological  views  in  the  spirit  of 
its  original  master,  (d)  The  latter  contended  that  it  was  only  giving  greater 
distinctness  to  the  original  sense  of  its  master,  in  opposition  to  the  ordinary 
mode  of  representation,  when  it  proclaimed  that  an  everlasting  life  exalted 
to  the  absolute  idea  is  in  fact  the  gospel  of  an  everlasting  death,  that  religion 
when  carried  to  its  perfection  by  reason,  is  only  a  God  worshipping  himself, 
and  that  a  God-man  is  one  who  never  had  an  existence  as  an  individual  upon 
earth,  (e)  Thus,  from  the  modern  attempt  to  exalt  the  old  orthodoxy,  has 
sprung  up  a  severe  struggle  for  the  fundamental  principles  of  Christianity, 
and  the  Hegelians  were  accused  by  the  friends  of  piety,  of  atheism,  the  anni- 
hilation of  the  biblical  history,  the  denial  of  immortality,  and  a  hypocritical  pro- 
fession of  Christianity.  (/)  They  replied  by  reproaching  their  accusers  with 
a  shallowness  which  could  only  think  of  God  separate  from  the  universe,  a 
selfishness  which  never  disengages  itself  from  its  own  little  I,  a  haired  of  all 
philosophy,  and  an  apostasy  from  Protestantism,  (g)  In  some  philosophic 
researches  under  Hegel's  direction,  and  to  carry  forward  the  system  which 
he  had  commenced,  the  proof  of  an  immortality  of  individuals,  and  of  a  per- 
sonal and  if  possible  a  triune  God,  was  attempted  on  the  basis  of  the  idea  of 
personality,  (h)  Schelling,  himself,  was  called  (1841)  to  the  professorship  left 
by  Hegel,  that  he  might  heal  the  wounds  which  had  been  inflicted  by  philoso- 
phy there.  He  described  the  logical  structure  by  which  his  predecessor  had 
attempted  to  complete  his  system,  as  a  mere  episode  of  that  system  by  a 
later  hand,  and  as  a  philosophy  looking  only  at  negative  results,  but  without 
power  to  escape  from  its  ideal  to  the  actual  world.  He  therefore  placed  by 
its  side  a  system  of  positive  philosophy,  which,  as  an  hypothesis  respecting  the 
play  of  antemundane  potences  assuming  in  the  actual  world  the  form  of  trini- 
tarian  personalities,  presented  some  hope  of  a  complete  union  of  science  with 
a  future  Johannic  Church.  But  the  age  had  no  taste  for  this  second  part  of 
Faust,  (i)  The  original  moderate  Hegelian  school  was  represented  by  the 


c)  E.  g.  Marlieineke,  Dogmatik.  2  ed.  Yorrede.    Hegel,  PhiL  d.  Eel.  1832.  v.  II.  p.  234    [Morell, 
(p.  456ss.)  A  Henry  (p.  208ss.)  as  above.] 

d)  G.  A.  GaWer,  de  verae  phil.  erga  reL  pietate.  Ber.  1836.   Goschel :  der  Monismus  des  Gedank- 
ens.  Zur.  ApoL  d.  gegenw.  Phil,  am  Grabe  ihres  Slitters.  Naumb.  1832.     Die  siebenfaltige  Oster- 
frage.  BrL  1836.    \Morell,  p.  478s.] 

«)  Comp.  Michelet,  v.  II.  p.  63T.  Die  dt  Phil.  s.  Hegels  Tode.  (Die  Gogenw.  Lps.  1851.  vol.  VI. 
Ch.  Buob,  la  PhiL  de  FAbsolu  en  Allemagne  dans  ses  rapports  avcc  la  doctr.  chret  Montauban.  1842. 
[Morett,  p.  480.] 

/)  H.  Leo,  die  Hegelingen.  Hal.  (1S3S.)  1839.— Kahnis,  Euge  u.  Hegel.  Quedl.  1338.  Eheinw.  Hep. 
v.  XXXL  p.  2Sss. 

g)  A.  Hitge,  Preussen  u.  d..  Eeaction.  Lps.  1S33.  G.  O.  MarbacJi,  Anfrnf  an  d.  prot  Deutschl. 
wider  unproL  Umtriebe.  Lps.  1888s.  2  H.  (B.  Bauer,)  Die  Posaune  d.  jiingsten  Gerichts  u.  Hegel  d. 
Atheisten  u.  Antichr.  Lps.  1841.  C.  Zscliiesche,  u.  d.  Gott  d.  Prot  Leo  u.  d.  Atheism,  s.  Gegner.  HaL 
1839. 

h)  J.  II.  Fichte  •  Beitrr.  z.  Characteristik  d.  neuern  PhiL  Sulzb.  1829.  Ue.  Gegens.,  "Wedep.  u. 
£iel.  d.  Phil.  Hdlb.  1832.  Ue.  d.  Beding.  e.  epecul.  Theism.  Elbert  1835.  O.  H.  Weisse  :  Ue.  d.  ge- 
genw.. Staiidp.  d.  phil.  Wiss.  Lps.  1829.  Idee  d.  Gotth.  Drsd.  1833.  Grundzuge  d.  Metapbys.  limb. 
'$35. 

»)  J.  v.  ScJielling,  Vorrede  zu  Cousin,  u.  fr.  &  deutsche  PhiL  from  the  French  by  Beckers,  Stuttg 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  450.  EOSENKEANZ.    STRAUSS.    553 

noble  individuality  of  Roserikranz,  and  set  up  the  motto  that  true  reason  must 
lead  to  Christianity,  that  Christianity  must  be  reasonable,  and  that  its  found- 
ers were  the  perfect  individual  realizations  of  the  idea,  (jfc)  But  when  its 
true  principles  were  exposed,  and  the  State  which  had  once  brought  it  into 
notice  had  withdrawn  its  favor,  it  could  no  longer  sustain  itself  against  the 
general  neglect  it  received.  Its  essential  principle,  however,  continued  to 
struggle  in  different  departments  of  literature  against  the  various  prevalent 
systems.  Strauss  (born  1808)  represented  the  gospels  as  a  mass  of  fragments 
composed  by  the  primitive  churches  as  the  natural  development  of  their  own 
views  and  feelings,  and  yet  he  looked  upon  Christ  as  the  ideal  genius  of  gen- 
uine religion,  and  as  the  highest  form  in  which  religion  has  appeared.  He 
did  not,  however,  conceal  his  conviction  that  a  collision  was  inevitable  be- 
tween science  and  the  popular  systems  of  Christian  theology,  whose  advocates 
had  raised  the  question  whether  he  could  consistently  belong  to  the  clerical 
profession.  Hence,  when  he  was  called  to  the  theological  faculty  of  Zurich, 
the  people  rose  up  in  behalf  of  the  old  system  of  faith,  and  the  government 
of  the  Canton,  though  willing  to  make  concessions,  was  overthrown  by  a 
committee  on  religious  faith  (Sept.  6,  1839).  In  this  affair,  however,  religious 
zeal  was  made  in  some  degree  subservient  to  political  objects.  (1)  When 
Bruno  Bauer,  who  had  been  thrown  from  one  extreme  of  the  Hegelian  party 
to  the  other,  and  proudly  scoffed  at  all  theologians,  analyzed  the  different 
gospels  as  mere  works  of  art,  originating  in  a  purely  literary  way,  and 
taking  their  form  and  materials  with  various  degrees  of  success  and  skill  from 
the  prevalent  views  of  the  people  long  after  the  events  of  which  they  speak, 
it  was  found  that  even  the  freedom  of  teaching  allowed  in  a  Protestant  coun- 
try could,  hardly  tolerate  the  propagation  of  a  doctrine  which  totally  under- 
mined the  Church.  A  decided  majority  of  the  Protestant  faculties  of  Prus- 
sia whose  opinions  were  asked  was  not  obtained,  but  the  civil  authorities 
formed  their  decision  on  the  ground  of  the  views  then  expressed,  which  were, 
that  the  sentiments  maintained  in  Bauer's  writings  were  inconsistent  with 
the  position  of  a  teacher  of  theology,  (m)  Indeed,  his  own  advocates  pro- 
claimed that  the  new  principle  was  atheistic  and  sans-culottic,  and  that  phi- 
losophy had  given  notice  of  its  complete  secession  from  the  Church,  (n)  When 
a  professor  of  aesthetics  acknowledged  himself  a  Pantheist,  and  attempted 
no  concealment  of  his  hatred  for  his  opponents,  the  whole  body  of  the  clergy 

1834.  Schilling's  erste  Tories,  in  Berlin.  Stuttg.  1841.  Paulus,  die  endlich  offenbar  gewordene  Phil. 
d.  Offenb.  (Sch.  Vorlesungen  itn  Winter  1841.)  Darmst  1843.  Vorwort  zu  H.  Steffens  nachgel,  Schrr. 
v.  Schelling.  Brl.  IBlQ.—Marheineke,  z.  Kritik  d.  Sch.  Oflenbarungsph.il.  Brl.  1843.  (Kapp.)  F.  "W.  J. 
v.  Sch.  von  e.  vieljahr.  Beobachter.  Lps.  1S43.  Sch.  u.  die  Theol.  (with  the  Literature)  Brl.  1845. 

/t)  Encykl.  d.  theoL  Wiss.  Hal.  (1831.)  1845.    Krit.  Erliiut.  d.  Heg.  Systems.  Konigsb.  1840. 

1)  [Ifase,]  Leben  Jesu.  p.  34.  D.  F.  Strauss,  Friedl.  Blatter.  Altona  1839.— Lucke,  Strauss  u.  d. 
Ziirch  Kirche,  with  a  Vorr.  by  De  Wette.  Bas.  1839.  A.  Bodcn,  Gesch.  d.  Beruf.  d.  Dr.  Str.  Frkf. 
1840.  Der  Kampf  d.  Principien  im  E.  Zurich.  V.  e.  Augenzeugen.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1840.  H.  3.) 
II.  Cfelzer,  die  Strauss.  Zerwurfnlsse  in  Zur.  Hamb.  1843.  [Strauss'  Life  of  Jesus,  from  the  Germ. 
Lond.  1846.  3  voh.  8.  Letter  to  Hirzell,  &c.  Lond.  1844.] 

m)  [Ilase,]  Leben  Jesn,  p.  35.  Bauer,  die  ev.  Landeskirche  Preuss.  u.  d.  "Wiss.  Lps.  1840.— Gu- 
tachten  d.  ev.  theol.  Faculttiten  d.  Preuss.  Univ.  u.  d.  Licent.  B.  Bauer.  Brl.  1842.  For  Lit  see  Brans, 
Eep.  1845.  vol.  II.  p.  9Tss. 

n)  Edgar  Bauer,  B.  Bauer,  u.  s.  Gegner.  Brl.  1S42.  Deutsche  Jalirbb.  1842.  N.  Ss.  Opite,  B. 
Bauer  u.  B.  Gegner.  Brsl.  1846. 


554  MODEEN  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1S58. 

in  the  country  rose  in  opposition  to  the  Antichristianity  of  Tubingen,  and  the 
government  censured,  but  protected  him  by  a  suspension  of  two  years.  (0) 
Lewis  Feuerbach  having  placed  the  old,  genuine  gospel,  which  had  conquered 
and  despised  the  world,  in  direct  contrast  with  the  modern  system  of  pro- 
gress, declared  Christianity  a  fixed  idea,  and  all  religion  a  dream,  from  which 
when  man  awakes  ho  finds  only  himself.  His  baptism  of  cold  water  was  not 
unacceptable  to  such  youth  as  had  previously  fallen  out  with  the  notion  of 
the  divine  existence,  (p)  Near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  an  enthu- 
siasm for  the  glorious  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks  reappeared  among  the  poets. 
The  great  German  poet,  who  had  been  profoundly  affected  by  the  world's 
mighty  convulsions,  now  proclaimed  the  new  gospel  of  the  rehabilitation  of 
the  flesh  in  contrast  with  a  Christianity  which  had  been  especially  designed 
for  the  spirit  in  its  horror  at  a  nature  peopled  with  spectres,  and  which  had 
for  1800  years  consoled  men  in  all  their  sorrows,  (g)  lie  was  soon  surrounded 
by  a  literary  circle  belonging  to  a  young  Germany,  which  either  wished  to 
remove  the  schism  which  Christianity  had  made  known  between  God  and 
the  world  by  means  of  Christ  born  on  earth  as  the  world's  legitimate  child,  (r) 
or  thought  that  men  would  have  been  happier  had  they  been  entirely  ignorant 
of  God,  and  hence  declared  that  the  vicars  of  heaven  were  not  needful  for 
the  most  exhilarating  enjoyments  of  existence.  («)  This  youthful  poetry  was 
destroyed  as  it  were  in  a  night,  not  by  the  police,  but  by  the  serious  morality 
of  the  German  people,  (f)  The  more  talented  among  them  directed  their  atten- 
tion to  a  nobler  intellectual  chivalry,  and  though  the  poet  who  had  led  them, 
after  long  keeping  swine,  like  the  prodigal  son,  among  the  Hegelians,  returned 
to  his  forsaken  God,  he  never  lost  the  inclination  to  jest  at  holy  and  unholy 
things,  even  on  a  hopeless  sick  bed.  (u)  But  the  poetry  of  a  Pantheism  which 
leads  men  according  to  their  moral  dispositions  to  adore  either  the  universe  or 
themselves,  and  sometimes  to  worship  the  Son  of  God  as  a  son  of  the  people, 
has  often,  without  being  recognized  in  its  true  character,  prevailed  extensively 
among  the  half-educated  multitude.  (/?)  But  as  Christianity  had  been  accused, 
in  quarters  where  poetry  had  not  joined  in  the  reproach,  of  a  secret  worship 
of  Moloch,  and  of  cannibalism  as  well  as  of  other  crimes,  it  was  resolved  that 
in  place  of  this  barbarous  and  slavish  religion  a  pure  Humanism  should  be  set 
up,  as  the  autonomy  of  the  spirit  resting  upon  its  own  authority  alone,  a  new 
religion  looking  distinctly  to  earthly  interests,  or  triumphing  over  all  religion 


o)  F.  Vi*ch«r,  akad.  Eede  z.  Antritte  d.  Ordinariates,  21st  Nov.  1844.  Tub.  1844.  Lit  in  Bruns, 
Rep.  1845.  vol.  IV.  p.  189ss. 

p)  Phil.  u.  Christenth.  Mannh.  1839.  Das  Wesen  d.  Christenth.  Lps.  (1841-43.)  1849.  Vorless.  u. 
i  "VVesen  d.  Eel.  Lps.  1851. 

q)  IT.  Heine,  Gesch.  d.  schonen  Lit.  in  Deutschl.  Par.  1833.  vol.  I.  p.  6.  33.  69s.  Zur  Gesch.  d.  Eel. 
a.  PhiL  (Salon.  Hamb.  1835.  vol.  II.) 

r)  Th.  Mundt,  Madonna.  TJnterhaltungen  m.  e.  Heiligen.  Lps.  1835. 

»)  Gutzkow,  Yorrede  zu  Schleierm.  Briefen  u.  d.  Lucinde.  Ilamb.  1835. 

0  (J.  P.  Lange)  Uo.  d.  Rehabilitation  d.  Flelsches.  (Ev.  K.  Z.  1835.  N.  83ss.)  (G.  Schwab,)  Votuni 
u.  d.  junge  D.  Stuttg.  1836.  K  Uase,  d.  junge  D.  Parchim.  1S37.— Paulits,  d.  Hofgerichta  zu  Mann- 
neim  motiv.  Urtheil  u.  d.  in  d.  Romano  Wally  angekL  Prefsvergehn.  Hdlb.  1836. 

u)  If.  Heine,  Eomanzero.  Hamb.  1851. 

v)  L.  Schefer,  Laienbrevier.  Brl.  5  ed.  1846.  Das  hohe  Lied  v.  Titus  Dlrich.  Brl.  1845.  F.  v.  Sal 
let,  Laienevangelium.  Lps.  1842. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1853.    §  451.  OETHODOX  PIETISM.         555 

as  a  conquered  territory,  (w)  A  coarse  political  liberalism,  from  an  extreme 
hatred  of  the  clergy  rejected  also  the  God  whom  they  served,  that  it  might 
nave  its  own  God  of  this  world  and  of  freedom,  (x)  This  plan  of  a  com- 
plete rupture  with  the  whole  historical  development  of  past  times,  led  the 
uneducated  classes  to  confound  in  one  general  mass  their  own  wants  and  de- 
sires with  the  dregs  of  philosophy.  Soon  God  was  annihilated  and  the  peo- 
ple were  deified,  patriotism  was  despised  that  all  pious  reverence  might  be 
obliterated  with  it,  and  Christ  was  made  prominent  only  as  his  name  could  bo 
used  to  sanction  democratic  and  revolutionary  principles,  (y) 

§  451.     Orthodox  Pietism  and  its  Extremes. 

The  romantic  poetry  which  prevailed  in  the  beginning  of  the  century  was 
a  shadowless  picture  of  the  piety  of  the  middle  ages.  Novalis  (v.  Harden- 
burg,  1772-1801)  found  a  religion  in  poetry,  which,  having  destroyed  its  own 
I  in  its  ardent  longings  over  the  grave  of  Protestantism,  and  over  the  ruins  of 
Borne,  indulged  in  fond  dreams  of  a  new  church  of  the  all-pervading  deity,  (a) 
The  national  feeling  which  had  been  awakened  during  the  wars  for  freedom, 
and,  after  the  victory  had  been  defrauded  of  its  natural  development,  and  re- 
pressed until  it  became  once  more  nothing  but  a  pitiful  Germanism,  now 
longed  to  recover  the  pious  manners  of  earlier  days.  This  longing  still  re- 
mained, even  when  a  portion  of  the  youth  had  ceased  to  hope  for  any  thing 
from  political  agitations.  A  religious  pleasure  was  derived  from  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  mysteries  of  nature,  and  of  the  spiritual  world,-  and  from  an 
effort  to  break  through  the  limits  prescribed  for  man.  (&)  In  connection  with 
such  a  disposition,  the  revolution  which  then  took  place  in  the  religious  life, 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  which  regulate  intellectual  movements,  called 
forth  an  extreme  reaction  against  the  rationalism  which  prevailed  even  in  the 
third  decennary  of  that  century,  and  then  against  the  philosophizing  Anti- 
christianity.  By  means  of  conventicles  and  tracts  a  zealous  party  was  soon 
formed,  and  an  energetic  organ  of  communication  with  the  public  was  estab- 
lished in  the  Evangelical  Church  Journal  (1827).  (c)  Its  essential  character 
is  pietistic,  (d)  though  it  is  more  liberal  and  better  accommodated  to  ordinary 


w)  Daumer :  Die  Geheimn.  d.  chr.  Altertb.  Hamb.  1847.  Die  Eel.  d.  neuen  Weltalters.  Ibid. 
1850.  3  vote  A.  Ruge,  Gesamm.  Schrr.  Manh.  1846-8.  10  vols. 

SB)  Eheinwald  Eep.  1834.  vol.  V.  p.  71s. 

y)  Max  Stirner,  d.  Einzige  u.  s.  Eigentb.  Lps.  1845.  W.  Marr,&.  junge  Deutschl.  in  d.  Schweiz, 
Lps.  1S46.  J.  Frobel,  System  d.  social.  Politik.  Zur.  1847. 

a)  Schriften,  ed.  by  Tieck  &  Schlegel,  Brl.  1804.  5  ed.  1837-46.  3  vols. 

ft)  Die  Seherin  von  Prevorst.  Stuttg.  (1829.)  1832.  2  v.  [The  Seeress  of  Prevorst,  or  Eevelatt  of 
the  inner  life  of  man.  New  York.  1838.  8.]  Geschichten  Besessener.  Carlsr.  1834.  Magikon,  ed.  by 
J.  Kerner.  Stuttg.  1840.  2  H. 

c)  D.  Schuls,  d.  Wesen  u.  Treiben  d.  Berl.  ev.  K.  Zeitung.  BrsL  1839s.  2  P.    (On  the  other  side: 
Die  ev.  Kirche  u.  d.  Consistorialrath  Schulz.  BrL  1839.)— If.  Ewald,  die  Ungeschichtlichk.  ev.  Geist- 
lichen.  Tub.  1845.    L.  B.  K  (onig.)  II.  Hengstenb.  Braunschw.  1845.    Der  Geist  d.  ev.  K.  Z.  2  ed.  Brl. 
1845.    (On  the  other  side:  Die  Partei  d.,  Ev.  K.  Z.  Von  e.  Laien.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1846.  N.  15s.  18s.  80sa) 
O.  Zschiesche,  d.  Ev.  K.  Z.  n.  ihr  Treiben.  Lps.  1845. 

d)  £retsc7meider,  d.  Grundlage  d.  ev.  Piet.  Lps.  1S33.     C.  Marldin,  Darst.  u.  Kritik  d.  mod.  Piet. 
Stuttg.  1839.  Comp.  Dorner  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1840.  P.  1.  Lit.  Survey :  Eheinwald,  Eep.  v.  XXVII 
1>.  4~ss.  156ss. 


556  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-lS5a 

life  than  was  the  pietism  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  has  also  been  more 
disposed  to  enter  into  the  toils  and  honors  of  secular  life,  and  in  various  de- 
grees it  has  become  connected  with  the  old  Protestant  orthodoxy,  and  as- 
sumed its  controversial  character,  (e)  As  to  its  religious  elements  it  embraces 
the  greatest  variety,  from  the  genuine  piety  exhibited  by  Luther  or  Spener, 
full  of  a  joyful  faith  in  a  God  born  of  the  Virgin,  down  through  the  several 
gradations  of  pure  party  zeal,  pride,  and  mental  imbecility,  until  we  reach 
the  hypocrisy  which  uses  the  language  of  ardent  piety  to  gain  selfish  ends,  or 
even  to  cover  the  most  criminal  designs.  (/)  Although  the  principal  leaders, 
whenever  they  expressed  themselves  in  a  literary  style,  committed  serious 
offences  against  the  old  Lutheran  or  Calvinistic  theology,  and  when  confessing 
their  sins  adopted  many  rationalistic  excrescences,  (</)  they  regarded  the  theo- 
logical views  advanced  in  those  systems  as  that  by  which  alone  men  could  bo 
saved,  and  all  other  views  of  Christianity,  except  some  fragments  of  truth 
among  the  Catholics  and  Supernaturalists,  as  unchristian.  It  was  on  account 
of  this  exclusiveness  that  even  such  theologians  as  Neander  felt  compelled  to 
withdraw  from  their  connection.  They  also  erected  a  literary  inquisition,  the 
object  of  which  was  at  first  disavowed,  but  was  afterwards  acknowledged  to 
be  indispensable,  and  which,  when  it  condemned  individuals,  clothed  its  ver- 
dicts in  the  language  of  Christian  intercession.  (K)  As  a  complete  return  to 
the  position  of  former  orthodoxy  was  impossible,  without  denying  the  reality 
of  the  secular  progress  which  lay  in  the  retrograde  path,  they  pronounced  all 
these  improvements  heathenish,  and  with  a  puritanical  and  stupid  assurance 
they  condemned  every  cheerful  expression  of  genius,  (*)  and  sighed  over  the 
whole  development  of  the  Church  as  an  apostasy.  From  an  extreme  dread 
of  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  the  times,  those  especially  who  belonged  to  the 
higher  classes  now  turned  to  every  thing  old,  even  in  matters  of  faith.  The 
Church  Journal  reproached  an  honorable  clergy,  anxious  for  their  inherited 
rights  and  for  their  country,  with  being  favorable  to  a  perjured  insurrection, 
and  in  the  style  of  von  Haller  (&),  by  means  of  a  patriarchal  theory  of  state, 
advocated  the  absolute  divine  right  of  rulers,  and  yet  announced  the  over- 
throw of  a  government  favorable  to  rationalism  by  a  popular  insurrection,  as 
a  victory  for  the  cause  of  God.  (I)  Journals  of  the  same  complexion,  also,  in 
France  and  North  America,  were  in  the  habit  of  using  the  boldest  democratic 
forms  of  language  in  the  style  of  the  old  Puritans,  (m)  In  German  countries 
divines  of  a  liberal  culture  gradually  died,  almost  every  professorship  and 
ecclesiastical  office  of  an  exalted  influence  was  filled  by  persons  favorable  to 
the  new  orthodoxy,  and  those  inclined  to  free  researches  were  intimidated 
from  pursuing  theological  studies  by  the  hopelessness  of  all  such  efforts.  A 

e)  E.  g.  Rdhr,  Pred.  BibL  1831.  P.  6.  Notizenbl.  N.  6. 

/)  Proofc  in  Schulz,  I.  p.  11. 17.  85ss.        g)  Ibid.  II,  184ss. 

h)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1830.  N.  lOss.  1831.  N.  57ss.  93ss.  .Corup.  M.  Goze,  kurze  aber  nothw.  Erin.  u.  d.  Lei- 
den d.  jungen  Werther.  Hamb.  1773. 

*)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S50.  N.  24.  25.  44,  46. 1851.  N.  Is.— J.  C.  K  Hoffmann,  die  schleswig-holst  Geistlick, 
a.  d.  ev.  K  Z,  Erl.  1850. 

&)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1831.  N.  18ss.  80s.  105. 1833.  N.  81.  On  the  other  side :  A.  K.  Z.  1833.  N,  Iss. 
I.  p.  70ss.  II.  p.  41s3     A.  Widmann,  polit  Bedenken  wider  d.  Ev.  K.  Z.  Potsd.  1846. 

0  §  450.  nt.  fc)       m)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1830.  N.  86. 1831.  N.  18s.  80.  81s.  1S32.  N.  4s.  59. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANGK  CHUECH  TILL  1858.    §  451.  SEPARATISM.    EAPP.          557 

younger  clergy  was  therefore  raised  up,  inclined  to  the  new  party,  and  ani- 
mated by  the  energy  of  a  principle  newly,  asserted,  but  derived  from  great 
examples  in  former  times.  The  artificial  work  of  sustaining  this  party  de- 
volved in  Germany  upon  those  established  churches  which  were  under  Cath- 
olic guardianship,  and  after  the  suppression  of  the  revolutionary  movements 
of  1848,  it  became  a  principle  for  the  administration  of  government.  The 
Evangelical  Church  Journal  then  contended  bravely  against  the  storm, 
with  only  trifling  concessions,  and  the  few  clergymen  who  became  excited 
by  the  popular  movements  acknowledged  that  they  were  not  sustained  by 
their  congregations.  It  is  not  probable,  nor,  if  we  look  at  the  whole  process 
of  German  culture,  is  it  credible,  that  the  mass  or  the  true  nobility  of 
the  German  nation  will  renounce  all  that  it  has  inherited  from  the  last  cen- 
tury, and  become  converts  to  this  precise  form  of  theological  doctrine  which 
has  always  become  most  prominent  when  its  political  objects  were  most  un- 
deniable, (n)  and  which  has  in  public  life  violated  all  obligations  and  truth. 
Still,  with  all  the  disturbance  which  this  party  has  often  caused  in  the  affairs 
of  various  congregations,  and  the  many  troubles  or  extravagances  which  it 
has  produced  in  individuals,  until  in  some  cases  they  have  been  driven  to 
madness,  it  has  been  the  means  of  accomplishing  much  good.  It  has  soft- 
ened many  obstinate  dispositions,  and  had  an  important  influence  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Church.  It  has  strengthened  the  confidence  of  the  Church 
in  her  possession  of  a  form  which  is  primitive  and  divine,  brought  to  light 
the  defective  nature  of  modern  Supernaturalism,  introduced  new  investiga- 
tions of  subjects  which 'would  otherwise  have  been  too  hastily  given  up, 
denounced  many  an  exhibition  of  a  narrow  superficial  spirit  which  obtained 
favor  under  the  garb  of  reason,  and  by  way  of  warning  has  shown  what 
must  be  the  result  of  a  zeal  for  the  mere  externals  of  a  system  which  has  now 
passed  away.  Only  a  few  isolated  instances  occur,  in  which  this  pietistic 
spirit  could  not  find  satisfaction  in  the  ordinary  ecclesiastical  connections,  or 
has  assumed  any  extraordinary  appearances.  Among  the  Suabian  tribes  these 
excited  persons  seized  upon  some  peculiar  sentiment  of  some  eminent  eccle- 
siastical teacher,  or  induced  some  individuals  to  become  their  advocates 
among  the  people.  Their  disposition  was  in  some  instances  melancholy,  and 
in  others  cheerful.  Although  in  this  region  also  the  clergy  generally  adhered 
to  ancient  usages,  many  innovations  had  been  made  in  their  mode  of  instruc- 
tion, in  the  liturgy,  and  in  the  hymn-book.  The  opposition  therefore  be- 
came distinctly  organized,  and  a  few  Separatists  refused  to  perform  their 
ordinary  ecclesiastical,  and  even  their  civil  duties.  Punishments  and  force, 
in  some  instances  carried  so  far  as  to  take  persons  b*p  violence  to  the  Church, 
were  of  course  in  vain.  The  civil  authorities  in  Wurtemberg  finally  permit- 
ted those  who  were  discontented  to  assemble  in  a  congregation  at  Kornfhal 
(1818),  with  a  peculiar  ecclesiastical  and  civil  constitution  conformed  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  type  of  the  apostolic  Church,  but  under  the  inspection  of 
the  civil  authorities,  (o)  Others  wandered  away  (after  1805)  to  North 

n)  E.  g.  Comp.  A.  K.  Z.  1851.  N.  85. 

o)  Archiv  f.  KG.  vol.  IV.  p.  483ss.    S.  C.  Kapff,  d.  Wurtemb.  Brudergemeinden  in  Kornth.  a, 
Wilhelmsdorf.  Stuttg.  1839.  Brl.  A.  K.  Z.  1846.  N.  32. 


558  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S58. 

America,  where,  under  the  name  of  Harmonists,  they  formed  a  community 
near  Pittsburg,  in  which  the  peasant  Rapp  (d.  1847)  exercised  a  patriarchal 
authority.  As  the  society  .professed  to  hold  their  property  in  common,  the 
whole  direction  of  it  was  committed  to  him.  Even  marriages  could  not  be 
formed  without  his  consent.  ( p)  The  peace  of  the  original  congregation  was  dis- 
turbed (1831)  by  Bernhard  Muller  (Proli),  who  had  formerly  lived  in  splendor  at 
Offenbach,  had  predicted  a  spiritual  universal  monarchy,  and  when  threatened 
with  a  legal  investigation,  had  gone  to  America.  There  he  had  been  received 
by  Rapp  as  a  prophet,  and  promised  the  younger  members  of  the  association 
with  a  true  community  of  goods  and  liberty  of  marriage.  Rapp  was  obliged 
to  purchase  a  separation  for  a  large  sum,  with  which  Proli  laid  the  foundation 
of  his  New  Jerusalem,  and  then  called  upon  all  believers  to  hasten  thither  to 
.escape  the  vials  of  divine  wrath.  But  when  the  money  was  all  spent,  this 
vicegerent  of  God  announced  thateach  one  might  escape  as  he  could  (1833).  (?) 
Edward  Irting  (1792-1884)  was  a  Presbyterian  preacher  in  the  Caledonian 
chapel  in  London,  with  a  powerful  fancy  and  a  wild  antiquated  style  of  lan- 
guage, with  some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  ancient  prophets,  as  well  as  to 
that  of  Byron  and  Shakspeare.  He  soon  became  the  favorite  preacher  of  the 
higher  classes  for  he  contended  against  the  wisdom  of  the  age,  which  he  said 
was  elevating  the  fallen  archangel  Liberalism  above  Christ  the  morning  star. 
When  his  mind  became  absorbed  in  the  doctrine  that  the  Son  of  God  assumed 
our  sinful  nature,  although  without  detriment  to  his  holiness,  the  fashionable 
world  began  to  forsake  him.  His  extreme  longing  and  praying  for  the  spirit- 
ual gifts  which  had  been  afforded  to  the  apostolic  Church,  as  the  signs  of  the 
approaching  kingdom  of  Christ,  seemed  at  last  to  call  them  forth.  As  in  for- 
mer days  at  Corinth,  individuals  spoke  with  tongues,  in  unintelligible  expres- 
sions of  a  religious  ecstasy  mingled  with  exclamations,  which  generally  closed 
with  prophecies  (1831).  The  Scotch  Presbytery  excluded  him  from  the  Cale- 
donian chapel  on  account  of  these  disturbances  of  public  worship  (1832),  and 
by  a  decision  of  the  General  Assembly  he  was  deposed  from  the  ministry  for 
doctrinal  errors.  Ho  now  established  a  church  of  his  own,  (r)  but  in  conse- 
quence of  a  new  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  a  re-establishment  of  all 
those  ecclesiastical  offices  which  were  instituted  in  the  apostolic  age,  this 
soon  denied  its  original  founders,  and  arranged  itself  under  twelve  apostles 
and  an  order  of  prophets.  This  constitution  was  established  not  merely  for 
the  present,  but  for  all  future  times,  and  the  body  thus  constituted  claimed  to  be 
the  true  Church  delivered  from  its  past  corruptions,  and  adorned  for  the  second 
advent  of  its  Lord.  In  England  this  movement  met  with  but  little  success, 
but  in  Geneva  a  class  of  persons  inclined  to  such  extravagances  became  dis- 
turbed by  it,  and  an  accomplished  orator  connected  with  the  German  ortho- 

p)  A,  K.  Z, 1822.  N.  9. 1823.  N.  37.  J.  Wagner,  Gesch.  d.  Harmoniegesellsch.  Waihingen  1833. 
D.  A.  Z.  1847.  N.  251.  2C6.  Brl.  K  Z.  1850.  N.  49. 

q)  A,  K  Z.  1832.  N.  66.  1833.  N.  186.  Der  Wundermann  d.  19.  Jhh.  from  the  EngL  of  Kreide- 
burg.  Han.  1833.  C.  v.  JSonnhorst,  Scliilderung  d.  Abentheurers  Proli.  Frkf.  1834.  [Winebr -enner's 
Rel.  Denominations  in  the  U.  S.  (Harrisburg,  1849.)  p.  9.] 

r)  M.  Hohl,  Bruchst  a.  d.  Leben  a.  Schrr.  Irv.  8.  Gall.  1839.  Ev.  KZ.  1839.  N.  88ss.  97ss.  comp. 
1887.  N.  54ss.  Acta  hist  ecc.  1837.  p.  798ss.  [Jones,  Biog,  Sketch  and  Sermons  of  Ed.  Irv.  Lond 
1835.  8.1 


CHAP.  V.   EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1853.    §  451.  IEVINGITES.  WILDENSPUCH.    559 

dox  and  pietistic  school  embraced  its  principles.  (*)  Attaching  themselves  to 
this  school,  the  angels  and  vice-angels  of  the  new  Church  founded  a  few 
chapels  in  Northern  Germany,  with  a  great  display  of  primitive  forms.  (One 
of  these  established  in  Berlin  was  closed  in  1851.)  Their  followers,  however, 
never  hesitated  to  receive  the  sacrament  in  the  established  churches,  on  the 
•ground  that  their  general  Church  was  to  be  gathered  from  all  existing 
sects.  (£)  On  the  other  hand,  those  appeals  which  were  sometimes  heard  in 
a  few  Swedish  parishes  (1841-43)  among  the  young  people  of  both  sexes,  and 
even  among  children,  were  only  simple  and  often  affecting  calls  to  repent- 
ance, pathetically  spoken  or  sung  in  the  Scriptural  language  of  the  Church. 
Those  who  were  about  to  utter  them  were  at  first  seized  with  a  violent  pain 
in  their  heads  and  hearts,  accompanied  with  an  extreme  agony  on  account 
of  sin,  and  others  were  affected  in  a  similar  way  by  imitation  and  communi- 
cation with  each  other.  But  with  the  exception  of  some  who  counterfeited 
these  things  by  imitation,  the  speaking  was  generally  involuntary,  and  the 
speakers  were  unconscious  of  what  they  uttered,  in  the  midst  of  convulsions, 
faintings,  and  visions.  The  country-people  were  much  edified  by  such  scenes, 
and  took  offence  at  what  they  regarded  as  attempts  to  drive  away  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Joel  3,  Is)  by  medicines  for  the  body,  (u)  Although  in  other  places 
a  love  of  sin  was  sometimes  concealed  under  the  profession  of  extraordinary 
degrees  of  grace,  (v)  there  are  no  instances  of  positive,  sanguinary  or  lascivi- 
ous excesses,  except  where  the  authors  of  them  passed  from  this  general  class 
into  other  sects.  Margaretta  Peter,  the  daughter  of  a  peasant  in  Wildens- 
puch,  of  the  canton  of  Zurich,  became  powerfully  excited  by  her  intercourse 
with  persons  professedly  awakened,  and  by  tracts  of  an  enthusiastic  charac- 
ter, till,  in  her  anxiety  for  the  spiritual  salvation  of  the  world,  she  looked 
forward  to  the  occurrence  of  extraordinary  events.  Her  intellectual  energy 
and  decision  of  character  induced  many  pious  persons  of  the  surrounding 
country  to  honor  her  as  a  saint,  and  even  the  consequences  of  a  night  spent 
in  adultery  did  not  destroy  her  confidence  in  herself.  This  feeling  of  her 
own  importance  induced  her  with  her  followers  to  contend  with  Satan,  by 
means  of  carnal  weapons,  to  have  her  own  believing  sister  slain,  and  with 
wonderful  heroism  to  have  herself  crucified,  according  to  what  she  deemed  a 
divine  command,  that  she  might  save  thousands  of  souls  by  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ  once  more  in  her  person  (1823).  (w~)  It  was  rumored  in  Runigsburg 
that  two  clergymen,  who  professed  the  exclusive  kind  of  Christianity,  had 
introduced  shameless  mysteries  into  a  pietistic  circle.  The  legal  investigation, 
which  was  attended  with  great  difficulties  on  account  of  the  distinguished 
persons  accused  (after  1835),  brought  nothing  to  light,  except  that  sensual 

e)  Thiersch,  Vorless.  u.  Kath.  u.  Prot.  1846.  2  Abth.  \Kling,  Thiersch.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1849.  H. 
1.)  G.  Reich,  d.  Irvingism.  u.  a  rel.  Charakter.  (Ibid.  p.  193ss.)  Ev.  K.  Z.  Dec.  184T.  and  Jan.  1843.] 

Q  Ue.  d.  Kathschluss.  Gottes  m.  d.  Erde.  Schaffh.  Frk£  1846s.  2  vols.  J.  JTyoper,  d.  Entruckung 
u.  Yerwandl  d.  lebenden  Heiligen.  Brl.  184T.  Actenstucke  d.  Minist  d.  geistl.  Angeleg.  Brl.  1850.  p. 
94S8.— Tholuck's  Lit  Anz.  1848.  N.  81.  Brl.  K.  Z.  1849.  N.  83.  78. 1850.  N.  13. 

u)  Die  Predigt-Krankh.  (with  the  Liter,  in  Bruns.  Eep.  1845.  vol.  III.  p.  170.  270ss.)  Ev.  1C  Z. 
1842.  N.  60s.  Of.  1846.  N.  19ss.  Brl.  K  Z.  1847.  N.  13s. 

v)  Eheinw.  Eep.  1835.  vol.  X.  p.  45. 

to)  J.  L.  Meyer,  schwarm.  Greuelscenen  in  Wildensp.  Ziir.  2  ed.  1824.  A.  K.  Z.  1823.  N.  28.  41a 
.02.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1831.  N.  26ss. 


560  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1&4S-1S53. 

passions  had  been  excited  under  the  forms  of  devotion,  in  order  to  regain  tho 
innocence  of  the  original  Paradise.  It  also  appeared  that  the  preacher  Ebcl 
(b.  1784),  as  the  highly  privileged  chief  nature,  had  exercised  a  despotic 
control  over  the  consciences  of  the  others,  and  that  the  fundamental  princi- 
ple of  their  faith  was  a  philosophic  fancy  produced  by  a  pious  but  eccentric 
being  named  Schoenherr  (1771-182G),  respecting  the  origin  of  the  universe 
from  the  mingling  of  two  primordial  beings  of  a  spiritual  and  sensuous  na- 
ture as  Eloahs.  (x)  In  Saxony,  was  Stephen  (1777-1846),  the  pastor  of  a 
Bohemian  church  in  Dresden,  a  stranger  and  an  enemy  to  the  polite  litera- 
ture of  the  age,  but  familiar  with  the  Scriptures  and  the  old  Church  of 
Luther,  who  knew  well  how  to  excite  ordinary  minds  by  his  simple  and  im- 
pressive eloquence,  and  to  rule  them  with  keen  intelligence  and  firm  decision. 
He  became  a  centre  for  pietistic  Lutheranism,  at  that  time  new  in  this  region, 
but  propagated  there  by  means  of  young  clergymen  and  foreigners.  Wherever 
it  prevailed,  every  natural  bond  was  relaxed  for  its  exclusive  interest.  When 
the  government  (after  1830)  ceased  to  favor  this  class  of  persons,  and  Ste- 
phen found  himself  threatened  with  prosecution,  professing  to  speak  by  divine 
direction,  he  commanded  his  followers  to  leave  the  country,  as  they  could  not 
there  maintain  the  Lutheran  faith  in  its  purity,  nor  transmit  it  to  their  pos- 
terity. Most  of  the  clergymen  who  had  been  connected  with  his  society  now 
renounced  his  doctrines,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  identical  with  ancient 
Donatism,  and  enjoined  a  flying  from  the  cross.  Others  followed  Stephen 
with  about  six  hundred  members  of  their  congregations,  in  tho  autumn  of 
1838,  from  what  they  considered  as  the  land  of  Egypt  to  North  America. 
"When  he  had,  as  their  bishop,  established  a  system  of  unlimited  despotism 
both  in  spiritual  and  secular  affairs,  he  too  soon  gave  a  loose  rein  to  his  licen- 
tious passions.  No  sooner  was  his  scandalous  conduct  made  known  by  means 
of  women  who  had  fallen  or  been  abused  by  him,  than  his  government  was 
at  an  end.  After  his  deposition  and  expulsion  (May,  1839),  the  clergy  at- 
tempted to  seize  the  reins  of  power,  but  the  ideal  of  a  Wittenberg  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi had  become  nearly  effaced  from  their  minds,  and  the  better  class,  on 
witnessing  Stephen's  fall,  became  conscious  of  their  own  guilt.  They  firmly 
adhered  to  Lutheranism  as  the  only  true  form  of  Christianity,  and,  after  a 
long  period  of  distraction,  those  who  survived  formed  a  general  connection 
by  a  synod,  but  maintained  a  bitter  controversy  with  those  clergymen  who 
were  exiles  for  the  same  faith,  (y) 

§  452.     Undecided  Controversies  letween  Old  and  New  Protestantism. 

The  controversy  which  had  previously  been  maintained  principally  on 
scientific  principles,  and  with  an  acknowledgment  of  a  common  Christian 
ground  between  Rationalism  and  Supernaturalism,  was  now  so  far  changed 


os)  A.  K  Z.  1835.  N.  177.  Ev.  K  Z.  1836.  N.  10.  (A.  F.  v.  Wegnerri)  Zuverl.  Mitth.  u.  Schonh. 
Leben  u.  Thoos.  sowie  u.  d.  sectir.  Umtriebe  zu  Kiinigsb.  (Zeitscb.  f.  hist  Tb.  1888.  P.  2.)  Kngsb. 
1839.  , 

y)  L.  P.  iMtkemuller,  Lehren  u.  Umtriebe  d.  Stepbanisten  Altenb.  1838.  G.  Pleissner,  die  Fanati- 
ker  iin  Muldentbale.  Altenb.  1.839.  L.  Fischer,  d.  falscbe  Martyrerth.  Lps.  1839.  (o.  Polenz)  Die  off. 
Meinung  u.  Stepb.  Ibid.  1840.  '  C.  E.  Vehse,  d.  Stephanscbe  Auswanderung.  Drsd.  1840.  Brl.  K. 
Z.  1841.  N.  7.  33.  86.  1845.  N.  85.  ffasse,  meissn.  KGescb.  Lps.  1847.  vol.  II.  p.  3S6.  410ss. 


CHAP   V.    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1853.    §  452.  HAEMS.    CLAUSEN.          56 1 

that  it  was  carried  on  among  the  common  people,  and  was  a  contest  for  the 
very  existence  of  the  Church.  It  was  also  so  arranged,  that  on  one  side  were 
involved  many  principles  of  Christian  freedom,  and  on  the  other  those  of 
ecclesiastical  piety.  Many  irrelevant  matters  were  introduced  into  the  de- 
bate. The  Church  party  brought  forth  a  murderer,  who  confessed  that  his 
rationalism  had  been  the  occasion  of  his  crime ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  it 
was  obliged  to  hear  its  religious  conversions  ridiculed,  and  to  see  many  pain- 
ful things  in  the  domestic  life  of  its  members  held  up  to  public  gaze,  (a)  The 
true  ground  of  the  contention,  however,  was  the  revolution  taking  place  in 
public  feeling.  Even  a  liberal-minded  statesman  expressed  a  wish  "that 
about  a  dozen  Rationalists  might  be  placed  extra  statum  nocendi."  (5)  On 
the  part  of  the  Rationalists,  a  new  symbol  had  been  brought  forward,  which 
the  orthodox  declared  to  be  inconsistent  with  a  standing  in  the  Church,  (c) 
1.  Claus  Harms  of  Kiel  (b.  1778),  an  imaginative,  popular  preacher  of  the 
old  ecclesiastical  school  of  piety,  and  endowed  with  a  remarkable  facility  of 
expression,  (d)  celebrated  the  Jubilee  of  the  Reformation  by  propounding 
ninety-five  new  theses,  in  which  the  doctrines  of  the  total  depravity  of  man 
and  the  indispensable  necessity  of  faith  were  maintained  in  opposition  to  the 
unbelief  and  rationalism  of  the  age.  The  various  forms  in  which  these  were 
opposed,  revealed  how  utterly  foreign  this  system  of  faith  was  to  the  temper 
of  the  age,  and  how  far  even  those  who  at  first  seemed  pleased  with  this 
attack  upon  the  contemporary  spirit  had  embraced  Pelagian  sentiments,  and 
were  estranged  from  the  doctrines  of  Luther.  The  power  of  the  orthodox 
party  became  gradually  established  in  Holstein,  and  its  adherents  found  con- 
solation in  the  Oath  of  1764,  which  avowed  a  strict  adherence  to  the  original 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  while  the  more  liberal  interpreters  of  the  Scriptures 
appealed  to  the  Agenda  of  1797,  and  a  series  of  legal  enactments  put  forth 
since  that  time  in  the  same  spirit,  (e)  2.  In  Denmark,  the  new  Theology 
had  been  .  quietly  propagated,  when  Prof.  Clausen,  in  a  clear  and  learned 
work  upon  the  conflicting  opinions  prevailing  in  the  churches,  pointed  out 
the  spirit  of  Protestantism  as  the  proper  independent  development  of  the 
religious  spirit.  (/)  On  the  other  hand,  Grundtvig,  a  man  of  a  poetical  tem- 
perament, well  versed  in  the  ancient  history  of  his  country,  violent  and  yet 
liberal  in  his  disposition,  in  the  name  of  the  Church  protested  against  the 
positions  taken  in  that  work,  and  maintained  that  Clausen  had  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  all  those  who  were  hostile  to  the  word  of  God,  and  that  his 
Protestant  Church  was  merely  a  self-constructed  castle  of  pleasure,  and  a 
temple  of  idols.  "When  he  was  brought  before  the  civil  courts  to  answer  for 
these  assertions,  he  resigned  his  pastoral  office,  and  was  condemned  for  libel 

o)  A.  K.  Z.  1823.  Lit  Bl.  N.  77.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1330.  N.  100.  40.    (Bericht  u.  d.  Urntriebe  d.  Fromm- 
ler.  in  Halle.  Altenb.  1830.) 

l~)  Freih.  v.  Stein  an  Gagern.  Stuttg.  1833.  p.  304.  815.  346. 

c)  Rohr,  Grand-  u.  Glaubens-Satze  d.  ev.  prot.  K.  Neust  (1832.)  3  ed.  1843. 

d)  Stud.  u.  Krit  1883.  P.  3.    K.  ffarms,  Lebensbeschr.  v.  ihm  selber.  Kiel,  1851. 

e)  Schrbdter,  Archiv  d.  Harmschen  Thesen.  Alton.  1818.  Ev.  K  Z.  1829.  N.  59.  80ss.— Iteehoer 
I  K.  u.  Schulblatt  8. 1844.    Norddeutsche  Monatssclir.  zur  Forder.  d.  freien  Protestant,  s.  1845.    Comp. 

fBorl.  K.  Z.  1846.  N.  103.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1846.  N.  22. 
/)  Katholicism.  og  Protest  Kirkeforfeninp,  Lure  og  Eitus.  Kjobenh.  1825.  3  vols.  ubers.  v.  Fries- 
Ki-.ust  1S-2Ss.  3  vols. 

36 


562  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTOlir.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S63. 

(1826).  The  orientalist  Lindberg  accused  Clausen  of  the  violation  of  his 
ordination  vows,  and  held  every  person  responsible  for  the  consequences 
"  who  were  witnesses  of  the  corrupting  influence,  without  opposition  to  it." 
For  this  he  was  accused  of  an  attempt  to  excite  discontent  against  the  gov- 
ernment, but  was  acquitted  in  the  courts  of  justice  (1830).  Although  this 
party  obtained  but  little  public  favor,  it  was  much  promoted  by  the  holding 
of  conventicles,  and  at  last  Grundtvig  received  permission  to  hold  ser- 
vices for  divine  worship  (1832).  A  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Diet  then 
endeavored  by  some  liberal  means  to  get  the  control  of  this  church  of  the 
people  for  himself  alone,  and  vented  his  rage  against  every  thing  of  German 
origin,  (ff)  8.  In  an  academic  disputation  at  Leipsic,  it  was  asserted  that  the 
Rationalists  were  actually  dismissed  from  the  Church.  This  assertion  was 
afterwards  modified,  and  it  was  said  that  they  were  bound  in  conscience 
voluntarily  to  leave  the  Church,  but  in  the  replies  it  called  forth,  even  this 
was  shown  to  be  inconsistent  with  Protestantism  and  with  Christianity 
itself,  (h)  But  the  object  of  its  authors  was  more  perfectly  discovered  by 
an  article  in  the  Evangelical  Church  Journal,  in  which  Gesenius,  the  distin- 
guished founder  of  the  modern  school  of  oriental  literature  in  Germany,  and 
TVegscheider,  were  denounced  for  ridiculing  Christianity,  and  for  perverting 
the  minds  of  the  youth.  Though  this  article  was  evidently  designed  to 
induce  the  civil  authorities  to  interfere  in  the  case,  nothing  but  an  admoni- 
tion addressed  to  public  teachers  in  general  was  ever  put  forth  from  that 
quarter,  and  not  only  the  assailed  professors,  but  the  most  highly  esteemed 
writers  and  speakers  in  behalf  of  nearly  the  whole  body  of  Protestant 
divines,  protested  against  such  a  turn  of  the  controversy,  and  advocated  the 
freedom  of  scientific  discussion.  On  the  part  of  those  who  had  raised  the 
complaint,  it  was  said  that  the  freedom  of  instruction  claimed  was  nothing 
but  oppression,  when  its  bearing  upon  the  congregations  was  regarded,  and 
that  the  Church  could  not  endure  that  its  future  pastors  should  be  taught  the 
very  reverse  of  what  they  were  afterwards  bound  to  preach,  (i)  4.  In  Hesse- 
Cassel,  the  orthodox  party  lost  its  political  support  when  the  ministry  of 
Hassenpflug  was  overthrown.  When  the  government,  in  concert  with  the 
consistories,  imposed  upon  ministers  about  to  be  settled  the  obligation  to  con- 
form themselves  to  the  Scriptures,  "  with  a  conscientious  regard  to  the  au- 
thorized standards  of  faith"  (1838),  a  learned  and  practical  jurist  came  for- 
ward at  the  head  of  a  party,  demanding  the  very  reverse.  To  save  the  unity 
and  even  the  legal  existence  of  the  Evangelical  Church,  which  he  believed 
would  be  endangered  by  an  arbitrary  change  in  the  existing  law,  Bwkell  de- 
manded that  an  authentic  interpretation  should  be  given,  according  to  which 


g)  Ev.  K  Z.  1827.  N.  51s.  1823.  N.  55s.  1830.  N.  97ss.  104.  1831.  N.  69ss.  1832.  N.  49ss.  A.  K.  Z. 
1828.  N.  198. 1830.  N.  49. 1831.  N.  42ss.  1832.  Lit  Bl.  N.  101.  1834.  N.  111.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1834.  P.  4 
p.  995SS.  Ruddbacfi  in  d.  Zettsch.  t  luth.  Theol.  1841.  P.  l.-BrL  K.  Z.  1845.  N.  60. 

K)  Hafin :  de  rationalism!  vera  indole.  Lps.  1827.  And.  ev.  K.  zunachst  in  Preussen  u.  Sachscn.  Lps. 
1827.  (  Volkmann)  Der  Rationalist  kein  ev.  Christ  L.  1828.— (ffase)  Die  Leipz.  Disputation.  Lps.  1827. 
Krug,  phil.  Gutachten  in  Sachsen  d.  Eat  u.  Snpern.  Lps.  1827.  (Clemen)  Licht  u.  Schatten.  Lps.  1827 

i)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1830.  N.  5s.  15.  18s.  84.  54s.  59.  69.  84ss.  94s.  A.  K.  Z.  1831.  N.  9.  Vota  by  Bret. 
Schneider,  Neander,  Ullmann,  Schott,  B.  Crusius,  Schultz,  Colin,  u.  a.  On  the  other  side:  Rudel- 
bach,  d.  Wesen  d.  Rational.  Lps.  1830. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUKCH  TILL  1853.     §  452.  ALTENBUKG.    HAMBURG.    563 

the  authorized  confessions  should  he  acknowledged  to  he  in  suhstance  the 
standard  of  doctrine.    Herikel  declared  that  the  Augustana  was  as  authorita- 
tive as  the  Carolina,  and  appealed  to  an  assembly  of  his  fellow-citizens  (Aug. 
14,  1839),  which  presented  a  petition  to  the  electoral  princes,  praying  for 
some  explanation  which  should  tranquillize  the  public  mind,  and  for  the  con- 
vocation of  a  general  synod.  By  these  means  they  hoped  that  all  authoritative 
creeds  might  be  abolished,  that  the  doctrines  preached  by  the  clergy  might 
be  made  negatively  dependent  upon  the  will  of  their  congregations,  and  that 
all  parochial  compulsion  in  these  matters  might  be  taken  away.    But  not 
only  the  views  of  the  government,  but  the  sentiments  of  the  people  were 
opposed  to  both  these  demands.    "When  Hassenpflug  undertook  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  Old  Hessia  (1850),  the  ancient  form  of  oath  was  introduced,  and 
every  thing  received  the  precise  ecclesiastical  coloring  of  the  old  Covenant 
of  Fidelity  (Treubunds-Farbung).  (Tc)    5.  In  Saxe  Alteiiburg,  a  Consistorial 
rescript  was  addressed  (Nov.  13,  1838)  to  the  Ephori  of  Eonneburg,  in  which 
the  emigration  under  Stephen  was  traced  to  the  dissatisfaction  produced  by 
an  unauthorized  mode  of  performing  parochial  duties,  and  the  preachers  were 
admonished  to  instruct  their  people  in  the  essential  and  fundamental  doc- 
trines of  Christianity.    The  explanation  of  this  document  by  persons  from 
without,  provoked  the  patriotic  spirits  of  a  few  clergymen  to  a  lively  oppo- 
sition.   The  opinions  of  four  theological  faculties  were  solicited  by  the  gov- 
ernment, with  regard  to  the  conduct  of  the  consistory  and  its  opponents. 
The  only  reply  favorable  to  a  rigidly  orthodox  sense  was  sent  by  the  faculty 
of  Berlin,  and  even  that  body  was  by  no  means  unanimous.    As  these  opin- 
ions were  published  with  a  noble  confidence  by  the  government,  and  every 
attempt  at  legal  proceedings  on  the  subject  was  suppressed,  the  minds  of  the 
people  were  tranquillized.  (I)    6.  In  Hamburg,  an  excitement  was  created  by 
an  attack  by  some  Pietists  in  a  literary  publication  upon  what  was  called  the 
pretended  Christian  life  of  the  multitude,  and  upon  nationalism,  which  was 
denominated  a  snake  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  (1839).    When  two  candidates 
presented  themselves,  and  an  opportunity  was  thus  given  for  an  attack,  the 
party  favorable  to  the  old  faith  used  all  the  means  which  could  be  employed 
in  a  free  state  to  procure  their  rejection,  on  the  ground  that  they  had  vio- 
lated their  oaths.    But  when  they  declared  that  they  would,  as  hitherto,  con- 
form according  to  their  conscientious  convictions  to  the  Bible  and  the  Cate- 
chism, both  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities  were  satisfied,  since  it 
could  not  be  denied  that  the  usage  of  a  half  century  was  in  opposition  to  the 
legal  authority  of  the  symbolical  books.    One  pietistic  candidate  was  sus- 
pended until  he  should  pledge  himself  to  observe  in  future  the  respect  due  to 
the  ecclesiastical  ministry,  and  which  had  been  disregarded  in  the  course  of 


K)  J.  W.  Mokell,  u.  d.  Verpflicht  d.  Geistl.  a.  d.  symb.  Schrr.  Cass.  (1839.)  1840.  On  the  other 
side :  K.  T.  Bayrho/er  in  2  krit.  Beleuchtnngen.  Lps.  1839.  W.  IT,  Meurer,  e.  Wort  u.  Lehrfrcih. 
in  d.  ev.  K.  Cass.  1839.—  W.  Vilmar,  d.  Kurhess.  K.  Kass.  1S45.  W.  MunscTier,  Gesch.  d.  hess.  ref- 
K.  Cass.  1850.  Brl.  K.  Z.  1851.  N.  47. 

I)  BerL  K.  Z.  1839.  N.  Is.  31.  C.  W.  Klotzner,  z.  Ehrenrettung  e.  veranglimpften  christl.  Gl. 
u.  Predigtweise.  Lps.  1839.  J.  Schuderoff,  an  den  H.  Dr.  Hesekiei  in  Altenb.  Lps.  1839.  Bedenken 
d.  tbeol.  Face.  Jena,  Berl.  Gcitt  u.  Heidelb.  Nebst  Actenstucken.  Altenb.  1839.  Paulue,  Motiv.  Gat* 
ftchtea.  Mannh.  1839.  C.  Uttmann,  d.  Altenb.  Angelegenh.  (Stud,  u.  Krit  1840.  P.  2.) 


564  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTOET.    PEK.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1853. 

this  controversy,  (m)  On  the  other  hand,  in  Bremen,  when  the  younger 
Krummacher,  in  the  fervency  of  his  zeal  against  those  whom  he  called  the 
priests  of  Baal,  pronounced  the  apostle's  curse  (Gal.  1,  8)  upon  the  whole 
antichristian  spirit  of  the  age,  although  the  liberal  Protestantism  rigidly 
secured  its  rights  against  a  new  priestly  and  Jewish  system,  the  majority  of 
the  clergy  in  the  city  and  country,  to  distinguish  themselves  from  such  aa 
they  regarded  as  unbelievers  in  Christianity,  formed  an  orthodox  confession 
(1840).  (n)  When  the  Reformed  congregation  at  Liebfrauen,  during  the 
spring-tide  of  popular  feeling  in  1848,  and  in  a  popular  election  without  the 
ordinary  established  forms,  called  Dulon  of  Magdeburg  to  become  its  pastor, 
and  when  he  was  installed  without  pledging  himself  to  any  creed,  the  char- 
acter of  the  candidate  (d)  and  the  object  of  the  congregation  could  no  longer 
•be  concealed.  The  old  priest-church  was  derided  as  a  corpse,  from  whoso 
grave  alone  new  life  could  be  expected,  and  the  faith  of  their  forefathers  was 
estimated  only  in  the  light  of  circumstances  the  reverse  of  what  originally 
existed.  A  small  amount  of  intelligence,  and  a  popular  style  of  eloquence, 
were  sufficient  to  enable  such  a  man  to  become  a  religious  demagogue,  who 
professed  to  preach  a  Christianity  which  knew  no  vulgar  class,  and  whoso 
apotheosis  he  completed,  and  whose  holiest  service  he  performed,  when  he 
endeavored  to  inspire  men  with  a  burning  hatred  to  despotism,  and  to  enlist 
them  in  an  enthusiastic  struggle  for  a  free  state,  a  secular  redemption,  in 
which  every  enjoyment  of  life  might  be  shared  by  all.  (p)  An  accusation 
was  preferred  against  him  (April,  1851)  by  twenty-three  members  of  his  con- 
gregation, who  demanded  that  the  Church  should  be  protected  against  him 
as  an  enemy  to  Christianity.  Dulon  denied  that  the  Senate,  which  in  similar 
circumstances  (1845)  had  decided  that  a  preacher  should  never  venture  in 
his  public  instructions  beyond  the  degree  of  intelligence  which  prevailed 
among  his  people,  had  any  right  to  interfere  in  theological  controversies.  He 
alleged  that,  according  to  the  Constitution  of  1849,  and  the  laws  of  the  Re- 
formed Church,  in  which  no  obligation  to  a  particular  creed  was  required,  a 
pastor  was  responsible  only  to  his  congregation,  and  that  the  great  majority 
of  his  people  were  opposed  to  the  accusation.  (0)  The  Senate  applied  to  the 
theological  faculty  of  Heidelberg  for  an  opinion  upon  the  case,  and  when  this 
sustained  the  accusation,  (r)  Dulon  was  deposed  (April,  1852),  on  the  ground 

in)  Eheinw.  Eep.  vol.  XXVIL  p.  236ss.  XXXV.  13339.  Ev.  K  Z.  1889.  N.  63s.  87.  1840.  N.  143. 
51s.  A.  K.  Z.  1840.  p.  66.  M.  ff.  HudtwdUcer,  Protest  in  Veranlassung  d.  neuesten  klrchL  Ereign, 
In  Hamb.  Hrab.  1889.  II.  Schleiden,  d.  prot  K.  u.  d.  87mb.  B.  zunacbst  in  Bez.  a.  Hamb.  Hmb.  1840. 

n)  BerL  K.  Z.  1840.  N.  76.  82.  85.  91.  P.  W.  Krummacher :  Paulas  kein  Mann  nach  d.  Sinne 
unserer  Zcit  2  ed.  Brem.  1840.  Theol.  Eeplik  an  PanieL  Elbrt  1840.  Dor  SchelnheiL  Eationalism. 
vor  d.  Eichterstuhle  d.  H.  8.  Ibid.  1841.  J.  Gildemeister,  Blendwerke  d.  vnlgaren  Eational.  z.  Be- 
Beitignng  d.  Paul  Anathema.  BerL  1841.— .F.  W.  Panid:  8  Sontagspr.  2  ed.  Berl.  1840.  Unver- 
bolene  Beurtb.  d.  sogcn.  theoL  Eeplik.  Berl.  1840.  IF.  E.  Weber,  die  Verflucbungen.  2  ed.  Berl. 
1840.  Bremisches  Magazin  £  ev.  Wahrh.  v.  Paniel,  Eothe,  Weber.  1841ss.  8  P.— Bekenntniss  Brem. 
Pa8toren  in  Sachsen  d.  Wahrb.  BerL  1840.  Eheinw.  Eep.  vol.  XLII.  p.  97.  Mallet,  f&r  Stepbanl 
Gemeinde.  Br.  1850. 

0)  R.  Dulon,  d.  Geltnng  d.  Bekenntnlsschr.  in  d.  ref.  K.  Magdeb.  1S4T. 

$)  Vom  Kampfe  d.  Volkerfreih.  e.  Lebrb.  furs  deutscbe  Volk.  Br.  1849s.  2  H.  5  ed.  1851.  Die  ret 
K.,  H.  Mallet  u.  Ich.  Br.  (1850.)  1851.  Der  Wecker,  ein  Sonntagsbl.  s.  Sept  1850. 

q)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  84  45.  59. 

r)  Gntacbten  d.  theoL  Fak.  d.  Univ.  Heidelb.  u.  Dulon.  with  Praef.  by  Sch«nkeL  Heidelb.  1852. 

the  other  side :  Dulvn^  d.  Gutachten  d.  vicr.  heid.  Theologen.  Br.  1852. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUKOH  TILL  1853.    §452.  DULON.    SINTENIS.  565 

that  his  course  led  to  agitation,  and  was  dangerous  to  public  safety,  and  he 
was  forbidden  the  performance  of  any  duties  as  a  preacher  or  an  instructor 
within  the  bounds  of  the  republic,  (s)  Even  if  this  proceeding  be  regarded 
as  of  questionable  propriety  according  to  the  legal  ordinances  then  in 
force,  (£)  it  was  certainly  the  natural  result  of  the  revolution  which  had  then 
taken  place  in  public  affairs.  7.  In  Magdeburg,  when  a  work  of  art  was  ex- 
hibited, Sintenis,  the  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  maintained  in 
a  public  journal  that  the  worship  of  Christ  was  a  superstition  not  taught  in 
the  gospels  (1840).  This  was  generally  regarded  as  a  gross  impropriety,  but 
a  few  distinguished  persons  in  their  zeal  denounced  it  in  the  pulpit  as  a  trea- 
son against  the  Church.  TVTien  the  consistory  required  that  Sintenis  should 
acknowledge  his  views  to  be  inconsistent  with  his  office  in  the  Church,  and 
promise  that  he  would  in  future  preach  nothing  which  should  not,  as  far  as 
he  could  ascertain  from  the  authorized  creeds,  be  consistent  with  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Bible,  under  penalty  of  a  suspension  from  his  office,  the  city 
thought  that  Protestant  freedom  of  instruction  was  impaired,  and  that  the 
whole  was  intended  to  place  exclusive  power  in  the  hands  of  the  pietistic 
party.  The  ecclesiastical  superintendents  and  the  magistrates  therefore 
brought  a  complaint  against  the  consistory  before  the  Bureau  of  Public  "Wor- 
ship, on  the  ground  that  it  had  treated  human  enactments  as  if  they  were  of 
equal  authority  with  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  that  consequently  the  Pro- 
testantism of  Magdeburg,  once  so  dearly  purchased,  was  in  peril.  But  when 
this  department  censured  the  conduct  of  Sintenis  as  a  pastoral  indiscretion, 
and  admonished  those  who  were  zealous  for  orthodoxy  to  abstain  from  every 
thing  inconsistent  with  existing  rules,  the  excitement  was  allayed,  (w) — In 
all  parts  of  Germany  it  was  only  needful  that  some  inflammatory  word 
should  be  uttered  to  produce  a  local  explosion.  The  old  Protestantism  in  its 
renovated  form,  had  in  its  favor  the  written  law,  the  religious  enthusiasm  of 
the  people,  and  sometimes  also  the  protection  of  eminent  civil  authorities, 
while  the  new  Protestantism  had  the  usages  of  almost  a  century,  the  mod- 
ern improvements  in  science,  the  revolutionary  principles  started  at  the 
Reformation,  and  generally,  where  freedom  of  conscience  was  threatened,  the 
masses  of  the  third  estate,  who  rose  in  defence  of  such  freedom.  The  ortho- 
dox style  of  preaching  had  become  so  strange  in  particular  cities,  that  some 
pastors  who  used  it  fell  out  with  their  congregations  and  were  dismissed  from 
them,  («)  and  sometimes  a  city  otherwise  diligent  in  the  practice  of  religion 
and  in  its  works  of  charity,  protested  in  a  legal  form  against  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  on  account  of  its  antiquated  character,  (w)  In  the  principality  of 

*)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  20.  21.  A.  KZ.  1852.  N.  70. 

t)  Ditteriberger,  Votum  in  d.  theol.  Fac.  d.  U.  Heidelb.  u.  D.  ndlb.  1852.  On  the  other  side: 
Schenkel,  d.  Schutzpflicht  d.  Staats  gegen  d.  ev.  K.  Heidelb.  1852. 

u)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1840.  N.  20s.  43.  54s.  67s.  A.  K.  Z.  1840.  N.  61ss.  (Theune)  Urkunden  u.  d.  Ver- 
fahren  d.  Consist,  zu  Magd.  gegen  Sintenis,  v.  e.  Freunde  d.  Wahrheit  Lps.  1840.  Mittheilungen  u.  d. 
Veranl.  d.  kirchL  Aufreg.  zu  Magd.  DarmsL  1841.— Der  Bischof  Draseke  u.  s.  actjiihr.  Wirken  im 
Preuss.  Staat  v.  G.  v.  C.  (Konig.')  Bergen.  1840. 

o)  Tholuck,  Liter.  Anzeiger.  1835.  K  47.  Acta  hist  ecc.  1835.  p.  441sa.  Eheinw.  Eep.  vol.  V. 
p.  129ss.  vol.  XVIII.  p.  28ss.  ISlss. 

w)  Brl.  KZ.  1844.  N.  28. 1845.  N.  23.  Ev.  KZ.  1844.  N.  46.  54  Rudelbach,  u.  d.  Bedeut,  d.  Ap. 
Symb.  Mit  Bez.  a.  d.  Leipziger  Confessionswirren.  Hal.  1844.. 


566  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1858. 

Lippe,  five  preachers,  who  had  demanded  the  re-introduction  of  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism,  instead  of  the  liberal  catechism  which  had  been  used  for  a 
generation  past,  and  had  protested  (1844)  against  the  spurious  official  oath 
respecting  the  creed  which  had  for  some  time  been  publicly  administered, 
and  against  the  limitation  of  the  ecclesiastical  pkwer  of  the  keys,  were  sum- 
moned before  the  consistory  as  ecclesiastical  demagogues,  and  after  humbling 
themselves,  they  were  admonished  carefully  to  observe  the  regulations  of  the 
Church.  Private  members  were  also  informed  that  it  did  not  belong  to 
them,  with  their  limited  knowledge  of  such  subjects,  to  give  a  Judgment 
respecting  them,  (x) 

§  453.    Prussia,  the  Union  and  the  Agenda  till  1840.     Cont.  from  §  414. 

J.  Jacobton,  Gcsch.  d.  Qucllen  d.  ev.  KRechts  d  Prov.  Preuseen  u.  Pos.  Kiinigsb.  1839. 
v.  Muhler,  Gesch.  d.  ev.  KVerf.  d.  Mark  Brandenb.  Weim.  1846.— Bockd,  Ireneon.  Brl.  1821ss.  2 
vola.  K.  F.  Gaupp,  d  Union  d.  deutachcn  K.  BrsL  184&  K.  Semisch,  fi.  d.  Unionsversnche  bes.  in 
Preussen.  Grelfew.  1852.  C.  J.  NUttoh,  Urkundenb.  d.  ev.  Union.  Bonn.  1358. 

Under  Frederic  II.,  Prussia  had  become,  in  consequence  of  its  natural 
position,  the  most  prominent  of  the  Protestant  powers.  Frederic  William 
II.  (1797-1840),  having  found  consolation  under  his  severe  losses  in  the  sta- 
ble word  of  God,  wished,  after  his  government  had  become  re-established, 
and  he  had  become  rather  jealous  of  its  free  development,  that  the  Church 
might  be  thoroughly  regenerated.  Though  he  felt  some  dislike  to  the  unsta- 
ble character  of  Protestant  freedom,  and  especially  to  the  high-wrought  spirit 
of  Pietism,  he  was  sincerely  attached  to  Luther's  honest  and  steadfast  faith, 
and  with  pious  conscientiousness,  under  the  influence  of  the  writings  of  the 
reformers,  sometimes  conducted  the  affairs  of  the  Church  with  his  own 
hands.  He  was,  however,  generally  assisted  by  the  gentle  Altenstein,  his 
minister  for  public  worship,  with  whose  preferences  for  the  Hegelian  phi- 
losophy in  the  Church  and  in  the  schools  he  was  often  displeased,  but  whom 
he  never  would  quite  abandon,  (a)  "When  the  civil  power  had  absorbed  all 
authorities  peculiarly  ecclesiastical  (1809),  the  king  established  (1817)  pro- 
vincial consistories,  whose  duties  were  confined  to  matters  exclusively  spirit- 
ual, and  did  not  include  the  location  of  clergymen ;  district  and  provincial 
synods,  composed  only  of  clergymen,  and  restricted  within  a  narrow  circle 
of  duties,  but  intended  to  be  an  introduction  to  an  imperial  synod ;  (5)  and  a 
ministry  for  public  worship,  which  was  to  be  the  organ  through  which  the  royal 
authority  was  exercised  over  the  Church.  The  oath  which  the  clergymen 
were  to  take,  bound  them  to  be  the  servants  of  the  state  as  well  as  of  the 
Church.  As  Protestantism  gradually  developed  itself,  the  contrast  between 
the  two  Churches  became  less  and  less  prominent  before  the  minds  of  the 
people,  and  other  antagonisms  of  far  greater  importance  than  those  between 
Luther  and'  Zwingle  appeared  in  each.  Hence,  when  the  king  sent  forth  a 

«)  Urkunden  z.  Beurth.  d.  kirchl  Verb,  im  F.  Lippe.  Lps.  1845.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1842.  N.  100. 1S43.  N. 
28.  37.  72. 1844  N.  12.  65.  1845.  N.  SOss.  92. 1846.  N.  9s.  83.  63.  77s.  97. 1851.  N.  75s. 

a)  Eylert,  Characterzuge  a.  d.  Leben  Fried.  Wilh.  III.  Magdeb.  1843-6.  esp.  3.  vol.  [Life  and 
Opinions  of  Fred.  Will.  III.  from  the  Germ,  of  Eylert,  by  J.  Birch,  Lend.  1844.  8.] 

6)  Acts  in  Wachler,  theoL  Nachrichten  1817.  Schleiermacher,  u.  d.  einzuricht  Synodalveit 
BrL  181T.  A.  KZ.  1828.  N.  44. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  453.  PEUSSIA.    UNION.  567 

call  for  a  voluntary  union  at  the  Jubilee  of  the  Keformation,  (c)  the  union  of 
an  evangelical  Church  fell  into  his  hands  as  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  age.  No 
attempt  to  produce  uniformity  by  artificial  creeds  was  therefore  necessary. 
On  the  one  hand,  an  internal  union  was  effected  by  the  conviction  that  those 
controversies  which  had  now  ceased,  or  which  still  continued,  were  not 
inconsistent  with  Christian  love  and  fellowship ;  and  on  the  other,  all  that 
was  needful  to  an  external  union  was  accomplished  by  an  agreement  respect- 
ing a  constitution,  church  property,  and  ordinary  usages.  It  was  also  con- 
cluded that  the  Lord's  Supper  should  be  celebrated  in  the  manner  proposed 
by  the  Synod  of  Berlin,  by  a  mere  breaking  of  the  bread  and  a  faithful  reci- 
tation of  the  words  used  in  the  original  institution.  But  while  this  work 
was  in  process  of  cheerful  accomplishment  in  the  several  ecclesiastical  corpo- 
rations, sometimes  by  public  enactments  and  sometimes  as  the  government 
directed,  by  a  practical  acceptance  of  the  breaking  of  bread  and  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  authorities  of  the  united  Church,  it  was  considerably 
disturbed  by  the  introduction  of  the  Agenda.  The  development  which  had 
taken  place  in  the  principles  of  Protestantism,  and  the  modes  of  speech 
occasioned  by  the  new  scientific  and  literary  education  of  the  people,  ren- 
dered some  alteration  of  the  language  of  the  Church  indispensable.  New 
liturgies  were  therefore  introduced  into  some  established  churches  without 
attracting  much  attention.  A  common  form  of  worship  seemed  to  become 
necessary  by  the  union.  The  theological  commission  appointed  for  compos- 
ing such  an  instrument  in  Prussia  accomplished  nothing.  The  king  then  pub- 
lished an  Agenda  which  had  been  adopted  by  his  cabinet  (1822)  for  the  use 
of  the  court  church,  gave  orders  that  it  should  be  introduced  into  the  garri- 
son churches  of  his  kingdom,  and  recommended  it  to  all  the  congregations 
of  the  realm,  instead  of  the  conflicting  and  arbitrary  forms  which  had  pre- 
viously been  used  in  the  different  provinces,  (d)  Objections  against  it  were 
urged  by  some  who  fancied  that  it  partook  too  much  of  an  old  ecclesiastical, 
and  even  of  a  Catholic  spirit,  and  by  others  who  complained  that  it  was  not 
sufficiently  orthodox,  and  was  too  much  reformed.  Some,  also,  were  displeased 
with  a  heterogeneous  political  element  which  they  discovered  in  it.  But  no 
general  opposition  to  it  (<?)  was  apparent  until  the  government  took  some 
steps  to  draw  over  the  churches  by  various  temptations  or  by  coercion,  and 
some  authors  contended  that  a  strict  conformity  to  the  liturgy  should  be  re- 
quired by  a  law  on  the  territorial  system,  (f)  In  the  midst  of  this  confusion 
no  synodal  constitution  was  carried  into  effect,  for  even  the  victorious  politi- 
cal party  took  no  pleasure  in  a  measure  which  so  forcibly  reminded  them  of 
the  promised  representative  system.  It  was  only  in  Westphalia  and  the 
Rhenish  provinces  that  a  synodal  form  on  the  basis  of  ancient  usages  was 
introduced  (1835),  but  even  there  the  system  left  as  much  to  be  desired  as  it 

c)  Sept  27, 1817,  in  Nitssch,  p.  125s. 

d)  Kirch  en-Agenda  £  d.  prot.  Hof-  u.  Domk.  in  Berl.  Brl.  and  oft.   A.  KZ.  1822.  N.  17.  63. 

e)  (Schleiermacher)  Ue.  d.  lit.  Eecht  ev.  Landesfursten,  v.  Pacif.  Sincerus.  Gott  1824.    Acten- 
Btuckc,  betr.  d.  Pr.  K.  A.  ed.  by  Falck,  Kiel,  1827. 

/)  Augusti,  Kritik  d.  Preuss.  A.  Frkf.  1823.  and  Erklar.  u.  d.  Majestatsrecbt  in  kircbl.  Dingen.  P. 
1825.  m.  Nachtr.  Bonn.  1826.  Marheineke,  u.  d.  wahre  Stelle  d.  lit  Eecbts.  Brl.  1825.  C.  F.  ix 
Ammon,  d.  Einfiih.  d.  Brl.  A.  geschichtl.  u.  kircbl.  beleuchtet  Drsd.  1825. 


568  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  164S-1S5&. 

actually  fulfilled.  (?)  The  appointment  of  general  superintendents  (1829), 
with  means  at  command  for  a  very  extensive  sphere  of  personal  influence, 
was  looked  upon  as  a  restoration  of  the  titular  bishops  to  their  former  pre- 
latical  position,  and  hence  as  the  commencement  of  a  Protestant  episco- 
pacy. (A)  The  king  showed  a  great  predilection  for  the  Agenda  as  a  work 
of  hia  own,  and  he  even  wrote  a  very  modest  defence  of  it  with  his  own 
hand,  (i)  But  this  difficult  controversy  was  finally  settled  principally  by  an 
arrangement  proposed  by  the  Bishop  Ncander,  according  to  which  a  new 
revision  of  the  liturgy  was  to  be  made  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  with 
special  reference  to  the  most  important  objections  (1829).  As  this  presented 
to  the  worshippers  a  choice  of  several  forms,  and  paid  respect  to  provincial 
usages,  and  as  the  rights  of  the  Church  were  preserved  and  were  c'uly  hon- 
ored by  the  government,  it  was  accepted  without  difficulty.  Accordingly, 
since  1830,  the  Agenda  has  possessed  the  authority  of  law,  and  but  one  evan- 
gelical national  Church  has  been  known  in  Prussia,  (#)  In  all  the  other  estab- 
lished churches  of  Germany  the  royal  appeal  was  favorably  received,  and  was 
carried  into  execution  by  means  of  enactments  in  the  synods  or  the  congrega- 
tions. In  Nassau  (1817),  this  was  accomplished  by  a  formal  recognition  of  a 
previous  unanimity  between  the  two  parties  in  the  essential  articles  of  their 
creeds.  (1)  In  Bavaria  on  the  Rhine,  it  was  effected  (1818)  by  a  general  vote 
on  an  edict  which  proposed  that  the  evangelical  Church  should  properly 
respect  the  symbolical  books  containing  the  ordinary  Protestant  confessions, 
but  should  have  no  authoritative  rule  of  faith  but  the  Iloly  Scriptures.  In 
Baden,  the  same  result  was  secured  by  declaring  (1821)  that  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  together  with  the  Lutheran  and  Heidelberg  Catechisms,  should 
be  regarded  as  an  authoritative  rule  of  faith  only  as  far  as  a  free  investigation 
should  discover  their  consistency  with  the  Scriptures,  the  only  sure  source  of 
Christian  truth,  and  as  far  as  the  pure  principles  of  evangelical  Protestantism 
were  found  in  them.  It  was  also  agreed  that  the  Lord's  Supper  should  be 
celebrated  there  in  the  form  which  had  been  accepted  by  Melancthon  (p. 
407).  (m)  Wherever  the  union  was  not  then  effected,  it  was  on  account  of 
some  local  difficulties  in  the  respective  congregations.  In  those  national 
churches  within  the  bounds  of  which  very  little  more  than  a  single  Pro- 
testant Church  existed,  as  e.  g.,  the  Lutherans  in  the  states  of  the  German 
Confederacy,  and  the  Reformed  in  Switzerland  and  the  Netherlands,  there 
was  no  necessity  or  object  of  such  a  Union,  but  even  there  it  was  accepted 
as  an  ideal,  and  was  recognized  wherever  an  individual  case  required  it. 
The  principal  remonstrance  against  it  was  from  a  few  Supernaturalists  who 
possessed  no  doctrinal  agreement  among  themselves,  (ri) 

ff)  Acta  hist  ecc.  1835.  p.  875s.  1836.  p.  450ss.  Verhandll.  d.  2  rhein.  Prov.  Synodal-VersammL 
tfarmen.  183S. 

h)  Augutti,  Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  u.  Statistik  d.  ev.  KIrche,  p.  TSSss. 

i)  Luther  in  Beziehung  a.  d.  Preuss.  KAgende.  Brl.  1827. 

fc)  A.  KZ.  1S29.  N.  140. 1830.  N.  93.  Eylert,  Q.  Werth  u.  Wirkung  d.  Agenda  nach  d.  Rcsnltate 
f  <ehnjahr.  Erfahrung.  Potsd.  1830. 

1)  Archiv  f.  alte  u.  nene  KGesch.  voL  IV.  p.  189sa.        m)  NiUsch,  p.  134s. 

rt)  Tittmann,  u.  Vereinigung.  Lps.  1818.    Steudel  u.  Vereinigung.  Tub.  183  . 


CHAP.  T.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  -154.  UNION.    LUTHEBANISM.      569 

§  454.    Lutlicranism  as  a  Sect  under  Frederic  William  III. 

The  spirit  of  orthodoxy  which  had  now  been  once  more  awakened,  per- 
ceived that  it  would  soon  lose  its  principal  power,  if  those  portions  of  the 
symbolical  books  in  which  the  different  churches  opposed  and  condemned 
each  other  were  no  longer  binding  upon  the  people.  So  strong,  indeed,  was 
the  feeling  now  aroused,  that  in  men  of  a  reckless  spirit  it  resembled  Luther's 
horror  at  all  fellowship  with  the  Reformed  Church.  That  which  in  other 
places  was  a  conscientious  conviction  in  opposition  to  the  Union,  or  a  theo- 
logical opposition,  (a)  in  Prussia  necessarily  came  into  collision  with  the  lively 
interest  which  the  government  took  in  the  united  and  uniform  Church. 
"When  the  Union  and  the  Agenda  were  accepted  at  Breslau  (1830),  Dr.  Scliei- 
~bel  remained  the  pastor  of  a  church  which  rejected  the  Union  as  a  work  of 
Indifferentism,  a  compact  between  Christ  and  Belial  and  the  Agenda,  as  a 
part  of  the  same  scheme.  After  many  efforts  at  accommodation,  he  was 
suspended  from  the  ministry,  and  when  he  insisted  upon  a  final  decision,  he 
was  dismissed  (1832).  (&)  GuericTce  announced  that  he  had  returned  to  the 
old  Lutheran  Church,  from  which  he  had  unconsciously  and  involuntarily 
been  removed,  and  he  now  obtained  a  secret  installation  for  himself  as  the 
pastor  of  a  congregation  in  and  near  Halle  (1834).  After  many  disturbances 
of  divine  worship  in  his  house  by  the  police,  he  was  deprived  of  his "  profes- 
sorship on  account  of  a  rash  attack  which  he  made  upon  an  order  issued  by 
the  government  (1835).  (c)  A  few  pastors  connected  with  the  established 
Church  in  Silesia  produced  an  excitement  among  the  ignorant  people  of  their 
congregations,  by  preaching  that  Luther's  precious  faith,  the  religion  of  their 
fathers,  had  been  superseded  by  the  theology  of  the  king.  To  hush  up  these 
disturbances,  an  order  was  obtained  (Feb.  28,  1834)  from  the  cabinet  by  the 
pietistic  party  then  forming  in  the  court,  (d)  which  assured  the  people  that 
the  Lutheran  Church,  with  its  various  confessions  of  faith,  was  not  abolished 
by  the  Agenda  and  the  Union,  and  that  nothing  but  that  Church  was  estab- 
lished by  law  ;  and  that  the  sacraments  were  to  be  administered  according  to 
the  usages  of  the  old  Lutheran  Church  to  all  who  desired  them  in  that  mode. 
The  Lutherans,  however,  could  not  comprehend  how  the  Lutheran  confession, 
condemning  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  Church,  could  really  be  received 
in  a  united  Church,  or  how  the  same  liturgy  could  be  received  in  two 
Churches  which  were  essentially  so  different.  These  pastors,  who  had  re- 
nounced the  Union  and  the  Agenda,  and  would  no  longer  yield  obedience  to 
the  consistory  of  the  united  Church,  were  suspended.  When  Eellner,  the 
pastor  of  the  church  in  Honigern,  was  about  to  be  suspended  (Sept.  llth, 
1834),  the  congregation  while  singing  and  praying  presented  an  unwearied 
passive  resistance  to  the  opening  of  their  church,  being  resolved  to  do  noth- 

o)  Gieseler,  neuestcr  Unionsvers.  in  Bremen.  Bonn.  1S24.  Rudelbach,  Grundvesto  d.  luth. 
Kirchenlehre  u.  Friedenspraxis.  Lps.  1840. 

V)  Stiffens,  wie  ich  wieder  Lutheraner  wurde,  und  was  mir  Lutherthum  1st  Brsl.  1S81.  (Ifuschke) 
TheoL  Votum  e.  Juristcn  in  Sacusen  d.  preuss.  IIof-Ag.  ed.  by  Scheibel,  Nrnb.  1S32.  Scheibel,  acten- 
uia.=sige  Gfsch.  d.  nst  Unternehmung  e.  Union  bes.  im  preuss.  Staate.  Lps.  1834.  2  vols. 

c)  Einige  Urkunden  betr.  d.  Gescb.  d.  luth.  Gemeinde  in  u.  urn  Halle.  Lps.  1S35. 

d)  Comp.  Ev.  KZ.  1853.  N.  5. 


570  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  YL    A.  D.  1WS-1S53. 

ing  by  which  they  would  participate  in  the  crime  of  desecrating  their  altars 
The  church  was  therefore  broken  open  by  the  military,  and  on  Christmas 
day  public  worship  was  performed  for  the  first  time  according  to  the  forms 
of  the  Agenda.  Kellner  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  at  a  public  trial,  he 
and  those  who  took  part  with  him  were  condemned  for  insurrection.  The 
congregation  was  finally  obliged  to  yield  by  having  soldiers  quartered  in  theii 
houses,  (e)  and  the  party  then  seemed  to  be  entirely  broken  up.  But  in  Feb., 
1835,  the  suspended  pastors  held  a  synod  at  Breslau,  at  which  they  resolved 
to  effect  the  deliverance  of  the  Lutheran  Church  by  every  practicable  and 
lawful  means.  From  the  borders  of  Poland  to  Erf  art,  the  scattered  remnants 
of  former  congregations,  impelled  by  an  obscure  feeling  of  attachment  to  the 
Church  of  their  fathers,  assembled  together,  and  by  adopting  the  old  Witten- 
berg Agenda,  became  separated  from  the  established  church.  Scheibel  (d. 
1848),  whose  mind  was  of  a  very  limited  order,  but  who  had  become  power- 
ful through  the  influence  of  a  faith  which  knew  no  doubt,  led  these  people 
from  Saxony  and  Franconia,  and  induced  the  congregations  of  Silesia  and 
Brandenburg  to  adopt  a  form  of  government  like  that  of  the  apostles,  and 
a  rigid  system  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  But  by  the  application  of  the  laws 
against  conventicles,  by  a  neglect  of  the  schools,  and  a  refusal  to  give  testi- 
mony, these  poor  people,  who  assured  their  rulers  that  their  assemblies  for 
worship  were  not  conventicles,  but  the  old  Lutheran  Church,  whoso  exist- 
ence had  been  guaranteed  by  sacred  compacts,  were  in  various  ways  dis- 
trained or  imprisoned,  their  ministers  were  generally  kept  in  custody,  and  ;i 
few  wandered  about  without  means  of  support,  and  persecuted  by  the  police. 
A  portion  of  them  finally  sought  an  asylum  for  the  Lutheran  Church  be- 
yond the  ocean.  Since  the  contracted  spirit  of  this  exclusive  Lutheranism, 
whose  conduct  appears  much  like  that  of  the  seven  sleepers  after  a  slumber 
of  three  hundred  years,  has  been  exposed  by  Hengstenberg ;  since  Olshausen 
has  shown  the  rebellious  nature  of  its  defence,  and  Hahn,  the  consistorial 
counsellor,  has  moved  against  it  with  the  military,  the  orthodox  party  has 
become  subdivided  into  two  portions.  The  recollection  of  their  common 
origin  has  only  embittered  these  in  their  antipathies  to  each  other,  and  they 
exchange  against  each  other  nearly  the  same  reproaches  which  had  previously 
been  employed  by  them  against  those  whom  they  regarded  as  unbeliev- 
ers. (/)  Even  the  Separatists  fell  out  among  themselves,  for  Guericke  would 
not  accept  of  the  apostolic  constitution,  and  having  acknowledged  that  a 
Lutheran  conscience  might  find  peace  in  a  Church  belonging  to  the  Prussian 
establishment,  provided  Christ  was  preached  there,  he  soon  found  opportu- 
nity to  become  reconciled  with  the  government  (1840).  (?)  This  government 
with  some  confusion  and  reluctance  now  liberated  (1838)  clergymen  who  had 
been  detained  in  prison  long  beyond  the  term  fixed  in  their  original  sentence 

«)  A.  Z.  1835.  Append.  16.  26s.  50.  64.  Acta  hist  ecc.  1835.  p.  SCOss.  II.  Ols7iausen,  was  1st  v.  <L 
nst  kirchL  Ereign.  in  Schlesien  zu  halten  ?  Lps.  1835.  KeUner,  Sendschr.  Jin  Olsh.  Lps.  1835.  O. 
V  Wchrhan,  Verth.  d.  luth.  Sache  gegen  Olsh.  Meiss.  1635. 

/)  Ev.  KZ.  1835.  N.  Iss.  Olshausen  (nt  e).— Guericke,  d  ev.  KZ.  u.  d.  Lutheraner.  L.  1836 
Scheibel,  Mitthcil.  esp.  II.  1.  C.  Ehrenstrom  u.  E.  Kellner,  die  nst  Wiedersacher  d,  lath.  K 
iu  Preuss.  Lps.  1S38. 

0)  Acta  hist  ccc.  1837.  p.  659.  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  52. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  454.  FREDERIC  WILLIAM  III.      571 

of  condemnation,  and  ceased  to  imprison  according  to  law  those  private  mem- 
bers who  had  refused  to  testify  against  their  ministers  with  reference  to  offi- 
cial acts  prohibited  by  the  authorities.  (A)  Frederic  William  III.  always 
acknowledged  the  rights  of  conscience  in  matters  of  religion,  but  with  a 
mind  remarkably  fond  of  order,  he  loved  to  bring  every  thing  to  uniformity. 
In  spiritual  things  he  generally  thought  it  safest  to  refer  to  father  Luther,  but 
he  esteemed  a  man  a  rebel  who  adhered  to  Luther's  sentiments  with  Luther's 
obstinacy.  He  felt  himself,  and  he  proved  himself  to  be  the  protector  of  the 
evangelical  Church  far  beyond  the  limits  of  Prussia,  and  he  even  bestowed 
many  favors  upon  the  Catholic  Church  of  his  kingdom.  And  yet,  in  the 
evening  of  his  life,  he  found  himself  involved  in  acts  of  arbitrary  violence 
against  each  of  these  Churches.  His  time  on  earth  was  spent  in  disquietude, 
but  his  trust  was  in  God. 

§  455.    Legal  Yiews  and  Legal  Relations  in  German  Countries. 

L.  Bichter,  (p.  441.)   K.  Ilase,  d.  ev.  prot.  K.  d.  deutschen  Eeichs.  Lps.  (1848.)  1852. 

In  a  time  of  ecclesiastical  exhaustion  there  was  no  disposition  or  ability 
to  construct  a  peculiar  system  of  laws  for  the  Church.  Schuderoff  (1766-1843) 
almost  alone  then  contended  for  a  collegiate  system,  but  his  zeal  against 
jurists  in  the  Church  had  rather  a  hierarchical  tendency,  (a)  As  soon  as  the 
ecclesiastical  life  exhibited  its  former  vigor,  general  complaints  were  heard 
that  the  Church  was  subject  to  an  arbitrary  foreign  influence,  and  that  its 
members  excused  themselves  from  all  interest  in  its  affairs  on  account  of  the 
bureaucratic  interference  of  the  civil  authorities,  and  their  exclusion  from  all 
share  in  its  administration.  Hence,  when  the  union  with  the  Eeformed 
Church  took  place,  attention  was  turned  to  the  fragments  of  the  old  ecclesi- 
astical establishment,  preserved  in  the  latter  in  the  form  of  ecclesiastical 
elders  and  synods,  and  to  the  union  by  means  of  consistories  under  the  sov- 
ereign of  the  country.  (5)  In  the  literary  controversies  between  the  advo- 
cates of  the  different  legal  views,  those  who  believed  that  the,  Church  was 
purchased  by  the  blood  of  the  God-man  maintained  that  its  territory  was 
manifestly  beyond  the  reach  of  the  secular  powers.  But  a  disinclination  for 
all  theories  of  natural  liberty,  and  a  dread  of  popular  suffrage  as  the  domin- 
ion of  the  flesh,  then  prevailed,  and  gave  great  advantage  to  those  who  advo- 
cated the  predominance  of  the  princely,  or  at  least  of  the  spiritual  powers,  (e) 

K)  Sclieibel:  Mittheilungen  d.  list.  Gesch.  d.  luth.  K  Alton.  1835ss.  6  H.  Archiv  f.  hist.  Entw.  u. 
nst.  Gesch.  d.  luth.  K.  Nurnb.  1841.  2  P.  u.  A.  K.  Z.  1838.  N.  191s.  0.  F.  Wehrhan,  meine  Suspen- 
dirung,  Einkerkerung,  u.  Auswander.  Lps.  1839.  J.  D.  Loeweriburg,  Persecution  of  the  Luth. 
Church  in  Prussia  from  1831.  Lond.  1840.  Berl.  K.  Z.  1839.  N.  39.  46.  87.  Stiffens,  was  ich  erlebte. 
voL  X.  p.  71.  724ss. 

a)  Ansichten  u.  Wunsche  betr.  d.  prot.  KWesen  u.  d.  Geistlichk.  Lps.  1814 

6)  J.  Schuderoff,  Grundz.  z  ev.  prot.  KVerf.  Lps.  1817.  K  Zimmermann,  Grundz.  z.  ev.  KVerf, 
In  sr.  Monatsch.  vol.  I.  H.  Is.  Pahl,  d.  offentl.  Eecht  d.  ev.  luth.  K.  In  TeutschL  Tub.  1827.  On  the 
other  side:  F.  v.  JBiilow,  u.  d.  gegenw.  Verh.  d.  ev.  KWes.  in  Deutschl,  Mgdb.  (1818.)  1819.  Bret- 
echneider,  Yotum  u.  d.  repraes.  Yerf.  d.  K.  Lps.  1832. 

c)  Ev.  KZ.  1832.  N.  2.  KudelbacTi,  14  Thesen  u.  Presb.  u.  Syn.  Lps.  1832.  PucJita,  Einl.  in  d. 
Eecht  d.  K.  Lps.  1840.  F.  J.  Stahl,  d.  KVerf.  nach  Lehre  u.  Eecht  d.  Prot  Erlang.  1840.  C.  Rothe, 
d.  wahren  Grundl.  d.  ev.  KVerf.  Brl.  1841 


572  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

The  Hegelian  school  once  more  brought  forward  the  territorial  system  in 
connection  with  their  higher  view  of  the  state,  according  to  which  tho 
Chnrch,  as  a  distinct  society,  entirely  disappears,  and  becomes  merely  tho 
religious  element  of  the  state,  (d~)  But  the  more  the  importance  of  the  state 
in  a  popular  ai>d  patriotic  point  of  view  was  recognized,  the  more  the  right 
of  the  Christian  congregations  to  develope  by  their  own  energies  the  constitu- 
tion best  suited  to  their  progress  in  cultivation,  was  also  acknowledged.  The 
relation  of  these  congregations  to  the  state  was  to  be  that  of  mutual  assist- 
ance, but  in  the  existing  organization  of  the  German  state  confederacies,  they 
were  to  be  dependent  only  upon  the  widest  national  limits,  (e)  Baden  re- 
ceived with  the  union  a  synodal  system,  but  the  general  synod  was  to  be  con- 
vened only  at  the  suggestion  of  the  sovereign,  and  then  simply  as  an  advisory 
council.  (/)  In  1845,  Zittel,  a  pastor  of  a  congregation,  proposed  to  the  Diet, 
that  instead  of  the  past  religious  intolerance,  under  which  Christianity  had 
found  no  peace,  they  should  try  the  effect  of  religious  liberty,  under  which 
every  form  of  worship  should  bo  tolerated,  and  no  civil  penalties  should  be 
exacted  unless  a  failure  in  the  performance  of  civil  duties  appeared  probable. 
A  complete  storm  of  petitions  principally  from  the  Catholic  sections  of  the 
country,  against  tho  majority  in  the  chamber  which  was  ready  to  concur 
with  the  proposition,  was  the  result.  The  Union  Church  was  here  so  strictly 
constituted,  that  when  the  pastor  Eichhorn  felt- constrained  in  conscience, 
from  his  attachment  to  exclusive  Lutheranism,  to  give  notice  (1850)  of  his 
secession  from  the  united  Church,  and  had  received  the  permission  which  ho 
had  asked,  he  was  punished  by  imprisonment,  or  was  directed  by  the  police 
to  leave  the  country,  because  in  some  instances  he  afterwards  performed  min- 
isterial duties  for  those  who  like  him  had  forsaken  the  Church.  These  per- 
sons, according  to  their  own  confession,  knew  but  little  of  their  former  or 
their  present  creed,  and  had  in  general  been  involved  in  the  revolutions  of 
that  period,  but  they  have  hitherto  received  no  permission  to  form  any  Lu- 
theran congregation,  (g)  The  evangelical  Church  in  Bavaria,  by  an  appen- 
dix to  the  national  constitution  (1818),  was  allowed  the  privilege  of  managing 
its  own  internal  affairs,  under  the  supervision  of  the  supreme  authorities  of 
the  state.  In  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  as  soon  as  the  Union  was  formed, 
parochial  councils  with  power  to  fill  their  own  vacancies,  district  synods  and 
a  general  synod,  chosen  partly  by  and  from  the  congregations  themselves, 
were  organized,  and  it  was  for  this  reason  that  the  rationalistic  party  in  that 
country  was  able  to  maintain  its  ground  in  the  long  conflict  with  the  superior 
consistory  at  Munich,  which  was  essentially  Lutheran,  though  occasionally 
under  Catholic  influence.  The  order  for  the  election  of  elders  in  the  congre- 
gations on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Ehine  (1821),  was  so  indefinite  with  respect 

d)  Rothe,  d.  Anfange  d.  K.  u.  ihrer  Ver£  Witt  1887.  1  voL    Die  ev.  Landesk.  Preussens  u.  d. 
Wiss.  Lps.  1840. 

e)  C.  Ullmann,  t  d.  Zuk.  d.  cv.  K  Deutschl.  Stuttg.  1845.    Jul.  Mutter,  dio  nachsten  Aufgaben 
t  d.  Fortbiid.  d.  deutsch-prot  KVerf.  Brsl.  1845.    C.  C.  J.  Sunsen,  d.  Vert  d.  K.  d.  Zukunft  Hamb, 
1845.    [Const  of  the  Church  of  the  Future,  &c.  from  tho  Germ.  Lond.  1848.  8.]    K,  Jfaee,  d.  guto 
ftlte  Eccht  d.  K.  Lps.  2  ed.  184T. 

/)  A,  KZ.  1S32.  N.  201.  1835.  N.  98. 1843.  N.  101. 117s.  170s.    Acta  hist  ecc.  1885.  p.  414ss. 
0)  Actenmass.  Darst  betr.  Past  Eicbh.  (Allg.  KBlatt  1852.  N.  IGs.)— C.  EichTiorn,  gosch.  Abrisa 
d.  Entsteh.  ev.  luth.  Gemeinden  im  G.  Baden.  Stuttg.  1852. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1S53.    §  455.  BAVAP.IA.    WUETEMBERG.    573 

to  the  peculiar  duties  of  tliese  officers,  that  many  feared  a  hierarchical 
discipline  was  intended,  and  hence  such  a  unanimous  expression  of  public 
opinion  was  raised  against  it,  that  the  government  withdrew  the  plan.  (A) 
The  subsequent  establishment  of  the  synodal  constitution  (after  1825)  took 
place  under  many  suspicious  limitations :  each  of  the  two  dioceses  were  to 
have  a  separate  general  synod ;  the  representatives  of  the  congregations  were 
io  be  chosen  by  the  pastors ;  one  half  of  all  elected  for  the  general  synod  by 
the  district  assemblies  were  to  be  set  aside  by  the  superior  consistory ;  all 
acts  were  to  be  merely  advisory,  and  even  from  such  deliberations  the  hyper- 
catholic  ministry  of  Abel  had  power  to  exclude  at  pleasure  precisely  those 
things  which  were  of  any  interest  to  the  Church,  (i)  In  Wurtemfyerg,  the 
Church  was  represented  in  the  diet  by  prelates  nominated  by  the  king,  and 
through  these  its  principal  effort  was  to  recover  the  ecclesiastical  property, 
of  which  the  recollection  of  the  people  was  still  fresh.  After  1830,  when 
most  of  the  middle  German  states  received  representative  constitutions,  it 
became  necessary  to  make  many  changes  in  the  administration  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs,  and  the  Church  demanded  securities  for  its  established  rights.  (Ic) 
But  the  theory  of  the  semi-liberal  constitution  of  that  country  was  not  favor- 
able to  a  peculiar  department  of  laws  for  the  Church,  and  when  the  clergy 
set  up  new  claims,  they  lost  their  old  privileges,  until  the  power  and  the  em- 
barrassments of  the  religious  interests  (since  1840)  have  combined  with  the 
kindred  improvements  in  political  and  ecclesiastical  jurisprudence  to  strength- 
en their  demands  and  call  forth  partial  promises,  for  the  oppressions  of  the 
people  in  civil  life  have  compelled  them  to  seek  freedom  in  ecclesiastical  agi- 
tations. (I)  The  National  Assembly  in  St.  Paul's  church  (1848)  had  no  idea 
of  jeopardizing  the  unity  of  the  nation  of  which  it  was  then  dreaming,  by 
engaging  in  the  old  ecclesiastical  disputes ;  but  in  forming  a  theory  of  the 
original  rights  of  the  German  people,  it  was  driven  by  a  recollection  of  many 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  aggressions  upon  mental  freedom  to  put  forth  a  declara- 
tion respecting  the  true  relation  of  the  state  to  religion.  During  the  delib- 
erations upon  this  subject,  it  appeared  that  some  were  opposed  to  every  kind 
of  church,  but  the  co-operation  of  these  extreme  parties  in  favor  of  the  com- 
plete independence  of  Church  and  state,  was  held  in  check  by  the  hesitation 
of  a  middle  party,  which  feared  to  open  the  door  for  an  unlimited  ecclesias- 

7t)  A.  KZ.  1822.  N.  24.  31.  34  42.  Works  by  Lebmus,  Kaiser,  Fuchs.  On  the  other  side :  Vogel, 
Oertel,  and  others. — Paidus,  will  d.  Baierscho  Landesk.  nicht  mundig  werden  ?  (Sophronizon,  1S24. 
voL  VI.  H.  1.) 

i)  Stephani,  kan.  Kecht  Tub.  1S25.  p.  61ss.  F.  J.  Niethammer,  Nachr.  v.  d.  ersten  Yersaminl. 
d.  Gen.  Synoden  in  B.  Sulzb.  1825.  Fuchs,  Zust  d.  prot  K.  in  B.  Ansb.  1S30.  (Printed)  Manu- 
script :  Die  Gen.  Syn.  zu  Ansbach  im  J.  1844.  Without  place,  f.  Another  revision  of  this  document 
printed  at  Ulm. 

k)  BicTcell  u.  Eupfeld,  u.  d.  Eef.  d.  KVerf.  in  bes.  Eucks.  a.  Kurhessen.  Marb.  1831.  Wunsche 
d.  ev.  Geistlichk.  Sachs.  L.  1831.  Grossmann,  u.  Eef.  d.  KVerf.  in  Sachs.  L.  1833.  For  lit.  see  Stud, 
u.  Krit  1833.  H.  2s. 

0  G.  v.  Weber,  die  Umgestaltung  d.  KVerf.  in  Sachs.  L.  1833.  Braunig,  constitutionelles  Leben 
In  d.  K.  Lps.  1838.  G.  Wolff,  dio  Zukunft  d.  prot  K.  Stuttg.  1840.  C.  B.  Konig,  d.  nst  Zeit  in  d. 
ev.  K.  d.  Preuss.  Staats.  Braunschw.  1848.  B.  Moll,  d.  gegenw.  Noth,  d.  ev.  K.  Preuss.  Pasewalk, 
1843.— Acta  hist  ecc.  1835.  p.  419ss.  Brl.  KZ.  1845.  N.  28ss.  G3.—(Hundeshafferi)  Der  deutsche  Pro- 
test,  s.  Vergangenh.  u.  heutigen  Lebensfragen.  Frk£  1847.  J.  Wiggers,  die  kirchl  Beweg.  in 
DeutschL  Eost  1843. 


574  MODEEN  CHUBCH  HISTORY.    TEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S58. 

tical  interference  from  abroad.  Accordingly,  all  were  allowed  full  liberty  to 
believe  in  any  form  of  religion,  or  in  none,  without  affecting  their  civil  or 
municipal  rights ;  no  special  political  privileges  were  allowed  to  any  religious 
societies ;  permission  was  given  to  form  new  religious  societies,  and  all  were 
independently  to  manage  their  own  affairs,  subject  only  to  the  general  laws 
of  the  state.  A  general  form  of  an  oath  suited  to  any  religious  opinions  was 
also  provided,  and  the  validity  of  marriage  was  made  to  depend  entirely  upon 
a  civil  act.  With  respect  to  the  schools  there  was  much  contention  between 
the  different  parties,  for  the  Protestant  teachers  especially  demanded  a  com- 
plete emancipation  from  the  bonds  of  the  Church,  while  the  Catholic  party 
with  its  pietistic  adjunct  endeavored  to  attain  an  opposite  result  by  a  free 
election  of  the  teachers  by  the  congregation.  The  majority,  however,  while 
it  held  to  the  principle  that  all  science  and  instruction  in  it  should  bo  free, 
placed  the  whole  school  system  under  the  supervision  of  the  state,  and  re- 
moved the  schools  from  the  inspection  of  the  clergy  as  such,  without  forbid- 
ding the  employment  of  skilful  clergymen  in  the  supervision  of  them,  (in) 
In  the  composition  of  the  Prussian  fundamental  laws  at  Erfurth,  these  prin- 
ciples were  essentially  retained,  with  the  exception  only  of  the  article  re- 
specting special  political  privileges,  which  the  state  wished  to  have  power  to 
grant  to  religions  societies  whose  general  aims  might  specially  correspond 
with  its  own.  The  establishment  of  a  state  Church,  however,  was  especially 
guarded  against,  and  all  charitable  institutions  were  secured  from  any 
infringement.  These  principles  were  indeed  incorporated  in  the  constitu- 
tional charter  of  almost  every  German  state,  but  the  revived  diet  of  the 
confederation  declared  (Aug.,  1851)  that  these  pretended  fundamental  l;i\\  • 
never  possessed  any  legal  authority.  Very  little  was  done  even  when  the 
power  existed  to  enforce  them,  for  the  masses  of  society  were  interested  only 
in  political  questions,  and  the  clergy  were  jealous  of  majorities  supposed  to 
be  unfriendly  to  the  Church.  In  almost  every  place  committees  were  ap- 
pointed by  means  of  the  previous  ecclesiastical  authorities,  by  whom  out- 
lines of  constitutions  were  prepared,  which  conveyed  the  executive  power  of 
the  Church  into  the  hands  of  a  series  of  representative  synods,  rising  through 
several  gradations  from  the  congregation,  with  an  unequal  number  of  secular 
and  clerical  deputies,  and  subject,  as  before  agreed  upon,  to  the  control  of  the 
evangelical  sovereign  through  certain  officers.  All  contemplated  at  some 
future  period  a  great  evangelical  Church  of  the  German  empire.  These  plans 
were  of  course  laid  aside  when  the  political  party  of  the  reaction  became 
every  where  triumphant.  A  few  national  churches  like  those  of  "Wurtem- 
berg  and  Weimar  have  nevertheless  been  allowed  to  have  councils  chosen 
partly  by  the  congregations  for  the  administration  of  their  ecclesiastical 
affairs  (1851),  which  have  since  been  actually  elected,  anjl  been  engaged  in  a 
limited  sphere  of  Christian  activity.  In  Bavaria,  the  two  divisions  of  the 
Church  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rhine,  by  the  free  choice  of  the  congrega- 
tions at  a  provisional  election,  united  under  one  General  Synod  at  Anspach 
(1849),  and  obtained  from  the  government  (1850-53)  an  electoral  law,  ac- 
cording to  which  those  who  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  congregations 

m)  Fond.  Law  of  Dec.  21, 1848.  ArtL  5  and  6. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1853.    §  455.    GEEM.  CHAETEE.    OLDENB.    575 

could  be  appointed  to  manage  their  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  a  double  number 
of  clergymen  could  be  elected  to  the  general  synod,  (ri)  The  General  Synod 
of  the  Rhenish  Electorate  assembled  in  October,  1848,  and  received  from  the 
government  a  release  from  the  control  of  the  superior  consistory,  and  the 
grant  of  an  electoral  law.  (0)  A  committee  appointed  by  this  synod,  in  a  ra- 
tionalistic spirit  and  without  much  consideration,  changed  the  original  record 
of  the  Union  of  1818,  which,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  revolution,  called 
forth  the  opposition  of  the  minority,  and  received  the  censure  of  the  Pro- 
testant faculties  of  Germany  when  their  opinions  were  asked  respecting  it.  (p) 
The  General  Synod  of  1858,  in  terror  of  the  sword  of  dissolution,  in  face  of 
many  dishonorable  elections  of  elders,  and  in  consequence  of  the  appointment 
of  a  number  of  clergymen  from  the  division  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine, 
returned  to  the  patriarchal  electoral  laws  of  1818,  went,  in  fact,  beyond 
them,  and  decided  with  respect  to  the  creed,  that  the  consensus  which  exists 
in  the  principal  confessions  of  the  evangelical  German  Church,  of  which  the 
Church  of  the  Palatinate  is  a  part,  is  best  to  be  found  in  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession of  1540.  A  reservation,  however,  was  distinctly  put  forth,  that  no 
compulsory  obligation  of  an  ecclesiastical  or  political  nature  was  thus  asserted 
in  behalf  of  the  symbolic  books.  ($-)  In  Oldenburg  alone  the  favorable  mo- 
ment was  improved,  and  an  ecclesiastical  government  was  actually  set  up 
(1849)  by  a  synod  chosen  by  the  congregations.  Here  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority of  the  sovereign  was  set  aside,  and  the  affairs  of  each  congregation 
were  committed  to  an  assembly  of  its  adult  men,  and  a  council  chosen  by 
them  ;  the  common  business  of  the  congregations  was  intrusted  to  an  annual 
general  synod,  chosen  directly  by  the  people,  and  one  half  composed  of  cler- 
gymen ;  and  the  administration  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  ecclesiastical 
council  chosen  by  and  responsible  to  the  synod.  Though  this  constitution 
had  no  connection  with  the  civil  power,  it  was  proclaimed  by  the  Grand 
Duke ;  and  as  men  of  an  ecclesiastical  spirit  were  diosen,  it  was  not  unwor- 
thily carried  into  execution,  and  was  capable  of  throwing  off  any  defects 
which  might  be  found  in  it.  (?')  But  by  its  separation  from  the  state,  the  se- 
curity of  ecclesiastical  property  was  gone,  it  was  soon  left  without  support  in 
consequence  of  the  hostility  of  the  civil  officers,  the  suspicions  of  the  orthodox 
party  for  the  indefiniteness  of  its  creed,  (s)  and  the  dislike  of  the  clergy  on 
account  of  their  dependence  upon  the  congregations,  and  in  a  time  of  general 
political  reaction,  few  would  defend  it  against  the  reproach  of  its  revolution- 
ary origin.  A  change  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  fundamental  law 
of  1852  was  effected  (April,  1853)  by  the  Grand  Duke,  after  an  audience  with 
the  general  synod  and  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  council,  on  the  ground  that 
the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  of  Oldenburg  should  independently  admin- 

«)  Erl.  KZ.  1S49.  N.  16.  30.  34.  39.  43.  1850.  N.  84.  A.  K.  Z.  1S53.  N.  149. 

o)  BrL  KZ.  1848.  N.  66.  91. 104. 1849.  N.  6.  27.  43. 

p)  Gutachten  deutscher  ev.  th.  Facultaten  u.  den  der  K.  d.  bay.  Pfalz  zugedachteu  Verfassungs 
entTV.  Frkf.  1851. 

q)  A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  173. 

r)  Verhnndll.  d.  Syn.  u.  d.  Yerf.  d.  Oldenb.  cv.  K.  Oldenb.  1849.  4.  Verhandll.  d.  1.  Lande*syn 
.850.  4.— d.  2.  Landessyn.  1851.  4.  Gesetz-  u.  Yerordnungsbl.  d.  ev.  Kirche.  vol.  I.  St.  1. 

s)  Der  Nothstand  d.  ev.  K.  Oldenb.  1S52.  Ev.  KZ.  1851.  N.  90s. 


576  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1G4S-1S58. 

ister  its  affairs  in  scriptural  correspondence  -with  the  confessions  of  the  Re- 
formation, that  it  ought  not  to  infringe  upon  the  laws  of  the  state,  and  that 
the  Grand  Duke,  who  adhered  to  the  evangelical  confession,  should  have  the 
same  control  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  which  was  usually  conceded  to  the  evan- 
gelical princes  of  Germany.  This  control  was,  however,  to  bo  limited  by  the 
constitution,  which,  in  addition  to  a  supreme  ecclesiastical  council  appointed 
by  the  Grand  Duke,  establishes  a  triple  synodal  system  regularly  ascending 
from  the  congregations.  No  ecclesiastical  law  can  be  enacted  without  the 
consent  of  the  national  synod,  which  is  to  be  composed  of  twelve  clergymen, 
seventeen  laymen  chosen  by  the  district  synods,  and  five  persons  nomina- 
ted by  the  Grand  Duke,  but  elected  by  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  council.  (f) 

§  45C.     The  Prussian  National  Church  and  its  Branches  since  1840. 

"When  Frederic  William  IV.  ascended  the  throne  which  a  century  before 
had  been  occupied  by  Frederic  the  Great,  the  pietistic  orthodox  party  ex- 
pected to  have  complete  control.  Although  he  had  been  educated  in  a  school 
too  intellectual  and  modern  to  sympathize  with  every  kind  of  literal  orthodoxy, 
he  found  spiritual  benefit  at  the  baptismal  font  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  at 
the  laying  of  the  foundation-stone  of  the  portal  of  the  cathedral  of  Cologne.  But 
the  zeal  of  that  party  for  orthodoxy  ho  regarded  as  only  an  excess  of  commend- 
able fidelity,  while  he  looked  upon  their  opponents  as  perjurers.  lie  fully 
understood  the* feelings  of  St.  Louis  when  he  co-operated  with  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  the  establishment  of  the  bishopric  of  St.  James  in 
Jerusalem  (1841),  but  so  unanimously  was  public  opinion  against  what  was 
supposed  to  be  a  new  attempt  to  transfer  the  English  ecclesiastical  system  to 
Prussia  (§  414),  that  this  pious  foundation  was  obliged  to  bo  brought  back  to 
its  essential  object,  which  was,  to  be  a  spiritual  union  in  spite  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal differences,  and  to  be  a  mustard-seed  of  Protestantism  on  Mount  Zion, 
which  has  since  sent  forth  its  first  shoots  under  Bishop  Gobat  (since  184G), 
though  not  without  some  danger  of  Anglicising  and  languishing,  (a)  When 
the  king  bestowed  his  special  favors  upon  the  priests  of  a  mediaeval  Church, 
men  began  to  think  there  was  some  truth  in  a  prophecy  invented  near  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  but  ascribed  to  an  aged  monk  of  Lehnin 
(about  1300),  that  after  the  many  wrongs  inflicted  upon  the  old  Church  by 
the  rulers  of  the  house  of  Hohenzollern,  the  last  should  be  the  king  of  all 
Germany,  and  should  then  re-establish  the  convents  and  restore  tho  Churcli 
to  its  former  unity.  (&)  Indeed,  the  royal  assurance  was  not  needed  to  con- 

t)  Verhandll.  d.  a  Landessyn.  Oldenb.  1853.  4.  Gesetz-  u.  Verordnnngsbl.  d.  ev.  luth.  K.  voL  II. 
St  l.—TA.  v.  Wedderkop,  die  Vcrf.  d.  ev.  luth.  K.  Oldenb.  1858. 

a)  (Schneckenburger  and  Ilitndeshagen)  Das  anglo-preuss.  Bisth.  zu  8.  Jacob  u.  was  daran 
liiingt  Freib.  1842.    (Schneckenb.)  Die  orient  Frage  d.  deutschen  ev.  K.  Berne,  1843.    Hid.  die  ev. 
KZ.  im.  Kampfe  f.  d.  Bisth.  in  Jerus.  Berne,  1844— (Abeken)  Das  ev.  Bistb.  zu  Jerus.  geschichtl. 
Darst  m.  d.  Urk.  Brl.  1842.    Briefwechsel  (zw.  Gladstone  u.  Bunsen)  u.  d.  deutsche  K.,  das  Episco- 
pat  u.  Jerus.  Hamb.  1844.— F.  C.  Ewald,  Journal  of  Miss.  Labors  in  the  City  of  Jerus.  Lond.  1846.— 
Brl.  KZ.  1843.  N.  6.  1846.  N.  52.  63ss.  1847.  N.  7.  1852.  N.  4  1853.  N.  3.  IS. 

b)  L.  de  Eouverot,  Extrait  d'un  manuscrit  relatif  a  la  prophetic  du  fr£re  Hermann  de  Lebnin. 
Brux.  1846.    Meinhold,  in  d.  N.  Preuss.  Ztg.  1849.    Append,  to  N.  54.— Gieeeler,  d.  Lehniasche 
Weiss.  Erf.  1S49.    Comp.  M.  W.  Ileffter,  Gesch.  d.  Kl.  Lehnin.  Brandenb.  1851. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUKCH  TILL  1853.    §  456.  PEUSS.  NAT.  CHUECH.        577 

vince  the  people  that  he  was  firmly  established  in  the  faith  of  his  fathers,  (c) 
From  his  regard  not  only  to  justice,  but  to  what  was  ancient  and  peculiar,  he 
had  the  last  of  the  old  Lutheran  imprisoned  clergymen  set  at  liberty,  (d)  At 
a  general  synod  held  at  Breslau  (1841),  these  Separatists  formed  a  Lutheran 
Church  of  Prussia,  under  a  well-constructed  constitution,  but  rigidly  exclu- 
sive with  respect  to  the  established  Church  and  the  civil  government,  (e)  and 
they  were  recognized  by  the  state  as  congregations  of  Lutherans  separated 
from  the  national  Church.  (/)  Since  the  ces§ation  of  persecution  they  have 
increased  with  less  rapidity.  They  now  consist  of  about  thirty  ministerial 
charges,  and  we  hear  not  only  of  appeals  for  aid  for  the  "  Lutheran  Church 
involved  in  debt,"  but  confessions  that  the  love  of  many  has  waxed  cold,  and 
that  the  word  of  God  is  no  longer  heard  with  zeal.  (<?)  In  consequence  of 
internal  dissensions,  sometimes  amounting  to  mutual  excommunications,  their 
ecclesiastical  ideals  have  been  carried  to  the  new  world,  and  there  continued 
with  brighter  prospects.  (Ji)  But  even  within  the  established  Church,  a  de- 
cided Lutheran  tendency,  like  that  which  has  risen  in  other  German  coun- 
tries, has  made  its  appearance,  under  the  direction  sometimes  of  great  learn- 
ing and  judgment,  subjecting  all  theological  principles  to  its  standard,  (i)  and 
sometimes  of  a  shallow  fanaticism.  (&)  At  an  early  period  of  his  reign,  the 
king  had  expressed  his  determination  to  allow  the  Church,  over  which  the 
crown  had  acquired  supreme  power  during  the  Eeformation,  freely  to  form 
for  itself  its  own  external  organization.  The  transfer  of  a  part  of  the  eccle- 
siastical administration  from  the  provincial  governments  to  the  consistories 
(1845),  (Z)  might  be  construed  as  an  expedient  to  get  an  easier  control  of  the 
Church  by  the  appointment  of  persons  of  a  particular  party.  But  when  the 
provincial  synods  had  assembled  in  1844,  composed  of  the  superintendents  in 
each  of  the  six  eastern  provinces,  and  a  clergyman  chosen  from  each  dio- 
cese, (m)  the  king  called  a  General  Synod  at  Berlin,  not  of  representatives, 
but  of  distinguished  persons  in  the  Church,  thirty-seven  of  whom  were  cler- 
gymen, and  thirty-eight  were  laymen.  Under  the  presidency  of  the  minister 
for  public  worship,  during  a  session  continued  from  June  2,  to  Aug.  29,  1846, 
this  body,  which  made  no  pretensions  to  a  legal  authority,  but  had  no  re- 
straint on  the  expression  of  its  opinions,  and  acted  on  conclusions  drawn  from 
the  proceedings  of  the  provincial  synods,  presented  its  views  of  the  existing 
wants  of  the  Church,  (n)  Its  plan  for  a  future  ecclesiastical  constitution 
combined  the  consistorial  administration  proceeding  directly  from  the  crown, 

c)  D.  A.  Z.  1851.  N.  494.  Brl.  KZ.  1851.  N.  74.        d)  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  163. 

e)  Beschliisse  d.  v.  d.  ev.  luth.  K.  in  Pr.  gelialtenen  Generalsyn.  Lps.  1842. 

/)  Brl.  KZ.  1845.  N.  84. 

g)  Der  gegenw.  Stand,  d.  ev.  luth.  K.  in  Pr.  Yom  Oberkirchencollegium.  Lps.  1847.  Lath. 
KBlatt  1852.  N.  77.  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  93. 

K)  Ev.  KZ.  1843.  N.  68.  A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  15. 

?)  Zeitsch.  f.  d.  gesammte  luth.  Th.  u.  K.  v.  Rudelbach  u.  Guericke,  since  1840. 

/fc)  K.  M.  ffeyn,  die  in  d.  seine  Netz  d.  Union  gerathene  ev.  luth.  K.  in  bes.  Eez.  a.  Hamburg. 
Ibid.  1844.  1)  Brl.  KZ.  1845.  N.  66. 

m)  Protocolle  d.  im  J.  1844  in  d.  oestl.  Prov.  d.  Pr.  Monarcbie  abgeh.  Prov.  Synoden.  2  H.  4. 
Bruns,  Eep.  1846.  vol.  VI.  p.  253ss.  vol.  VIL  p.  47ss. 

ri)  G.  Kruger,  Berichte  u.  d.  erste  ev.  Gen.  Syn.  Preuss.  Lps.  1846.  Verhandlungen  d.  ev.  Gen. 
Syn.  zu  Berlin  Amtl.  Abdruck.  BrL  1846.  4.  L.  Eichter,  d.  Verhandlungen  d.  preuss.  Generalsyn. 
UcbersichU.  Darst.  Lps.  1847. 

37 


578  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S5S. 

with  the  synods  proceeding  directly  from  tho  congregations  in  regularly 
ascending  circles,  (o)  This  assembly  had  not  been  convened  without  some 
reference  to  ite  nature,  and  only  a  single  voice  was  raised  in  it  in  behalf  of 
undisguised  rationalism.  But  as  tne  great  majority  there,  as  well  as  in  the 
previous  provincial  synods,  declared  itself  against  not  only  unconditional  free- 
dom of  instruction,  but  the  compulsory  obligation  of  creeds,  (p)  the  party  of 
the  Evangelical  Church  Journal  found  itself  in  a  decided  minority.  Tho 
moral  impossibility  of  compelling  men  to  adhere  to  the  old  creeds  (?)  was  con- 
ceded, and  yet  it  was  thought  indispensable  to  tho  completion  of  the  Union 
that  a  confession  of  faith  should  be  formed,  to  serve  as  a  formula  for  ordi- 
nation. But  the  confession  then  composed  expressed  only  those  sentiments 
which  are  essential  to  Protestant  Christianity  in  Scriptural  language,  and 
without  the  precision  of  theological  science,  (r)  The  orthodox  minority  (14 
to  48)  therefore  had  reason  to  complain,  notwithstanding  all  that  was  said 
for  their  satisfaction,  that  the  adoption  of  the  new  confession  was  a  virtual 
abrogation  of  the  old.  It  was,  however,  decided  that  those  congregations 
and  patrons  who  were  especially  attached  to  the  Lutheran  or  the  Reformed 
type  of  doctrine  or  worship,  should  have  full  liberty,  without  endangering 
the  development  and  existence  of  tho  Union,  to  use  their  respective  confes- 
sions, if  they  wished  in  a  regular  manner  to  bring  those  clergymen  whom 
they  called  under  obligation  to  some  creed.  (*)  But  the  orthodox  opposition 
from  without,  in  whose  eyes  such  a  body  seemed  a  Robber-Synod,  in  which 
Christ  was  denied,  (t)  was  powerful  enough  at  least  to  postpone  the  execution 
of  these  enactments,  although  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  had  given  them  a 
unanimous  concurrence,  and  had  pronounced  them  of  urgent  importance. 
The  superior  Consistory  was  the  only  court  finally  formed  under  them  (Jan., 
1848),  but  as  this  was  not  sustained  by  any  contemporary  synodal  regula- 
tions, it  was  looked  upon  as  a  mere  party-authority.  In  opposition  to  the 
various  combinations  formed  by  the  pietistic  party,  a  free  association  of  Prot- 
estant Friends  was  organized  to  promote  the  interests  of  rational  and  prac- 
tical Christianity,  and  in  the  spirit  of  the  Scriptures,  and  with  all  the  means 
afforded  by  the  nineteenth  century,  to  secure  both  Christianity  and  the  im- 
provements of  the  age  as  equally  inalienable  and  inseparable  possessions.  In 
the  district  of  Middle  Germany  reached  by  railroads,  this  association  soon 
increased  from  a  small  conference  of  clergymen  (1841)  to  a  large  popular 
assembly  under  the  presidency  of  Uhlich,  a  country  pastor  of  simple  but  lib- 
eral views,  and  possessing  a  remarkable  and  continually  developing  talent  for 
presiding  over  such  a  multitude,  (u)  The  rationalism  which  appealed  wholly 


e>)  Richter,  p.  558ss. 

p)  Review  In  Bruns.  Eep.  1840.  voL  VI.  p.  27288.  Comp.  Ev.  KZ.  1845.  N.  & 

q)  Comp.  BrL  KZ,  1846.  N.  65.  66. 1847.  N.  1.  8.— 1846.  N.  81.  36. 1847.  N.  80.  44.  4G. 

r)  Richter,  p.  8S2&S. 

#)  Kruger,  p.  12888. 185s.  VerhandlL  p.  134&S.  36Sss.  527.    Richter,  p.  359ss. 

t)  Ev.  KZ.  1846.  N.  77.  78.  81s.  83s.  85.  86s.  95.  96s.  100. 103s.  1847.  N.  8ss.  14s.  26s.  29.  80s.  Su- 
delbach,  in  d.  Zeitsch.  t  luth.  Theol.  1847.  H.  3.  C.  Haver,  Belencht  d.  Ord.  Form.  Barmen,  1S46. 
Comp.  BrL  KZ.  1847.  N.  47.— Apologetical :  Dorner,  in  the  Liter.  Z.  1847.  N.  89ss.  Jul.  Midler,  u. 
d.  erste  Preuss.  Qen.  Syn.  BrsL  1847.  On  the  other  side:  Sander,  die  modernc  TheoL  u.  d,  uralte 
WbL  GL  Elbcrt  1847. 

«)  A.  KZ.  1841.  N.  1S7.  Brl.  KZ.  1842.  N.  44. 103.  1843.  N.  47.  82.  1845.  N.  40s.  45.  51.  1846.  N. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1S53.    §456.  FRIENDS  OF  LIGHT.         579 

to  a  sound  common  sense,  hard  pressed  as  it  was  in  the  domain  of  science, 
found  its  natural  theatre  for  action  among  the  middle  classes,  and  in  these 
assemblies  exhibited  itself  as  a  popular  power,  on  which  even  the  friends  of 
the  Hegelian  philosophy,  now  almost  discarded  in  Prussia,  leaned  for  support. 
At  an  assembly  held  at  Co  then  in  the  spring  of  1844,  Wislicenus  started  the 
question  whether  the  Scriptures  or  the  Spirit  was  the  rule  of  our  faith,  and 
then,  in  opposition  to  the  common  self-delusion  of  the  rationalists,  came  to  a 
decision  exclusively  in  favor  of  the  Spirit.  But  by  the  Spirit,  he  meant  the 
spirit  of  truth  and  love  which  always  animates  every  man,  and  especially 
every  Christian,  and  by  which  the  Scriptures  were  themselves  essentially  pro- 
duced. Guericke  therefore  accused  him  and  the  Friends  of  Light  generally 
of  having  renounced  Christianity,  and  in  order  to  uphold  the  absolute  author- 
ity of  the  Scriptures,  he  did  not  hesitate,  when  pressed  with  the  inquiry 
whether  he  believed  in  the  story  of  Balaam's  speaking  ass,  to  answer 
promptly  in  the  affirmative.  (v~)  Although  a  general  Protestant  feeling  even 
among  the  Protestant  Friends  was  averse  to  an  abandonment  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, this  establishment  of  a  large  party,  and  this  discussion  of  abstract  doc- 
trines before  a  multitude  entirely  incompetent  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  them, 
appeared  to  most  persons  of  doubtful  expediency,  (w)  "When  the  ministry 
of  state  in  Saxony  had,  in  accordance  with  their  oath,  prohibited  (July  17th, 
1845)  all  efforts  and  public  meetings  to  call  in  question  the  doctrines  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  and  other  creeds  of  the  same  general  character,  (x)  a 
royal  interpretation  of  the  law  against  popular  assemblies  in  Prussia,  applied 
it  to  the  promiscuous  meetings  of  the  Friends  of  Light  The  consequence 
was,  that  they  soon  lost  their  importance,  and  became  once  more  nothing  but 
pastoral  conferences,  (y}  The  Evangelical  Church  Journal  in  public  adver- 
tisements announced  that  "Wislicenus  and  his  associates  had  been  virtually 
excommunicated,  by  the  declarations  of  ministers,  who  in  some  instances  had 
made  public  confession,  and  in  others  had  openly  renounced  the  communion 
of  the  Church.  (2)  Hundreds  of  these  were  opposed  by  thousands  of  pro- 
tests from  persons  of  all  classes,  against  the  spirit  of  the  Evangelical  Church 
Journal,  (a)  The  school  of  Schleiermacher,  and  some  other  friends  of  the 
Church,  though  not  belonging  to  the  orthodox  party,  threw  themselves  be- 
tween the  combatants  (Aug.  15),  with  the  assertion  that  the  doctrinal  formula 
of  the  free  development  from  Christ  to  Christ  belonged  to  the  same  basis  with 

78.  Their  Organs :  Blatter  f.  christL  Erbauung,  by  R.  Fisctier,  Zeitsch.  f.  prot  Geistl.  by  IT.  2?ie- 
meyer  and  Franke. 

v)  Guericlce  in  d.  Ev.  KZ.  1844.  N.  4(5.  55.  57.  63.  67.  70.  71s.  102.  G.  A.  Wislicenus,  ob  Schrift, 
ob  Geist,  Yerantw.  gegen  Ankliiger.  Lps.  1S45.  C.  R  IConiff,  d.  rechte  Standp.  Magdeb.  1844.  On 
the  other  side:  F.  Sahettler^  Konigs  imruhiges  Wort  u.  unrechter  Standp.  Lps.  1844.  Guericke,  ob 
Schr.,  ob  Geist  ?  Eia  Comitat  f.  d.  Dachpredigt  d.  WisL  Hal.  1845.  Comp.  E.  Schwarz,  in  d.  Jen. 
A.  L.  Z.  1844  N.  131ss.  1845.  N.  7ss. 

w)  Ue,  d.  Verein<L  prot  Freunde.  Darinst  1843.  A.  R.  Findeis,  u.  d.  Gesellsch.  d.  prot  Fr. 
Magdeb.  1S44.  Guericfa,  Lichtfreundtlmm  u.  Kirchenth.  Lps.  1S47.— (7.  ZschiescTie,  die  prot  Fr. 
Eine  Selbstkritik.  Altenb.  1846.  Kritik  d.  prot  Fr.  Berne,  1845. 

ti)  Brl.  K.  Z.  N.  60.  D.  A.  Z.  1845.  N.  233.  K  Matthes,  kurze  Betr.  u.  d.  neuesto  Bekanntm. 
d.  Staatsminist  im  K.  Sachs.  Altenb.  1845. 

y)  Brl.  KZ.  1845.  N.  75.  1846.  N.  51. 1847.  N.  52. 

z)  Ev.  KZ.  1844.  N.  68.  73.  79.  84s.  89.  90.  92s.  95.  97. 102.  1845.  N.  9. 17.  22.  8L 

a)  BrL  KZ.  1845.  N.  59.  63.  68.  75. 


580  MODEEN  CHTJECH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1858. 

that  which  asserted  that  Christ  was  the  only  ground  of  salvation.  (5)  Sucl 
a  declaration  was  immediately  denounced  as  the  offspring  of  personal  uneasi- 
ness, as  the  creed  of  the  friends  of  twilight,  and  as  a  duel  in  the  day  of  bat- 
tle, (c)  Eichhom,  the  minister  for  public  worship,  had  once  belonged  to  the 
circle  of  Schleiennacher's  friends,  but  he  was  urged  forward  by  the  party  of 
the  Church  Journal,  and  according  to  the  expression  used  by  that  party,  he 
sought  the  welfare  of  the  Church  though  in  weakness.  It  was  thought  that 
all  appointments  to  higher  offices  of  instruction  or  of  administration,  were 
made  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  that  party  at  the  expense  sometimes 
of  even  the  municipal  rights  of  election,  (d)  Solemn  addresses  from  the  mu- 
nicipalities of  Berlin,  Breslan,  and  Konigsberg  prayed  for  protection  against 
the  threatened  encroachments  of  the  party  in  whose  spirit  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities  appeared  to  have  acted  in  opposition  to  the  religion  of  the  great 
majority  of  the  educated  class  among  the  people  and  the  legitimate  results 
of  the  Union,  and  they  entreated  that  the  freedom  of  Protestant  instruction 
might  be  secured  so  far  as  it  was  not  inconsistent  with  public  morals  and  the 
security  of  the  state.  In  the  king's  reply,  the  interference  of  the  petitioners 
was  repelled,  their  accusations  were  reproved,  and  their  anxieties  were  dis- 
pelled, (e)  In  Konigsberg,  Rupp,  a  chaplain  of  a  division  in  the  army,  held 
that  Christianity  was  not  a  peculiar  form  of  religion,  but  a  universal  princi- 
ple of  life.  Ho  therefore  declared  from  the  pulpit  that  he  renounced  the 
damnatory  clauses  of  the  Athanasian  creed,  on  the  ground  that  they  were 
unchristian.  Having  been  deposed  by  the  consistory  of  that  place  (Dec., 
1845),  he  resigned  his  office  in  the  consistorial  church,  and  in  the  midst  of 
frequent  alternations  of  good  and  ill  fortune,  established  in  a  place  which  had 
previously  been  the  scene  of  political  agitations,  a  free  evangelical  congrega- 
tion (Jan.  16,  184G),  which  recognized  the  Scriptures  as  a  merely  human  pro- 
duction, but  found  in  it  the  basis  of  a  faith  in  the  unity  of  God,  and  a 
supreme  rule  of  moral  conduct.  As  this  congregation  had  assumed  all  power 
over  its  own  religious  affairs,  its  preacher  found  that  he  was  opposed  by  a 
party  in  this  very  ideal  of  a  fraternal  congregation  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
which  would  hardly  allow  him  to  administer  baptism  even  when  requested 
by  the  parents,  though  using  the  apostolic  formula  modernized  by  himself.  (/) 
Wislicenus  was  accused  of  elevating  himself  above  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
in  his  ordinary  ecclesiastical  practice,  of  virtually  dispensing  with  the  use  of  the 
apostolic  creed.  But  since  he,  according  to  the  ordinary  legal  usage  of  rational- 
ists in  the  established  Church,  and  the  annihilation  of  their  legal  connection 

5)  Brl.  KZ.  1845.  N.  75. 

c)  Staid,  zwei  Seudschr.  an  die  TTnterzeicbner  d.  Erkliir.  v.  15.  Ang.  Brl.  1845.    Hengstenberg  : 
Ev.  KZ.  1845.  N.  84ss.    ffarm* :  BrL  KZ.  1845.  N.  77.    On  the  other  side :  (K  Henke)  Bemerk.  u. 
fitahls  Sendschr.  Brl.  1S45.    Further  Lit  in  Brans,  Bep.  1846.  vol.  VI.  p.  82ss. 

d)  (Filers)  Zur  Beurth.  d.  Ministeriums  Eichh.  v.  e.  Mitgliede  desselb.  1849.    Dos  geistl.  Miniat 
in  Pr.  u.  d.  Min.  Eichh.  (Brans,  Eep.  1848.  voL  XV.  H.  3.  vol.  XIX.  II.  1.) 

e)  BrL  A.  KZ.  1845.  N.  68.  89.  1846.  N.  16.    Die  Theologie  des  Berl.  Magistrates.  Munst  1S45. 
/)  BrL  KZ.  1846.  N.  6.  9.  11.  46.  54.  94.  97.  1847.  N.  12.  43.  47.  67.  70.  75.     Ulrioh,  d.  Verfahren 

«egen  Eupp.  in  d.  Eecursinstanz  v.  8.  Defensor.  Lps.  1846.  IT.  Beriholdi,  Kritik  d.  Enppianismus. 
1846.—  Rupp :  Ue.  d.  christL  Staat  Konigsb.  1842.  Die  Symbole  oder  Gottes  "Wort.  Lps.  1846.  Off 
aer  Brief  an  Dr.  Bensch.  Lps.  1847.  Die  freie  ev.  K,  in  Verbind.  m.  Gleichgesinnten.  Altenb.  1841 
P.  1.  Christ!.  Erbauungsbuch  t  frcie  ev.  Gemeinden.  Konigsb.  1846s.  3  vola. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUKCH  TILL  1853.    §  456.  FEEE  CONGEEGATIONS.    581 

with  any  public  body,  was  unwilling  to  be  controlled  in  his  doctrine  and 
usages  by  any  authority  but  that  of  the  majority  of  his  congregation,  he  was 
deposed  (April,  1846)  by  the  Consistory  of  Magdeburg  from  the  pastoral  office 
which  he  held  at  Halle,  for  gross  violations  of  the  established  order  with 
respect  to  the  liturgy  and  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  (g}  He  collected  a 
small  congregation  professing  to  believe  in  an  always  progressive  revelation, 
and  constituting  a  serious  moral  association  with  agreeable  forms  of  social 
life,  in  which  baptism  was  left  to  every  one's  own  choice,  and  no  one  claimed 
any  ecclesiastical  character,  (h)  Merely  as  an  attempt  to  form  a  congrega- 
tion at  Marburg,  a  few  Friends  of  Light  in  that  place  proclaimed  (Feb.,  1847) 
that  they  had  emancipated  themselves  from  the  dualism  of  humanity  and 
divinity,  and  of  time  and  eternity,  exemplified  in  the  person  of  Jesus,  and 
had  planted  themselves  on  the  universal  foundation  of  Christianity  and  Prot- 
estantism. They  professed  that  they  had  abandoned  the  fanciful  world  em- 
braced in  the  Church,  which  had  become  disgusting  to  them,  and  that  they 
had  now  advanced  to  the  more  fraternal  union  of  a  free  humanity,  (i)  But 
free  congregations  sprung  up  at  first  in  the  Prussian  towns  through  the  efforts 
of  pastors  who  had  either  been  deposed,  or  were  hard  pressed  by  the  author- 
ities. They  recognized  no  definite  confessions  of  faith ;  their  Christianity 
was  a  mere  humanity ;  the  only  remnant  of  the  Church  which  they  retained 
in  various  degrees,  was  a  system  of  morality  free  to  all  who  were  disposed  to 
receive  it ;  and  they  looked  upon  themselves  as  a  particular  family  of  the 
great  human  race,  which  was  to  be  united  at  some  future  day  in  the  bonds 
of  peace.  They  kept  up  a  voluntary  form  of  association,  although  at  an 
assembly  of  their  deputies  at  Nordhausen  (Sept.,  1847),  the  representatives 
from  Marburg  and  Halle  proposed  to  give  up  the  name  of  Christian,  thus 
reducing  to  practice  the  fanciful  idea  of  the  Philalethes  of  Kiel,  who  only 
wished  to  ignore  Christianity,  and  to  use  the  most  general  forms  of  piety.  (&) 
The  consistories  maintained  their  jurisdiction  over  these  separated  congrega- 
tions, and  punishment  was  inflicted  upon  particular  individuals  for  an  unau- 
thorized performance  of  ministerial  acts,  and  the  marriages  solemnized  by 
them  were  treated  as  illicit  until  the  Edict  of  Toleration  (March  30,  1847), 
which,  on  the  one  hand,  defined  the  existing  law  so  as,  in  the  spirit  of  Frederic 
the  Great,  to  permit  any  number  of  licensed  chapels  of  another  faith  to  be  built 
around  the  Evangelical  and  Catholic  national  churches ;  and  on  the  other, 
declared  the  principle  that  certain  civil  rights  were  not  dependent  upon  cer- 
tain religious  acts  of  a  religious  society  recognized  by  the  state.  (I)  The 
orthodox  party  was  pleased  with  this  law,  because  it  proposed  a  way  by 

g)  G.  Eberfy,  Bchutzschr.  f.  Wisl.  (lurch  s.  erwahlten  Yertheidiger.  Altenb.  1846.  Die  Amtsent- 
eetz.  d.  Pfarrers  G.  A.  "Wisl.  Actenmassig  dargest  durch.  G.  A.  Wisl.  Lps.  1846. 

h)  Brl.  KZ.  1846.  N.  53s.  83.  184T.  N.  7.  Letter  to  Konigsberg:  Hid.  1846.  N.  41.  Organ: 
Kirchl.  Keform.  Monatsschr.  £  freie  Protestanten.  Hal.  1846ss.— R.  £enfcyt  d.  prot  Freunde  u.  d. 
Juden.  Lps.  1847. 

i)  Brl.  KZ.  1846.  N.  83.  1847.  N.  7.  15.  Bayrhofer,  d.  wahre  Wesen  d.  gegenw.  rel  Eef.  in 
DeutschL  Mannh.  1846. 

k)  Brl.  KZ.  1845.  N.  93.  99. 1846.  N.  102. 1847.  N.  4.  6.  9.  63.  67.  Ed.  £altsert  d.  deutsche  K.  Son- 
<!ersh.  1847.  2  H.— Entw.  e.  Bittschr.  an  deutsche  Fursten.  Kiel,  1830.  Grunds.  d.  rel.  Wahrheits- 
freunde.  K.  1830.  Vorlauf.  Nachricht  v.  d.  im  Mara  1812.  gestifteten  Hoist  Philalethenverein, 
(Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1839.  H.  2.)  I)  BrL  KZ.  1847.  N.  29s. 


582  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

which  the  Rationalists  might  leave  the  Church.  Accordingly,  Uhlich  (after 
1845),  the  preacher  in  St.  Catharine's  church  at  Magdeburg,  was  thus  pro- 
voked to  leave  the  Church.  He  however  at  first  refused  to  do  so  on  account 
of  the  beneficial  influence  which  he  hoped  to  exert  upon  the  Great  Church, 
as  his  exemplary  character  was  zealously  vouched  for  by  his  congregation, 
and  the  city  in  which  he  ministered.  But  when  he  was  asked  by  the  consis 
tory,  whether  he  would  subsequently  conform  with  punctuality  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  Agenda,  and  in  no  way  assail  the  creed  of  the  Evangelical 
Church,  he  hesitated  to  give  an  affirmative  answer  without  some  conditions, 
and  prayed  for  Christian  forbearance  and  indulgence.  Ho  was  then  suspended 
(Sept.,  1847),  that  by  a  regular  process  of  discipline  he  might  be  legally  de- 
posed. Referring  to  the  publicity  of  his  instructions  and  his  example,  ho 
•  appealed  to  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Germany,  in  opposition  to  a  consistory 
which,  under  the  influence  of  party  zeal,  he  said  was  about  to  rend  the 
Church  into  a  variety  of  sects,  (m)  and  as  a  defence  in  case  of  necessity 
against  the  present  ecclesiastical  government,  established  a  more  numerous 
congregation  than  had  before  been  formed  (in  the  time  of  its  highest  prosperity 
it  numbered  five  thousand  members).  The  legal  existence  of  this  congregation 
was  secured  by  a  compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  Edict  of  Toleration  (Jan., 
1848),  and  its  permanency  by  a  well-devised  congregational  polity,  through 
which  it  became  rich  in  works  of  charity.  In  its  original  charter  it  bore  also 
a  decidedly  evangelical  character,  (?i)  but  this  was  endangered  by  its  connec- 
tion with  other  free  congregations,  and  by  the  different  parties  which  had  an 
existence  in  it. — The  great  storm  of  March,  1848,  soon  destroyed  the  odious 
name  of  an  ecclesiastical  administration.  Count  Schwerin,  the  minister  for 
public  worship,  admonished  the  consistories,  in  accordance  with  the  princi- 
ples of  reh'gious  liberty  adopted  by  the  royal  government,  to  give  the  pref- 
erence to  no  dogmatic  or  theological  party  whatever,  and  to  look  only  that, 
in  the  spirit  of  evangelical  charity,  Christian  truth  be  promoted  on  the  basis 
of  the  word  of  God.  (0)  He  dissolved  the  Superior  Consistory,  and  gave 
orders  for  a  committee  to  devise  a  synodal  constitution,  to  be  submitted  to  an 
imperial  synod  which  should  soon  after  be  convened,  that  thus  the  Church' 
might,  according  to  a  frequently  expressed  wish  of  the  king,  construct  her 
future  organization  for  herself,  (p)  The  outline  of  the  electoral  law  for  the 
appointing  synods,  was  published  and  defended  by  counsellors  of  the  crown 
versed  in  ecclesiastical  law.  It  proposed  that  the  deputies  should  be  elected 
by  the  congregations,  but  that  the  existing  synods  should  be  made  use  of  in 
the  Western,  and  that  district  and  provincial  synods  should  be  arranged  so  as 
to  serve  for  electoral  bodies  in  the  Eastern  provinces,  (q)  But  during  the 
patriotic  movements  which  so  happily  corresponded  with  the  ideals  the  king 
had  formed,  his  piety  was  deeply  wounded  by  the  pedantic  outrage  which 

m)  Uhlich:  Bekenntnisse.  Lps.  1845.  Christenth.  u.  K.  Lps.  1846.  17  Satze  In  Bezng  a.  d.  Ver- 
pflichtnngsformel  d.  Synode  in  Berl.  Wolfenb.  1847.— Amtl.  Verhandll.  (till  July  9, 1847.)  betr.  den 
Pred.  Uhlich.  Magdeb.  1847.  Weitere  MittheilL  in  Sachen  d,  Uhlich,  ed.  by  himself  Wolfenb.  1S47. 
Brl.  KZ.  1847.  N.  19.  66.  1852.  N.  16.  A.  KZ.  1847.  N.  154  D.  A.  Z.  1847.  N.  199.  316.  319.  Uhl.  Pro- 
test :  A.  Z.  f.  Christenth.  u.  K.  1847.  N.  81.— Moeller  u.  Ublich.  Lps.  1847. 

TI)  Brl.  KZ.  1847.  N.  94.          o)  Of  April  24  BrL  KZ.  1848.  N.  38. 

p)  Ibid.  N.  81.  36.         g)  L.  Richter,  Vortrag  u.  d.  Bernfung  e.  ev.  Landessyn.  Brl.  1848. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUECII  TILL  1853.    §  456.  LADENBEEG.    KAUMEE.      583 

aimed  to  deprive  royalty  of  its  claim  to  exist  by  the  grace  of  God.  Before 
the  appointed  synod  could  actually  come  together,  the  revolution  was  over- 
thrown, and  the  Evangelical  Church  Journal  denounced  the  clamor  for  a 
synodal  constitution  as  an  ill-concealed  enmity  to  Christ,  and  the  whole 
scheme  of  an  election  by  the  people  as  a  denial  of  God.  (r)  The  provisional 
ministry  of  Ladenberg  inquired  (Jan.,  1849)  of  the  consistories,  faculties,  and 
select  men  of  learning,  what  measures  should  be  taken  to  secure  to  the  Evan- 
gelical Church,  by  a  constitution,  the  independent  management  of  its  own  affairs. 
The  numerous  replies  which  it  received,  were  filled  with  doubts  as  to  the  ex- 
pediency of  any  synod  which  might  be  chosen  by  the  people  to  form  a  constitu- 
tion, (s)  The  constitution  of  Jan.  31,  1850,  granted  by  the  crown,  contained 
many  criticisms  on  itself,  but  the  deputies  united  in  it,  and  swore  allegiance 
to  it.  "With  respect  to  religion,  the  wnole  essential  spirit  of  the  German  fun- 
damental laws  was  retained;  but  as  the  opposite  parties,  the  one  rejoicing 
and  the  other  lamenting,  had  fallen  into  the  notion  that  the  state,  by  its  sep- 
aration from  the  Church,  had  become  unchristian  and  atheistic,  it  was  added, 
that  whenever  the  state  made  any  regulations  with  reference  to  religion, 
they  should  be  on  the  basis  of  Christianity.  A  collegiate  supreme  council 
for  deciding  upon  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Church,  was  formed,  by  the 
order  of  the  king,  from  the  evangelical  portion  of  the  ministry  of  public 
worship,  and  a  system  of  rules  for  the  regulation  of  congregational  affairs, 
was  bestowed  upon  the  six  eastern  provinces,  (t)  The  supreme  ecclesiastical 
council  from  that  period  governed  the  Church  in  the  king's  name,  and  van 
Raumer,  the .  minister  for  public  worship,  in  the  presence  of  the  Chambers 
declared  that  the  new  doctrine  was,  that  the  Evangelical  Church  exercises 
her  constitutional  right  independently  to  regulate  and  administer  her  affairs, 
by  its  entire  separation  from,  and  consequent  independence  of  the  state,  and 
its  government  according  to  its  ancient  constitution,  by  the  sovereign  as  its 
most  prominent  member.  (u)  By  this  happy  thought,  anxiety  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Church  was  tranquillized,  and  the  Chambers  succeeded  in 
repelling  all  complaints  about  violations  of  those  articles  of  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state  which  relate  to  the  independence  of  the  Evangelical  Church.  («) 
The  plan  for  congregational  government,  which  was  looked  upon  as  the  basis  of 
true  ecclesiastical  freedom,  contained  a  suspicious  limitation  of  the  power  of 
choosing  the  vestries,  and- an  extraordinary  requisition  that  the  private  mem- 
bers should  be  bound  by  the  three  principal  creeds,  the  confessions  of  the 
Eeformation,  and  certain  general  laws  for  the  Church  which  were  yet  un- 
known. In  some  of  the  eastern  provinces,  this  plan  was  protested  against 
by  parties  opposed  to  each  other,  but  it  was  at  last  gradually  admitted  into 


r)  Brl.  KZ.  1S49.  N.  3. 

s)  Amtl.  Gutachten  d.  Verf.  d.  ev.  K.  in  Pr.  betr.  Im  Auftrage  (lurch  L.  Eichter.  Bit  1849. 

0  Of  Jan.  26, 1849,  and  June  29, 1850.  Allerhochster  Erlass.  betr.  d.  Grundzuge  e.  Gemeinde- 
Ord.  u.  d.  Einsetz.  d.  Ev.  Oberkirchenr.  nebst  Aktenst.  Brl.  1850.  Comp.  J.  Matter,  Deutscho 
Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1851.  N.  Iss. 

«)  Feb.  8. 1851.  Brl.  KZ.  1851.  N.  13. 15. 17. 

v)  Die  Selbstiindigk.  d.  ev.  Landesk.  u.  ihre  Yollziehung  durch  das  Cultusmin.  Aktenmasslg  dar- 
gest.  n.  der  zweiten  Pr.  Kammer  ueberreicht  v.  Jonas,  Sydow,  Eltester,  Krause,  Lisco,  Mueller. 
Brl.  1851. 


584  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1WS-1868. 

most  of  the  congregations,  (w)  The  supreme  ecclesiastical  council  added 
many  salutary  provisions  for  the  order,  discipline,  and  temporal  wants  of  tho 
national  Church,  but  under  great  disadvantages  on  account  of  its  origin,  and 
in  the  midst  of  much  opposition  to  its  jurisdiction,  (.r)  As  a  natural  result 
of  the  political  reaction,  the  power  of  the  orthodox  party  was  increased,  and 
its  eloquent  legal  advocate  endeavored  to  show  that  the  revolution  was  the 
appropriate  consequence  of  Rationalism ;  that  the  essential  spirit  of  both  was 
the  alienation  of  man  from  his  God ;  (y)  that  authority  should  henceforth  take 
the  place  of  the  majority ;  and  that  the  king  might,  under  certain  pious 
forms,  be  properly  exonerated  from  his  sinful  oath  to  support  the  fundamen- 
tal civil  laws,  (z)  Some  ecclesiastical  authorities  at  ordinations  demanded  a 
stricter  adherence  to  the  articles  of  faith  than  had  been  usually  required ; 
•and  even  pastors,  who  could  receive  tho  confession  in  only  some  peculiar 
ideal  sense,  were  subjected  to  examinations  which  had  long  been  discontinued, 
and  which  terminated  in  their  deposition,  (a)  Questions  were  also  proposed  to 
candidates  for  theological  professorships,  which  could  not  be  answered,  as  was 
required,  in  tho  affirmative,  without  a  renunciation  of  all  theological  investi- 
gation. (&)  The  free  congregations  (numbering  about  forty  in  Prussia  and  tho 
contiguous  countries),  which  had  in  1848,  like  almost  all  associations,  taken 
some  part  in  politics,  and  whose  leaders  had  to  some  extent  been  involved  in 
the  movements  of  the  day,  had  nearly  all  their  houses  of  worship  closed  by 
the  police  under  the  new  law  against  political  societies.  These  proceedings 
were  partially  confirmed  by  the  judicial  courts,  but  some  measures  of  tho 
police  seemed  so  inconsistent  with  the  freedom  of  conscience  guarantied  by 
tho  fundamental  laws,  that  inquiries  were  instituted  respecting  them  even  in 
the  Chambers  (1852),  where  the  government  had  avowed  its  determination 
to  exterminate  by  every  legal  means  the  whole  system  of  dissent,  (c)  The 
supreme  ecclesiastical  council  excommunicated  all  the  free  congregations, 
without  reference  to  the  various  tendencies  among  them,  and  pronounced 
their  baptisms  invalid,  (d)  yet  the  civil  courts  punished  every  official  act  of 
their  ministers  as  an  invasion  of  the  clerical  office,  (e)  But  no  mere  liberty 
without  religious  energy,  nor  connections  with  even  impious  men,  who  denied 
the  existence  of  a  living  God,  nor  popular  adulation,  to  which  their  best  lead- 
ers felt  constrained  to  resort,  nor  persecution  itself,  have  been  found  sufficient 
for  the  salvation  of  these  people.  (/)  Rupp,  however,  endeavored  to  obtain 
a  higher  degree  of  purity,  by  a  legal  dissolution  of  the  old,  and  the  formation 


w)  Allg.  KBlatL  t  d.  ev.  DeutechL  1S52.  N.  33ss. 1853.  N.  36ss.— G.  Schwerirfa  Protest:  BrL 
KZ,  1861.  N.  65. 

<e)  Aktenstucke  a.  d.  Vcrwalt  d.  Abth.  d.  Minist  t  d.  innern  ev.  KSachen.  BrL  1850.  Aktenst 
a.  d.  Verw.  d.  ev.  OKRaths.  BrL  1851s.  5  H. 

y)  F.  J.  Stahl,  was  ist  die  Rev.  ?  BrL  1852.  Yet  Comp.  Il>i<J.  d.  Protestant,  als  polit  Princip. 
(Ev.  KZ.  1853.  N.  28.) 

z)  Briefe  u.  Staatskunst  BrL  1853.    Yet  Ev.  KZ.  1853.  N.  Is. 

a)  W.  F.  Sintenis,  Moellers  Wirken  In  Consist,  u.  in  d.  Gen.  Super.  Lps.  1840.  J.  J7.  Saltzer  e 
Glanbensgericht  in  dor  Mitte  d.  19  Jahrh.  Lps.  1850. 

I)  Zeitsch.  £  unirto  K  1853.  voL  XV.  N.  88.         c)  BrL  KZ.  1852.  N.  6.  9. 

d)  Aktenst  d.  OKRaths.  H.  2.  p.  86ss.        o)  BrL  KZ.  1851.  N.  87.  77. 1852.  N.  11. 

/)  Weissgerber,  Douai's  neue  rel.  Menselw.  1851.  C.  Zschiesche,  d.  freie  Gemeinde,  ihre  Wirk- 
samk.  u.  ihre  Stimmfurer  in  d.  Pr.  Sachsen.  Halbrst.  1850. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  456.  LUTHEEANISM.  585 

of  a  new  but  small  congregation  (Oct.,  1853),  in  which  the  Bible  was  re- 
garded as  the  original  source  of  trnth,  and  the  imitation  of  Christ  was  made 
the  supreme  end  of  life,  (g)  The  orthodox  portion,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
had  recently  become  so  artificially  prominent,  was  compelled  once  more,  and  in 
more  general  relations,  to  be  as  exclusive  as  Luther  himself.  But  these  Luther- 
ans were  so  confident  of  success,  and  so  little  troubled  with  conscientious  scru- 
ples, that  although  they  had  before  formed  an  association  at  Leipsic  composed 
of  clergymen  belonging  to  the  different  national  churches,  and  in  friendly 
connection  with  the  Separatists  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Lutheran  confes- 
sion ;  and  although,  according  to  this  association,  the  modern  notion  of  union 
in  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  two  confessions  was  nothing  but  a  syn- 
cretism of  many  chameleon  forms,  (h)  they  refused  to  attach  themselves  to 
the  Church  of  Luther  which  the  Separatists  had  formed,  but  under  the  con- 
duct of  the  fugitive  president  of  the  Consistory  of  Magdeburg,  they  consti- 
tuted over  the  graves  of  the  Reformers  a  league  (Sept.,  1849)  for  carrying  out 
the  Lutheran  confession,  even  in  its  provisions  for  public  worship,  congrega- 
tional order,  and  the  government  of  the  national  Church,  (i)  In  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony,  they  had  in  their  favor  the  letter  of  the  law,  and  the  coun- 
tenance of  the  rulers,  and  in  Electoral  Hesse  they  had  at  least  the  latter 
advantage.  In  Bavaria,  although  the  younger  clergy  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Ehine  had  been  educated  at  Erlangen  under  their  influence,  the  more 
zealous  portion  declared  that  they  had  already  taken  the  staff  to  leave  a 
Church  whose  altar  had  been  polluted  by  the  admission  of  the  members  of 
the  united  Church,  and  that  they  only  waited  to  see  if  it  could  not  be  freed 
from  this  impurity.  (K)  In  Prussia,  they  demanded  that  the  Union,  which 
they  declared  had  never  been  legally  formed,  and  denounced  as  confusion  and 
revolution,  should  be  utterly  dissolved.  Internal  dissensions,  like  those 
which  usually  distract  a  triumphant  party,  began  already  to  prevail,  princi- 
pally with  respect  to  the  question,  whether  those  invested  with  the  clerical 
office  were  endowed  with  special  grace  as  the  sole  depositaries  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal power.  (I)  By  the  separated  Lutherans  their  whole  course  was  declared 
to  be  a  lie.  GuericTce,  the  confessor  of  Lutheranism,  and  afterwards  much 
abused  as  an  apostate  from  it,  once  more  abandoned  the  fellowship  of  the 
rigid  Lutherans,  where  he  had  vainly  hoped  to  find  a  Christian  spirit  and 
freedom  for  a  Lutheran  conscience,  (m)  "While  those  who  were  faithful  to 
the  Union  charged  the  supreme  council  with  having  sacrificed  it,  prayer  was 
offered  in  a  Lutheran  pulpit  for  an  orthodox  supreme  council,  and  even  then 
the  existence  of  that  which  then  ruled  the  Church  was  declared  to  be  a 
sin.  (ri)  It  however  agreed  that  it  regarded  only  those  congregations  in 

0)  D.  A.  Z.  1863.  N.  258.        7t)  Ev.  KZ.  1849.  N.  81. 

1)  Brl.  KZ.  1848.  N.  94. 1849.  N.  11.— Die  Leipzeiger  Konferenz  am  81.  Aug.  and  1.  Sept.  1853. 
(Kahnis,  u.  d.  Unionsdoctrin.)  Lps.  1853. 

K)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  55.  1852.  N.  1.  JTommel,  Eecht  d.  K,  Union  u.  d.  bay.  prot.  Landesk. 
Ansp.  1853. 

I)  J.W.F.  Ilofling,  Grnndsfitze  ev.  luth.  KVerf.  Erl.  (1850.)  1651.— Florke,  z.  Lehre  v.  d.  K. 
(Zeitsch.  f.  luth.  Th.  1852.  H.  1.) 

77?)  Guericke,  Versohnliches  u.  brennende  KFragen  d.  Gegenvr.  Lps.  1S52. 

ri)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  94.  Otto,  Sup.  in  Naugard,  in  d.  Denksch.  d.  luth.  Vereins  in  Pommern,  a 
d.  Antwort  d«3  OKEaths :  Aktenst.  II.  8.  p.  89ss.  Comp.  Otto,  Monatsschrift.  ISSlss. 


586  MODERN  CIIUECII  HISTORY.    TEE.  YI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

Silesia  as  truly  united  in  the  Confession,  which  conld  show  the  original  docu- 
ments relating  to  the  Union ;  it  delivered  the  whole  of  Pomerania,  which 
really  possessed  them,  over  to  the  exclusively  Lutheran  Confession  ;  and  it 
conceded  that  particular  pastors  might  dispense  at  will  with  the  breaking  of 
the  bread,  which  was  looked  upon  as  the  symbol  of  the  Union,  and  that  the 
Silesian  consistory  might  separate  into  three  parts,  so  as  to  form  a  Lutheran, 
a  Reformed,  and  a  United  division,  with  a  council  for  each  ^Confession.  (0) 
Even  the  Evangelical  Church  Journal  had  already  long  doubted  with  regard 
to  the  enthusiasm  it  had  displayed  for  the  Union  under  Frederic  William  III., 
and  it  found  an  occasion  for  a  change  of  course  in  its  opposition  to  a  Union 
which  absorbed  all  the  Confessions.  (;>)  The  king  made  known  to  the  Lu- 
theran association  (1850)  his  desire  to  establish  consistories  and  superior 
authorities  in  the  Church,  which  in  the  eastern  provinces  should  be  Lutheran, 
with  Reformed  assessors ;  (?)  and  ho  gave  orders  that,  in  order  to  preserve 
the  independence  of  the  two  confessions  in  the  Union,  the  supreme  ecclesias- 
tical council  should  consist  of  members  from  both  confessions,  and  that  all 
business  which  could  properly  bo  decided  by  but  one  of  the  confessions, 
should  be  left  to  the  votes  of  those  who  belonged  to  that  confession.  The 
same  division  was  also  to  bo  made  in  the  consistories,  (r)  The  supreme  coun- 
cil separated  into  two  divisions,  according  as  they  were  members  of  the 
Lutheran  or  the  Reformed  confessions.  Dr.  NitzscJi  a)one  preferred  to  adhere 
to  the  consensus  of  the  two  confessions,  and  was  therefore  released  from  all 
participation  in  the  decision  of  confessional  questions,  but  he  was  held  up  as 
the  patron  of  the  congregations  united  in  the  confession  by  the  original  docu- 
ment, (s)  These  proceedings  were  regarded  by  the  Lutherans  as  a  legal  dis- 
solution of  the  Union,  and  they  now  therefore  demanded  in  Luther's  name, 
that  the  monster  of  the  authorities  of  the  united  Church  which  still  existed 
should  be  completely  abolished ;  that  purely  Lutheran  faculties,  or  at  least 
professors,  should  be  appointed ;  and  that  the  patrimony  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  should  be  restored,  (t)  Even  those  advocates  of  orthodoxy  who  had 
formerly  been  moderate  in  their  demands,  now  raised  the  watchword  that 
those  who  governed  the  Church  appeared  to  give  their  countenance  not  to 
the  Union,  but  to  its  opponents,  and  that  the  natural  result  of  this  should  be 
the  separation  of  clergymen  and  congregations,  until  finally  the  royal  regent 
of  the  Church  would  be  the  only  individual  belonging  to  the  united  body,  (u) 
Indeed,  the  old  traditions  and  necessary  policy  peculiar  to  the  Hohenzollern 
family  seemed  entirely  forgotten  in  the  pleasure  which  all  seemed  to  feel  in 
the  separation  of  the  confessions.  The  king  then  avowed  his  just  displeasure 
at  the  unfair  interpretation  given  to  his  orders  of  the  previous  year.  He  de- 
clared that  he  had  never  intended  to  disturb  the  Union,  and  thus  produce  a 


o)  Aktenst  H.  1.  p.  40ss.  H.  2.  p.  14ss.  BrL  KZ.  1853.  H.  80.    Aktenst  d.  Abth.  d.  Minist.  p.  TOss. 

p)  First  in  1844.  N.  2s.  1847.  N.  1.—1849.  N.  5ss.  1851.  N.  4. 

q)  Printed  by  Hose,  K.  d.  dt  Eeichs.  p.  277. 

r)  Order  of  the  Cabinet,  March  6, 1852 :  BrL  KZ.  1852.  N.  38.  Instructions  for  the  consistories' 
Hid.  N.  41.  6)  Ibid.  N.  63. 

0  Open  Declar.  in  the  Monatsschr.  Jane,  1852.  Luth.  Gen.  Conf.  at  Witt  Sept  1S52. :  BrL  KZ. 
1852.  N.  82.  A.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  105. 

«)  BrL  KZ.  1852.  N.  61.  90.    Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1853.  N.  Iss.  lOss. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  457.    BEELIN  EVANG.  CONFEE.     587 

division  of  the  national  Church,  nor  to  renew  the  old  controversy  about  the 
confessions.  The  ecclesiastical  authorities  were  therefore  directed  to  oppose 
all  attempts  to  separate  the  two  confessions,  to  allow  no  synods,  or  even  indi- 
vidual clergymen  or  congregations,  to  lay  aside  the  name  of  Evangelical  Con- 
gregations, or  the  ritual  prescribed  for  the  Union ;  and  only  on  the  united 
request  of  a  clergyman  and  his  congregation,  after  all  proper  means  and  per- 
suasions had  been  tried,  to  permit  particular  congregations  to  deviate  from 
the  regulations  prescribed  for  the  Evangelical  National  Church.  («)  Two 
views  of  this  proceeding  were  expressed  among  the  Lutherans :  one  was  that 
of  painful  disappointment  from  a  conviction  that  this  order  of  the  cabinet 
was  a  complete  renunciation  of  the  previous  legislation ;  and  the  other  looked 
upon  it  as  a  mere  check  to  the  wavering  course  of  the  whole  policy  for  the 
Union,  (w) 

§  457.     Combinations. 

The  Evangelical  Conference  assembled  at  Berlin  in  consequence  of  a  wish 
expressed  by  the  Kings  of  TVurtemberg  and  Prussia,  that  the  Evangelical 
Church  of  Germany  might  be  more  perfectly  united,  and  continued  in  ses- 
sion from  January  6th  to  February  14th,  1846.  Some  hopes  were  enter- 
tained in  it  of  forming  a  union  by  a  stricter  construction  of  doctrines,  and 
some  violent  measures  were  proposed  for  the  accomplishment  of  such  an  ob- 
ject. But  as  the  great  majority  were  only  in  favor  of  securing,  on  the  basis 
of  the  confessions,-  the  two  fundamental  doctrines  which  asserted  that  the 
Scriptures  were  the  only  source  of  the  knowledge  of  saving  truth,  and  that 
justification  was  by  faith,  this  diplomatic  assembly  from  its  nature  could 
only  exchange  views  and  make  arrangements  for  an  intercourse  between  the 
different  parts  of  the  common  church  by  annual  assemblies,  (a).  The  Church 
Conference,  which  had  been  for  a  while  suspended,  was  resumed  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  a  private  company  of  persons,  and  of  a  journal  used  as  an  officia 
organ  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  all  Germany.  (5)  It  was  held  after 
Pentecost  1852  and  1853  at  the  foot  of  the  Wartburg,  and  was  intended  to 
be  a  meeting  of  deputies  from  the  supreme  authorities  of  most  of  the  national 
German  churches  for  confidential  conference,  but  with  no  legislative  powers,  (c) 
But  although  these  spiritual  and  secular  authorities  of  the  Church  stood  in 
this  independent  position  with  respect  to  each  other,  some  of  them  believed 
in  the  development  of  Protestantism  and  in  the  Union,  while  others  saw  no 
reality  in  either.  But  as  all  were  anxious  to  preserve  the  blessing  of  some 
visible  form  of  unity  for  the  whole  Protestant  Church  of  Germany,  questions 
;  of  a  deeper  and  more  dreaded  nature  were  held  at  a  distance.  The  expe- 
rience and  the  wishes  of  diiferent  individuals  were  here  compared,  and  a 

*>)  Cabinet  Order  of  July  12, 1853:  Zeitsch.  f.  unirte  ev.  K.  1853.  N.  85. 

w)  Luth.  Gen.  Conf.  at  Witt.  Sept  1853 :  Ev.  KZ.  1853.  N.  83.  Comp.  73.  79s.  Counter  assertion 
of  the  king  to  the  Witt.  Conf.  of  Oct.  11 :  D.  A.  Z.  1853.  N.  273. 

a)  Literar.  Programme :  C.  Tfllmann  (p.  572.  nt.  &)  Official  action :  Loccumer  Artikel.  (Die  Vor- 
schliige  d.  Dr.  Snethlage  &  Euppstein  z.  Verein  d.  ev.  K.  Deutschl.  mitgetheilt  v.  Perez,  Grim.  1846. 
Brl.  KZ.  1846.  N.  7. 11.  28.  83.)— Account  in  Biedermann,  unsre  Gegemv.  u.  Zuk.  1846.  H.  2.  Die  Be- 
sultate  d.  Berl.  Konf.  Lps.  1846.  Comp.  Bruns,  Eep.  1S46.  vol.  VI.  p.  22Sss. 

I)  Allg.  Kirchenblatt  fur  d.  ev.  Deutschland,  ed.  by  C.  G.  Moser.  Stuttg.  1. 1852.  II.- 1858. 

c)  Protocols:  KBlatt.  1852.  N.  13. 1853.  N.  29ss.  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  17.  36.  89.  45s.  1S53.  N.  44.  47. 


588  MODEBN  CHUECH  DISTOEY.    PEE.  VL    A.  D>164S-1S53. 

choice  collection  of  hymns  for  a  general  hymn-book  was  adopted,  (cC)  though 
not  till,  in  the  committee  of  invited  persons  conversant  with  such  matters, 
one  party  contending  for  the  adoption,  at  every  hazard,  of  the  old  text,  had 
been  excluded,  and  another,  wishing  to  preserve  the  ecclesiastical  poetry  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  had  been  set  aside  without  a  hearing  of  its  peculiar 
views,  (e)  A  desire  which  had  been  expressed  at  a  secular  festival  on  the 
field  of  Lutzen,  to  erect  a  monument  to  the  heroic  death  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  by  obtaining  minute  contributions  from  the  people,  was  so  modified, 
when  the  sovereign  himself  erected  a  monument  over  the  Swedish  stone,  as 
to  lead  to  the  idea  of  a  charitable  institution  bearing  his  name,  to  sustain  those 
evangelical  congregations  which,  in  the  neighboring  Catholic  countries,  were 
nnable  to  endure  the  expense  needful  for  their  ecclesiastical  support.  The 
Qustavut  Adolphvs  Institution  in  Saxony,  with  some  assistance  from  Sweden, 
collected  (after  1834)  a  small  capital,  the  interest  of  which  was  barely  suffi- 
cient to  render  the  necessity  of  snch  aid  more  apparent.  Finally  an  appeal 
from  Darmstadt  (Oct.  81, 1841)  produced  another  effort  in  connection  with 
the  Saxon  institution,  though  in  a  superior  style  (1842).  An  assembly  was 
then  held  at  Frankfort  (1848),  at  which  a  wise  division  of  labor  was  made 
among  various  auxiliary  associations,  with  a  central  committee  at  Leipsic,  and 
a  superior  movable  assembly  of  deputies  returning  at  fixed  intervals.  Tho 
result  of  all  these  proceedings  was  the  establishment  of  an  Evangelical  Society 
of  the  Gnstavus  Adolphus  Institution,  which,  as  a  Protestant  German  popular 
cause,  collects  the  means  for  sustaining  and  building  churches  for  many  poor 
and  almost  extinct  congregations.  (/)  The  German  governments,  though  in 
some  cases  with  reluctance,  yielded  to  the  popular  influence  of  this  associa- 
tion, though  in  Bavaria  it  was  proscribed  until  1848,  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  hostile  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  inconsistent  with  the  German  char- 
acter, (g)  As  it  was  founded  principally  by  the  liberal  party,  Hengstenberg 
pronounced  the  association  a  great  lie,  (K)  and  the  Prussian  crown  was  unwil- 
ling to  sustain  any  but  an  independent  Prussian  society  under  the  patronage, 
of  the  king,  (i)  But  as  every  effort  was  likely  to  be  paralyzed  by  this  sepa- 
ration, the  government  finally  yielded  to  the  popular  will,  and  at  the  assem- 
bly at  Gottingen  (1844)  the  Prussian  deputies  extended  to  it  the  hand  of 
brotherhood.  (£)  The  internal  importance  of  the  society,  in  spite  of  the  lim- 
ited nature  of  its  external  object,  resulted  from  the  fact  that  it  was  a  neutral 
holy  ground  on  which  all  parties  in  the  Evangelical  Church  could  meet,  and 
on  which  that  Church  could  once  more  be  seen  as  an  undivided  power.  When 
therefore,  at  the  assembly  at  Gottingen,  it  was  asked  that  more  definite  quali- 
fications should  be  named  for  admission  to  the  association  than  a  mere  agree- 


d)  Deutsches  cv.  Kirchengesangbuch  in  150  Kernliedern. 

e)  J,  Gqfcken,  d.  allg.  ev.  Gesangb.  u.  d.  dariiber  gefuhrten  YerbandlL  Ilamb.  1853. 

/)  Leipz.  Z.  1832.  N.  164  1833.  N.  11.  A.  K.  Z.  1835.  N.  9.  66. 1841.  N.  19.  80.  172.  189.  203. 1342. 
N.  107. 133. 139. 174.  Organ,  since  the  Asserab.  at  Frankfort :  Per  Bote  des  ev.  Vereins  d.  G.  A.  Stif- 
tung,  issued  by  K.  Zimmermann, 

0)  A.  K  Z.  1S44  N.  84  45.    Brl.  K.  Z.  1S49.  N.  76. 

K)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S44.  N.  6.  yet  comp.  7ss.    A.  K.  Z.  1844  N.  41. 

0  Cabinet  order  of  Fob.  14,  1844  :  Report  of  the  G.  A.  St.  I.  p.  83s. 

fc)    Ibid,  p.  2S9*s.  IMT!.  K.  Z.  1S44.  N.  15. 17.  73. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  457.  GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS  SOCC.    58S 

ment  with  the  principles  of  the  Evangelical  Church,  the  request  was  at  once 
rejected.  (I)  Dr.  Eupp  was  sent  by  the  superior  association  of  Konigsberg  as 
its  deputy  to  the  assembly  at  Berlin  in  1846.  A  vote  being  taken  on  the  va- 
lidity of  his  credentials  on  the  night  of  September  7th,  a  small  majority  ap- 
peared against  recognizing  him  as  a  member  of  the  assembly,  (m)  Although 
the  general  sentiment  was  averse  to  a  perversion  of  the  society  to  objects 
foreign  to  its  nature,  yet  the  orthodox  party  demanded  his  exclusion  as  an 
apostate,  and  they  were  joined  by  some  of  the  liberal  deputies.  This  was 
done  by  the  latter  either  because  they  wished  to  prevent  the  society  being 
made  an  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  and  therefore  allowed  the  Evangelical 
Church  to  be  postponed  for  the  Established  Church,  or  they  had  a  superior 
regard  for  the  success  of  the  society  which  seemed  of  special  importance  in 
that  particular  locality.  Immediately  was  heard  in  every  part  of  Protestant 
Germany  a  cry  of  extreme  displeasure  at  this  action,  and  an  immense  ma- 
jority appeared  in  the  local  societies  in  various  ways,  oifering  protests  and 
asserting  that  the  decision  at  Berlin  was  based  upon  a  false  idea  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Church,  and  that  the  free  alliance  of  love  had  degenerated  into  an 
inquisitorial  tribunal,  (n)  On  the  other  hand,  the  other  party  threatened  to 
withdraw,  and  eve-n  then  Gustavus  Adolphus  Societies  with  separate  ecclesi- 
astical connections  had  been  formed  at  Koenigsburg  and  Berlin,  and  were 
readily  licensed  by  the  government,  but  never  exhibited  much  life.  (<?)  The 
new  elections  threw  the  power  in  the  assembly  at  Darmstadt  (1847)  into  the 
hands  of  those  opposed  to  the  decision  at  Berlin ;  but  as  all  dreaded  the  im- 
piety of  a  schism,  as  Eupp  had  withdrawn,  and  as  the  subsequent  course  of 
the  free  congregations  themselves  was  such  as  to  render  their  right  to  a  mem- 
bership in  the  Evangelical  Church  very  doubtful,  the  parties  agreed  that  with- 
out reconsidering  the  decision  at  Berlin,  whenever  it  became  necessary  to 
act  upon  the  exclusion  of  a  deputy  for  his  want  of  a  membership  in  the 
Evangelical  Church,  the  decision  should  belong  to  the  superior  assembly  un- 
der such  regulations  as  would  give  no  room  for  temporary  passions  and  preju- 
dices, and  as  would  allow  the  true  majority  at  the  time  to  show  itself.  It 
was  resolved  that  no  deputy  from  a  society  unconnected  with  the  established 
churches  should  be  entitled  to  a  seat,  (p)  After  a  decline  in  consequence  of 
the  sway  of  the  political  spirit  of  1848,  the  interest  in  this  cause  annually 
increased  as  in  former  times  until  1853,  when  the  yearly  revenue  amounted 
to  $38,000.  Numerous  churches  have  been  erected,  those  which  were  decay- 
ing have  been  repaired,  and  those  outposts  of  Protestantism  which  seemed 
almost  lost  have  had  their  confidence  revived.  The  idea  of  an  Evangelical 

I)  Report  of  the  G.  A.  St  I.  p.  369ss. 

m)  Protocoll  u.  d.  Sitzung  d.  5.  Hauptvers.  Lps.  1846.  4.  Comp.  Brl.  KZ.  1S4<3.  N.  74s.  76s.  J. 
Ge/cken,  Bericht  u.  die  zu  Berlin  geh.  Hauptvers.  Hamb.  1846. 

ri)  Report  of  the  G.  A,  1846.  p.  295ss.  Brl.  KZ.  1846.  N.  93. 95.  C.  ScTiwarz,  Dr.  Rupp's  Ausschliess. 
Hal  1846.  Ttieile,  Rupp's  Ausschliess.  Lps.  1846.  Rupp.  d.  G.  A.  Verein  u.  d.  ev.  K.  Altenb.  1847. 
Eltester  u.  Kraiise,  1st  d.  G.  A.  V.  ein  Landeskirchl.  o.  e.  ev.  protestantischer  ?  W.  Dittenberger,  u. 
d.  Ausschl.  v.  R.  Heidelb.  1847.  For  the  decision :  C.  Zampe,  u.  d.  Ausschl.  d.  Dr.  Rupp.  Lps.  1S46. 
Luoke  u.  ffllmcmn,  u.  d.  Nichtannahme  d.  Konigsb.  Deputirten.  Hamb.  1847.  De  Wette,  d.  AusschL 
d.  Dr.  Rupp.  Lps.  1847.— Krisis  d.  G.  A.  Vereins.  Wechselreden.  v.  F.  Mallet  u.  U.  Hupfeld.  Hal 
1847.  comp.  Reuter,  Rep.  1847.  H.  6s. 

o)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1847.  N.  5.  Brl.  K.  Z.  1847.  N.  9.  63.  68*.  75.       p)  Ibid.  N.  79. 


590  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

Church  Alliance  was  started  in  a  circle  of  friends  at  the  Sandhof  near  Frank, 
fort,  but  the  association  itself  was  formed  by  persons  of  a  similar  spirit,  called 
together  by  a  public  appeal  in  the  Castle  church  of  Wittenberg  (Sept.  1848). 
Its  general  aim  was  to  constitute,  in  a  time  of  fearful  division,  a  firm  bulwark 
for  the  faith,  and  the  two  special  objects  which  it  had  in  view  have  been  well 
represented  in  the  persons  of  the  two  jurists  ton  JBethmann-Hollweg  and 
Stahl,  who  have  been  annually  but  regularly  elected  the  Presidents  of  its 
yearly  meetings.  One  of  these  was  to  satisfy  in  some  practicable  form  the 
desire  then  generally  felt  for  a  German  National  Church,  and  the  other  was 
to  modify  the  Union,  for  which  the  new  Prussian  regulations  had  left  no  other 
distinction  than  the  permission  for  each  confession  to  follow  out  its  own  pecu- 
liar system  of  government,  until  it  should  become  a  mere  confederation.  (#) 
Hence,  in  the  original  charter,  the  Church  Alliance  was  declared,  on  the  one 
hand,  not  to  bo  a  union  in  which  the  confessional  churches  are  to  be  abol- 
ished, but  a  confederation  of  all  those  ecclesiastical  bodies  which  stood  on 
the  basis  of  the  reformed  confessions,  viz.,  the  Lutheran,  the  Reformed,  tho 
United,  and  the  Moravian  Churches,  for  the  promotion  of  certain  common 
interests,  without  impairing  the  complete  independence  of  either  particular 
church ;  and  on  the  other,  to  have  no  actual  existence  until,  in  compliance 
with  the  request  of  a  committee  afterwards  to  be  chosen,  the  authorities  of 
the  respective  national  and  confessional  churches  should  send  deputies  whose 
special  business  it  should  be  to  form  the  true  Ecclesiastical  Council  of  tho 
Evangelical  Church  (of  Germany).  Stahl's  object  was  frustrated  by  the 
power  which  still  remained  in  the  Union,  and  that  of  B.  ITollweg  found  no 
support,  and  nothing  to  draw  men  together  during  tho  political  revolutions 
then  taking  place.  The  only  effects  of  their  efforts  were,  the  separation  of 
the  Prussian  supreme  ecclesiastical  council  into  its  different  confessions,  and 
the  meeting  of  the  Conference  at  Eisenach.  But  the  assemblies  annually 
convened  by  the  invitation  of  the  permanent  committee  became,  like  the 
movable  assemblies  of  the  Gustavus  Adolphus  Society,  though  with  far  more 
comprehensive  objects  and  ecclesiastical  results,  great  pastoral  conferences,  to 
which  distinguished  preachers  were  invited  for  the  discussion  of  the  practical 
questions  of  the  day.  (r)  With  no  other  limitation  than  the  equivocal  con- 
dition that  all  should  stand  on  the  Reformed  Confessions,  here  were  collected 
for  free  co-operation  and  sympathy  those  two  parties  especially  which,  at  the 
Prussian  General  Synod,  and  with  respect  to  that  synod,  stood  in  such  hos- 
tile relations  to  each  other.  At  these  Ecclesiastical  Diets  the  members  not 
only  poured  forth  the  warm  feelings  of  their  hearts  and  uttered  many  devo- 
tional sentiments  without  reference  to  each  other's  peculiarities,  but  many 
maxims  and  plans  of  Christian  wisdom  were  presented.  The  divided  state 
of  opinion  and  the  hesitation  apparent  in  it,  made  its.  decisions  of  but  little 

q)  Dorner  u.  Reform  d.  ev.  Landeskircben  im  Zusammenh.  mit  HerstelL  e.  ev.  deutschen  Na- 
tionalk.  Bonn.  1848. 

r)  Die  Verhandlungen  d.  Witt.  Yersamral.  by  Kling.  BrL  1848.  Verb.  d.  2.  Witt  KTages.  B. 
1S49.  2  II.  Yerh.  d.  8.  dentschen  KTages  zu  Stuttg.  ed.  by  Lechler,  B.  1850.  2  H.  Verb.  d.  4.  KTages 
EU  Elberfeld,  ed.  by  Krafft  B.  1851.  2  II.  Verb.  d.  5.  KT.  zu  Bremen,  ed.  by  Toel,  B.  1852.  2  II. 
Verb.  d.  6.  KT.  zu  Berlin,  ed.  by  Rendtorff,  B.  1853.— Entstebung  u.  bisber.  Gescb,  d.  deutscben  ev. 
KTages.  BrL  1S53. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1853.    §  457.  DOMESTIC  MISSIONS.        59 1 

*• 

avail,  but  they  were  generally  put  forth  against  the  unbelief  and  partial  faith 
of  the  times.  Propositions  of  an  extraordinary  character  were  generally 
modified,  or  allowed  to  remain  as  rash  threats ;  (s)  but  the  partial  reports 
which  particular  parties  sometimes  gave  of  the  proceedings  of  some  assembly, 
acting  without  due  preparation  or  skill,  were  in  danger  of  conveying  state- 
ments or  hasty  representations  to  the  minds  of  evangelical  princes,  and  thus 
suspicions  might  be  thrown  upon  the  efforts  of  more  liberal  persons,  and  the 
natural  development  of  their  plans  might  be  disturbed.  The  propositions  of 
a  committee  at  the  Ecclesiastical  Diet  at  Berlin,  to  leave  undisturbed  the  pe- 
culiar confession  of  each  church,  but  to  acknowledge  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion of  1530  as  the  common  record  of  evangelical  doctrine  in  Germany 
(according  to  the  programme,  as  the  fundamental  creed  of  the  whole  Evan- 
gelical Church  of  Germany),  was  almost  unanimously  adopted,  and  every 
attempt  to  modify  or  explain  it  was  repelled  in  a  dictatorial  manner.  From 
the  first  every  invitation  to  co-operate  in  this  movement  had  been  declined 
by  the  separatist  Lutheran  Church.  A  few  Lutheran  doctors  of  Erlangen, 
Leipsic,  and  Eostock,  gave  their  testimony  against  the  resolution  of  the  Assem- 
bly at  Berlin,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  deceptive  act,  and  injurious,  not 
only  to  the  Lutheran  Church  which  claimed  the  Augsburg  Confession  as  its 
exclusive  property,  but  to  the  Confession  itself,  and  that  it  obliterated  all 
those  distinctions  which  God  had  placed  between  truth  and  error.  (£)  The 
ecclesiastical  diet,  from  its  first  organization,  was  principally  engaged  in  plans 
for  domestic  missions  to  relieve  the  spiritual  and  temporal  necessities  of  evan- 
gelical people  by  means  of  evangelical  instruction  and  fraternal  supplies.  The 
Church  had  indeed  always  been  an  institution  for  affording  such  relief,  but 
the  doctrine  of  the  merit  of  works  had  made  the  Catholic  far  more  efficient 
in  such  matters  than  the  Evangelical  Church,  and  the  practical  activity  of 
the  Eeformed  had  always  exceeded  that  of  the  Lutheran  body.  With  the 
increase  of  life  in  the  Church,  Christian  love  manifested  itself  also -more  ener- 
getically in  those  various  associations  which  had  been  devised  against  the 
miseries  of  social  life,  and  entered  with  more  or  less  earnestness  into  mea- 
sures for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  all  who  were  alienated  from  God.  (u)  Wi- 
chern,  a  licentiate,  and  the  superintendent  of  the  Eough  House  near  Ham- 
burg, for  the  rescue  of  neglected  children  (after  1833),  succeeded  by  enthusi- 
astic speeches  and  writings  in  making  the  cause  of  Domestic  Missions  a 
popular  object  even  in  circles  of  fashion,  and  the  hesitation  of  the  Luther- 
ans on  the  ground  that  it  might  be  an  interference  with  the  clerical  office, 
through  the  unrestrained  activity  of  associations,  and  that  it  was  a  develop- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of  the  universal  priesthood,  has  been  insufficient  to 
check  its  progress.^)  The  centralization  of  the  quiet  but  complicated  action  of 

6)  Ev.  KZ.  1852.  p.  904. 

t)  Das  Bekenntniss  der  luth.  K.  gegen  d.  Bek.  d.  Berl.  KTaga  gewahrt  von  etlichen  Lehrern  d. 
Th.  u.  d.  KKechts.  ErL  1853.  Comp.  W.  F.  lesser,  Union  u.  Confoed.  (Zeitscb.  f.  luth.  Th.  1849. 
U.2.) 

ii)  Diaconissen-Anstalt  zu  Kaisersworth.  (A.  KZ.  1S39.  N.  135. 1S40.  N.  41. 1  Die  barmh.  Schwest- 
ern  d.  ev.  K.  (Deutsche  Vierteljahrssch.  1842.  N.  19.) 

«)  Die  fliegenden  Blatter  des  rauhen  Hauses,  Hamb.  s.  1843.  Die  innerc  Mission  d.  deutschen  ev. 
K.  Denkschr.  an  d.  dt  Nation.  Hamb.  1849. 


592  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1853. 

% 

the  local  associations  which  some  have  attempted,  will,  perhaps,  only  give 
greater  importance  to  the  whole  by  the  increase  of  counsel,  and  by  the  pro- 
posed education  of  well  qualified  laborers ;  (w)  and  the  ecclesiastical  diet, 
while  it  serves  to  inflame  the  hearts  of  men  to  afford  an  ample  supply  for 
the  abyss  of  neglected  wretchedness  which  it  discloses,  will  make  the  Church 
Alliance  a  voluntary  alliance  of  faith  working  by  love.  The  progress  of  Catho- 
licism in  England  produced  such  a  spirit  of  co-operation  among  the  Protes- 
tants of  that  country,  that  many  were  prepared  for  a  plan  of  union  embracing 
all  truly  evangelical  communities.  After  a  preliminary  meeting  at  Liverpool 
(1845),  and  after  much  discussion  of  various  propositions  at  an  assembly  in 
London  (1840),  an  Evangelical  Alliance  was  formed  with  great  rejoicings,  in 
which,  on  the  basis  of  nine  articles  as  a  common  platform  of  faith,  any  per- 
sons in  their  individual  capacity,  and  without  interfering  with  their  ecclesias- 
tical differences,  might  extend  to  each  other  as  Evangelical  Christians  the 
hand  of  fellowship.  Even  Germans  took  part  in  these  proceedings,  and 
Northern  and  Southern  Germany  were  marked  out  for  auxiliary  societies. 
But  such  was  the  nature  of  ^the  articles  that  no  union  based  upon  them  could 
be  of  much  importance  except  for  Great  Britain  and  North  America,  to  re- 
mind the  numerous  sects  of  those  countries,  who  are  divided  by  certain  rigid 
literalities,  but  are  united  in  the  many  fundamental  doctrines  of  primitive  or- 
thodoxy, of  their  higher  unity,  (x) 

§  458.     The  Scriptures.     Cont.from  §  379,  411. 

J)6  Wette,  EinL  In  das  A.  u.  N.  Test  (p.  650.)  [Inb  to  the  O.  T.  transL  from  the  Germ,  of  De 
Wetto,  with  copious  add.  by  Tbeod.  Parker.  Bost  1948.  2  vols.]  In  d.  N.  T.  by  Credner,  Hal.  ISSGss. 
by  Neudecker,  Lps.  1840.  JReuss,  Gesch.  d.  U.  BchrifL  (p.  446.)  [Some  notices  may  also  be  found  iu 
T.  If.  Home's  &  Davidson's  Introductions.] 

The  peculiar  nature  of  Protestantism  was  exhibited  in  the  fact  that  all 
parties,  in  proportion  as  they  had  a  living  connection  with  the  Church,  met 
on  the  common  ground  of  the  Scriptures.  Although  these  had  lost  some- 
thing of  the  venerable  majesty  they  once  possessed  as  a  holy  book,  modern 
Protestantism  made  it  easier  to  investigate  them  as  original  documents.  With 
respect  to  the  New  Testament,  GriesbacJi  (1745-1812)  examined  all  the  libra- 
ries of  Europe,  and  laid  down  the  principles  for  ascertaining  the  most  proba- 
ble reading  by  a  careful  weighing  of  testimony  and  a  preference  of  the  older 
Alexandrian  manuscripts,  (a)  Lachmann  (d.  1851),  without  regard  to  the 
sense  of  the  passages,  merely  sought  for  the  most  ancient  reading,  (5)  and 
TiscJiendorf  recovered  manuscripts  which  had  been  lost,  and  restored  others 
which  had  been  defaced,  (c)  In  the  historical  investigations  for  determining 

7/0  Entsteh.  u.  Gesch.  d.  KTags.  p.  64s.  BrL  KZ.  1852.  N.  17. 

«0  Essays  on  Chr.  Union.  Edinb.  1845.  Brl.  KZ.  1846.  N.  41ss.  45.  50.  63s.  71.  74  81.  87.  89.  1847. 
N.  11.  84  C.  Mann  &  Th.  Plitt,  d.  ev.  Bond.  Bas.  1847.  K  Boehmer,  d.  ev.  Bundestag  in  London. 
1851.  (Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  W.  1851.  N.  46s  )  Journals  of  the  Alliance:  Evangelical  Christen- 
dom, &  Bulletin  du  Monde  Chretien. 

a)  J.  C.  W.  Augusti,  u.  Griesb.  Verdienste.  Bresl.  1812. 

5)  N.  T.  Brl.  1831.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1830.  H.  4  1S32.  H.  4  N.  Test  gr.  et  lab  C.  Lachmann,  reo. 
Phil.  Buttmannus,  gr.  lect  auctoritates  apposuit  Ber.  1842-50.  2  vols. 

c)  Cod.  Ephraemi  rescr.  Lps.  1S43-5.  2  vols.  4    Monumm.  sacra  N.  T.  Lps.  1346.  4. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUKCII  TILL  1853.    §  453.  WINEE.    LUCKE.  593 

the  genuineness  of  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  especially  of  those 
which  bore  the  names  of  Moses  and  Daniel,  then  generally  regarded  as  the 
work  of  later  authors,  every  effort  was  made  by  the  newly  awakened  ortho- 
doxy to  prove  that  they  were  composed  by  those  whose  names  they  bore,  (d) 
Besides  those  books  of  the  New  Testament  which  had  been  subject  to  some 
suspicion  in  ancient  times,  the  first  gospel  lost  the  name  of  Matthew,  (e)  the 
pastoral  epistles  were  called  in  question,  (/)  some  painful  but  easily  re- 
tracted doubts  were  raised  respecting  the  gospel  of  John,  which  had  been  so 
highly  extolled  for  its  theology  of  feeling,  (g}  No  sooner  was  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  released  from  the  service  of  Orthodoxy  than  it  was 
taken  up  by  the  party  of  the  Enlightenment,  The  ultimate  results  of  their 
efforts  may  bo  seen  in  the  ethical  expositicns  required  by  Kant,  and  the 
rationalistic  explanation  of  the  miraculous  history.  "When  science  itself  suc- 
ceeded in  overcoming  this  feeble  effort,  the  object  of  all  true  interpretation 
was  generally  acknowledged  to  be  a  faithful  representation  of  the  literal 
sense  intended  by  the  sacred  authors.  Winer  (b.  1789)  made  use  of  the  de- 
velopment given  to  classical  philology  for  determining  the  idioms  of  the  .New 
Testament,  that  he  might  terminate  all  uncertainty  about  the  meaning  of 
particular  words  by  the  highest  degree  of  grammatical  accuracy.  (7i)  Lucke 
(b.  1791)  was  the  first  who,  in  the  spirit  of  the  recent  free  investigation,  re- 
ferred once  more  to  the  religious  element  as  it  may  be  learned  through  the 
sympathy  which  the  interpreter  should  feel  with  primitive  antiquity,  and  as 
it  is  indicated  by  ecclesiastical  tradition,  (i)  and  enriched  by  a  strong  predilec- 
tion for  the  explanation  given  by  the  ecclesiastical  fathers  and  reformers. 
The  Hegelian  school  insisted  that  it  was  the  highest  duty  of  an  interpreter  to 
bring  out  the  ideas  which  lie  unconsciously  at  the  basis  of  the  biblical  repre- 
sentations and  figures.  (&)  This  practice  was  afterwards  accommodated  to 
the  heterodox  method  of  mythical  interpretation  which,  so  far  as  relates  to 
the  application  of  antiquities  to  the  primeval  history  of  the  Old  Testament, 
was  for  a  long  time  in  vogue,  and  met  with  almost  universal  opposition  when 
it  substituted  an  ideal  general  truth  for  the  original  facts  of  the  Christian 
history.  (T)  Two  parties  were  at  last  arrayed  in  direct  opposition  to  each 
other ;  the  one  regarded  the  Scriptures  entirely  as  the  work  of  man,  and  the 
other  looked  upon  them  as  a  direct  revelation  from  God.  The  new  Tubingen 
school,  particularly,  has  endeavored  to  show  that  the  writings  of  the  New  Tes- 


d)  Hengsteriberg,  Beitrr.  z.  Einl.  in  d.  A.  T.  BrI.  1831-89.  8  v.    [The  8  first  vols.  of  Contributions 
on  Zecli.  &  Dan.  and  on  Pentateuch,  trans,  by  Rylancl,  &  publ.  in  Clarke's  For.  &  Theol.  Lib.  Edinb. 
1847.  3  v.  8.] 

e)  Sieffert,  u.  d.  Urspr.  d.  ersten  kan.  Ev.  Koenigsb.  1832. 

/)  §  449.  n,t  e,    F.  C.  Baur,  die  sogen.  Pastoralbr.  Stuttg.  1835. 

#)  Bretschneider,  Probabilia  de  Ev.  et  Epp.  Jo.  indole  et  orig.  Lps.  1«20. 

A)  Grainmatik  d.  neutest  Sprachidioms.  Lps.  1822.  5  cd.  1844.  [Gram,  of  the  Idioms  of  the  Gr. 
Lang,  of  the  N.  T.  from  the  Germ,  of  G.  B.  Winer,  by  J.  IT.  Agnew  &  0.  G.  Ebbeke,  Philad.  1840. 8.] 

i)  Grundriss  d.  neutest.  Hermeneutik.  Gott  1817.  Brl.  theol.  Zeitsch.  1822.  H.  8.  More  fully  in 
his  Commentar  u.  d.  Schrr.  d.  Joh.  since  1S20.  [Lucke  on  the  Epp.  of  John  is  transl.  &  publ.  in 
Clark's  Bibl.  Cab.  Edinb.  1846.] 

k)  Billrot\  Comm.  zu  den  Brr.  an  d.  Cor.  Lps.  1833.  \Blllroth  on  the  Epp.  to  the  Cor.  is  transl 
&  publ.  in  Clark's  Bib.  Cab.  Ed.  1838.]  Brl.  Jahrbb.  1833.  N.  53. 

I)  K,  7/as/?,  Leben  Jesu.  §  22.  nt  a. 


594  MODEEN  CHUKCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

tament  were  the  result  of  a  series  of  conflicts  and  attempts  at  compromise  be- 
tween the  Jewish  Christianity  of  Peter  and  the  Gentile  Christianity  of  Paul. 
Certain  points  of  development  following  each  other  at  regular  periods,  are 
supposed  by  these  writers  to  be  discoverable  in  the  doctrinal  contents  of  the 
sacred  writings,  and  principally  on  the  basis  of  these  the  Revelation  of  John, 
and  the  four  great  epistles  of  Paul,  are  alone  regarded  as  genuine  monuments 
of  the  Apostolic  Church,  and  the  first  gospel  is  looked  upon  as  a  collection  of 
apostolic  traditions  made  very  near  the  same  period.  The  original  Gospel  of 
Luke  they  endeavored  to  find  in  that  of  Marcion,  though  in  this  they  have 
been  corrected  by  their  own  disciples,  and  in  the  fourth  gospel  they  have  dis- 
covered a  dogmatic  and  figurative  composition  formed  from  materials  sup- 
plied by  the  synoptic  gospels,  to  reconcile  all  ecclesiastical  parties  in  the  second 
century,  during  the  latter  part  of  which  the  notion  of  the  Logos  was  applied 
to  that  of  Christ,  and  so  attained  ascendency  in  the  Church  for  all  subsequent 
ages.  (TO)  We  have  at  last  a  criticism  from  this  school  which  seems  to  have 
originated  more  in  a  love  of  offence  than  of  truth,  for  even  the  four  epistles 
of  Paul  are  thrown  by  it  into  the  general  abyss,  (ri)  On  the  other  hand,  the 
new  orthodox  school  professed  to  take  a  higher  view  of  the  whole  sacred  his- 
tory ;  it  was  convinced  of  the  genuineness  of  all  the  books  of  the  Bible ;  it 
found  in  every  part  of  them  not  only  divine  truth  but  the  Lutheran  theology, 
and  the  only  danger  was  that  the  theosophic  fancies  in  which  many  indulged 
might  carry  them  beyond  even  this.  In  their  fondness  for  the  supernatural 
they  delighted  in  extending  the  work  of  God's  Spirit,  and  of  redemption,  to 
material  things ;  and  while  they  conceded  that  the  account  of  creation  is 
perhaps  poetical,  and  addressed  to  the  outward  vision,  they  not  only  regard 
it  as  a  veritable  history,  but  have  discovered  that  before  the  day  of  creation, 
and  before  the  fall  of  the  angels,  the  earth  was  the  habitation  of  Satan  and 
his  angels.  (0)  Their  views  of  general  history  are  occasionally  full  of  interest, 
and  exhibit  some  traces  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy,  for  the  whole  history  of 
man  is  represented  as  a  gradual  revelation  of  Christ.  But  on  an  intermediate 
ground  between  these  schools,  some  men,  and  especially  some  learned  divines 
have  arisen,  and  have  long  been  tolerated  among  the  faithful  by  the  Evangel- 
ical Church  Journal,  who  make  a  distinction  between  what  is  divine  and 
what  is  human  in  the  Scriptures,  and  have  sought  reconciliation  with  the 
natural  science  of  modern  times,  not  merely  by  ironical  compromises,  but  by 
limiting  divine  inspiration  to  that  which  is  strictly  religious,  and  even  de- 
scribing it  as  nothing  more  than  a  remarkable  tact  in  religious  matters,  (p) 
Although  they  feel  bound  by  their  own  religious  consciousness  to  regard  the 
Scriptures  as  a  divine  revelation,  they  endeavor  to  treat  every  one  as  an  evan- 

m)  F.  C.  Jtaur,  <L  Chrlstenth.  d.  3  ersten  Jabrhh.  Tub.  1853.  Earlier  points  p.  24.  Comp.  Thool. 
Jahrbb.  1851.  H.  8.  p.  294ss. 

«)  B.  Baur,  Kritik  d.  pauL  Briefe.  BrL  1860B.  2  H. 

o)  Tfiierech  (p.  24.)— S.  Stur,  Andeutt  C  gliiub.  Schriftverstandn.  Konigsb.  Lps.  1824ss.  4  vols.— 
F.  Dditech,  Gesch.  d.  proph.  Th.  s.  Crnsius.  Lps.  1S45.  J.  C.  K.  Hofmann:  Weissag.  u.  ErfulL 
NordL  1841-4.  2  vola.  Schrifrbeweis.  Ibid.  1S52.  voL  I.  J.  IT.  Kurtz,  Gesch.  d.  alten  Bundos.  BrL  2. 
sd.  1858.  2  vols. 

p)  Tholuck:  Komm.  u.  «L  B.  an  d.  Hebr.  Hinb.  1S3G.  p.  83ss.  Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wlsa 
1850.  N.  IGss.  42ss. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1853.    §  459.  CALVINISM.    MOMIERS.         595 

gelical  companion  in  the  faith  who  truly  believes,  even  if  he  does  not  believe 
correctly  in  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  and  in  justification  by  faith  in 
Christ.  (?) 

§  459.     Calvinism  as  a  Sect. 

Schickedanz,  d.  K.  v.  Genf  im  19.  Jahrh.  (Archiv  f.  KG.  voL  V.  St  1.)  J.  S.  Chenevitre,  Precis 
des  debate  theol.  qui  depuis  quelques  annees  ont  agitos  la  ville  de  Geneve.  Gen.  1824.  A.  Bost,  De- 
fense des  Fideles  de  1'egl.  de  Gen.,  qui  so  sont  constitues  ea  egl.  independant  Par.  1825.  Hist,  verita- 
ble des  Momiers.  Par.  1824.  2  vols.  Bas.  1S25.  2  H.  Malan,  le  proc6s  du  mdthodisme  du  Gun.  Gen. 
I8S5.  Genfs  kirchl.  Znstiinde.  (Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1850.  N.  81ss.)  Also  Bemerkk.  by  L. 
Thomas.  (Ibid.  1851.  N.  17.)  Die  frnhern  rel.  Zustande  d.  Waadtl  (Keuter,  Eep.  1847.  II.  2s.)—  T. 
Fliedner,  Collectenreise  n.  Holland.  Essen.  1831.  2  vols.  Augusti,  Betr.  u.  d.  Zust.  d.  K.  u.  Theol.  d. 
Niederl.  (Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  u.  Statist  d.  ev.  K  Lps.  1837.  vol.  II.)  Die  Unruhen  in  d.  niederl.  ref.  K. 
1833-39.  By  X.  edit,  by  Gieseler.  Hamb.  1840.  comp.  Acta  hist  ecc.  1836.  p.  561ss.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S3S. 
N.  33ss.  [K.  R.  Hageribach,  (p.  416.)  Tories.  19.  Th.  2.] 

Even  in  the  time  of  Rousseau  the  ministers  of  the  Church  in  Geneva 
shrunk  from  answering  the  question  whether  Christ  was  God.  The  venerable 
Society  of  Pastors  enacted  a  law  (1817),  by  which  it  was  announced  that 
every  minister  would  be  required  at  his  installation  to  promise  that  he  would 
abstain  from  the  discussion  of  certain  principal  points  of  Calvinistic  ortho- 
doxy. After  1813,  however,  some  persons  zealous  for  orthodoxy  became  ex- 
cited, and  were  strengthened  by  the  influence  of  Mad.  de  Krudener  (1766- 
1824).  The  attention  of  this  lady  was  now  turned  from  palaces  to  cottages, 
that  she  might  preach  repentance  in  the  wilderness  of  civilization,  and  col- 
lect and  establish  out  of  all  churches  a  kingdom  for  the  Lion  of  Judah.  (a) 
This  class  of  persons  became  numerous  in  the  Pays  de  Yaud,  and  under  the 
direction  of  some  suspended  ministers  many  Separatist  congregations  were 
formed,  with  various  individual  peculiarities.  According  to  a  popular  witti- 
cism they  were  called  Momiers,  but  a  more  respectable  appellation  was  that 
of  Methodists.  The  people,  who  were  reproved  by  them  even  for  innocent 
mirth  and  harmless  usages,  not  unfrequently  rose  upon  them  in  acts  of  vio- 
lence, and  the  leaders  of  the  new  church  were  punished  by  the  government 
with  imprisonment  and  exile.  Under  the  feeling  that  they  were  thereby  imi- 
tating the  primitive  Christians,  they  endured  these  persecutions  with  much, 
courage.  After  the  Eevolution  of  1830  the  conviction  became  nearly  univer- 
sal that  it  was  unbecoming  for  a  free  people  to  persecute  men  for  any  reli- 
gious creed  whatever.  An  Evangelical  Society  for  the  restoration  of  Calvin- 
ism after  a  Scriptural  model  was  then  formed  (1831),  by  which  a  theological 
seminary  has  been  established  (1832)  for  orthodox  students.  (5)  But  although 
the  Church  of  Geneva  had  been  accused  by  the  Momiers  of  apostasy  from  it- 
self, the  jubilee  of  the  Eeformation  was  triumphantly  celebrated  there,  (c) 
and  the  Grand  Council  of  the  Canton  of  Vaud,  after  a  protracted  debate, 
tore  in  pieces  the  Helvetic  Confession  (1839)  because  it  was  the  standard  of 


g)  Conversation  saloons:  Studien  u.  Krit  ed.  by  Umbreit  «fc  Ullmann  since  1828.  Deutsche 
Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  u.  chr.  Lcben  since  1850.  Comp.  G.  F.  Krauss,  die  sogen.  neuere  Theol.  (Theol. 
Jahrbb.  1853.  H.  2.) 

a)  (ZTurter,)  Frau  v.  Krudener  in  d.  Schweiz.  Helvet  1817.    Zeitgenossen.  Lps.  1818.  vol.  III. 

1)  A.  K.  Z.  1831.  N.  92. 1833.  N.  59.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1831.  N.  84  1832.  N.  54.  Deutsche  Zeitsch.  t  chi 
W.  1850.  N.  50. 

c)  Jubilo  de  la  Ref.  de  G&J.6ve.  Gen.  1835.  3  vols.    Acta  hist  ecc.  1835.  p.  448ss. 


596  MODEEN  CnUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VL    A.  D.  16*8-1858. 

the  Momiers.  (d)  The  Revolution  of  1846  overthrew  the  Calvinistic  aristo- 
cracy of  the  pastors,  and  a  Consistory,  elected  by  the  congregation,  and  with 
a  majority  from  the  congregation,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  National 
Church,  (e)  The  varions  congregations  of  dissenters  formed  themselves 
(1848)  into  an  Evangelical  Church,  whose  wants  have  been  supplied,  and 
whose  pious  efforts  have  been  sustained  with  a  generous  liberality  from  Eng- 
land, in  a  noble  rivalry  with  the  Established  Church.  (/)— The  Church  of  the 
Netherlands  was  completely  re-organized  during  the  occupation  of  the  coun- 
try by  the  French.  By  the  fundamental  law  of  1816  the  synodal  form  of 
government  was  renewed  and  concentrated,  but  the  old  church  discipline  was 
abolished,  and  the  influence  of  the  state  retained.  The  disposition  of  tho 
people  was  favorable  to  a  merely  practical  Christianity,  and  the  educated 
clergy  were  partial  to  a  Scriptural  supernaturalism,  which  now  retained  no 
repugnance  to  the  Remonstrants.  In  consequence  of  the  poetic  interests  in 
the  Netherlands  of  former  times,  created  by  the  poet  Bilderdyk,  many  began 
to  long  after  the  orthodoxy  of  those  times,  and  two  Israelites  who  had  been 
converted  by  him,  displayed  much  zeal  in  opposition  to  the  constitution,  to 
vaccination  and  the  Remonstrants  (1823).  Gradually  a  party  was  formed 
which  demanded  that  every  thing  should  be  restored  to  the  condition  re- 
quired by  the  constitution  and  the  creed  of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  The  leader 
of  this  party,  a  young  minister  whose  name  was  De  Code,  was  at  first  sus- 
pended by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  because  he  would  not  refrain  from 
interfering  in  the  spiritual  affairs  of  the  parishes  of  others,  and  for  calling  his 
ministerial  brethren  wolves,  and  the  hymns  which  had  (since  1807)  sup- 
planted the  Psalms  the  songs  of 'Sirens,  and  was  finally  deposed  (1834).  A 
portion  of  his  congregation  forthwith  declared  themselves  separated  with 
him  from  an  Established  Church  in  which  they  believed  so  many  heresies  were 
mingled,  and  in  a  short  time  their  number  was  increased  by  the  accession  of 
four  ministers  and  four  thousand  people.  Even  in  the  Established  Church 
many  were  alarmed  at  an  open  rupture  with  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort,  but  the  General  Synod  refused  to  explain  the  legal  oath  respecting  the 
public  confessions  of  faith  in  such  a  way  as  to  take  from  each  one  the  right 
of  judging  for  himself  whether  they  were  conformed  to  the  Scriptures  or  not 
(1835).  The  Separatists  were  fined  and  imprisoned  by  the  civil  courts  as  dis- 
turbers of  public  worship,  and  for  violating  the  law  which  forbade  more  than 
twenty  persons  to  assemble  without  permission  from  the  authorities.  They 
at  first  claimed  protection  on  the  ground  that  they  were  the  old  orthodox 
church,  and  not  a  new  sect,  but  they  finally  presented  their  statutes  to  the 
king,  together  with  a  renunciation  of  their  claim  upon  the  property  of  the 
Church,  and  obtained  the  royal  permission  to  form  themselves  into  separate 
Christian  congregations  (1839).  The  Synod  of  the  National  Church,  which 
met  in  1850,  in  view  of  the  numerous  changes  which  had  been  made  in 
fundamental  law  of  the  state,  formed  an  independent  synodal  system, 

d)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1889.  N.  26. 1840.  N.  9. 

c)  Eapport  du  Consist  d.  1'egl  natlonale  de  G6n.  1349.    Eeglement  organlque  pour  Wgl  nat  G<! 
849. 
/)  Egl.  6vang.  a  G6n.  1848.    Assemble  gen.  do  la  Soc.  6v.  G6n.  1349. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUKCH  TILL  1853.    §  460.  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.       597 

cording  to  which  the  general  affairs  of  the  Church  were  to  be  managed  by 
the  General  Synod,  which  met  annually  at  the  Hague,  and  consisted  of  dele- 
gates from  the  ten  provincial  synods,  and  from  the  three  theological  facul- 
ties, and  by  a  commission  chosen  by  the  General  Synod  to  act  in  its  name 
during  the  intervals  between  its  meetings,  (g) 

§  460.    Division  of  the  Church  in  Scotland  and  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud. 

A.  F.  Gemberg,  d.  schott.  Nationalkirche.  Hamb.  1823.  K,  H.  Sack,  d.  K.  v.  Schottland.  Heidlb, 
1844  2  vols.  B,  W.  Noel,  Case  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  Lond.  1844.  8.  Ad.  Sydovo,  d. 
schott  Kirchenfrage.  Potsd.  1845.  J.  Kostlin,  d.  schott  K.  Hamb.  1852.— With  respect  to  the  public 
acts  of  the  Council  of  State,  and  the  comments  of  the  Pres.  Druey :  Allg.  Z.  Monatsbl.  Febr.  1846.  Der 
waadtl.  KStreit  by  X.  (Schweglers  Jahrb.  d.  Gegenw.  Febr.  1846.)— Pr6cis  des  faits  qui  ont  amen6  et 
Buivi  la  demission  de  la  majorite  des  pasteurs  et  ministres  de  Tdgl.  du  canton  de  Vaud.  Accomp.  des 
docum.  offic.  recueil  par  C h.  Baup.  Laus.  1846.  Also  on  this  subject :  Leopold  in  Zeitschr.  f.  hist  Th. 
1846.  H.  4. 184T.  H.  1.  3.— Al  Schweizer,  d.  kirchl.  Zerwurfnisse  im  Kanton  Waadt.  Zur.  1846.  K  F. 
Gelpke,  d.  kirchl.  Beweg.  im  K.  Waadt.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1850.  H.  8.)  [Hetherington^  Hist  of  the 
Chh.  of  Scot.  Edinb.  1843.  New  York.  1844.  p.  363ss.  Hanna,  Life  of  T.  Chalmers.  New  York.  1850- 
2.  4  v.  W.  L.  Alexander,  Notes  of  a  Tour  &  Notices  of  the  KeL  Bodies  of  Switz.  Glasg.  1846.  8.] 

The  Church  of  Scotland  always  felt  a  peculiar  jealousy  in  behalf  of  its 
independence  in  all  spiritual  matters.  The  right  of  patronage  was  therefore 
abolished  in  the  fundamental  law  of  1690  (revolution  settlement.)  When 
this,  however,  was  restored  by  secular  violence  (1712),  the  protests  of  the 
Church  were  generally  quieted  by  those  (Moderates)  who  found  their  own 
comfort  promoted  by  the  existing  state  of  things.  But  when  the  religious 
life  of  the  Church  was  revived,  and  the  puritanic  element  became  powerful, 
the  whole  energy  of  the  party  then  formed  (evangelical  party)  was  concen-, 
trated  in  the  effort  to  destroy  the  power  of  patrons  to  impose  upon  congrega- 
tions ministers  who  were  not  acceptable  to  the  people.  In  1834  the  General 
Assembly  conceded  to  each  congregation  the  right  to  reject  such  ministers 
(veto  act).  "When,  however,  the  royal  courts  took  under  their  protection  the 
rights  of  tne  patrons,  and  in  consequence  of  the  resistance  made  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  interfered  in  various  ways  in  the  spiritual  affairs  of  the  Church, 
and  finally,  when  redress  had  been  sought  in  vain  from  the  imperial  parlia- 
ment, on  the  opening  of  the  General  Assembly,  May  18,  1843,  the  friends  of 
ecclesiastical  freedom  (Nbnintrusionists),  including  a  large  and  the  most  influ- 
ential portion  of  the  clergy,  with  the  noble-minded  Dr.  Chalmers  (d.  1847) 
at  their  head,  separated  themselves  by  a  solemn  protest  from  the  Established 
Church,  on  the  ground  that  violence  had  been  done  to  their  consciences,  and 
dishonor  had  been  inflicted  upon  the  crown  of  Christ  by  the  civil  power.  All 
their  churches  and  revenues  were  abandoned  by  these  seceders  with  no  other 
hope  than  their  reliance  upon  the  free-will  offerings  of  the  Scottish  people. 
As  on  the  one  hand  some  proprietors  refused  to  sell  the  necessary  ground  and 
materials  for  building  new  churches,  so  particular  congregations,  on  the  other, 
attempted  by  violence  to  exclude  from  their  churches  those  ministers  who 
were  obtruded  upon  them  by  patronage.  Millions  of  pounds,  however,  amply 


{/)  A.  KZ.  1851.  N.  80s.    Comp.  Ibid.  1853.  N.  15.  BrL  KZ.  1S53.  N.  9.     UUmann,  z.  Charakteris. 
tik  d.  holL  Th.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1844  H.  a) 


598  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

sufficient  for  all  the  ecclesiastical  wants  of  the  people,  were  contributed,  (<?) 
and  with  the  utmost  worldly  prudence,  as  well  as  the  most  earnest  piety,  the 
Free  Presbyterian  Church  was  founded,  and  became  the  real  National  Church 
of  Scotland. — In  the  Canton  of  Vaud  the  spirit  of  the  methodistic  piety  so 
far  penetrated  even  the  Established  Church,  that  sometimes  when  its  minis- 
ters had  performed  the  duties  of  public  worship  many  would  hold  devotional 
assemblies  in  the  evening  (oratoires),  which  were  attended  especially  by  the 
higher  classes.  In  direct  contrariety  to  the  traditional  doctrine  inculcated 
from  Berne,  that  the  Church  was  strictly  dependent  upon  the  state,  the  idea 
that  the  Church  was  absolutely  independent  of  the  state  was  diffused  among 
the  clergy,  more  especially  by  the  labors  of  Vinet.  (1}  After  the  overthrow 
of  the  comparatively  aristocratic  government  (1845)  the  provisional  regency 
of  the  sovereign  people  prohibited  the  clergy  of  the  Established  Church  from 
attending  the  oratories  which  had  been  already  threatened  by  the  populace, 
and  some  clergymen  who  disobeyed  were  suspended.  When  the  new  demo- 
cratic constitution  was  about  to  be  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  people,  the 
government,  wishing  to  recommend  it  by  proclamation,  sent  it  to  the  clergy 
to  be  read  from  their  pulpits.  About  forty  clergymen  refused  to  comply  with 
this  request,  and  in  justification  of  their  act  appealed  to  a  law  which  ap- 
peared to  give  the  use  of  the  pulpit  to  the  government  only  for  the  publica- 
tion of  acts  relating  to  religion.  For  this  refusal  they  were  accused  before 
their  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  acquitted,  but  they  were  punished  by  the  civil 
government  in  a  suspension  for  one  month  from  their  spiritual  duties.  To 
extricate  the  Church  from  this  thraldom  it  was  proposed  (Nov.  11,  1845),  in 
an  assembly  at  Lausanne  of  the  clergy  belonging  to  the  establishment,  that 
every  clergyman  should  resign  his  office,  when  a  majority  immediately  re- 
nounced their  charges  and  their  salaries.  But  as  they  possessed  no  hold  upon 
the  popular  mind,  they  were  only  able  by  foreign  assistance  to  start  a  Free 
Church  in  small  conventicles,  which  were  persecuted  by  the  police  until 
1850.  In  the  mean  time  the  government  found  but  scanty  means  for  tho 
spiritual  support  of  the  Established  Church. 

§  461.     The  Anglican  GhurcJi  and  the  Dissenters. 

Bogue  &  Sennttt,  II.  of  Dissenters.  Lond.  1S03-12.  4  vols.  (Archiv  f.  KG.  voL  II.  p.  541.  III.  p. 
304.  497.  IV.  1.  28788.)  Lond.  1S83.  2  vols.  J.  Bennett,  IL  of  Diss.  during  tho  last  30  years.  Lond.  1839. 
K.  H.  Sack,  G.  EeLu.  K.  in  Engl.  BrL  1318.  Funk,  Organising  i  engl  Staatsk.  Alton.  1829.  M, 
Boose,  Ecclesiastica,  or,  The  Church,  her  schools  and  her  clergy.  Lond.  1842.  8.  //  F.  VMen,  d.  Zu- 
etiinde  d.  angl  K.  Lps.  1843.  O.  V.  Gerlach,  u.  d.  rel.  Znstand.  d.  angl.  K.  Potsd.  1845.  C.  Schoell, 
d.  kirchl.  Zustande  in  Engl.  (Qelzer.  prot  Monatsch.  1853.  May.)  [J.  Grant,  IL  of  the  Engl.  Church 
&  of  the  Sects  which  have  departed  from  her  Com.  Lond.  1311-26.  4  vols.  8.] 

The  principal  religious  activity  of  the  country  was  found  among  the  Dis- 
senters, who  constituted  about  one  third  of  the  whole  population,  and  in 
Wales  the  majority.  But  as  they  possessed  no  common  centre,  they  became 
broken  up  into  a  great  variety  of  sects,  among  which  might  be  seen,  in  their 

a)  Brl.  K  Z.  1846.  N.  38. 1850.  N.  49. 

&>  Essal  sur  la  manifestation  dos  convictions  relig.  et  snr  la  separation  de  1'cgl.  et  de  1'etat  P«a 
i*42.  Kdlb.  1845.  Considerations  d6di6es  a  Mss.  les  ministres  demissionairos.  Laus.  1845. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG,  CHURCH  TILL  1.853.    §  461.  ENGLAND.  599 

extreme  forms,  every  grade  of  religious  life,  from  the  most  enthusiastic  exal- 
tation down  to  the  most  sceptical  rationalism.  Some  of  the  principal  sect? 
among  them,  however,  have  recently  attempted  to  unite  together  in  more 
intimate  fellowship.  They  were  protected  and  made  subservient  to  various 
party  purposes  by  the  opposition  in  Parliament,  but  with  all  his  eloquence, 
Fox  was  unsuccessful  when  he  pleaded  (1790)  for  their  civil  rights,  (a)  But 
with  the  increasing  spirit  of  general  freedom,  public  sentiment  became 
changed,  and  after  many  attempts  at  partial  relief  the  test  act  was  finally 
abolished  in  1828,  and  the  exclusive  right  of  the  Episcopal  clergy  to  solem- 
nize marriage  and  baptism  for  dissenters  was  taken  away  in  1836.  They  were, 
however,  still  compelled  to  pay  taxes  to  the  Established  Church,  and  the 
House  of  Lords  thought  it  necessary,  by  lifeless  orthodox  forms,  to  protect 
the  Universities  under  the  patronage  of  the  State  against  the  intrusion  of  dis- 
senters. (5)  But  many  powerful  associations  avowed  their  determination  to 
promote  the  principle  of  religious  freedom,  not  only  in  England  but  in  every 
quarter  of  the  world,  (c)  A  charter  was  obtained  for  the  University  of  Lon- 
don (1836),  the  object  of  which  was  principally  the  education  of  dissenters. 
The  Established  Church  became  almost  a  sinecure,  while  the  actual  duties  of 
the  pastoral  office  were  either  evaded,  or  performed  by  poorly  paid  pastors 
and  hired  vicars.  ($)  For  a  long  time  the  bishops  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
with  the  aristocracy,  set  themselves  in  direct  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the 
people,  and  persons  of  worldly  sagacity  lost  confidence  in  the  spiritual  privi- 
leges of  the  bishops,  as  well  as  in  the  divine  right  of  tithes.  The  injurious 
influence  of  an  Established  Church  was  demonstrated  by  the  dissenters,  and 
the  bishops  were  warned  by  the  government  to  set  their  house  in  order. 
They  appealed  to  the  oath  taken  by  the  king  at  his  coronation,  that  he  would 
maintain  the  inviolability  of  the  Church,  and  by  virtue  of  which  he  held  his 
crown.  But  an  evangelical  party  had  now  been  developed  which  especially 
represented  the  Protestant,  as  the  High  Church  party  did  the  Catholic  ele- 
ment in  the  Episcopal  Church.  This  evangelical  party  expected  deliver- 
ance only  in  such  a  reformation  as  was  demanded  by  the  times,  (e)  Certain 
literary  men  at  Oxford,  of  whom  the  principal  were  Newman  and  Pusey 
(after  1833),  raised  the  Catholic  element  to  a  still  higher  position.  The  ob- 
ject of  these  persons  was  avowed  to  be  the  revival  of  genuine  Catholicity. 
Protestantism  was  disavowed,  and  many  Catholic  but  old  ecclesiastical  usages 
and  statutes,  so  far  as  they  were  consistent  with  the  thirty-nine  articles,  were 
brought  once  more  into  practice.  These  efforts  were  favored  by  the  High 
Church  party,  until  their  gradually  developed  tendencies  to  Roman  Catholi- 
cism aroused  the  Protestant  spirit  of  the  nation,  and  Puseyism  was  rejected, 
even  by  the  bishops.  Since  that  time  many  persons  have  passed  over  from 


a)  Staudlin,  Geogr.  u.  Stat.  vol.  I.  p.  lG2ss. 

1)  After  Beverley :  A.  Z.  1834.  N.  222.  229.    Eheinwahl,  Eep.  vol.  XXIX.  p.  92ss. 

C)  A.  Z.  1834.  N.  150.        d)  A.  K.  Z.  iSSl.  p.  312. 

e)  Lord  Henley,  A  Plan  of  Church  Keform.  Lond.  eel.  4.  1832.  [Edinb.  Eeview,  vol.  XXXVIII. 
p.  14.5.  Feb.  1823.  XLIV.  p.  490.  Sept  1826.  (Sel.  from  Ed.  Kev.  Par.  1835.  voL  V.  p.  B01-324.)  B.  W. 
Noel,  Union  of  Chh.  &  State.  Lond.  &  New  York.  1849. 12.]  Further  Eeform  Literature :  A.  K.  Z. 
1833.  Lit  Bl.  N.  49.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1833.  P.  Is. 


600  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1858. 

the  Established  to  the  Catholic  Church.  (/)  During  this  collision  of  parties., 
and  in  consequence  of  the  serious  spirit  of  practical  piety  excited  among  tho 
people  (after  1820),  a  new  and  fresh  life  was  awakened  in  the  bosom  of  tho 
Church  itself.  The  hierarchy  gave  up  a  portion  of  its  tithes  that  thoy  mi^ht 
not  have  the  whole  wrested  from  them.  In  1836  a  bill  for  the  reform  of  tho 
Church  was  introduced  into  Parliament  by  Lord  Russell.  It  diminished  tho 
prodigious  inequalities  which  had  existed  in  the  revenues  of  the  bishops,  im- 
proved and  increased  the  parishes  by  means  of  a  portion  of  the  sinecures,  ami 
placed  restraints  upon  pluralities  and  the  performance  of  pastoral  duties  by 
hired  proxies.  Some  further  concessions  were  made  even  by  the  aristocracy, 
when  a  Commission  for  Inquiry  was  appointed  by  Sir  Robert  Peel.  Tho 
ministry,  however,  admonished  tho  reformers  that  they  should  bo  satisfied 
with  what  they  could  get,  rather  than  attempt  radical  changes.  Tho  conces- 
sions were  accepted  with  much  reluctance  by  tho  majority  in  the  Lower 
House,  and  constituted  the  commencement  of  a  reform,  which  was  subse- 
quently carried  out  in  the  same  spirit  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Revenue  Bill 
(1840).  (g)  When  a  number  of  bishops  had  been  consecrated  for  foreign 
countries  the  ministry  began  also  to  endow  dioceses  in  England  with  the  sav- 
ings of  tho  hierarchy  (1847),  without  connecting  with  them  seats  in  tho 
House  of  Lords,  (h)  The  Church  Pastoral  Aid  Society,  with  the  assistance 
of  Parliament  and  munificent  voluntary  contributions  from  the  people,  erected 
numerous  churches  in  the  commercial  towns,  and  sent  forth  assistant  preach- 
ers to  supply  the  spiritual  wants  of  an  increasing  population.  "When  Gorham, 
a  vicar,  was  accused  of  teaching  that  the  grace  of  regeneration  does  not  ne- 
cessarily accompany  tho  act  of  baptism,  and  when  the  Bishop  of  Exeter,  who 
was  favorable  to  Puseyism,  refused  to  admit  him  to  the  benefico  to  which  he 
had  been  presented  by  the  crown,  he  was  instituted  (1847-50),  in  accordance 
with  the  verdict  of  the  privy  council,  the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  (after 
1833),  in  spite  of  the  protest  of  his  bishop,  on  the  ground  that  his  views 
were  not  inconsistent  with  the  articles  of  tho  English  Church.  In  this  affair 
was  exhibited  on  the  one  hand,  the  stubbornness  of  episcopal  orthodoxy  even 
when  not  much  sustained  by  public  opinion,  and  on  the  other,  the  impropriety 
of  submitting  theological  controversies  for  decision  to  the  civil  courts.  But 
all  attempts  springing  out  of  it  to  raise  the  assemblies  of  the  clergy  from  their 
nominal  existence  to  tho  real  spiritual  powers  which  they  formerly  possessed 
(p.  442),  or  at  least  to  transfer  the  decision  of  controversies  on  ecclesiastical 
doctrines  to  the  episcopal  courts,  were  frustrated  either  in  Parliament  or  by 
the  ministry,  (i) 

/)  Newman)  Tracts  for  the  times,  espec.  No.  90 ;  Remarks  on  certain  passages  Jn  the  89  Artt  1S41. 
(Brl.  K.  Z,  1841.  N.  81.  86.  42.)  E.  R  Fiuey*  The  Articles  treated  on  in  Tract  90  reconsidered  OxC 
1841.  H.  Abeken,  Letter  to  E.  B.  Posey,  in  reference  to  certain  charges  against  the  Germ.  Church. 
Lond.  1842.  M.  Petri,  Beitrr.  z.  Wurdig.  d.  Pas.  Gott  1843.  2  H.  C.  Fock,  d.  Pas.  (Schwegler, 
Jahrbb.  1844.  p.  T42sa)  R.  Weaver,  d.  Pas.  A.  d.  Engl.  v.  Amtnor,  Lps.  1844.  Brans,  Rep.  1846.  vol. 
VI.  p.  18188.  vol.  VII.  p.  89ss. 

fir)  A.  Z.  1836,  N.  198.    Sapplem.  N.  211.  216.  233.  Brl.  K.  Z.  1840.  N.  73. 

h)  Brl.  K.  Z.  1847.  N.  85. 

0  Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1853.  H.  1.  [Judgment  of  tho  Dean  of  the  Arches'  Court  in  tho  case  of 
Sorhara  T.  the  Bishop  of  Exeter.  Lond.  1849.] 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §462.  NORTH  AMERICA.  601 

§  462.    Ecclesiastical  Affairs  in  the  North  American  Republic. 

A.  Reed  and  J.  Matheson,  Visit  to  the  American  Churches.  New  York.  1835.  2  vols.  (Ev.  KZ 
1837.  N.  Sss.)  H.  Caswell,  America  and  the  Amer.  Church.  2  ed.  Lond.  1853.  (Ev.  KZ.  1839.  N. 
66ss.)  J.  D.  Hupp,  He  pasa  Ekklesia,  or  Hist  of  the  Eel.  Denominations  in  the  U.  S.  Phil.  1844. 
If.  Baird,  Religion  in  the  U.  S.  Edinb.  1844.  Revised  as  KGesch.  u.  kirchl.  Statist  by  a  Brandes, 
Brl.  1844.  [Ibid.  Chr.  Retrospect  and  Register.  N.  York.  1850. 12.  Ibid.  Rel.  Denoinm.  in  the  U. 
S.  (in  Amer.  and  For.  Chr.  Union,  vol.  I.  N.  2.— vol.  III.  N.  4.)  Rel.  Denomm.  in  the  U.  8.  by  vari- 
ous authors.  Harrisburg.  2  ed.  1849.  P.  D.  Gorrie,  Churches  and  Sects  in  the  U.  S.  N.  York.  1850.]— 
J.  G.  Buttner,  Briefe  aus  u.  u.  N.  A.  Dresd.  1845.  2  vols.  F.  v.  Jiaumer,  [America  and  the  Amer 
People,  from  the  Germ.  N.  York.  1846.  8.]  Lps.  1845.  2  vols.—  W.  Klose,  d.  chr.  K.  in  d.  Verein.  St 
N.  A.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1848.  H.  1.)  \J.  Dixon,  Tour  through  the  U.  S.  N.  York.  1848. 12.] 

[A  peculiar  form  of  ecclesiastical  life  has  been  developed  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  religious  spirit  has  there  been  allowed  unlimited 
freedom  to  assume  every  variety  of  external  organization,  and  has  found  full 
scope  for  its  utmost  zeal.  The  national  and  State  governments  are  prohibited 
by  their  constitutions  from  all  interference  with  religion,  but  Christianity  is 
generally  recognized  as  a  part  of  the  common  law,  stringent  regulations  are 
in  force  against  blasphemy  and  the  profanation  of  the  Sabbath,  and  public 
prayers  are  daily  offered  in  connection  with  all  legislative  proceedings,  (a) 
Error  is  permitted  to  contend  on  equal  terms  with  truth,  no  civil  disability  is 
imposed  for  opinion's  sake,  and  all  may  propagate  their  views  in  public  and 
in  private  as  long  as  the  rights'  of  others  are  not  invaded.  As  yet,  there  is 
no  evidence  that  in  such  circumstances  Christianity  will  not  triumph.  In  the 
exercise  of  its  free  energies,  it  has  contended  with  a  highly  stimulated 
worldly  spirit  and  a  multitude  of  errors,  which  have  here  found  their  best 
and  often  only  asylum ;  and  not  only  is  it  almost  universally  received,  but  its 
most  prevalent  forms  are  those  of  the  strictest  evangelical  piety.  From  the 
peculiar  origin  and  history  of  the  nation,  we  should  of  course  expect  to  find 
that  its  ecclesiastical  organizations  and  usages  resemble  those  of  the  Old 
World.  But  the  Puritan  and  Methodistic  elements  have  been  especially 
attracted  there,  and  have  become  prominent  in  the  national  character.  The 
zeal  engendered  by  an  earnest  Christianity  thrown  into  such  powerful  conflict 
with  the  world,  has  led  its  friends  to  an  intense  use  of  ordinary  and  extra- 
ordinary means  for  the  conversion  of  men,  and  the  religious  revivals  which 
have  sometimes  been  witnessed  in  other  lands,  have  here  become  frequent.  (5) 
Accustomed  also  to  rely  much  upon  the  power  of  numbers,  great  societies 
have  been  formed  for  the  removal  of  social  evils,  and  for  combined  effort  to 
plant  the  institutions  of  the  gospel  among  the  destitute  at  home  and  abroad. 
A  majority  of  the  whole  population  have  abandoned  the  habitual  use  of 
intoxicating  drinks,  and  seven  States  of  the  Union  have  already  prohibited 
the  sale  of  them  as  an  ordinary  beverage.  More  than  3,000  ministers  of  the 
gospel  are  sustained  principally  in  the  older  States,  to  labor  among  the  newer 

o)  Constitutions  of  the  several  States,  and  of  the  U.  S.  &c.  N.  York.  8.  J.  Story,  Exposition  of 
the  Const  of  the  U.  S.  N.  York.  184T.  M.  McKinney,  Amer.  Magistrate.  (Philad.  1S50.)  p.  689. 193. 
203.  G.  T.  Curtis,  Hist  of  the  Const,  of  the  U.  S.  N.  York.  1854.  2  vols. 

&)  W.  B.  Sprague,  Lectt  on  Revivals,  Albany.  1832.  8.  A.  Barnes,  On  Revivals.  N.  York. 
1S41.  C.  Finney,  Lectt.  on  Revivals.  N.  York.  1S35.  Colton,  Hist  and  Char,  of  Amer.  Revivals, 
Lond.  1832. 


602  MODEEN  CHUECn  HISTOEY.    PEE.  YL    A.  D.  !G4S-lS5a 

settlements  of  the  "West  and  South,  (c)  There  is  one  house  of  worship  fo 
every  646,  and  one  minister  for  every  600  of  the  entire  population,  (it)  As 
each  denomination  of  Christians,  in  case  of  general  disagreement  or  griev- 
ance, finds  its  ultimate  remedy  in  separation,  numerous  sects  have  sprung  up, 
•without  important  distinctions  in  doctrine  or  organization ;  but  the  evils  of 
disunion  are  in  many  instances  much  mitigated  by  an  interchange  of  corre- 
sponding delegates  through  their  superior  assemblies,  by  the  free  reception 
of  each  other's  ministers  and  members  on  prescribed  terms,  and  by  co-opera- 
tion in  many  of  the  national  charitable  associations.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  in  some  instances  attempted  to  ingraft  upon  itself  popular  traits 
and  usages,  but  its  general  spirit  of  uniformity  has  resisted  them,  and  its  pre 
vailing  character  here  is  the  same  as  in  the  Old  World.  Its  growth  in  this 
country  has  been  for  a  few  late  years  remarkably  raj. id,  almost  exclusively 
by  Catholic  emigrants  from  Europe,  multitudes  of  whom,  however,  ore  for 
ever  lost  to  the  general  Roman  fold,  (e)  The  vast  funds,  numerous  clergy, 
and  other  laborers,  with  which  foreign  societies  have  supplied  it,  have  ena- 
bled it  to  establish  many  institutions  for  education  and  charity,  and  erect  a 
splendid  hierarchy,  which  givo  it  great  power  for  proselytism,  and  have 
raised  the  hope  that  Rome  might  recover  its  life  by  appropriating  to  itself 
the  youthful  energies  of  this  growing  nation.  (/)  But  by  its  conflicts  with 
educational  establishments,  by  its  unity  of  action  in  behalf  of  political  inter- 
ests, and  by  its  sympathies  and  connections  with  foreign  and  anti-republicau 
influences,  it  has  awakened  against  itself  a  powerful  political  and  religious 
feeling  which  has  sometimes  broken  forth  into  unlawful  violence,  (g)  It 
probably  has  under  its  control,  principally  in  the  largo  cities,  in  Maryland  and 
in  Louisiana,  about  one  in  twelve  of  the  whole  population.  The  Episcopal 
Church,  though  the  oldest  (1607),  is  still  among  the  smallest  of  the  Protes- 
tant sects,  but  its  progress  has  recently  become  accelerated  especially  among 
the  wealthy  and  conservative  classes.  It  differs  from  its  parent  English 
Church  by  its  want  of  a  connection  with  a  civil  establishment,  by  an  exten- 
sive participation  of  the  laity  in  the  legislative  and  administrative  power  of 
the  Church,  and  by  its  synodal  constitution  under  annual  diocesan  and  tri- 
ennial national  conventions,  (h)  The  Congregationalists^  whose  first  church 
was  formed  in  the  ship  which  conveyed  the  pilgrims  to  America  (1619),  and 
who  are  principally  descendants  of  the  English  Puritans,  believe  that  each 
congregation  possesses  all  ecclesiastical  power  in  itself;  but  in  the  exercise  of 
this,  they  form  occasional  Councils,  composed  of  neighboring  ministers  and 
the  delegates  of  contiguous  churches,  for  the  ordination,  the  settlement,  and 
the  dismission  of  ministers ;  District  Associations,  composed  of  a  few  minis- 
ters and  churches  who  may  permanently  associate  for  mutual  counsel  and 

c)  R.  Baird,  EetrospecL  p.  218ss.  259ss.         d)  Abstract  of  Census,  p.  29. 

e)  Amcr.  and  For.  Chr.  Union.  Aug.  1852.  p.  251.    N.  York  Observer,  June  10, 1852. 

/)  Catholic  Almanac  for  1854.  Bait.  1854.  Foreign  Conspiracy.  New  York.  1S85.  2T.  L.  Rice, 
Romanism,  the  Enemy  of  Education,  Free  Institutions,  &c.  Cincin.  1S52. 12. 

(7)  Eomanisin  incompatible  with  Eepablican  Principles.  N.  York.  1834  IS.  Our  Country,  its 
Danger,  &c.  N.  York.  1840. 18.  G.  B.  Cheever,  EigUt  of  the  Bible  in  Schools.  N.  York.  1S50. 1C. 

h)  S.  Wilberforce,  Hist  of  the  Prot  Episc.  Church  in  Am.  Lond.  and  N.  Y.  (1844.)  1346.  12 
W.  White,  II.  of  the  Church.  N.  York.  1S54.  8.  A.  B.  Cluipin,  in  Hist  of  Eel.  Denom.  p.  601ss. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1S53.    §  462.  NOETH  AMERICA.  603 

fellowship;  and  General  Associations  or  Consociations,  comprising  all  the 
ministers  and  churches  of  a  State.  Such  bodies,  however,  have  only  advi 
sory  power,  and  their  decisions  have  the  force  of  discipline  only  by  their 
moral  influence.  The  intelligence,  the  systematic  benevolence,  and  the  sober 
piety  of  this  people,  have  rendered  them  especially  influential.  They  prevail 
principally  in  the  six  Eastern  States,  in  New  York,  and  north  of  the  Ohio. 
They  acknowledge  the  absolute  authority  of  no  uninspired  creed,  but  great 
respect  is  paid  to  certain  Calvinistic  Confessions  of  Faith  and  Catechisms 
which  are  used  among  them,  and  some  of  their  divines  have  exerted  a  deci- 
sive influence  upon  the  theology  of  the  age.  (i)  Near  the  close  of  the  last 
and  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  a  number  of  the  Congrega- 
tional ministers  and  churches  of  Massachusetts  were  known  to  believe  Uni- 
tarian doctrines ;  but  a  general  separation  was  not  effected  until  (1815)  the 
orthodox  party  were  startled  by  some  announcements  respecting  the  progress 
of  Unitarianism  in  America  in  an  English  publication,  and  immediately  with- 
drew their  fellowship  from  all  who  were  suspected.  (7^)  After  an  excited 
controversy,  the  Unitarian  Congregationalists  were  left  in  a  distinct  body, 
which  has  since  extensively  prevailed  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  with  an  ele- 
gant literature,  a  high  standard  of  morality,  and  a  liberal  philanthropy. 
There  are  said  to  be  in  the  United  States  not  less  than  250  congregations 
especially  connected  together  as  Unitarians ;  but  a  still  larger  body  who  call 
themselves  by  the  simple  name  of  Christians,  the  Universalists,  and  a  seced- 
ing portion  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  agree  with  them  in  the  distinctive 
article  of  their  faith.  The  Baptists  follow  next  in  the  order  of  time  (1639) ; 
and  if  we  include  under  the  appellation  all  who  deny  the  validity  of  baptism 
except  by  immersion,  and  on  the  professed  faith  of  the  subject,  they  must  be 
regarded  as  the  most  numerous  denomination  but  one  in  the  United  States. 
"With  but  few  exceptions,  they  are  rigidly  Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  but  they 
agree  with,  and  even  exceed  the  Congregationalists  in  their  rejection  of  all 
human  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  and  in  their  practical  maintenance  of 
the  independence  of  the  congregations.  They,  however,  have  their  occa- 
sional Councils,  their  Associations  for  small  districts,  their  Conventions  for 
States,  and  until  the  recent  separation  of  the  Northern  and  Southern  sections, 
a  Triennial  General  Convention  for  the  whole  nation.  A  large  number  of 
Baptist  churches  are  never  represented  beyond  their  district  Associations, 
and  differ  from  their  brethren  on  many  important  articles  of  faith  and  prac- 
tice. (0  Many  minor  sects  have  seceded  from  the  general  fellowship,  on  the 
ground  of  questions  connected  with  the  Sabbath,  missions  to  the  heathen,  the 
nature  of  the  faith  and  obedience  to  be  professed  before  baptism,  and  the 


i)  G.  Punchard,  View  of  Congregationalism.  Andover,  1883.  Ibid.  Hist,  of  Cong.  And.  1S4S. 
Cambridge  and  Saybrook  Platforms  of  Church  Disc.  Boston.  1829.  8.  T.  G.  Up7tamt  Eatio  Dis- 
ci plinae.  Portland.  1829.  L.  Bacon,  Man.  of  Church  Members.  New  Haven.  1833.  It.  Baird, 
Sketches  of  the  Eel.  Denom.  in  Am.  and  For.  Chr.  Union,  vol.  I.  N.  3.  p.  123. 

K)  Belsham,  Memoirs  of  Lindsey.  Lond.  1812.  Boston.  1815.  A.  Lamson,  in  Eel.  Denom.  p.  586, 
Letters  on  the  Introd.  and  Prog,  of  Unitarianism  in  New  Engl.,  in  Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims.  voL  II.  and 
III.  Boston.  1829-30. 

1)  D.  Benedict,  Hist,  of  the  Baptists.  N.  York.  1824.  W.  Hague,  Bap.  Church  Transplanted,  &cx 
N.  York.  1846. 12.  F.  A.  Cox  and  J.  Hoby,  Baptists  in  America.  Boston.  1839. 12. 


504  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VL    A.  D.  164S-lS5a 

general  doctrines  of  religion,  (m)  Of  late  years,  some  portions  of  this  do 
nomination  have  done  much  to  redeem  their  order  from  the  reproach  of  in- 
difference to  education,  and  they  have  now  under  their  control  fourteen 
colleges,  and  eight  theological  seminaries.  The  Presbyterians  are  also  sepa- 
rated into  many  minor  divisions,  among  which  the  Dutch  Reformed  (since 
1619),  the  German  Reformed  (a.  1720),  the  Associate  (s.  1750),  and  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  (s.  1762),  have  always  maintained  a  distinct  existence 
since  their  first  settlement  in  this  country ;  and  others,  as  the  Cumberland 
(1810)  and  the  Free  Presbyterian  (1846),  were  offshoots  from  the  main  body. 
In  1838  this  main  body  was  itself  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  portions, 
each  claiming  to  be  the  true  Presbyterian  Church,  but  differing  from  each 
other  in  their  construction  of  their  articles  of  faith,  and  in  their  views  of 
ecclesiastical  policy,  (n)  With  a  slight  exception  with  respect  to  the  Cumber- 
land body,  (0)  all  these  members  of  the  great  Presbyterian  family  claim  to  be 
Calvinistio  in  doctrine,  and  most  of  them  are  in  fraternal  correspondence  with 
each  other  through  their  highest  judicatories.  Their  form  of  government  is 
essentially  the  same  with  that  of  similar  European  bodies,  and  they  are  dis- 
tinguished for  their  intelligence,  their  stability,  and  their  attachment  to  truth. 
The  Lutherans  have  retained  the  faith  even  better  than  the  language  of  their 
ancestors ;  they  are  beginning  zealously  to  cultivate  the  orthodox  literature  of 
their  Fatherland,  and  are  providing  an  ecclesiastical  home  for  the  multitudes 
of  a  kindred  faith  who  are  landing  on  their  shores,  (p)  The  Methodists  have 
adopted  the  doctrines  and  discipline  of  the  English  TVesleyan  connection,  with 
no  essential  change.  Their  Episcopacy  is  not  prelatic,  but  presbyterian,  since 
its  powers  originate  in,  and  are  continued  by  the  eldership,  and  its  duties  are 
simply  to  preside  in  the  conferences,  to  station  the  elders  and  preachers,  to 
ordain  bishops  and  deacons,  to  travel  through  the  connection,  and  to  oversee 
the  spiritual  concerns  of  the  Church.  They  have  been  especially  successful 
in  reaching  and  reclaiming  the  great  masses  of  society,  in  carrying  the  truth 
in  its  living  power  to  even  the  most  retired  districts ;  and  though  they  were 
the  last  to  commence  their  labors,  seventy  years  have  been  sufficient  for 
them  to  become  the  most  numerous  class  of  Protestant  Christians  in  the  Uni- 
ted States.  Their  ardent  zeal,  their  active  energy,  their  numerous  institu- 
tions of  learning,  their  earnest  literature,  and  their  thorough  system  of  polity, 
must  exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  future  character  of  the  nation.  A 
division  nearly  corresponding  with  the  geographical  boundary  between  tho 
Northern  and  Southern  States,  has  taken  place  within  their  Church  on  ac- 
count of  slavery,  and  a  number  of  fragments  have  fallen  away  from  it  on 
account  of  its  government  and  discipline,  but  its  general  usefulness  and  sta- 
bility have  not  been  apparently  impaired.  (17)  Among  other  minor  bodies, 

m)  History  of  the  various  Baptist  sects  in  Eel.  Denomm.,  by  authors  belonging  to  them.  See  also 
Gorric's  Churches  and  Sects,  p.  182ss.  Baird,  in  Amer.  and  For.  Chr.  Union.  voL  I.  p.  20Sss.  503ss. 

n)  History  of  the  Division  of  the  Presb.  Church,  (by  a  Com.  of  the  Syn.  of  N.  York  and  N.  Jer- 
sey.) N.  York.  1852.  J.  Woods,  Old  and  New  Theoldgy.  Philad.  1840. 12.  N.  L.  Bice,  Old  and  New 
Schools.  Cincin.  1853. 12.  0)  L.  Jones,  Plea  for  the  Cumb.  Presb.  Church.  Louisville.  1847. 12. 

p)  Ev.  KZ.  184T.  N.  23ss.  Comp.  Brl.  K  Z.  1848.  N.  45.  Buttner,  Briefe.  Dresd.  1845.  2  vola. 
Conip.  Eheinw.  Eep.  voL  XLIV.  p.  182ss. 

Q)  A.  Stevens,  On  Church  Polity.  N.  York.  1850. 12.  Memorial  of  Methodism.  N.  Y(rk.  1851.  11 
N.  Bangs,  Hist,  of  the  M.  E.  Church  till  1840.  N.  York.  1S36.  4  vols.  12. 


CHAP.  Y.   EVANG.  CHUECH  TILL  1S5S.    §  462.  NOETH  AMERICA.  605 

there  are  about  6,000  Moravians  in  twenty-two  congregations,  under  as  many 
ministers,  and  two  bishops  claiming  apostolical  succession ;  (?•)  about  150,000 
Friends,  whose  orthodoxy  and  efficiency  have  been  increased  by  a  recent 
secession,  and  who,  in  spite  of  some  decline  in  their  numbers,  quietly  main- 
tain their  ancient  doctrines  and  usages  under  a  regular  system  of  Preparative, 
Monthly,  Quarterly,  and  ten  independent  Yearly  meetings ;  (s)  about  6,000 
Shakers,  who,  since  the  decease  of  the  "Elect  Lady"  (p.  546),  have  formed 
sixteen  communities  in  which  all  things  are  held  in  common,  and  endeavor 
to  find  the  purity  and  bliss  of  Paradise  in  perpetual  virginity,  and  a  wild 
mode  of  worship ;  (t)  about  8,000  Swederiborgians,  with  an  extensive  litera- 
ture, and  a  number  of  highly  learned  and  eminent  advocates ;  (u)  and  above 
1,100  societies  of  Universalists,  who  have  formed  a  regular  organization  under 
a  regular  ministry,  and  a  General  Convention,  and  have  collected  a  respect- 
able literature.  («) — A  system  of  education,  from  which  all  sectarian  pecu- 
liarities is  excluded,  except  with  the  consent  of  the  local  inhabitants  of  a 
district,  is  provided  for  by  law,  in  some  States,  with  great  liberality  and  intel- 
ligence, and  in  all  with  increasing  emulation  and  zeal,  so  that  already  one  in 
five  of  the  whole  free  population  are  under  its  instruction.  In  many  denomi- 
nations of  Christians,  candidates  for  the  ministry  are  required  by  ecclesiastical 
rule  to  pass  through  what  is  equivalent  to  a  complete  course  of  collegiate  and 
theological  instruction,  and  in  nearly  all  the  usage  is  more  and  more  in 
accordance  with  such  a  rule.  In  no  part  of  the  world  are  the  clergy  more 
respected  and  laborious ;  and  though  in  most  instances  sustained  entirely  by 
the  voluntary  contributions  of  their  people,  their  position  and  comparatively 
small  number  render  them  independent  of  popular  caprice.  The  piety  of  this 
people,  being  entirely  spontaneous,  is  remarkably  sincere  and  fervent,  and 
many  of  its  exhibitions,  which  seem  peculiar  and  even  grotesque,  will  be 
found  not  ill  adapted  to  the  wants  of  a  peculiar  population ;  but  we  need  not 
be  surprised  to  find  that  an  aristocracy  of  wealth,  and  a  regard  for  numerical 
power,  should  sometimes  divert  attention  from  the  refinements  of  a  graceful 
humanity.] 

§  463.  Legal  Conditions  with  respect  to  Catholic  Governments. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  could  not  agree  with  regard  to  the  expressions 
by  which  the  constitution  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches  of  Ger- 
many were  to  be  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  Alliance.  The  sixteenth 
article  of  the  Act  of  the  Alliance  was  therefore  merely  so  formed,  that  no 
differences  between  the  parties  professing  the  Christian  religion  were  to  create 
any  inequalities  in  municipal  or  political  rights.  The  perfect  equality  of  both 
Churches,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  law  of  the  land,  has  accordingly  been  more 
or  less  expressly  acknowledged  by  most  of  the  states  connected  with  the 
Alliance,  (a)  In  Bavaria,  however,  in  addition  to  other  violations  of  Prot- 

r)  L.  D.  von  ScMoeinits,  in  the  Hist  of  EeL  Denomm.  p.  SSOas. 

8)  T.  Evans  and  W.  Gibbons,  Histories  in  Ibid.  p.  2T9ss.  290ss. 

f)  C.  Green  and  &  T.  Wells,  A  Summary  View  of  the  Millennial  Church.  N.  York.  1323. 12. 

•u)  New  Jerusalem  Magazine.  Boston.  26  vols.  1827-1854 

v)  T.  Whittemore,  Mod.  Hist,  of  Universalism.  Boston,  1880. 12. 

a)  Kluber>  Uebers.  d.  Verb.  d.  W.  Congr.  Abth.  3.  p.  397.  441ss.     Tittmann,  Quaeelt  de  art,  IS 


606  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  164S-1S58. 

estant  privileges,  an  order  dictated  by  a  new  zeal  in  favor  of  Catholicism, 
required  all  persons  connected  with  the  army  to  bow  the  knee  to  the  sacra- 
mental host  (Aug.  14th,  1838).  This  was  regarded  by  the  Protestants  as  a 
measure  intended  to  compel  them  to  commit  what  seemed  to  them  an  act  of 
idolatry,  or  at  least  as  an  illegal  imposition  upon  their  consciences.  Although 
it  was  described  to  them  as  legally  only  a  military  ceremony,  it  was  practi- 
cally adhered  to  as  if  it  were  a  triumph  of  the  Catholic  Church ;  and  after  a 
long  series  of  forced  and  partial  concessions,  it  was  not  completely  yielded 
to  the  bitter  complaints  of  the  whole  Protestant  population,  until  (Dec.  12th, 
1846)  the  diet  threatened  to  adopt  the  grievances  of  the  Protestant  deputies 
as  its  own.  (&)  In  the  Austrian  hereditary  states,  Protestantism  was  but  par- 
tially tolerated,  and  until  the  movement  of  1848,  its  churches  were  inter- 
dicted the  use  of  names  and  spires,  and  were  deprived  of  important  rights,  (c) 
To  take  from  them  the  necessity  of  going  to  foreign  universities,  a  theologi- 
cal school  was  opened  for  them  at  Vienna  (1821).  In  Bohemia,  recollections 
of  the  Hussites  were  awakened  with  the  revival  of  the  national  spirit  of  the 
ancient  Czechen.  In  the  Zillerthal,  certain  ancient  traditions  preserved  at 
Salzburg,  and  evangelical  influences  upon  some  Tyrolese  travellers,  produced 
a  party  strongly  opposed  to  the  Catholic  Church.  This  opposition  was  still 
further  increased  by  the  perusal  of  the  Scriptures,  and  finally  induced  a  few 
families  to  make  application  (1826)  for  liberty,  in  conformity  with  the  spirit 
of  the  Edict  of  Toleration,  to  join  the  Evangelical  Church.  But  as  the  states 
of  Tyrol  were  opposed  to  a  Protestant  form  of  worship  in  their  country,  and 
contended  that  the  Edict  of  Toleration  was  never  published  for  such  cases^ 
find  as  the  evangelical  party  continued  to  increase  even  under  the  oppression 
of  a  decidedly  Catholic  population,  and  with  no  services  for  public  worship, 
the  emperor  finally  commanded  them  either  to  settle  in  some  other  province, 
or  to  emigrate  to  another  country.  In  these  circumstances  they  addressed 
themselves  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  erected  for  them  a  church  and  pri- 
vate dwellings  on  his  domain  of  Erdmansdorf  in  Silesia.  Thither,  in  the 
autumn  of  183T,  about  four  hundred  of  them  removed,  although  a  hundred 
never  became  settled  there,  or  in  1838-39  left  their  new  Zillerthal,  to  connect 
themselves  with  some  of  the  Lutherans  who  had  separated  themselves  from 
the  established  churches,  (d)  In  Hungary,  when  the  partial  privileges  con- 
ceded by  the  law  respecting  religion  had  been  in  many  ways  violated,  and 
the  complaints  of  three  millions  of  Protestants  had  been  for  a  long  time  dis 

Focdcris  Germ.  L.  1880.  W.  v.  Hohenihal,  d.  Parltat  d.  Rechte  zw.  d.  kath.  u.  nichtkath.  Unterth. 
1.  Bnndesst  L.  1881. 

V)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S44.  N.  67ss.— {JT.  v.  Giech)  Die  Kniebeug.  d.  Protestantcn  vor  d.  Sanctissimum  d. 
kath.  K.  Ulm.  1841.  With  "  Offenen  Bedenken  "  of  1844-45  against  later  insufficient  modifications. 
A.  Ifarless:  Offeno  Antw.  Munch.  1843.  u.  2eitschr.  f.  Prot  u.  K.  1S43.  voL  VI.  F.  Thierech,  u. 
Protest  u.  Knieb.  8  Sendschr.  an  Dollinger.  Marb.  1S44.— J.  Dollinger :  Die  Frage  v.  d.  Knieb.  d. 
Prot  v.  d.  reL  u.  staaterechtl.  Seite.  Munch.  1843.  Der  Prot  in  Balern  n.  d.  Knieb.  Kegcnsb.  1843. 
Lit  Uebers.  by  Schoder  in  d.  Jen.  Lit  Z.  1845.  N.  202ss.  Brans,  Eep.  1845.  voL  III.  p.  24ss.  Brl. 
K.  Z.  1846.  N.  15.  25s. 

c)  J.  Hdfert,  d.  Rechte  n.  Verf.  d.  Akatholiken  im  ostr.  Kaiserst  Vien.  (2  ed.  182T.)  1843. 

d)  (Rteinwald)  Die  Evangelischgesinnten  im  ZillerthaL  Brl.  1837.   In  4  ed. :  Die  ev.  Zillerthalet 
in  Schlesien.  1888.  Acta  hist  ecc.  1837.  p.  655ss.  Rbeinw.  Rep.  voL  XXXVII.  p.  8463.    [Exiles  of 
Zillerthal.  (Publ.  by  the  Am.  and  For.  Chr.  Union.)  N.  York.  1840. 18.] 


CHAP.  V.    EVANGK  CnUECII  TILL  1853.    §  463.  HUNGAET.    FEANCE.        G07 

regarded,  their  cause  became  identified  in  public  estimation  with  the  free 
development  of  the  state.  At  the  Diet  of  1833,  the  great  majority  appeared 
enthusiastic  for  justice  to  their  Protestant  fellow-citizens,  but  the  State-Table 
preferred  entirely  to  dispense  with  the  mutilated  bill  of  religious  grievances 
proposed  to  them  by  the  magnates,  and  rather  than  take  up  with  a  partial 
grant,  to  trust  to  their  chances  for  the  future,  (e)  At  the  Diets  of  1839-40, 
both  Tables  united  in  presenting  to  the  crown  certain  bills  by  which  the 
members  of  the  Evangelical  Church  were  guarantied  absolute  freedom,  and 
equality  of  legal  privileges.  But  when  the  papal  brief  of  April  30,  1841, 
against  the  ecclesiastical  confirmation  of  mixed  marriages  without  security 
that  the  children  should  be  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  had  received  the 
royal  sanction,  the  courts  began  to  inflict  penalties  upon  all  bishops  and  pas- 
tors who  acted  in  accordance  with  this  measure.  At  the  Diet  of  1843,  bold 
voices  were  raised  in  both  Tables  in  opposition  to  this  system  of  mediaeval 
Church  polity ;  and  although  there  was  still  an  episcopal  majority  among  the 
magnates,  which  succeeded  in  modifying  the  demands  of  the  other  Table, 
both  houses  were  opposed  to  the  royal  order  of  July  5th,  respecting  mixed 
marriages.  They  declared,  that  while  they  were  agreed  with  regard  to  the 
principle  advanced  in  that  enactment  on  the  subjects  of  freedom  of  con- 
science and  complete  reciprocity,  the  only  proper  application  of  it,  as  well  as 
the  only  way  to  satisfy  the  minds  of  the  people,  which  they  could  discover, 
was  the  enactment  of  a  law  by  which  the  children  should  be  disposed  of 
according  to  the  religion  of  the  father,  except  where  special  promises  had 
been  conceded  by  one  of  the  parties  (reversales)  to  the  contrary.  Accord- 
ingly, the  whole  subject  was  virtually  disposed  of  by  the  royal  ordinances  of 
March  25th  and  Nov.  llth,  1844,  which  left  the  education  of  the  children  of 
mixed  marriages  to  be  determined  by  the  agreement  of  the  parents,  acknowl- 
edged the  validity  of  marriages  solemnized  in  the  Evangelical  Church,  and 
prohibited  the  clergy  from  arbitrarily  interfering  when  persons  were  dis- 
posed to  pass  from  the  one  to  the  other  Church.  (/)  But  the  storm  which 
since  1848  has  passed  over  Hungary,  has  for  a  while  committed  to  the  mili- 
tary power  the  Church  as  well  as  the  country  of  the  orator  from  whose 
mouth  issued  a  sword,  (g}  In  the  south  of  France,  the  long-restrained 
hostility  of  the  Catholic  populace  broke  out  on  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons (1815),  and  for  three  months,  in  Nismes  and  its  vicinity,  the  members 
of  the  Eeformed  Church  were  robbed,  murdered,  and  driven  from  their 
dwellings  by  the  flames.  JS"o  notice  of  these  excesses  was  taken  by  the  gov- 
ernment until  expressions  of  indignation  from  all  parts  of  France  and  of 
Europe  found  their  way  to  the  throne.  Individual  instances  of  outrage  were 
repeated  in  1816,  the  perpetrators  of  which  were  never  punished ;  and  the 
Protestants  were  always  treated  with  contempt,  until  they  recovered  their 
privileges  at  the  revolution  of  1830.  (/*)  But  their  Church  was  never  able 

e)  Berzemczy,  Nachr.  u.  d.  Zust  <L  Evv.  in  TL  Lps.  1822.  friedrieh,  Br.  u.  d.  Lage  d.  ev.  K.  in 
U.  Lps.  1825.  Die  Eeligionsbeschwerden  d.  Prot.  in  U.  a.  d.  Eeichst.  im  J.  1833.  edit  by  Elias 
Tiliscanus,  Lps.  1833  [Hist  of  the  Prot.  Church  in  Hung,  from  the  Eef.  to  1850,  -with  reference 
also  to  Transylvania,  from  the  German  by  J.  Craig,  Lond.  1854.  8.] 

/)  J.  v,  Maildth,  d.  Eel.  W&ren  in  U.  Eatisb.  1845.  2  vols.  Nachtr.  Eatisb.  1846. 

0)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  17.  20. 1851.  N.  6.  9. 1852.  N.  92. 

h)  D6fense  des  Protestans  du  Bas-Languedoc.  1815.  4.  (A?chiv  f.  KG.  vol.  III.  p.  225ss.)     Wilks, 


608  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

to  come  together  in  a  general  synod,  and  by  a  decision  of  the  Court  of  Cas- 
sation (1848),  notwithstanding  the  fundamental  law  of  religious  liberty,  no 
evangelical  congregation  could  be  established  under  the  statute  respecting 
associations,  without  the  arbitrary  permission  of  the  government  and  the 
local  authorities,  (i)  Under  the  republic,  the  Lutheran  Church,  especially  in 
Alsace,  at  a  freely  elected  General  Assembly  in  Strasbourg,  and  the  Reformed 
Church  at  a  Synod  in  Paris,  deliberated  about  the  best  means  of  developing 
in  an  independent  manner  their  old  established  constitutions  (1848).  (/•) 
Louis  Napoleon  ordained  (March  26th,  1852)  that  the  congregations  should 
be  governed  by  presbyteries,  and  their  districts  by  consistories,  freely  chosen 
.by  them,  but  both  under  the  presidency  of  chosen  pastors  approved  by  tho 
government ;  that  the  churches  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  should  have  for 
their  superintending  and  legislative  authority  a  supreme  consistory,  to  be  con- 
vened annually,  and  to  be  composed  of  the  presidents  and  lay-deputies  of  all 
tho  consistories,  and  for  their  administrative  authority,  a  directory,  half  of 
whose  members  were  to  be  appointed  by  tho  government,  and  half  by  tho 
supreme  consistory ;  and  that  the  Reformed  churches  should  have  a  Central 
Council  at  Paris,  with  indefinite  powers,  and  consisting  for  the  first  time  of 
distinguished  Protestants,  and  the  two  oldest  Parisian  pastors.  (?)  In  the 
elections  held  under  this  edict,  all  persons  were  allowed  to  vote,  and  the  pres- 
byteries which  had  been  previously  in  existence  were  confirmed.  The  Evan- 
gelical Society,  a  free  association  formed  under  English  influence,  undertook 
to  evangelize  France  from  Geneva  (p.  595)  and  from  Paris  (since  1883) ;  for  it 
endeavored,  by  its  colporteurs  and  evangelists  with  Bibles  and  tracts,  not  only 
to  win  the  Catholics,  but  to  bring  back  tho  Reformed  Church  to  its  original 
principles,  (m)  while  the  Society  for  the  General  Interests  of  Protestantism 
aimed  only  to  unite  the  orthodox  portion  of  the  Church  in  the  pursuit  of 
general  objects,  (n)  Although  the  Reformed  Church  has  since  increased,  not 
only  by  persons  coming  from  other  bodies,  but  by  the  accession  of  those 
whose  preferences  had  either  been  unformed  or  concealed,  in  these  intellec- 
tual contests  its  spirituality  has  been  exposed  to  great  hazard.  When  the 
Synod  of  1848  resolved  to  disregard  all  confessions  of  faith,  that  it  might 
keep  the  Church  practically  united,  pastor  Fred.  Monod  and  Count  Gasparin, 
the  noble  champion  of  French  Protestantism,  abandoned  it.  On  their  invi- 
tation, thirty  congregations  which,  from  a  desire  to  possess  a  more  rigid  disci- 
pline or  a  purer  faith,  had  previously  been  independent,  now  united  in  a  Synod 
at  Paris  (1849),  and  formed  a  Union  of  evangelical  congregations  on  the  basis 
of  a  new  confession,  whose  articles  were  merely  devotional,  in  the  style  of 
the  apostles  John  and  Paul.  These  congregations  had  been  formed  with  a 
distinct  creed,  received  no  support  or  assistance  from  the  state,  and  were 

II.  of  the  Persecutions  endured  by  the  Prot  of  the  south  of  France.  Lond.  1821.  2  vols.  (KHist. 
Archiv.  1828.  H.  8s.) 

i)  H.  Reuddin,  d.  Chrlstenth.  in  Fr.  Hamb.  188T.  p.  387ss.  Lo  procds  de  Senneville.  Affaire  da 
Hbert6  des  cnltes,  plaidee  par  OdiUon  Barrot.  Par.  1843.  (A.  Mader)  Die  prot  K.  Fr.  1T87-1S46.  ed. 
by  Gicseler,  Lps.  1848.  2  vols. 

*)  Brl.  KZ.  1848.  N.  75.  89.  90.  98. 102.— 76.  95. 1S49.  N.  7. 

I)  Brl.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  28.  A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  143.        m)  Organ :  Archive  da  Christianisme. 

n)  Apenor  de  Gaeparin,  Les  Interets  g6n6raux  du  Protest  franr.  Par.  1843.  Essen.  184-3. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  463.  FEANCE.    ITALY.  609 

independent  in  government  and  worship ;  but  they  now  resolved  to  maintain 
unity  by  means  of  a  biennial  synod,  and  a  synodal  commission  for  the  inter- 
vening period.  (0)  But  even  in  the  Reformed  National  Church  there  are  two 
opposite  parties :  the  Evangelical,  under  Ad.  Monod,  agreeing  in  doctrine 
with  the  Separatists,  and  anxious  to  preserve,  as  far  as  possible,  the  old  con- 
fession and  the  old  customs ;  (p)  and  the  Liberal  under  Coquerel,  rejecting 
every  creed  except  the  Scriptures  as  the  word  of  God,  and  before  the  altar 
cf  the  Lord.  The  number  of  ministers  in  each  of  these  parties  is  nearly  the 
same ;  they  remain  united,  and  both  are  rich  in  works  of  pious  charity.  (?) 
The  theological  faculty  at  Strasbourg  maintains  an  intimate  fellowship  with 
German  science,  and  the  other  at  Montauban,  with  a  clergy  trained  by 
rhetorical  rules  and  with  a  practical  spirit,  is  conversant  principally  with  de- 
votional subjects.  (?')  By  its  acquisition  of  territory  in  1815,  and  by  its  Con- 
stitution of  1842,  Geneva  lost  its  Protestant  independence,  (s)  In  Italy,  an 
evangelical  public  worship  was  needed  only  for  foreigners  residing  there. 
The  policy  of  the  governments  of  Milan  and  Florence  did  not  lead  them  to 
oppose  the  formation  of  particular  congregations.  A  regard  for  England, 
Prussia,  and  America,  disposed  Naples  and  the  ecclesiastical  states  to  tolerate 
Protestant  chapels ;  and  after  the  old  prophecy  had  been  twice  fulfilled,  Ger- 
man Protestantism  found  an  abode  in  the  Capitol,  (f)  When  the  national 
desires  of  the  Italians  began  to  come  in  conflict  with  the  hierarchy,  an  incli- 
nation towards  Protestantism  showed  itself  here  and  there  under  English 
influence,  and  the  pope  found  himself  threatened  by  a  host  of  reforming 
spirits  and  Italian  Bibles.  After  the  re-establishment  of  the  legitimate  au- 
thorities, the  revolutionary  religion  was  put  down,  and  many  a  victim  was 
sacrificed  in  the  prisons,  (u)  But  when  the  Madiai  family  in  Florence  were 
condemned  (June,  1852)  to  an  imprisonment  for  several  years,  on  a  charge 
of  endeavoring  to  make  proselytes  to  Protestantism  by  reading  the  Bible,  the 
zeal  of  their  Protestant  friends  in  England  became  powerfully  excited  against 
this  anachronism.  In  opposition  to  the  deputation  of  the  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance, and  the  intercession  of  the  King  of  Prussia  and  the  English  govern- 
ment, the  Grand  Duke  asserted  the  independence  of  his  judicial  courts,  and 
his  obligation  to  protect  the  religion  of  the  state ;  but  so  menacing  became 
the  popular  excitement  in  England  in  support  of  the  ministry,  that  the  Tus- 
can government  thought  it  best  to  get  rid  of  their  troublesome  prisoners  by 
sending  them  out  of  the  country  (March,  1853).  («)  In  consequence  of  this 
affair,  an  association  was  formed  in  Hamburg  (Aug.  1853),  under  the  presi- 

o)  Union  des  egl.  evang.  do  France.  Par.  1850.  IT.  ffcllmar,  Entst  d.  Unionskirche  in  Fr. 
(Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1851.  H.  3.) 

p)  Adolpke  Monod,  ponrquoi  je  demeure  dans  lY-gl.  6tablie.  Par.  1849. 

q)  A.  Damman,  d.  prot.  K.  in  Fr.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1850.  H.  1.)  E.  S.  u.  d.  rel.  Zust  Fr. 
^Gelzer,  prot  Monatsch.  1853.  Aug.-Oct.) 

r)  K  Reuss,  d.  wiss.  TheoL  unter  d.  fr.  Prot.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1S44.  II.  1.) 

«)  Comp.  Brl.  KZ.  1842.  N.  26.  A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  149.  E.  Ounitz  in  d.  Jen.  L.  Z.  1S43.  N.  242ss. 

t)  Niebuhi**  Briefe,  vol.  II.  p.  406.  Fleck,  wiss.  Eeise.  Lps.  1835.  vol.  It  1.  p.  124ss.  R.  Baird, 
Sketches  of  Protestantism  in  Italy,  past  and  present  Boston.  1846. 12. 

•w)  Brl.  KZ.  1849  N.  73.  96. 1850.  N.  21.  Ev.  KZ.  1852.  N.  93.  A.  D.  Z.  1S53.  N.  264. 

r)  Ev.  KZ.  1852.  N.  102.  Brl.  KZ.  1853.  N.  16.— Hist  poL  B1L  1853.  vol.  XXXI.  p.  783ss.  [Story 
of  the  Madiai.  N.  York.  1853.  Amer.  and  For.  Chr.  Union,  vol.  III.  p.  307ss.  vol.  IV.  p.  65ss  1 

39 


6 1 0  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1853. 

dency  of  Lord  Shaftesbury,  with  an  executive  committee  in  London,  to  assist 
by  every  means  sanctioned  by  the  gospel  all  who  might  suffer  persecution  for 
their  confession  of  Christ,  or  for  reading  and  distributing  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures. («>) 

§  4C4.     Old  and  New  Sects. 

1.  The  Waldense*,  who  were  connected  with  the  Hussites  by  fraternal 
ties,  recognized  finally  in  the  Reformation  (Synod  of  Angrogna,  1532)  the 
very  objects  which  their  ancestors  had  been  obscurely  seeking,  (a)  They 
were  therefore  exterminated  in  France,  with  the  exception  of  some  remnants 
.  living  in  the  High  Alps  of  Dauphine",  but  they  have  been  preserved  under  a 
synodal  system  of  pastors  and  elders  in  three  Alpine  valleys  in  Piedmont. 
Here  they  came  sometimes  under  the  influence  of  distinguished  persons  bo- 
longing  to  the  Genevan  Church,  though  generally  they  retained  the  character 
of  great  pious  simplicity.  They  have  been  much  oppressed  by  their  own 
authorities,  but  since  the  time  of  Cromwell,  they  have  received  pecuniary  aid 
from  the  English  government.  Napoleon  favored  them,  but  after  the  restora- 
tion they  were  thrown  back  under  their  former  oppressions,  and  confined  to 
the  narrow  valleys  of  their  ancestors.  (1)  The  flag  of  liberty  on  the  throne 
of  Piedmont  opened  to  them  the  whole  country  (Feb.,  1848),  the  inclination 
generally  felt  toward  Protestantism  found  among  them  a  primitive  legal  form, 
and  a  great  Waldensian  church  was  dedicated  with  much  solemnity  in  the 
city  of  Turin  itself  (1853).  (c)  2.  Among  the  Mennonites  in  Holland,  the 
Arminian  party  obtained  the  ascendency,  and  when  the  different  factions  of 
the  Gross  became  united,  all  distinct  creeds  were  abandoned  (1800).  (d)  The 
Baptists  of  England  and  North  America  had  their  origin  principally  among 
the  Independents  (since  1630).  The  largest  portion  adhere  strictly  to  Cal- 
vinistic  orthodoxy  and  discipline,  but  a  part  are  Arminians  (General  Bap- 
tists), and  some  have  no  ecclesiastical  discipline.  Some  minor  communities 
among  them  have  originated,  in  some  instances,  from  their  adoption  of  the 
Jewish  Sabbath  (Sabbatarians);  in  others,  from  their  inculcating  opposi- 
tion to  the  slave-trade  as  a  religious  duty  (Emancipationists) ;  and  still  in  oth- 
ers, from  the  principle  of  abstinence  from  all  controversies  on  the  ordinary 
orthodox  doctrines  (Christians),  (e)  In  Germany,  persons  sometimes  became 
Anabaptists  from  pietistic  scruples,  or  from  some  religious  extravagances,  and 
a  few  small  congregations  have  here  and  there  been  baptized  by  the  English 
missionary  Oncken,  of  Hamburg  (since  1834).  (/)  In  Denmark,  they  were 

w)  A.  KZ.  1358.  N.  175as. 

a)  Herzog,  r6m.  Waldenser.  p.  333ss. 

1)  W.  Dieterici,  d.  Wald.  u.  ihr  Verb.  z.  Preuss.  Staat  Brl.  1S31.  Mayerhoff,  d.  W.  In  nnsern 
Tagen.  Brl.  1834.  Fleck,  Eclsc.  voL  II,  1.  p.  21ss.  \E.  Henderson,  Tour  in  the  Valleys  of  Pied- 
mont, in  1844  Lond.  1S45.  8.] 

c)  J.  H.  Weiss,  d.  KVerf.  d.  Piem.  W.  Zur.  1844.  BrL  KZ.  1843.  N.  21.  77.  A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  178. 

d)  Fliedner,  Collectenreise.  vol.  I.  p.  183ss. 

«)  Backus,  H.  of  the  English- American  Baptists.  Boston,  1772-84  2  vols.  [Z>.  Douglas,  H.  of 
Bapt  Churches  in  the  North  of  Engl.  Lond.  1846.  8.]  A.  F.  Coos  and  J.  Holy,  (p.  663.)  Archiv.  £ 
KG.  vol.  II.  p.  57683.  KHist  Archiv.  1824.  St  8.  Ev.  KZ.  1832.  N.  95. 1839.  N.  91ss. 

/)  Pupikofer,  d.  neuer  K.  in  der  Schweiz.  St  QalL  1834.  C,  Gruneisen,  Abriss  e.  Gesch.  d.  reL 
Gemeinschaften  in  Wurtemb.  m.  bes.  Rucks,  a.  d.  neuen  Taufgesinnten.  (Zeitsch.  £  hist  Th.  1S41 
H.  1.)  Brl.  KZ.  1S40.  N.  74. 1841.  N.  79.  87. 1851.  N.  84  87. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §464.  UNIT.    PLYMOUTH  BEETH.    611 

at  first  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment ;  but  when  this  course  was  found 
to  be  ineffectual,  they  were  allowed  to  have  a  single  congregation  in  Frederi- 
cia  (1842).    It  was,  however,  found  impossible  to  confine  them  within  this 
limit,  (g)     8.  As  Unitarianism  could  be  propagated  simply  as  an  opinion,  it 
had  less  occasion  to  be  extended  as  a  sect.    In  Transylvania,  the  Unitarians 
have  maintained  a  well  constructed  ecclesiastical  system,  and  have  developed 
their  views  in  consistency  with  their  supernaturalist  concessions,  (h)    In  Eng- 
land they  lived  legally  subject  to  the  axe  of  the  executioner,  and  although  the 
laws  against  them  had  long  since  ceased  to  be  enforced,  even  in  1792,  Parliament 
refused  formally  to  abolish  the  statutes  against  them,  and  it  was  not  till  1813 
that  they  were  finally  tolerated  by  law.     .Lindsey  (d.  1808),  whose  gentle 
spirit  led  him  voluntarily  to  withdraw  from  a  congregation  connected  with 
the  Established  Church  (1773),  and  the  natural  philosopher  Priestley  founded 
a  few  Unitarian  congregations,  and  an  academy  for  free  theological  inquiry,  (i) 
"When  Priestley  was  obliged  to  retire  to  America  before  the  storm  of  the  pop- 
ular will  (1794),  he  there  encountered  every  kind  of  opposition.    But  after 
his  death  (1804),  a  kind  of  Rationalism  began  to  spread  in  opposition  to  the 
prevalent  sentiment  of  the  people  there,  and  found  a  peculiarly  favorable 
home  in  the  general  isolation  and  freedom  of  the  churches.    Several  hundred 
congregations  among  the  Independents  and  Baptists  have  embraced  it,  and 
for  some  time  it  has  had  the  ascendency  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts.  (£) 
In  England,  the  greater  part  of  the  Presbyterian  and  General  Baptist  congre- 
gations have  adopted  the  same  sentiments.    "When  they  thus  denied  the  doc- 
trine of  a  Triune,  incarnate  God,  the  orthodox  Dissenters  maintained  that 
they  had  forfeited  their  right  to  all  ecclesiastical  property  derived  from  foun- 
dations established  for  the  promotion  of  the  Christian  faith.    This  view  was 
sustained  by  the  civil  courts,  and  many  congregations  were  deprived  of  their 
former  splendor  in  public  worship,  until  by  a  new  law  (Dissenters'  Chapel 
Bill,  1844),  which  gave  a  legal  title  to  such  as  had  enjoyed  immemorial  pos- 
session of  the  fund,  a  termination  was  given  to  this  scandal.  (?)     4.  The 
Plymouth  Brethren,  a  society  founded  by  Darby,  an  English  clergyman,  and 
propagated  from  Plymouth  to  the  Canton  of  Vaud  (1840),  felt  constrained  to 
abandon  the  Protestant  Church,  on  the  ground  that  it  also  had  become  a 
Babylon,  but  they  remained  strictly  Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  and  were  diligent 
in  religious  labors.    Regarding  themselves  as  the  elect  children,  and  there- 
fore universally  the  priests  of  God,  they -relied  on  the  promise  of  our  Lord 
(Matth.  18,  20),  dispensed  with  a  regular  clergy,  and  in  small  domestic 
churches  waited  for  the  approaching  second  advent  of  Christ,  (m)     5.  A 

#)  Brl.  KZ.  1843.  N.  9. 1846.  K  13.  80.  184T.  N.  12. 

h)  (G.  Harkos,)  Summa  Theol.  univ.  sec.  Unitarios.  Claudiopoli,  1787.  Archiv  f.  KGesch.  voL 
IV.  St.  1. 

*")  T7i.  Belsham,  Memoirs  of  Lindsey.  Lond.  1820.  Memoirs  of  J.  Priestley,  (by  himself  and  his 
son.)  Lond.  1806s.  2  vols.  W.  Turner,  Lives  of  Eminent  Unitarians,  Lond.  1840ss.  2  vols. 

k)  Walch,  nst  rel.  Gesch.  vol.  V.  p.  175.  VII,  347ss.  Archiv  f.  KG.  vol.  I.  p.  83.  IV,  149ss.  Ev. 
KZ.  1830.  N.  13.  1831.  N.  40. 

I)  J.  Murch,  Hist  of  the  Pres.  and  Gen.  Baptist  Churches  in  the  West  of  Engl.  Lond.  1835.  K. 
A.  Credner,  kirchl.  Zustiinde.  (Heidlb.  Jahrb.  1845.  H.  1.) 

m)  J.  J.  Ilerzog,  les  Freres  de  Plymouth  et  John  Darby.  Laus.  1845.  Ev.  KZ.  1844.  N.  23.  2S 
BrL  KZ.  1851.  N.  90.  [C.  F.  Leopold,  in  the  Stud.  u.  Krit  1848.  H.  4J 


612  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTOET.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1S53. 

romance  founded  on  the  story  that  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel  had  heen  driven 
to  America,  and  been  converted  under  the  personal  ministry  of  our  Lord 
there,  was  turned  into  a  holy  book  which  Joseph  Smith  (b.  1805)  claimed  to 
have  discovered  by  revelation,  and  found  to  be  an  historical  record  by  Mor- 
mon, an  old  prophet  among  that  people.  Professing  to  be  himself  an  inspired 
prophet,  ho  collected  around  him  an  active  host,  which  were  driven  from  a 
number  of  places,  but  at  last  commenced  the  erection  of  a  city  and  a  splen- 
did temple  in  the  State  of  Illinois.  Their  pious  claims  upon  the  property  of 
their  neighbors  soon  armed  a  multitude  of  fanatics  against  them,  by  whom 
their  temple  was  destroyed  and  their  prophet  was  slain  (1844).  During  two 
'subsequent  years,  and  in  the  midst  of  indescribable  troubles,  the  Mormons 
went  through  the  wilderness  and  across  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  great 
ocean,  and  founded  on  the  Salt  Lake  (Utah  Territory)  a  city  and  a  flourishing 
state,  which  is  preparing  to  take  its  place  under  the  starry  banner  of  the  United 
States.  From  this  point  their  messengers  are  going  forth,  full  of  faith  in  old 
and  now  prophecies,  into  all  parts  of  the  world,  to  baptize  the  Latter-Day- 
Saints  and  to  assemble  them  in  their  new  Zion  on  the  Salt  Lake.  Their 
Catechism  has  an  evangelical  and  almost  an  orthodox  tone ;  they  take  some 
pains  to  deny  the  limited  polygamy  which  is  practised  among  them,  and  their 
community  of  goods  is  limited  to  one  tenth  of  all  property  and  annual  rents, 
to  be  used  for  objects  of  common  utility.  The  purpose  of  their  theocratic 
government  is  to  establish  a  firm  social  and  military  system,  and  it  offers 
those  who  have  come  to  them,  especially  from  Scotland  and  Scandinavia,  the 
prospect  at  least  of  a  temporal  kingdom,  (n) 

§  405.    Missionary  and  Bible  Societies. 

fbo  ordinary  Annnal  Reports,  esp.  of  the  London,  Edinburgh,  Basle,  Halle,  and  Berlin  Bible  So- 
cieties. For  a  Gen.  View :  Knapp,  Abriss  e.  prot  Miaslonsgesch.  (Halt  Jahresb.  1916.  8L  66.) 
Fortschrltte  d.  ev.  Mfaeionsw.  1m  1.  Viertel  d.  19.  Jahrh.  Baa.  1826.  F.  LOcke,  Missionsstudien. 
Giitt  1841.  F.  W.  Klumpp,  d.  ev.  Missions  wesen,  s.  weltgesch.  n.  nation.  Bedeut  Stuttg.  1841.  J. 
Wtggers,  (p.  510.)  J.  II.  Brauer,  d.  Missionswcaen  d.  er.  K.  Statistik.  Hatnb.  1847-61.  I.  vol.  1.  2  II. 
K.  J.  NitMch,  d.  Wirk.  d.  ev.  Chr.  aof  knlturlose  Volker.  BrL  1862.  Comp.  Wltemann,  d.  Un- 
fruchtbark.  d.v.  Protestanten  nnternommen.  Miss.  Angsb.  1885.— J.  Owen,  Hist  of  the  Orig.  and  first 
ten  years  of  the  Bible  Soc.  Lond.  1816.  8  vols.  Lps.  1824.  Archiv.  1  KG.  vol.  IL  p.  229ss.  Ill,  ITlss. 
A.  KZ, 1825.  N.  128.  182&  N.  25. 1829.  N.  86.  [F.  Schobert,  Present  State  of  Christianity,  and  of  the 
Miss.  Establishments.  Lond.  1823. 12.  J.  O.  Choute,  Hist  of  Missions.  Boston,  1838.  2  vola.  JB.  B. 
Edwards,  Miss.  Gazetteer.  Bost  1882. 12.  C.  William*,  Miss.  Gaz.  Lond.  1828. 12.  J.  Tracy,  II.  oi 
the  Am.  Board.  Boston,  1888. 12.] 

In  the  spirit  of  the  present  age,  which  accomplishes  great  enterprises  by 
means  of  private  voluntary  associations,  the  extension  of  Christianity  has 
become  a  popular  cause.  Boards  for  missionary  societies,  each  of  which  is 
peculiar  and  distinct  in  its  character,  were  organized  at  London  in  1795,  (a) 
at  Edinburgh  in  1796,  at  Boston  in  1810,  at  Basle  in  1816,  (&)  at  New  York 

n)  Book  of  Mormon.  Book  of  Covenants.  The  former  work  b«s  been  several  times  printed  since 
1830,  even  in  German.  Pratt,  e,  Stimme  d.  Warnung  u.  Beleh.  f.  alle  Volker.  from  the  EngL  Hamb. 
1853.— Turner,  Mormonism  in  all  Ages.  N.  York.  1843.  Cornell,  The  Prophet  of  the  19th  Cent 
Lond.  1842.  Raumer,  (p.  601.)  voL  IL  p.  154ss.  BrL  KZ.  1851.  N.  69. 1852.  N.  100. 1853.  N.  6.  42.  45 
A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  8ss. 

a)  W.  Ellis,  Hist  of  the  Lond.  Miss.  Soc.  Lond.  1844.  vol.  J 

1}  W.  Hoffmann,  Eilf  Jahre  in  d.  Miss.  Stuttg.  1S53. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUBCH  TILL  1853.    §  465.  MISS.  &  BIBLE  SOCIETIES.    613 

in  1820,  at  Berlin  in  1823,  at  Barmen  in  1828,  and  at  Dresden  in  1836. 
Wherever  Protestants  were  found,  auxiliaries  to  these  societies  were  formed, 
and  about  five  millions  of  dollars  are  annually  collected  for  the  education  and 
support  of  five  thousand  native  and  foreign  laborers  in  the  missions  of  nearly 
fifteen  hundred  stations  on  the  globe.  Every  party  in  the  Church,  especially 
in  England  and  America,  contributes  of  its  money  and  its  prayers,  under  the 
conviction  that  the  more  a  Christian  gives  for  objects  abroad,  the  more  he 
will  have  of  spiritual  blessings  in  his  own  heart.  The  English  missions  aim 
to  make  their  converts  thoroughly  English,  but  the  American  missionaries 
avow  that  they  wish  to  become  national  pastors,  wherever  they  may  be  sta- 
tioned. In  consequence  of  the  peculiar  organization  of  the  London  Society, 
it  was  obliged  to  confine  its  attention  to  the  simple  proclamation  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  to  leave  the  ecclesiastical  connection  to  be  determined  by  the 
converts,  or  rather  by  the  missionaries  themselves.  The  Church  Missionary 
Society  recognized  indeed  only  the  system  of  Christian  faith  professed  by  the 
Episcopal  Church,  but  it  employed  even  German  missionaries,  and  allowed 
them  to  manage  their  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  their  own  way.  The  difficulties 
experienced  by  EJienius  (d.  1838),  so  remarkable  for  his  powerful  faith,  and 
who  was  the  first  that  fell  out  with  the  society,  sprung  entirely  from  his  de- 
cided literary  tendencies,  (c)  The  North  German  Missionary  Society  (1836) 
was  much  endangered  by  its  controversy  about  the  Lutheran  and  the  Ee- 
formed  Confessions,  but  with  respect  to  missionary  operations  it  always  per- 
ceived the  necessity  of  a  union,  (d)  The  missionary  societies  of  all  countries 
where  the  German  language  was  spoken,  were  united  (1846)  into  one  gen- 
eral body,  that  concert  in  missionary  operations'  might  be  secured  by 
means  of  periodical  general  assemblies  and  a  central  Board,  whose  location 
might  be  changed  according  to  circumstances,  (e)  But  when  the  Dresden 
mission  was  transferred  to  Leipsic  (1847),  it  placed  itself  decidedly  on  the 
ground  of  the  Lutheran  Confession,  and  the  Bavarian  Lutherans  pronounced 
all  contributions  to  the  society  of  Nuremberg  sinful,  until  it  received  a 
Lutheran  name  and  character  (1852).  (/)  As  most  of  the  missions  were 
commenced  under  the  management  of  what  was  called  the  Methodistic  party 
and  the  Moravians,  it  was  found  that  none  but  those  of  a  kindred  spirit 
would  enter  heartily  into  the  work  of  conducting  them.  Gradually,  there- 
fore, a  certain  degree  of  coolness  with  regard  to  them  sprung  up  among  the 
Kationalists.  (g)  Although  the  doctrines  of  many  of  the  missionaries  may 
have  reminded  one  more  of  the  Formula  of  Concord  than  of  the  gospel, 
there  were  certainly  some  missionaries,  as  e.  g.,  those  who  proceeded  from 
the  school  of  the  sincere  Jaenike  of  Berlin  (since  1800),  whose  virtues  and 
sacrifices  remind  us  of  apostolic  times.  (A)  Not  only  ministers  with  a  regu- 

c)  Rheinwald,  Eep.  voL  XXIV.  p.  184es. 

d)  Keport  of  the  Nordd.  Miss.  G.  Hamb.  1839.  A.  KZ.  1847.  N.  152.  Allg.  Missionszeitung,  ed.  by 
Brauer,  Hamb.  1845ss. 

e)  Brl.  KZ.  1847.  N.  70. 

/)  L.  A.  Petri,  d.  Miss.  u.  d.  K.  Hann.  1S4L    K.  Graul,  d.  ev.  luth.  M.  zu  Dresden  an  die  luth. 
K.  Lps.  1845.  Ev.  lutb.  Missionsbl.  Dn  u.  Lps.  s,  1846ss. 

g)  Jiohr,  Fred.  Bibl.  voL  XII.  IL  4.    NotizenbL  and  oft  A.  KZ,  1830.  N.  83s. 
?i)  Ev.  KZ.  1831.  N.  90. 


614  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  TI.    A.  D.  1WS-1963. 

lar  education,  bnt  in  some  cases  mechanics  of  an  elevated  religious  spirit, 
were  sent  forth.  Their  principal  influence  has  been  exerted  by  means  of 
popular  schools,  and  generally  none  have  been  admitted  to  baptism  until 
their  fidelity  has  been  proved.— When  the  Pietists  of  Halle  had  begun  (1712) 
to  provide  cheap  Bibles,  ({)  this  attempt  to  supply  those  who  in  different 
places  were  found  destitute  of  the  word  of  God,  suggested  to  some  benevo- 
lent people  in  England  the  idea  of  supplying  every  nation  on  earth  with  tho 
Holy  Scriptures  in  their  own  language.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
at  London  was  the  first  and  the  most  important  of  all  these  enterprises.  The 
single  penny  of  the  poor  soon  became  a  million,  and  innumerable  Bibles  arc 
•  now  distributed  in  more  than  a  hundred  languages.  That  the  whole  power 
of  all  parties  may  be  combined  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  object,  nothing 
is  printed  by  this  society  but  the  word  of  God,  in  a  faithful,  and,  when  it  is 
possible,  in  an  ecclesiastical  translation,  without  note  or  comment.  Tho  rela- 
tions of  the  English  society  to  foreign  societies  were  disturbed  by  its  resolu- 
tion to  withdraw  from  all  co-operation  in  tho  circulation  of  the  Apocrypha 
(1827) ;  bnt  although  the  difficulty  was  nearly  settled  by  mutual  conces- 
sions, (£)  it  was  made  the  subject  of  controversy  in  the  orthodox  party  in 
Germany,  because  those  who  maintained  the  divine  authority  of  tho  Scrip- 
tures were  against,  while  those  who  regarded  them  as  merely  traditionary 
records  wore  in  favor  of  the  Apocrypha,  and  the  practical  interest  might 
therefore  be  so  explained  as  to  be  on  either  side.  (?)  The  proposition  in  Lon- 
don, to  banish  from  the  society  all  who  did  not  believe  in  a  Triune  God,  was 
voted  down  with  great  unanimity  (1831),  but  its  advocates  withdrew,  and 
formed  a  separate  society,  (m) 

§  466.    Spread  of  Christianity. 

In  consequence  of  the  revolutionary  wars  in  the  south  of  Europe  and 
America,  the  dominion  of  the  seas  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Protestant  pow- 
ers, and  all  the  shores  of  the  earth  were  open  to  their  missions.  Hence, 
when  peace  was  concluded,  the  gospel  was  proclaimed  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  with  more  power  than  ever  before,  and  with  a  powerful  popular  sym- 
pathy in  its  favor.  In  the  South  Sea  Islands,  even  among  the  milder  tribes, 
Christianity  had  to  contend  with  the  most  licentious  practices,  and  the  terri- 
ble sanctity  of  the  Tabu.  At  Tahiti,  the  dissenting  missionaries,  since  1797, 
never  despaired  even  in  the  most  hopeless  seasons,  and  have  finally  obtained 
possession  of  tho  native  children.  King  Pomare  II.  learned  to  read  and 
write ;  an  insurrection  in  favor  of  the  old  religion  was  quelled  after  a  san- 
guinary struggle  (Nov.  12th,  1815),  and  the  magic  work  of  the  first  printing 
press  was  hailed  (1817)  with  the  most  joyful  anticipations.  At  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  king  Riho-riho  had  already  destroyed  the  old  gods  when  the 
American  missionaries  first  landed  on  his  shores  (1820).  (a)  Since  that  time, 
most  of  the  Society  and  Sandwich  Islands,  as  they  could  not  escape  the  vices 

0  A.  H.  Niemeyer,  Gesch.  d.  Canstein.  Bibelanst  Hal.  1827.     K)  A.  KZ.  1827.  N.  12. 1830.  N.  2JL 
1)  Brl.  KZ.  1853.  N.  43.         m)  Ev.  KZ.  1881.  N.  63s.  1832.  N.  34.  05. 

a)  a.  Prvwt,  Mem.  of  tho  Life  of  J.  Williams.  Lond.  1S43.  W.  J.  Besser,  J.  W.  d.  Apostel  d 
Budsee.  Brl.  2  ed.  1847. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  466.  EAST  INDIES.  6 1 5 

of  civilization,  have  accepted  also  of  the  virtues  of  a  Puritanic  form  of 
Christianity,  and  submitted  themselves  to  the  theocratic  government  of  the 
missionaries ;  (Z>)  hut  the  English  missionaries  have  been  driven  from  tha 
Marquesas,  and  the  evangelical  churches  of  Tahiti  have  been  wasted  by 
French  ships  of  war  with  Catholic  priests  (since  1842).  (c)  The  old  land  of 
wonders,  the  land  of  Brahma,  had  now  become  subject  to  the  merchants  of 
England.  The  East  India  Company  has  sometimes  favored  Brahminism  be- 
cause it  believed  that  the  security  of  its  dominion  might  be  promoted  by  the 
jealousies  of  the  Brahmins  and  the  Mussulmen.  But  public  opinion  in  Eng- 
land demanded  that  the  government  should  act  in  consistency  with  the 
Christian  religion,  and  accordingly,  in  1829,  the  suttees  ceased  to  receive  the 
protection  of  the  laws,  and  in  1831,  all  offices  open  to  any  natives  were  made 
free  to  Christian  Hindoos.  The  system  of  caste  still  presents  very  great 
obstacles ;  the  manner  in  which  the  Brahmins  have  been  educated  enables 
them  to  propose  objections  (d)  which  an  uneducated  missionary  finds  it  hard 
to  answer ;  the  number  of  converts  is  small,  and  the  missionaries'  native 
helpers  have  very  little  influence  with  those  whom  they  have  forsaken.  The 
Anglican  Church  is  the  only  body  which  has  laid  the  basis  of  an  external 
polity  there.  The  diocese  of  Calcutta  has  been  established  (1815),  and  the 
suffragans  of  Bombay  and  Madras  have  been  since  attached  to  it  (1833). 
But  the  foundations  of  the  old  temples  have  been  powerfully  shaken  by  the 
quiet  influence  of  Christian  dominion  and  improvements,  by  the  schools,  a 
free  press,  and  trials  by  jury.  In  the  promotion  of  these  objects,  Bishop 
Heber  (d.  1826)  spent  the  brief  day  of  his  administration  in  his  immense  dio- 
cese laboring  principally  for  the  Christian  education  of  the  people,  (e)  Bishop 
Wilson  has  declared  all  distinctions  of  caste  abolished  among  such  as  profess 
the  Christian  religion  (1833),  since  the  gospel  has  placed  all  men  of  every 
nation  and  condition  on  the  same  footing.  (/)  On  the  other  hand,  the  great 
EammoJiun-Iioy  (1780-1833),  in  possession  of  the  treasures  of  Indian  and 
Christian  learning,  has  proclaimed  that  the  purely  moral  worship  of  the  one 


fc)  K  W.  Lohn,  ft.  d.  Eel.  d.  Polyncsier,  o.  d.  Tapulander.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S42.  II.  4)— 0.  v, 
Koteebue,  Eeise  urn  d.  Welt.  Weim.  1830.  (Kohr,  Pr.  Bibl.  vol.  X.  II.  5.  XII,  4  XIII,  5.)  To  be 
modified  by :  Ellis,  Polynesian  Eesearcb.es.  Lond.  1880.  2  vols.  (Ev.  KZ.  1830.  N.  SOss.)  [N.  York., 
1831.  2  vols.]  F.  Krohn.  d,  Missionswesen  d.  Sudsee.  Hmb.  1833.  J.  Williams,  Narrative  of  Miss. 
Enterprises  in  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Lond.  1837.  C.  E,  Meinicke,  d.  Sudseevolker  u.  d.  Christenth. 
Prenzl.  1S44.  IT.  Wegener,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  K.  a.  d.  Gesellschafts-ArchipeL  Brl.  1844.  vol.  I. 

C)  IT.  Lutteroih,  Gesch.  d.  I.  Tahiti,  u.  ihrer  Besitznahme  durch  d.  Franzosen.  from  the  Fr.  by  Bruns. 
Brl.  1843.  W.  F.  JBesser,  d.  Missioniir  u.  s.  Lohn.  (from  Pritchard,  The  Missionary's  Howard.  Lond. 
1844.)  Hal.  1846.— -K  HicJiaelis,  d.  Volker  d.  Sudsee  u.  Gesch.  d.  prot.  u.  kath.  Miss,  unter  dens. 
Munst.  184T. 

d)  An  Apology  for  Heathenism,  and  Controversial  Treatises  against  Christianity,  by  a  Brahmin. 
Translated,  with  notes  by  Bp.  Wilson.  Bombay,  1832.   (Mitgeth.  v.  Poret  in  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1853. 

II.  2.) 

e)  Buchanan,  nst.  Unters.  u.  d.  Zust  d.  Christen  in  Asien.  A.  d.  E.  Stuttg.  1813.    [Christian  Ee- 
searches  in  Asia,  Lond.  1811.  8.  and  oft.]    Niemeyer,  neuere  Gesch.  d.  ev.  Miss,  in  Ostind.  (Hal. 
1830.  St.  77.)    Ileber,  Journal.  Lond.  1826.  2  vols.  4.    Life  of  Heber.  Lond.  1880.  2  vols.  4    United 
in  •  Ero&n  Hebers  Leben  u.  Nachrr.  u.  Ind.  Brl.  1831.  2  vols.    J.  Hough,  Hist  of  Christ  in  India. 
Lond.  1839-45.  4  vols.    Die  Entw.  d.  chr.  Miss,  in  Ostind.  (Bas.  Mag.  1841.  H.  1.  2.  4. 1842.  H.  1.  8s 
1843.  H.  Iss.  1844.  H.  2s.  1S45.  H.  2.)    J.  J.  WeitbrecM,  d.  prot.  Miss,  in  Ind.  ra.  bes.  Eucks.  a.  Ben 
galen.  Ileidlb.  1844. 

/)  Ev.  KZ.  1834.  N.  73s. 


616  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

God  is  merely  the  restoration  of  original  Brahminism,  and  that  this  doctrine 
constitutes  the  unity  of  that  system  with  the  essential  principles  of  the  gos- 
pel. (?)  At  Malacca,  a  Christian  school  was  opened  for  the  education  of  the 
Chinese  residing  there,  and  Morrison  (d.  1844)  translated  the  Scriptures  for 
their  use.  English  cannons  have  compelled  the  Celestial  Empire  to  open  its 
gates  for  the  reception  of  the  gospel  as  well  as  opium  (1842),  and  the  Hessian 
Missionary  Society  has  avowed  its  special  interest  in  the  conversion  of  China. 
Gatzlaff  (1803-61),  born  a  missionary,  and  trained  in  the  school  of  Jaenike. 
in  the  full  costume  of  a  native,  and  sometimes  in  connection  with  English 
merchants,  has  penetrated  with  some  violence  into  the  interior  of  China 
(since  1881).  At  first  ho  was  obliged  to  communicate  Christianity  to  the 
Chinese  only  in  a  manuscript  form,  but  after  a  time  he  succeeded  in  sending 
forth  in  every  direction  a  large  number  of  native  preachers  from  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  seminary,  which  has  been  removed  from  Macao  to  Hong-Kong,  and 
finally,  as  a  friend  of  China,  has  pleaded  its  cause  in  the  different  countries 
of  Germany.  (A)  The  insurrection  created  by  the  new  Son  of  Heaven 
(Tien-ti),  has  already  destroyed  the  idols  (since  1852),  threatens  to  over- 
throw the  Tartar  dynasty,  and  has  adopted  many  ideas  peculiar  to  Christian- 
ity. (/)  Missions  of  all  denominations  have  been  established  among  the 
colonies  on  the  coast  of  Southern  Africa,  where,  in  consequence  of  the  rev- 
erence which  the  negro  generally  feels  for  the  white  man,  the  difficulty  has 
been  not  so  much  with  the  decided  opposition  as  with  the  indifference  of  a 
stupid  barbarism.  The  Rhenish  Missionary  Society  looks  with  pious  expec- 
tations to  the  -miniature  likeness  of  its  own  native  valley  in  the  Wupperthal 
belonging  to  the  Colony  of  the  Cape,  but  when  the  Hottentots  roso  against 
the  white  men  (since  1860),  they  forgot  their  catechism.  At  Sierra  Leone  has 
been  formed  the  germ  of  freedom  and  of  Christianity  (since  181C),  at  an 
expense  of  millions  of  money,  but  it  is  continually  threatened  by  a  most 
noxious  climate.  (!•)  To  secure  the  benefits  of  European  civilization  for  his 
subjects,  King  Hadama  allowed  Christianity  to  be  freely  introduced  into 
Madagascar  (since  1818).  The  queen  who  succeeded  him,  however,  com- 
manded her  subjects  to  think  no  more  of  the  new  doctrine ;  the  missionaries 
abandoned  the  island  (1836),  and  the  native  Christians  were  impaled  alive, 


0)  Translation  of  several  principal  books  of  the  Veds.  ed.  2.  Lond.  1S32.  Appeal  to  Christians. 
Calcutta,  1820s.  2  vols.  Correspondence  relative  to  the  prospect  of  the  reception  of  Christ  in  India. 
Lond.  1824.  A.  KZ.  1S24.  N.  43.  Gesch.  d.  ev.  Miss.  Hal.  1837.  St  83.  p.  956s.  [Christ  Exam- 
iner, Sept  and  Oct  1S26.  Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims.  voL  IL  p.  270ss.  North  Amer.  Review.  voL 
XX.  p.  898SS.] 

h)  W.  If.  Medhurst,  China,  its  State  and  Prospects.  Lond.  1S38.  Freely  revised.  Stuttg.  1840.— 
GuUlaff,  Sketch  of  Chinese  Hist,  Anc.  and  Mod.  N.  York,  1840.  2  vols.  12.— a  Gutzlaff,  Journal  of 
Three  Voyages  along  the  Coast  of  China.  N.  York,  1S33.  Lond.  1834.  (Ev.  KZ.  1833.  N.  56.  1834.  N. 
79ss.)  Gaihan's  (Gutzl.)  chin.  Berichte,  1S41-46.  ed.  by  the  chin.  Stiftung.  1850.  A.  KZ.  1846.  N. 
181. 1847.  N.  148. 1850.  N.  202ss.  1851.  N.  40. 

0  Beitrr.  z.  Kunde  Chinas  in  Bcz.  a,  d.  Miss.  ed.  by  K.  L.  Eiernateki,  Cass.  1853.  vol.  I.  IL  2. 
A.  KZ.  1858.  N.  ISO. 

*)  (0.  v.  Gerlach,)  Gesch.  d.  ev.  Miss,  im  sudL  Afr.  Brl.  1S32.  (7.  and  8.  Rep.  of  the  Bert.  Soc.) 
Reports  of  the  Rhenish  Miss.  Soc.  Barm.  ISSOss.  Hist  of  the  Civilization  and  Christianization  of 
louthern  Afr.  Edinb.  1880.  Some  circulars  sent  from  South  Afr.  to  Bishop  Neander,  ed.  by  G.  Getcl 
Hainb.  1S40. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §467.  PIUS  VII.    CONSALVI.        617 

but  Christianity  was  by  no  means  extinguished.  (Z)  The  remnants  of  the 
aboriginal  tribes  of  North  America  betook  themselves  to  the  deeper  shades 
of  their  primitive  forests ;  and  although  some  of  them  acknowledged  the 
God  of  the  whites,  others  replied  to  the  solicitations  of  the  missionaries,  that 
they  had  previously  lived  happily  under  the  protection  of  the  Great  Spirit, 
and  that  what  they  had  witnessed  in  their  white  brethren  had  only  made 
them  doubt  the  expediency  of  any  change. — About  sixty-five  millions  of 
people  are  at  present  adherents  of  the  Evangelical  Church. 


CHAP.  VI.— THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  UNTIL  1853. 

§  467.      Re-establishment  of  the  Roman  Hierarchy.      Cont.  from  §  439. 

With  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  a  party  bound  together  by  the 
most  intimate  relations,  and  ramified  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  became  dif- 
fused in  all  parts  of  Southern  Europe,  and  formed  a  secret  connection  until 
1830  with  the  apostolical  congregation  as  the  nucleus  of  all  their  operations. 
The  object  of  this  party  was  to  obliterate  all  vestiges  of  the  Revolution,  and 
under  the  name  of  the  absolute  monarchic  system,  once  more  to  divide  the 
world  between  the  Priests  and  the  Barons.  Their  watchword,  that  the  altar 
cannot  fall  without  the  throne,  and  the  terrible  experience  of  the  few  past 
years  was  sufficient  to  draw  toward  them  the  hearts  of  the  princes.  The 
result  was,  that  the  state  received  an  ecclesiastical,  and  the  Church  a  politi- 
cal element.  By  this  dangerous  connection,  the  hierarchy  obtained  many 
unexpected  concessions,  but  the  Church  was  involved  in  all  the  changes  of 
the  political  system,  and  its  true  power  was  much  impaired.  And  yet  the 
newly-awakened  religious  zeal  which  now  took  possession  of  the  leading 
spirits  of  the  age,  sometimes  the  result  of  enthusiasm,  and  at  other  times  of 
deliberate  purpose,  was  beneficial  to  the  cause  of  Catholicism,  and  raised  up 
many  a  dilapidated  and  fallen  pillar  for  its  support.  Pius  VII.  once  more 
entered  his  capital  (May  24th,  1814),  which,  having  been  reduced  to  a  mere 
French  provincial  town,  now  received  him  with  acclamations,  (a)  The 
Ecclesiastical  States  had  their  former  limits  assigned  them  by  the  Congress, 
of  Vienna,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  district  beyond  the  Po.  The  pro- 
vinces beyond  the  Apennines  were  exposed  to  the  rapacity  of  Austria,  now 
the  dominant  power  in  Italy.  The  Diplomatists  of  Vienna  smiled  when 
Consalvi  solemnly  protested  against  the  dismemberment  of  the  country  on 
the  Po,  the  Austrian  occupation  of  the  castle  of  Ferrara,  the  refusal  to  sur- 
render Avignon,  and  the  secularization  and  dissolution  of  the  German  em- 
pire. (&)  The  nations  heard  with  amazement  that  the  pope  had  pronounced 
the  Bible  Society  a  pestilence  (1817).  (c)  The  bull  Sollicitudo  Omnium  (Aug. 
7th,  1814),  in  compliance  with  what  it  called  the  almost  unanimous  entreaty 

l~)  Ellis,  H.  of  Madag.  Lond.  1S38.  2  vols.  (Ev.  KZ.  1S39.  N.  15ss.)    Brl.  KZ.  1S41.  N.  25.    Feld- 
t«€r,  d.  Ev.  a.  Madag.  Konigsb.  1845. 

«)  Pacca,  Memorie.  Orv.  1S33.  vol.  V.  Augsb.  1834.  vol.  V. 

&)  Kluber,  Acten  d.  Wiener  Congr.  vol.  IV.  p.  325.  VI.  441ss. 

c)  Walcf,  Decreta,  quib.  societt.  bibl.  a.  P.  E.  damnantur.  Eeg   1818. 


618  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1645-1853. 

of  Christendom,  restored  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  throughout  the  world 
Nowhere,  except  in  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  however,  was  it  able  to  regain 
possession  of  any  portion  of  its  former  property ;  but  it  received  from  the 
former  society  an  inheritance  of  suspicion  and  hatred,  which  its  members 
sought  to  remove  from  the  popular  mind  by  a  course  of  strict  morality  and 
manners.  In  Naples,  Belgium,  Ireland,  and  in  most  of  the  American  States, 
they  were  tolerated  ;  in  Sardinia,  they  were  richly  endowed,  and  intrusted 
with  the  education  of  the  youth ;  and  in  some  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland 
they  erected  edifices  for  instruction,  which  were  resorted  to  by  many  chil- 
dren of  the  French  and  German  nobility.  Austria,  after  a  protracted  refu- 
sal, opened  a  few  of  her  provinces  to  them  (after  183C).  They  were  excluded 
from  Russia  for  their  abuse  of  confidence  (1820).  (<?)  As  they  became,  under 
General  Roothaan,  after  1829,  more  and  more  decidedly  the  prominent  cham- 
pions against  all  freedom  both  in  Church  and  State,  not  indeed  from  any 
warmth  of  natural  character,  but  by  cold  calculation  and  untiring  diligence, 
their  intrusion  into  the  western  states  of  Europe  depended  upon  their  uncer- 
tain victory  over  liberal  institutions,  (e)  Every  condition  which  they  had 
desired  in  behalf  of  the  new  order  of  things  in  the  Church,  had  been  con- 
ceded to  them  by  the  Roman  court,  and  by  the  governments  of  Turin  (1814, 
1817)  and  Naples  (1818),  since  every  limitation  of  the  hierarchy  was  sus- 
pected in  those  countries  as  a  democratic  element.  (/)  Every  ecclesiastical 
measure  indicated  that  it  was  the  design  to  bring  all  things  back  to  the  con- 
dition in  which  they  were  before  the  time  of  Clement  XIV.  In  the  civil 
administration,  Consalvi  endeavored  to  strike  out  a  middle  way  between  the 
hierarchical  and  liberal  parties.  A  Motu-Proprio  of  July  6,  1816,  confirmed 
the  legal  equality  of  all  citizens,  just  as  it  had  been  introduced  by  the  French 
when  they  abolished  all  municipal  and  provincial  privileges.  But  when  the 
French  code  had  been  abolished,  nothing  was  substituted  in  its  place ;  the 
prelates  once  more  seized  upon  all  the  civil  offices,  the  privileged  classes  were 
opposed  to  a  re-establishment  of  the  financial  system,  and  even  robbers  col- 
lected annuities.  It  may  therefore  with  propriety  be  said,  that  there  was  no 
security  for  the  government  but  in  the  pious  recollections  of  the  people, 
and  in  the  proper  management  of  the  confessional.  (#)  After  experiencing 
such  extreme  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  Pius  VII.  died  (Aug.  21, 1823),  his  last 
days  having  been  beclouded  by  the  burning  of  St.  Paul's  church,  and  the 
threatened  approach  of  a  new  revolution.  (A)  Although  he  was  a  theologian, 
his  education  was  by  no  means  extensive ;  he  had  no  great  confidence  in  his 
own  abilities,  displayed  great  powers  of  endurance,  and  his  countenance  was 
that  of  a  saint,  and  an  image  of  a  noble  soul. 

d)  Voter,  Anbau.  voL  1L  p.  39s».  KHiat  Archiv.  1828.  P.  2.  p.  22ss.  Weztenrieder,  u.  d.  Wie- 
derh.  d.  Jes.  1S18.  Cretineau-Joly,  Gesch.  d.  Gesellsch.  J.  from  the  French.  Vienna  1845ss.  6  vols.— 
//.  Lutterotfi,  la  Eussie  et  lea  Jesulteai  Par.  1844.  u.  v.  Birch,  Stuttg.  1846. 

«)  Das  Innere  d.  Gesellsch.  Jesu.  Lps.  1845.  Der  Jes.  O.  u.  B.  Unvertraglichk.  in.  d.  deutschen 
Verh.  Stuttg.  1846. 

/)  Orig.  Docc.  in  Yater's  Anbau.  vol.  I.  p.  Goes.  14183. 

0)  Tournon,  Etudes  statistiques  sur  Rome.  Par.  1S31.  L.  Ranke,  Rom.  1815-28.  (Hist.  poL 
Zeitschr.  1S32.  P.  4.) 

h)  P.  Baldawari,  Relaziono  delle  aversita  c  patiraenti  del  P.  Pio  VII.  negli  ultimi  tre  anni  del 
BUG  pontif.  ed.  2.  Bolog.  1S40. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  468.  LEO  XII.    GEEGCEY  XVI.     619 

§  468.     The  Popes  lefore  the  Last. 

(Kolle,)  Eom  im  J.  1833.  Stuttg.  1834.  E.  Munch,  Eom.  Zustande  u.  Kirch cnfragen  d.  neuesten 
Zeit  Stuttg.  1838.  (IT.  Reuchlin,)  Bilder  u.  Skizzen  a.  Eom.  Stuttg.  1844.-— Ji  €f.  Koberle :  Eom  unter 
den  letzten  drei  Papsten,  u.  d.  zweite  Eef.  in  Deutschl.  Lps.  1846.  3  vols.— Artaud  de  Jlfontor,  Hist, 
du  P.  Leon  XII.  Par.  1843.  revised  by  C h.  Seherer,  Schaff  h.  1844.-dn  P.  Pie  VIII.  Par.  1844.-Aus 
d.  Leben  P.  Greg.  XVI.  Vien.  1831.  4.  SernJi.  Wagner,  P.  Greg.  XVI.  Sulzb.  1846. 

Leo  XII.  (della  Genga,  Sept.  28th,  1823-Feb.  10th,  1829),  who  belonged 
to  the  party  opposed  to  Oonsalvi's  liberal  policy,  endeavored  to  regulate  the 
affairs  of  the  Church  beyond  the  Alps  and  the  ocean,  and  to  supply  it  with 
bishops  distinguished  for  piety  and  science.  He  also  improved  the  system  of 
education  in  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  canonized  the  Minorite  Julianus,  who 
had  ordered  fried  birds  to  fly  away,  (a)  and  appointed  the  year  of  Jubilee  to 
be  a  season  of  general  expiation  and  grace,  in  which  believers  from  all  parts 
of  the  earth  might  come  up  to  the  metropolis  of  the  world,  to  thank  God 
for  the  victory  which  had  been  obtained  over  the  great  conspiracy  of  tLis 
century  against  all  human  and  divine  rights,  and  to  pray  for  the  extermina- 
tion of  heretics.  (5)  -  He  had'  not  been  distinguished  for  his  abstemiousness  in 
Germany,  where  he  had  resided  as  a  nuncio,  but  when  he  became  pope  he 
was  extremely  temperate.  On  his  accession,  he  was  received  at  Eome  with 
great  rejoicings,  but  at  his  death  he  was  hated  for  his  strictness  and  indepen- 
dence, not  only  by  the  officials  of  his  court  and  the  cardinals,  but  by  the 
people.  Pius  VIII.  (Castiglioni,  March  31st,  1829-Nov.  30th,  1830),  a 
favorite  of  his  predecessor  of  the  same  name,  a  sickly,  benevolent  old  man, 
and  always  afraid  of  the  machinations  of  the  philosophers,  the  Bible  socie- 
ties, and  the  Carbonari,  (c)  put  forth  his  last  and  best  energies  to  confer  bless- 
ings on  his  city  and  the  world.  The  longings  of  the  Italians  generally  after 
national  independence  and  a  popular  constitution,  had  become  powerful  espe- 
cially in  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  quite  as  much  in  consequence  of  the  decided 
opposition  made  to  them,  as  of  the  weakness  of  the  government.  Even  dur- 
ing the -session  of  the  conclave,  an  insurrection  became  formidable,  and  deter- 
mined the  vote  in  favor  of  Capellari  von  Belluno,  the  General  of  the  Camal- 
dolites,  Gregory  XVI.  (Feb.  2,  1831-June  1,  1846),  who  had  once  celebrated 
the  triumph  of  the  holy  see  over  the  assaults  of  these  innovators,  (d)  The 
insurrection,  relying  upon  the  aid  of  France,  broke  out  in  the  Legations, 
extended  beyond  the  Marquisate  of  Ancona,  and  finally  reached  Rome,  where 
its  object  was  to  compel  the  pope  to  abdicate  his  temporal  sovereignty. 
From  this  he  was  preserved  by  the  interference  of  Austria.  He  however 
paid  only  an  apparent  attention  to  the  admonition  of  the  European  powers, 
to  conform  his  administration  to  the  spirit  of  the  age.  The  rebellion  had 
been  indeed  suppressed,  but  was  by  no  means  radically  exterminated,  and 
hence  it  was  soon  awakened  to  new  activity  (Jan.,  1832).  The  troops  sent 
forth  to  quell  it,  being  wholly  composed  of  banditti  and  criminals,  ravaged 
peaceable  towns  and  sacred  spots,  until  finally  it  became  necessary  to  call  in 
the  Austrian  military  to  rescue  the  papal  government  and  its  territory  from 

a)  A.  KZ.  1825.  N.  70.         Z>)  Ibid.  1824.  N.  88. 

c)  Msmschmid,  rom.  Bullar.  Lps.  1831.  vol.  II.  p.  S09ss. 

Trionfo  della  Santa  Sede.  Eom.  1790.  Ven.  1832,  and  oft  Angsb.  1833. 


520  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1&4S-1S58. 

r 

its  own  soldiery.  To  prevent  Austria  from  obtaining  complete  sovereignty 
over  Italy,  the  French  fleet  took  possession  of  Ancona  Ly  a  single  hlow  (Feb 
23,  1832).  The  Roman  court  protested  against  this  violation  of  national 
law,  declared  the  city  of  Ancona  under  an  interdict,  and  thus  finally  availed 
itself  of  the  weak  side  which  necessity  offered.  There  was  no  denying  that 
the  deficit  in  the  revenues  was  annually  increasing.  An  attempt  to  intro- 
duce a  new  code  of  civil  law  was  defeated  by  the  opposition  of  the  provinces. 
Ancona  was  given  up  by  the  French  and  Bologna  by  the  Austrians  simul- 
taneously, Dec.  8d,  1838.  The  Legations  were  disturbed  by  an  almost  per- 
petual guerilla  war  during  the  years  1848-44.  (e)  The  inhabitants  of  Rimini 
•  (Sept.,  1846)  demanded  with  arms  in  their  hands,  since  every  other  form  of 
petition  and  complaint  was  denied  them,  the  very  moderate  concession  of  the 
legal  forms  of  a  civilized  state.  The  Swiss  regiments  and  a  fanatical  band  of 
papal  volunteers  stifled  this  insurrection  in  blood,  and  a  great  part  of  the  edu- 
cated Roman  youth  sighed  in  prisons,  or  in  the  mere  possession  of  life  in  foreign 
lands.  The  pastoral  epistle  of  Gregory  (Aug.  15,  1832)  is  full  of  expressions 
indicating  that  the  author  was  conscious  that  the  Roman  Church  stood  on 
the  brink  of  an  abyss,  and  that  it  could  be  saved  only  by  the  firm  union  of 
all  true  believers  in  opposition  to  modern  science  and  popular  freedom,  bnt 
that  his  unshaken  reliance  rested  upon  the  protection  of  the  Holy  Virgin.  (/) 
Gregory  lived  to  witness,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps,  both  defeats  and 
triumphs,  but  he  seemed  always  to  understand  with  firm  moderation  what 
the  papacy  might  according  to  circumstances  demand  or  endure  from  others. 
The  festival  of  the  canonization  of  five  saints  (May  26th,  1839),  was  a  cele- 
bration of  victory  and  a  season  of  excitement,  (y)  Gregory  lived,  according 
to  his  own  convictions  of  duty,  the  abstemious  life  of  a  cloister,  or  at  least 
under  all  the  restraints  of  a  m6nkish  spirit,  but  he  could  not  control  the  ava- 
rice of  his  subordinate  courtiers ;  he  had  no  confidence  in  his  people,  and 
therefore  put  himself  under  the  counsels  of  a  gloomy  party ;  and  he  finally 
left  his  personal  servants  and  his  nepotes  rich,  the  country  impoverished,  and 
the  government  distracted. 

§  469.    Pius  IX.  (June  16, 184C)  and  Italy. 

Pius  IX.  u.  s.  Reformen.  Lps.  1847.  If.  StiegUU,  Erlnn.  an  Rom.  u.  d.  KStaat  im  ereten  Jahr.  sr. 
Vcrjung.  Lpa.  IMS.  Curd,  4  Paprt  als  Btaateoberh.  u.  d.  Demagogic,  from  the  Ital.  of  E.  v.  Moy 
Jusb.  1S49.  FU.  di  Boni,  Pio  nono.  Torino.  1850.  Die  Gegenwart  Lps.  1849sa.  voL  IIL  p.  149, 604ss. 
vol.  VII.  p.  45«8. 

The  election  was  for  some  time  undecided  between  the  Genoese,  Lambrus- 
chini,  who  had  been  the  real  ruler  during  the  last  years  of  Gregory's  reign, 
and  Mastai  Feretti  (b.  1792),  of  Sinigaglia,  once  a  resident  in  Chili,  and  when 
a  prelate  much  interested  in  the  establishment  for  the  poor,  and  a  father  to 
all  orphans.  The  influence  of  the  Roman  nobility  to  which  he  belonged,  and 
the  perilous  condition  of  the  ecclesiastical  government,  finally  determined  the 
choice  of  the  conclave  on  the  second  evening,  in  favor  of  Feretti.  Pius  IX. 
was  regarded  by  his  intimate  acquaintances  as  the  friend  of  moderate  progress 

«)  A.  Z.  1848.  N.  280.         /)  A.  KZ.  1882.  N.  183s. 

g)  A.  KZ.  1839.  N.  101.    Eheinw.  Rep.  voL  XXVI.  p.  91ss. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHtJECH  TILL  1853.    §  469.  PIUS  IX.    GIOBEKTI.  621 

but  his  mind  was  raised  to  a  consciousness  of  a  divine  vocation  to  be  the  re' 
former  and  deliverer  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States  by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Eo- 
man  people  in  his  behalf,  and  the  opposition  he  had  to  encounter.  His  popu- 
lar manners  won  the  hearts  of  the  people  even  when  his  reforms  appeared  to 
them  too  tardy  and  incomplete.  An  amnesty  for  all  who  had  been  imprisoned 
or  exiled  for  political  offences  was  merely  in  accordance  with  what  had  now 
become  established  usage  on  the  accession  of  a  new  pope,  but  he  pronounced 
the  word  of  grace  with  so  much  cordiality  and  good-natured  confidence 
(July  17)  that  an  act  which  brought  such  consolation  to  thousands  of  families 
filled  all  Italy  with  joy.  (a)  He  commenced  his  retrenchments  in  his  own 
household,  allowed  the  press  to  indulge  in  a  much  greater  liberty,  strength- 
ened the  commissions  previously  appointed  for  digesting  a  code  of  laws  and 
forms  of  judicial  proceedings  by  the  addition  of  approved  men,  granted  per- 
mission for  the  construction  of  railroads,  opened  to  the  laity  the  path  to  the 
higher  civil  offices,  decided  upon  a  general  taxation  of  all  convents  in  the 
Ecclesiastical  States,  gave  a  liberal  municipal  constitution  especially  to  the 
city  of  Borne,  invited  men  from  the  provinces  in  whom  the  public  had  con- 
fidence, to  his  council  of  state,  entered  upon  negotiations  for  the  dismission 
of  the  Swiss  troops,  and  took  initiatory  steps  for  a  confederation  of  the  Italian 
states.  His  kind  intentions  with  respect  to  the  Jewish  quarters  in  the  city 
were  frustrated  by  the  opposition  of  the  Christian  population.  (5)  A  portion 
of  the  clergy  sincerely  ranged  themselves  on  the  side  of  the  pope,  his  elo- 
quent preacher,  Ventura,  proclaimed  that  genuine  Catholic  piety  must  neces- 
sarily become  reconciled  with  political  freedom,  (c)  and  even  the  Jesuits  de- 
clared themselves  the  friends  of  progress.  But  so  numerous  were  the  injuries 
committed,  and  threats  received  by  those  who  lived  upon  abuses,  and  espe- 
cially by  those  who  had  formerly  sustained  offices  (la  setta  Gregoriana),  and 
so  complete  was  the  change  of  position  from  that  which  the  modern  papacy 
had  hitherto  occupied  with  respect  to  the  political  parties,  that  an  open  and 
a  secret  opposition  to  this  "  devouring  germ  and  chief  of  young  Italy  "  was 
unavoidably  called  forth.  (<Z)  As  there  were  two  political  powers  on  the  op- 
posite confines  of  the  Ecclesiastical  states  threatening  his  government,  because 
they  were  threatened  by  the  spirit  emanating  from  it,  this  opposition  formed 
a  coalition  with  them.  To  overcome  this  which  was  magnified  by  the  popu- 
lar imagination  until  it  assumed  the  character  of  a  murderous  conspiracy, 
Pius  ventured  to  place  weapons  in  the  hands  of  the  citizens  (guardia  civica, 
July  5,  1847).  (e)  By  this  act  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Italian 
national  movement,  and  was  obliged  earnestly  to  protest  against  the  Austrian 
occupation  of  Ferrara,  and  he  seemed  actually  to  be,  what  the  learned  Abbot 
Gioberti  had  dreamed  that  the  papacy  might  become,  the  head  of  an  Italian 
confederacy  of  princes,  for  the  unity,  national  independence,  and  civil  liberty 
of  Italy ;  and  by  reconciling  faith  with  intellectual  improvements,  the  peaceful 
umpire  among  the  nations,  holding  up  the  cross  as  the  standard  of  freedom.  (/) 

a)  D.  A.  Z.  1846.  N.  220.        5)  Ibid.  1847.  N.  195. 

c)  Elogio  fanebre  di  Daniello  O'Connell.  Eoma  1847. 

d)  D.  A.  Z.  1846.  N.  297.  306.        e)  Ibid.  1847.  N.  199.  253. 

/)  Primato  morale  e  civile  degli  Italian!.  Par.  1843.  Delle  condizioni  presente  e  future  d'ltal.  Loa- 
dra  1848.     Comp.  J.  F.  Neigebaur  d.  Papst  u.  s.  Eeich.  Lps.  1847. 


622  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1C4S-1658. 

His  position  with  respect  to  the  Church  was  strictly  Catholic.  When  he 
came  before  the  public  his  appearance  was  thoroughly  sacerdotal,  and  ho 
made  even  the  pulpit  subservient  to  his  designs,  (g)  His  pastoral  epistle 
(Nov.  9,  1846)  was  an  echo  of  that  of  Gregory,  only  his  complaints  respect- 
ing the  press  and  popular  freedom  were  confined  to  those  books  which  tempted 
men  to  sin,  and  to  what  ho  called  communism.  (A)  llis  personal  inquiries 
into  the  condition  of  convents  and  hospitals,  his  circulars  to  the  generals  of 
the  orders  (June  17, 1847),  and  the  commissions  appointed  with  reference  to 
the  convents,  were  intended  to  re-establish  the  canonical  regulations,  and  to 
bring  theunonastic  life  to  its  former  flourishing  state,  by  enlisting  it  in  pious 
.offices  and  learned  labors.  (0  All  the  Italian  states  had  caught  the  spirit  pro- 
ceeding from  Rome,  when  the  French  revolution  gave  free  scope  to  all  the 
hopes  and  passions  of  the  nations.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  his  conscience, 
the  pope  yielded  to  the  importunities  of  hia  people  by  giving  them  a  constitu- 
tion, providing  for  two  chambers,  one  chosen  by  himself,  and  the  other  by 
the  people,  but  reserving  for  his  inviolable  authority  all  matters  relating  to 
the  Catholic  faith  and  to  morals  (March  14,  1848),  (k)  and  by  appointing  for 
his  minister  a  layman  who  had  just  returned  from  exile.  Gioberti  accused 
the  Jesuits  of  being  the  authors  of  all  the  distress  and  disgrace  to  be  found  in 
Catholic  nations.  (0  They  were  generally  driven  from  the  streets  by  the 
people,  and  although  the  pope  steadily  refused  again  to  abolish  the  order,  he 
was  obliged  to  witness  their  expulsion  from  the  Ecclesiastical  States.  When 
Lombardy  rose  against  the  Austrian  dominion,  and  Charles  Albert,  the  sword 
of  Italy,  to  gain  the  Lombard  crown  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurrec- 
tion, Pius  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the  national  war.  In  spite  of  his  dis- 
approbation, however,  12,000  modern  crusaders  (crociati)  went  forth  to  a 
holy  war,  in  which  they  found  neither  wounds  nor  honor.  The  pope  de- 
clared that  the  Father  of  Christendom  should  never  participate  in  a  war  be- 
tween brethren  belonging  to  Catholic  nations,  and  he  allowed  the  Austrians 
to  enter  Bologna,  and  the  people  there  to  defend  themselves  as  they  could. 
Since  then,  the  people  who  had  so  often  sung  hosannas  before  him,  forsook 
him,  and  the  republican  party  under  Mazzini,  which  at  that  time  aimed  at  an 
indivisible  republic  of  all  Italy,  under  the  presidency  of  the  pope,  came  into 
power,  (m)  In  Lombardy  national  independence,  and  in  Naples  civil  liberty, 
were  overthrown  by  cannons  ;  in  Rome  a  club  (circolo  popolare),  and  in  tho 
provinces  unrestrained  licentiousness,  bore  rule,  when  Count  Rossi,  once  a 
professor  in  Bologna  and  a  fugitive  because  he  had  hoped  for  the  freedom  of 
Italy,  and  afterwards  an  ambassador  of  Louis  Philippe  in  Rome,  undertook 
the  ministry,  and  held  the  parties  under  his  firm  control.  He  was  assassi- 
nated (Nov.  15,  1848)  while  ascending  the  steps  conducting  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  and  on  the  next  day  the  people  demanded  a  democratic  minis- 


0)  D.  A.  Z.  184T.  N.  25.    Comp.  N.  140. 

h)  Die  Erwartungen  d.  kath.  Cbristenb.  nn  19.  Jahrb.  v.  h.  Btuhle.  Zur.  1847. 

1)  Eil  KZ.  1847.  N.  67.  69.       *)  Ibid.  1843.  N.  87. 
Z)  II  Gesuita  moderno.  Coaanna.  1847.  8  vola. 

m)  La  Giovine  Italia.  1S32.  83.    Do  1'Italie  dans  ses  rapports  aveo  la  liberto  et  la  civilisation  mo- 
derne.  Lps.  1346.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  VL    CATH.  CHUECH  TILL  1858.    §  469.  ANTONELLI.    SICCAEDI.       623 

try,  a  constituent  national  assembly  for  the  Ecclesiastical  States  and  for 
Italy,  and  a  participation  in  the  national  war.  The  pope  besieged  and  at- 
tacked with  cannon  in  the  Quirinal,  finally  yielded  with  a  heavy  heart,  was 
guarded  as  a  prisoner,  and  escaped  into  the  Neapolitan  territories  (Nov.  25). 
A  provisional  government  ordered  that  the  constituent  national  assembly 
should  be  chosen  by  the  popular  voice,  and  although  the  pope  at  Gaeta  ex- 
communicated all  who  should  take  any  part  in  the  matter,  the  people  elected 
their  deputies,  and  the  National  Assembly  on  the  night  of  Feb.  9,  1849, 
decreed  that  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  pope  was  at  an  end,  that  the 
government  of  the  Eoman  state  should  henceforth  be  a  pure  democracy,  and 
that  the  Supreme  Pontiff  should  receive  full  security  for  his  independence  in 
the  exercise  of  his  spiritual  powers.  All  ecclesiastical  possessions  were  de- 
clared the  property  of  the  nation  (Feb.  13),  to  be  distributed  on  perpetual 
leases.  But  the  European  lowers  offered  their  assistance  to  the  holy  father, 
the  French  Eepublic  anticipated  even  Austria,  a  French  army  under  the 
appellation  of  allies  of  the  Eoman  republic,  after  an  heroic  defence  by  the 
people,  entered  the  city  of  Eome  (July  3),  and  an  Austrian  army  took  pos- 
session of  the  Legations.  (?i)  A  committee  of  cardinals  by  order  of  the  pope 
undertook  the  government  (July  15),  and  began  the  work  of  vengeance.  The 
pope  promised  (Sept.  12)  some  municipal  and  provincial  limitations  to  the 
absolute  authority  restored  to  the  priests,  but  the  amnesty  which  he  pro- 
claimed was  so  full  of  exceptions  that  it  gave  opportunity  for  all  kinds  of 
persecution.  When  Pius  IX.  finally  returned  to  Eome  (April  12,  1850)  his 
heart  was  embittered,  the  patriotic  ideals  he  had  once  formed  were  broken, 
and  the  people  received  him  in  gloomy  silence.  His  sovereignty,  under  the 
able  management  of  Cardinal  Antonelli,  his  Secretary  of  State,  is  sustained 
entirely  by  French  and  Austrian  garrisons.  As  an  ecclesiastical  prince  his 
feelings  may  have  been  touched  during  his  restoration,  but  he  received  from 
Tuscany  a  Concordat  full  of  concessions  to  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  (<?) 
he  has  issued  jubilee  indulgences,  (#>)  he  has  encouraged  the  Catholic  world  in 
the  hope  that  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary  to  whoso  pow- 
erful protection  he  ascribes  his  deliverance,  will  soon  be  established,  (^)  and  he 
has  once  more  committed  to  the  Jesuits  the  business  of  public  education.  (?-) 
In  Piedmont  alpne  the  Jesuits  are  excluded,  not  only  by  the  people  but  by 
the  king  (March  3,  1848).  Here,  where  Gioberti  himself  in  difficult  times 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  ministry,  they  could  not  be  received,  for  the  suc- 
cessor of  Charles  Albert,  in  harmony  with  the  educated  portion  of  the  na- 
tion, adheres  firmly  to  the  free  development  of  the  state  as  their  best  conso- 
lation for  misfortunes  in  the  battle-field,  (s)  To  carry  out  the  article  of  the 
constitution  which  provides  for  the  equality  of  all  citizens  before  the  law, 
and  for  the  independence  of  the  state  upon  the  clergy,  the  laws  proposed  by 
8icc(vrdi,  the  minister  of  justice,  and  accepted  by  the  chambers,  abolished 
the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  clergy  in  civil  and  criminal  causes,  and 

ri)  C.  Rusconi,  la  republics  Komana  del  1849.  Tor.  1850. 

o)  A.  KZ.  1861.  N.  120.       p)  BrL  KZ.  1852.  N.  23.        q)  Ibid.  1S49.  N.  37. 1850.  N.  4T. 

r)  Ibid.  1850.  N.  12. 

s)  F.  Cruger,  d.  Konigr.  Sardin.  (Gegenw.  1853.  vol.  VIII.  p.  524ss.) 


624  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  YL    A.  D.  1643-1S53. 

their  control  over  charitable  establishments,  abrogated  the  right  of  asylum, 
and  gave  some  reason  to  expect  that  marriages  by  a  civil  act  would  bo  recog- 
nized as  valid,  (f)  Frawoni,  Archbishop  of  Turin,  whose  pastoral  epistle 
complained  of  these  laws  as  sacrilegious,  was  summoned  before  the  civil 
court,  and  on  his  refusal  to  appear  he  was  imprisoned  and  condemned  to  per- 
petual exile  for  resisting  the  law  of  the  state,  and  for  exciting  others  to  rebel- 
lion against  the  civil  authorities  (Sept.  1 850).  (u)  Pius  IX.  extolled  his  martyr- 
dom, and  protested  against  a  legislation  in  conflict  with  legal  concordats,  and 
the  subversion  of  the  sacred  rights  of  the  Church,  (c)  The  government  replied 
that  concordats  were  not  international  treaties  between  independent  powers, 
but  concessions  made  by  the  state  to  its  own  established  Church,  and  tin  re- 
fore  so  far  as  related  to  its  own  department,  might  be  revoked  by  a  legislative 
act  As  the  Roman  court  persisted  in  its  established  policy  of  resisting  in 
one  country  as  a  violation  of  the  inalienable  rig>.i0  cf  the  Church  as  long  as 
any  hope  of  success  remained,  what  in  another  country  had  become  law  by 
the  force  of  circumstances,  the  only  point  on  which  the  two  parties  could 
come  to  any  agreement  was  with  respect  to  a  diminution  of  the  number  of 
festivals.  The  masses  of  the  people  in  different  places  were  kept  in  an  un- 
happy state  of  excitement  against  the  government  by  the  perpetual  clamor 
of  the  clerical  party  under  the  direction  of  Franzoni  from  his  place  of  exile, 
against  the  laws  of  Siccardi,  against  the  civil  marriages,  under  which  all  births 
were  declared  to  be  illegitimate,  against  the  courts  whioh  took  any  action 
against  priests,  and  which  were  immediately  excommunicated,  against  lay 
professors  in  the  university,  against  even  clergymen  who  ventured  to  obey 
the  government,  and  against  the  whole  process  by  which  they  declared  that 
the  state  was  to  be  Protestantized  and  unchristianized.  The  king  himself 
was  threatened  with  excommunication,  and  the  Church  with  a  division.  («?) 
The  state,  on  the  other  hand,  is  continually  holding  forth  its  signals  of  free- 
dom in  a  seductive  manner,  and  whenever  a  revolution  threatens  Italy,  to 
which  Gidberti  (d.  1852)  has  bequeathed  the  lessons  and  the  hopes  to  be 
gathered  from  her  Hot  altogether  undeserved  misfortunes,  (x) 

§  470.     The  Galilean  Church. 

1.  The  Charter  with  which  Louis  XVIII.  entered  the  land  of  his  fathers, 
recognized  Catholicism  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  but  guarantied  to  every 
form  of  public  worship  the  protection  of  the  government.  The  priests  who 
accompanied  him,  the  martyrs  of  the  Revolution,  had  become  by  long  absence 
estranged  from  the  people  and  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  now,  while  they 
demanded  the  proper  reward  of  their  fidelity,  they  promised  to  secure  the 
throne  of  their  sovereign,  and  to  regenerate  their  country.  The  youth  who 
had  grown  up  in  the  midst  of  the  revolutionary  heathenism  stood  in  need  of 
the  gospel,  the  people  longed  for  the  blessings  of'  the  Church,  even  polite 
usage  regarded  all  ridicule  of  religion  as  disreputable,  and  De  Lamariine,  at 

0  BrL  KZ.  1850.  N.  88.        u)  D.  A.  Z.  1S50.  N.  226.  246. 

v)  BrL  KZ.  1850.  N.  89.  51.  94. 

w)  BrL  KZ.  1851.  N.  41.  55. 103.  Hist  pol.  Bll.  1850.  voL  XXY1.  H.  6s. 

x)  Del  rinnovamento  civile  d'ltalia.  Par.  1851.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  YI.    OATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.     §  470.  FRANCE.    CHARLES  X.       625 

that  time  still  a  knight  devoted  to  royalty,  succeeded  by  the  pious  sadness  of 
his  harmonies  in  becoming  the  favorite  poet  of  the  higher  classes,  (a)  De 
Lamennais  (b.  1781)  defended  the  doctrine  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  an 
infallible  Church  as  the  objective  manifestation  of  the  divine  reason  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  frenzy  of  this  individual  reason  of  man,  contrasted  his  own 
glowing  feelings  of  love  and  hatred  with  the  indifference  which  prevailed 
around  him,  and  in  his  honesty  did  not  conceal  his  position  that  he  regarded 
the  theocratic  right  of  the  papacy  as  superior  to  the  foundation  on  which  the 
monarchy  rested,  (b)  Count  de  Maistre  (d.  1821)  proved  that  infallibility 
belonged  as  necessarily  to  the  pope  as  sovereignty  to  the  king,  (c)  But  the 
clergy,  instead  of  endeavoring  to  reconcile  the  discrepancies  of  the  past  with 
the  present,  seemed  determined  to  render  both  more  prominent.  Religious 
enthusiasm  once  more  beheld  the  cross  of  Constantino  in  the  sky,  and  intoler- 
ance founded  a  kingdom  of  its  own  in  the  name  of  God.  Priests  of  the  mis- 
sion traversed  the  land  in  great  pomp,  contending  not  only  for  the  faith,  but 
in  opposition  to  every  thing  which  Franco  had  purchased  at  such  prodigious 
sacrifices,  (d)  The  principles  of  freedom  which  formerly  prevailed  in  the 
Gallican  Church  were  now  inveighed  against  as  heresies.  The  apostolic  con- 
gregation in  connection  with  the  heir-apparent  and  the  illustrious  daughter 
of  misfortune,  by  persevering  obstinacy,  and  in  opposition  to  the  inclinations 
of  the  prudent  king,  obtained  a  Concordat  (1817)  by  which  the  Concordat  of 
1801  was  revoked,  and  that  of  1516  was  substituted  for  it.  So  decidedly  was 
public  opinion  expressed  in  opposition  to  this  ghost  of  former  times  that  no 
one  ever  ventured  to  lay  a  plan  of  the  law  before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  (e) 
"Without  the  consent  of  the  Chambers,  however,  the  government  did  as 
much  for  the  clergy  as  was  in  its  power.  But  no  sooner  had  the  Cathedral 
of  Eheims  witnessed  once  more  a  royal  coronation,  for  which  even  the  Holy 
Chrism  was  once  more  found  (p.  166),  than  the  hierarchy  received  from  the 
chambers  a  pledge  of  its  victory  in  the  law  against  sacrilege  (1825),  which, 
in  the  true  spirit  of  the  middle  ages,  threatened  with  terrible  punishments 
every  injury  done  to  the  Established  Church.  (/)  Once  more,  however,  the 
government  listened  to  the  demands  of  the  popular  will  expressed  even  in  the 
House  of  Peers,  and  a  royal  ordinance  (June  16th,  1828)  closed  the  schools 
against  the  Jesuits  who  had  intruded  into  them  in  the  character  of  fathers  of 
the  faith,  (g)  But  CTiarles  X.  allowed  himself  to  be  hurried  into  violent 
measures,  for  which  he  was  obliged  to  atone  by  the  loss  of  his  throne  (1830). 
2.  Instead  of  a  king  anointed  and  appointed  by  God,  a  citizen-king  was  now 

«)  Meditat  poet.  Par.  1820.    Harmonies  poet  et  rel.  Par.  1830. 2  vols. 

l>)  Essai  sur  1'indifference  en  matiure  de  la  rel.  Par.  1817s.  ed.  4. 1822.  4  vols.  Defense  do  TEssaL 
Par.  1821.  De  la  rel.  dans  ses  rapports  avec  1'ordre  politique.  Par.  1825.  ed.  3. 1S26.  Des  progrds  de 
la  rev.  et  de  la  guerre  centre  1'egl.  Par.  1829. 

c)  Du  Pape.  Par.  1820. 

rf)  Die  Hier.  u.  ihre  Bundesgen.  in  Fr.  Aar.  1823.  Coup-d'oeil  sur  la  situation  actuelle  et  les  vrais 
interets  de  Tegl.  fr.  Par.  1825.  Carovi,  Rel.  u.  Phil,  in  Fr.  Gott  1826. 

e)  De  Pradt,  les  quatre  Cone.  Par.  1818.  vol.  III.  (Archiv.  f.  KGesch.  vol.  IV.  p.  879ss.) 

/)  A.  K.  Z.  1825.  N.  82.  44.    Du  Lairet,  Hist  Abrdgee  du  sacrilege.  Par.  1825. 

g)  Montlosier,  Memoire  k  consulter  sur  un  systems  rel.  et  pol.  tendant  k  renverser  la  rel.,  la  so- 
ciete  et  le  trone.  Par.  1826.  With  Vorw.  by  Paulus,  Stuttg.  1826.  A.  K.  Z.  1826.  N.  139. 1827.  N.  20.- 
1828.  N.  104. 148. 174. 1829.  N.  9. 11. 

40 


626  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTOEY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  164S-1S58. 

chosen  by  the  people.  The  Jesuits  and  Trappists  fled,  the  palace  of  the  arch 
bishop,  and  a  few  churches  in  Paris  which  had  been  used  for  political  purposes, 
were  stormed,  the  crosses  together  with  the  lilies  were  removed,  the  salaries 
of  the  prelates  were  diminished,  and  Catholicism  lost  the  prerogative  of  being 
the  religion  of  the  state.  (A)  But  an  intimation  from  the  pope  (i)  determined 
the  clergy  to  offer  their  prayers  for  the  new  kingdom,  although  their  minds 
were  full  of  rancor  toward  it,  and  they  were  connected  by  many  pious  bonds 
with  the  family  of  tho  exiled  king.  Louis  Philippe  made  as  great  concessions 
to  the  hierarchy  as  the  origin  of  his  own  authority  would  allow,  that  a  moral 
basis  and  a  peaceable  form  might  be  given  to  his  own  dynasty.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  H.  de  Qutlen  (d.  1889),  an  honorable  priest  and  a  father  to 
the  poor,  (i)  was  yet  willing  to  deny  Christian  burial  to  the  honest  Gregoire, 
who  died  immovably  faithful  to  his  ecclesiastical  character  (1831),  (Z)  and 
the  Bishop  of  Clermont  refused  the  last  consolations  of  the  Church  (1838)  to 
the  Count  Montloxicr,  who  had  once  heroically  defended  the  cross  of  Christ, 
but  had  appealed  to  the  laws  in  opposition  to  tho  Jesuits,  (m)  The  recollec- 
tions of  all  that  is  great  in  the  past  history  of  the  French  nation  stand  in 
striking  opposition  to  the  views  of  tho  Church,  (ri)  and  the  abyss  between 
Catholic  and  secular  Franco  is  daily  becoming  more  profound.  Lamcnnais, 
consistently  with  his  general  opinion  that  ecclesiastical  piety  is  to  be  valued 
above  every  thing  else,  perceived  the  compatibility  of  Catholicism  with  tho 
sovereignty  of  the  people,  and  demanded  that  the  clergy  should  not  only  give 
up  all  their  salaries  but  all  interference  in  political  matters,  and  so  be  once 
more  poor  and  free.  The  Journal  of  the  Future  (1'Avenir,  1830s.)  was  pow- 
erful in  France  until  it  struck  upon  the  rock  of  a  contradiction  between  the 
freedom  of  the  mind  and  the  Roman  infallibility.  Lacordaire,  the  intelligent 
disciple  of  Lamennais,  submitted  himself  to  the  pastoral  epistle  of  Pope 
Gregory  (§  475),  became  a  mendicant  friar,  (o)  and  was  apparently  willing  to 
bring  the  sacrifice  of  obedience.  But  in  his  solitude  his  spirit  became  in- 
flamed, and  he  sent  forth  to  the  world  the  words  of  a  true  believer.  As 
Christianity  had  previously  been  abused  to  throw  a  sanctity  around  despot- 
ism, he  here  attempted  to  give  the  democratic  Bide  of  the  gospel  and  of  the 
theocracy,  that  he  might  in  anticipation  of  a  mighty  revolution,  announce  in 
prophetic  and  apocalyptic  imagery  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy  and  the 
universal  equality  of  the  children  of  God.  But  even  this  revolutionary 
prophecy  is  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  profound  and  sincere  piety.  Qt>)  As  La- 
mennais in  his  visions  of  the  dead  had  never  mentioned  the  name  of  the 


h)  A.  K  Z.  1S31.  N.  155. 1832.  N.  87.  97. 167ss. 

t)  After  Rozet,  Cbronique  de  Juillet :  Minerva.  1833.    Apr.  p.  38ss. 

k)  Rheinw.  Rep.  1841.  vol.  XXX1IL  p.  93ss. 

Z)  Chr.  Antiromanns,  d.  sterb.  Greg.  u.  d.  verd.  Erzb.  Neust  M31.    Kruger,  (p.  530)  p.  37Sss. 

m)  A.  Z.  1838.  N.  854.  Append.  N.  692.  839.  N.  2. 

n)  Kunstblatt  1887.  N.  99.    Act*  hist  ecc.  1837.  p.  67. 

o)  Lacordaire,  M6moire  pour  le  rctablissement  en  France  do  1'ordre  des  fr6rcs  precheurs.  Par. 
1838.  Angsb.  1S39. 

p)  Paroles  d'un  croyant  Par.  1833.  (In  the  Brussels  pirated  impression,  1834. 12.  also  Bautain, 
d'Eckstein  &  Sainte-Beuve.)  JBautain,  R6ponse  d'un  chr6tlen  aux  paroles  d'un  croyant  Strasb.  1884 
£aumffarten-Crusiu«,  Betracht  ft.  einlge  Schriften  v.  de  la  Menn.  Jen.  1834.  [Article  in  Hcgg'i 
Chr.  Instructor,  in  Eclectic  Mag.  for  Oct  1850.  p.  260ss.] 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHUECH  TILL  1853.    §  470.  LAMENNAIS.    CHATEL.        027 

pope,  so  in  Ms  rejection  of  the  "  Words  of  a  Believer  "  (June  25,  1834),  the 
pope  never  used  the  name  of  Lamennais,  but  as  a  sorrowing  father  spoke  of 
the  man  whom  France  once  esteemed  as  the  last  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers. 
But  Lamennais  found  himself  urged  on  to  a  position  in  which  he  saw  the 
pontificate  with  its  antiquated  claims  on  the  one  side,  and  the  human  race 
with  its  ever  fresh  religious  energies  upon  the  other.  (<?)  Instead  of  the 
Church  he  has  put  the  universal  reason  of  man,  and  instead  of  the  propitiatory 
death  at  Golgotha,  an  oblation  of  the  deity  commensurate  with  the  uni- 
verse, (r)  He  has  been  declared  by  the  civil  courts  guilty  of  attempts  to 
excite  hatred  and  contempt  with  respect  to  the  royal  government  (1840),  (s) 
but  he  has  now  been  abandoned  by  free  as  well  as  by  Catholic  France.  After 
an  attempt  to  revive  the  sect  of  the  Theophilanthropists  by  a  decree  which 
numbers  the  years  from  the  time  of  the  martyrdom  of  Socrates,  the  Abbe 
Chatel  preached  (Aug.  1830)  in  the  spirit  of  an  extravagant  liberalism  a 
French  Catholic  Church.  In  consequence  of  the  strong  dislike  felt  by  the 
great  body  of  the  people  for  the  Eomish  hierarchy,  a  few  congregations  were 
collected  together  with  this  view  ;  but  the  modern,  useless,  political  and  nega- 
tive character  of  this 'system  made  it  soon  dwindle  away,  and  the  doors  of  its 
advocates  were  finally  closed  by  the  police  (1842).  (t)  In  the  spirit  of  the 
new  monarchy,  Guizot,  an  earnest  Protestant  literary  man,  once  more  estab- 
lished a  plan  of  national  education,  in  which  a  system  of  schools  was  carried 
out  (1833),  except  that  no  one  ventured  to  introduce  into  it  the  education  of 
the  clergy,  nor  to  assert  the  universal  obligation  of  attendance  on  the  schools. 
He  also  proposed  that  France  should  become  the  protector  of  Catholicism  in 
every  part  of  the  world,  though  without  prejudice  to  the  freedom  of  religion 
under  it.  The  clergy  demanded  as  the  price  of  their  reconciliation,  the  free- 
dom of  education,  i.  e.,  liberty  to  control  it.  The  University,  which  had  the 
general  direction  of  this  whole  business,  was  described  by  them  as  the  Mo- 
loch to  whose  antichristian  instruction  the  youth  of  France  were  sacrificed,  (u) 
When  the  two  parties  had  measured  their  relative  strength  by  a  discussion  in 
the  Chamber  upon  instruction  in  the  gymnasium  (1844),  they  did  not  venture 
to  come  to  a  vote  on  the  law  relating  to  it.  (#)  „  A  few  bishops  threatened  to 
deprive  some  obnoxious  institutions  of  the  blessing  and  countenance  of  the 
Church.  On  the  other  hand,  the  old  system  of  Jesuit  morality  which  had 
been  used  for  the  instruction  of  the  clergy,  made  up  as  it  was  of  ambiguities 


q)  Affaires  de  Kome,  Par.  1836.  Le  Hvre  du  peuple.  Par.  1838. 12.  Le  pays  et  le  gouvernement, 
Par.  1840. 

r)  Esquisse  d'une  Philosophic.  Par.  1841. 3  vols.  Par.  &  Lps.  1841.  3  vote.— Amschaspands  et  Dar- 
vands.  Par.  1843.  Les  Evangiles.  Par.  1846. 

«)  Brl.  K.  Z.  1841.  K  11. 

t)  TJni  Deo.  A.  K.  Z.  1S29.  N.  206.— Profession  de  foi  de  Tegl.  cath.  francaise.  Par.  1831.  Cate- 
chisme  &  1'usage  de  1'egl.  cath.  fr.  Par.  1S37.  Reuchlin,  p.  293ss.  ffolsapfel,  d.  K.  de  Abbe  Chatel. 
(Zeitschr.  f.  hist  Th.  1844.  P.  3.) 

u)  Code  Universitaire  ou  lois  et  reglemens  de  I'Universito  de  France.  Par.  1835.  PJlanz,  p.  72ss. 
113.  Reuclilin,  p.  8Gss.  BrL  A.  K.  Z.  1843.  N.  SI.—Desgareis,  le  Monopolo  universitaire,  destructeur 
de  la  rel.  et  des  lois,  ou  la  Charte  et  la  Iibert6  de  Tenseignement  Lyon.  1843.  Vedrine,  simple  coup 
d'oeil  sur  les  douleurs  et  les  esp6rances  de  Tegl.  aux  prises  avec  les  tyrans  des  consciences  et  les  vices 
du  XIX.  Siecle.  Lyon.  1843. 

»)  (C.  Reuss)  Kec.  d.  betr.  Schrr.  in  d.  Jen.  L.  Z.  1346.  K  36-40. 


628  MODERN  CHUBCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  16-18-1853. 

and  obscenity,  was  again  brought  to  public  notice.  Michelet,  to  whom  all  the 
dreams  of  the  middle  ages  were  quite  familiar,  and  Quinct,  who  regarded 
every  authorized  creed  as  a  direct  promise  on  the  part  of  all  who  profess  it, 
sent  forth  from  their  Mount  St.  Genevieve  to  the  whole  French  nation  in  op- 
position to  the  Jesuits  who  had  now  become  more  numerous  than  under  the 
Restoration,  full  pictures  of  all  that  these  fathers  had  done  for  the  destruction 
of  freedom,  and  of  what  other  nations  had  become  under  their  influence.  (?r) 
When  Thiers  called  up  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  the  laws  still  in  existence 
against  the  Jesuits,  they  were  enforced  with  the  utmost  possible  mildness  by 
the  government,  and  through  the  mediation  of  the  pope  the  General  of  tho 
Jesuits  was  induced,  apparently  at  least,  to  dissolve  all  tho  houses  belonging 
to  the  order  in  France,  and  to  recall  from  that  country  all  who  were  not  na- 
tives (July,  1845).  (x)  At  this  time,  when  the  Church  was  not  in  tho  service 
of  tho  court,  and  when  Affre,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  demanded  not  ecclesiasti- 
cal protection  but  liberty,  the  influence  of  the  Church  became  very  consider- 
able, in  behalf  not  only  of  the  hierarchy  but  of  general  Christianity,  in  con 
sequence  of  its  works  of  practical  piety  and  spiritual  learning,  (y)  8.  In 
Feb.  1848,  when  France  was  surprised  by  the  sudden  introduction  of  the  re- 
public, tho  Church  felt  bound  by  no  ties  of  gratitude  to  the  dethroned  royal 
family.  One  party  beheld  in  that  event  a  mere  point  of  transition  to  a  le- 
gitimate monarchy ;  the  dispersed  school  of  Lamennais  hailed  in  tho  new 
watchword  of  Liberty,  Equality,  and  Fraternity,  which  the  state  now  pro- 
claimed, nothing  but  the  old  principles  of  the  Church ;  the  aspiring  lay-leader 
of  the  Catholic  party  discovered  that  the  Catholic  Church  might  be  con- 
nected with  any  form  of  civil  government  from  which  it  could  expect  ecclesi- 
astical freedom,  (*)  and  even  the  priests  did  not  hesitate  to  bless  the  tree  of 
liberty,  and  pray  for  the  sovereign  people,  (a)  The  Constitution  of  the  Re- 
public promised  freedom  to  every  creed,  protection  for  every  form  of  public 
worship,  and  salaries  to  the  ministers  of  every  form  of  worship  recognized 
by  the  government.  (&)  The  law  respecting  instruction  (May  15,  1850)  gave 
the  clergy  so  much  influence  in  the  supreme  council  for  education,  and  so 
much  freedom  in  the  establishment  of  the  schools,  for  the  formation  of  which 
a  great  independent  association,  much  lauded  by  the  pope  had  been  organized, 
that  the  Catholic  party  willingly  accepted  of  it  as  an  earnest  of  greater  fa- 
vors, (c)  The  Archbishop  Affre  fell  in  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  his 
vocation,  at  the  barricades  (June  28,  1848).  Chatel  celebrated  Christmas  by 

is)  Decouvertcs  <Tnn  bibliophile,  on  lettres  aur  differents  points  de  morale  enseignds  dans  quelques 
seminaires.  ed.  2.  Strasb.  1843.— The  organ  of  the  clergy:  I' Universe,  and  that  of  the  University: 
Journal  des  D6bats\  esp.  for  May— Nov.  1943.  De  Lamartine,  1'etat,  reglise,  et  Tenseignement  Par. 
1843.  L.  A.  Warnkonig,  d.  K.  Frankr.  u.  d.  Unterrichtsfrcih.  Freib.  1845.  Des  J&uites,  par  Mi' 
chelet  et  Quinet.  Par.  1843.  In  5  ed.  Uebers,  by  Stober.  Bas.  1843.  \_Michelet,  Priests,  Women,  and 
Families,  transL  by  Cocks,  Lond.  1848.  The  People,  transl.  by  Cocks.  Lond.  1849.  Quinet,  Ultra- 
montanism,  transL  by  Cocks,  Lond.  1845.] 

«)  Der  Process  Affenaer  vor  d.  Pariser  Assisen.  Brl.  1845.  L.  ITahn,  Gescb.  d.  Auflos.  cL  Jes.  Con 
greg.  in  Frankr.  Lps.  1846. 

y)  Pflam,  d.  reL  u.  kirchL  Leben  in  Fr.  Stuttg.  1836.    ReucMin,  (p.  60S.) 

e)  C.  de  Montalembert,  des  InWrets  catholiqaes  au  XIX  Stecle.  Par.  1S52.  in  3  ed. 

a)  BrL  KZ.  1848.  N.  80.  62. 1849.  N.  2.        1)  Ibid.  184S.  N.  95. 

c)  Ibid.  1849.  N.  61. 1850.  N.  78. 1851.  N.  85. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  470.  NAPOLEON  IIL    §  471.  SPAIN.    629 

a  Socialist  banquet  in  honor  of  the  sansculotte  who  was  once  born  in  a  sta- 
ble. When  the  dread  of  the  red  republic  could  be  so  turned  as  to  favor  the 
clergy  on  the  ground  that  they  were  friends  of  social  order,  (d)  the  priests 
made  use  of  it  to  secure  millions  of  votes  for  the  President  and  the  Emperor 
by  the  grace  of  God  and  the  will  of  the  people.  Louis  Napoleon  increased 
the  salaries  of  the  bishops,  (e)  richly  endowed  the  chapter  of  St.  Denys^  re- 
stored the  Pantheon  to  the  service  of  St.  Genevieve,  (/)  brought  the  Holy 
Father  back  to  Borne,  and  would  have  been  glad  to  be  crowned  by  the  papal 
hands.  Without  reference  to  the  organic  articles  (p.  533)  the  emperor  re- 
gards the  Concordat  of  1801  as  having  the  force  of  law.  The  strict  Catholic 
party  are  anxious  to  banish  modern  paganism  by  the  substitution  of  the  eccle- 
siastical fathers  for  the  classics  in  the  schools  of  learning,  (g)  they  reject  all 
philosophy  of  reason,  and  they  advocate  the  government  of  the  Church  by  the 
civil  power,  and  the  government  of  the  Church  by  the  pope.  Sibour,  the 
new  Archbishop  of  Paris,  took  decided  ground  against  this  party,  and  the 
"  Universe,"  through  whose  columns  its  influence  was  exerted,  but  an  open 
controversy  was  avoided  through  the  mediation  of  Pius  IX.  (Ji)  Even  under 
the  reign  of  Napoleon  I.  who  despised  it,  philosophy  had  desisted  from  the 
deification  of  the  flesh,  and  by  the  influence  first  of  Scotch  and  then  of  Ger- 
man metaphysicians,  confidence  was  gained  in  the  supremacy  of  the  mind. 
But  the  literature  of  each  of  the  three  revolutions,  whether  it  be  regarded  as 
a  prophecy  of  the  future,  or  a  reflection  of  the  past,  has  something  terribly 
destructive  and  relaxing  in  its  nature.  It  is  not  the  cold  scoffing  of  a  self- 
complacent  and  satisfied  spirit,  but  the  offspring  of  a  torn  and  lacerated 
heart.  For  this  very  reason  it  has  much  that  is  seductive  to  the  present  age, 
and  even  in  its  general  corruption  is  not  without  some  germs  of  life. 

§  471.    Spain.    Portugal.    /South  America. 

(Pfeilsctiifter.)  Die  kirchl.  Zustande  in  Span.  Wurzb.  1842.  Manuel  razonado  de  hist  y  legisla- 
tion de  la  iglesia.  Madr.  1845.  4.  Block,  TEspagne  en  1850.  Madr.  1851.— G.  Balufli,  1'America  un 
tempo  spagnuola  sotto  1'aspetto  religioso  sino  al  1843.  Ancona  1845.  3  vols.  Uebers.  v.  F.  M.  M.  1848s. 
8  vols. 

1.  "When  Ferdinand  VII.  tore  up  the  constitution  (1814),  the  clergy  ral- 
lied around  the  throne,  the  Inquisition  was  re-established,  and  the  Jesuits  re-, 
turned.  The  cause  of  the  Church  then  represented  by  those  who  were  called 
the  Apostolicals,  and  that  of  liberty  represented  by  the  Liberals,  appeared  to 
be  completely  separated  from  each  other.  Hence,  when  the  latter  obtained 
the  victory  (1820-23),  all  hierarchical  measures  were  entirely  frustrated,  (a) 
An  army  for  the  defence  of  the  faith  was  then  collected  by  the  clergy,  with 
a  Trappist  at  its  head,  which,  after  the  victory  obtained  by  French  interven- 
tion, produced  a  sanguinary  reaction.  As  the  Apostolic  party  had  connected 
itself  with  Don  Carlos,  then  recognized  as  the  legitimate  heir-apparent,  Queen 
Christina,  who  desired  to  obtain  the  government  for  herself  and  her  daugh- 

d)  Carnot,  le  ministere  de  1'instruction  publique  et  des  cultes.  Par.  1848. 

e)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  47.       /)  7M&  1853.  N.  2.  comp.  1851.  N.  24. 

g)  J,  Gaume  le  ver  rongeur  des  societes  modernes  ou  le  paganisme  dans  Tcducation.  Brux.  1851. 

A)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  48.  1853.  N.  31.  32. 

a)  A.  KZ.  1822.  N.  1.  9. 11. 16. 19.  28s.  53.  74. 


t)30  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTOEY.    PER.  TL    A.  D.  1648-1858. 

ter  by  the  abolition  of  the  Salic  law,  was  obliged  (1830)  to  unite  her  interests 
with  those  of  the  Liberals.  After  the  death  of  the  king  (1833)  Don  Carlos, 
who  was  powerful  through  the  support  of  the  clergy,  by  whom  much  had 
been  sacrificed  in  his  behalf,  made  a  desperate  effort  to  obtain  possession  of 
the  throne.  But  some  horrible  events  which  then  took  place  evinced  thai 
even  the  old  veneration  of  the  people  for  religion  was  now  wavering.  A 
number  of  convents  in  Madrid  were  destroyed  (July  17,  1834)  by  a  mob  ex- 
cited by  reports  of  poisoning  during  the  prevalence  of  the  cholera,  and  no 
punishments  were  inflicted  on  the  perpetrators.  (J)  A  more  general  insurrec- 
tion broke  out  in  the  summer  of  1885,  in  which  many  convents  and  monks 
were  consumed  in  the  flames  as  auto-da-fes  of  the  revolution,  until  finally  it 
seemed  necessary  to  abolish  the  convents  to  save  the  monks,  (c)  By  a  decree 
of  July  25, 1885,  nine  hundred  houses  belonging  to  the  several  orders  were 
closed,  that  by  means  of  their  wealth  and  the  property  of  the  Inquisition  and 
of  the  Jesuits,  which  had  previously  been  confiscated,  the  public  debt  might 
be  liquidated,  (d)  The  government  accused  the  clergy  of  sowing  dissensions 
among  the  people,  and  required  that  every  candidate  for  future  appointment 
in  the  Church  should  produce  a  certificate  from  the  civil  authorities  vouching 
for  his  patriotism,  (e)  As  the  revolution  rolled  on  and  the  necessities  of  the 
state  became  urgent,  all  the  convents  were  confiscated  (1836)  and  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the  government,  and  the  sacred  utensils  were  sold  to  cover  the 
expenses  of  the  civil  war.  (/)  The  Cortes  abolished  the  tithes,  and  declared 
that  all  the  property  of  the  Church  belonged  to  the  Spanish  nation  (1837).  (ff) 
In  the  ruin  of  Don  Carlos,  which  occurred  principally  in  consequence  of  tho 
demoralization  of  his  court  (1889),  a  portion  of  the  clergy  were  inextricably 
implicated.  Gregory  XVI.  had  not  recognized  the  queen,  and  had  rejected 
the  bishops  appointed  by  the  regency,  but  the  act  by  which  this  was  done 
was  accompanied  by  an  expression  of  desire  that  the  existing  relations  of  tho 
country  might  not  be  disturbed.  But  when  the  nuncio,  who  then  represented 
the  pope,  wished  to  guard  tho  rights  of  the  Church,  Espartero,  the  victorious 
soldier  who  had  driven  away  the  queen-mother,  ordered  him  to  be  transported 
beyond  the  borders  of  the  country  (Dec.  29,  1840).  (Ji)  The  pope  hereupon 
declared  in  an  allocution  dated  March  1,  1841,  that  all  those  decrees  of  the 
Spanish  government  by  which  the  Church  had  been  despoiled  of  its  property 
were  null  and  void.  (»)  While  Christina  obtained  for  herself  absolution  in 
Rome,  (fc)  the  Spanish  Regent  treated  every  recognition  of  the  papal  allocu- 
tion as  a  crime,  wished  to  abolish  all  intercourse  with  Rome  and  all  foreign 
jurisdiction  in  Spain,  because  the  regent  in  Rome  was  disposed  to  sacrifice 
his  secular  to  his  ecclesiastical  interests.  (I)  The  Cortes  determined  upon  a 
new  organization  of  the  clergy,  by  which  the  bishop's  sees  were  much  dimin- 
ished, the  sinecures  were  abolished,  the  property  of  the  Church  was  sold,  and 
moderate  salaries  to  be  paid  from  taxes  which  it  was  hard  to  collect  were 
assigned  to  the  clergy,  (m)  Nothing  now  remained  for  the  pope  but  to  call 

6)  AZ.  1884  N.  214.        c)  Ibid.  1835.  N.  227.  237s. 
<0  Acta  hist  ecc.  1885.  p.  25ns.        «)  A.  Z.  1885.  N.  848. 

/)  Acta  hist  ecc.  1836.  p.  51ss.  1837.  p.  10.        g)  A,  Z.  1837.  N.  223.    Acta  hist.  ecc.  1937.  p.  la 
A)  A.  Z.  1841.  N.  24es.        i)  A.  Z.  1841.  N.  70s.        k)  A.  Z.  1841.  N.  89.  . 
*)  Brl.  A.  K.  Z.  1842.  N.  13.        m)  BrL  KZ.  1841.  N.  43.  69. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  4T1.  SPAIN.    PORTUGAL.  631 

upon  the  whole  Church  to  pray  for  the  distressed  condition  of  the  Church  ic 
Spain,  with  the  promise  that  all  who  would  comply  should  receive  plenary 
absolution,  (n)  All  priests  who  gave  attention  to  these  acts  of  the  pope  were 
deposed  and  banished  by  the  regent.  (0)  But  even  the  liberal  prelates  now 
began  to  withdraw  from  the  country,  the  afflicted  Church  succeeded  in  in- 
ducing the  nation  to  abandon  Espartero,  and  Queen  Isabella  //.,  not  yet  of 
age,  was  declared  (1843)  competent  to  govern.  Her  ministry  soon  perceived 
the  necessity  of  reconciling  the  Church  with  the  new  legal  system  created  by 
the  revolution.  The  expelled  priests  were  reinstated,  and  the  papal  rights 
in  Spain  were  acknowledged.  As  the  price  of  his  recognition  of  the  queen 
the  pope  demanded  what  was  now  shown  to  be  an  impossibility,  the  restora- 
tion of  the  property  of  the  Church.  But  the  sale  of  all  that  remained  being 
about  one  fourth  of  the  whole,  was  now  suspended,  Gregory  conferred  the 
canonical  investiture  upon  six  of  the  bishops  appointed  by  government  (1846), 
and  Pius,  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  France,  rather  hastily  bestowed 
a  dispensation  upon  the  queen  for  her  marriage  with  her  cousin.  After  a 
long  period  of  vacillation  according  to  the  political  complexion  of  the  fre- 
quently changing  ministry,  (p)  a  concordat  was  agreed  upon  (1851),  by  which, 
notwithstanding  the  bibles  sent  from  England,  (q)  the  Catholic  religion,  to  the 
exclusion  of  every  other  form  of  worship,  was  recognized  as  the  religion  of 
Spain  for  all  future  time ;  the  instruction  of  the  young  was  committed  to  the 
supervision  of  the  bishops,  -to  whom  a  pledge  was  given  that  the  government 
would  co-operate  in  the  suppression  of  injurious  books ;  the  country  was  di- 
vided into  new  dioceses,  of  which  there  were  six  less  than  before ;  all  that 
remained  of  ecclesiastical  or  monastic  property  was  restored ;  all  new  acqui- 
sitions by  the  Church  were  allowed ;  and  to  provide  against  any  deficiency  a 
support,  moderate  only  when  compared  with  their  former  wealth,  was  secured 
to  the  clergy  from  the  sale  of  the  Church  property,  and  from  the  contribu- 
tions in  the  different  communes,  (r)  2.  It  was  not  till  the  Cortes  had 
threatened  the  wealth  and  privileges  of  the  clergy  (s)  that  the  sanguinary 
reign  of  Dom  Miguel  (1829-33)  was  possible,  and  accordingly  his  principal 
support  was  derived  from  that  body.  Hence  Dom  Pedro  could  indulge  in  no 
hope  of  gaining  the  patrimonial  kingdom  for  his  daughter,  except  in  the 
name  of  liberty.  Through  the  exertions  principally  of  the  clergy  the  people 
were  induced  to  take  up  arms  against  him,  and  hence,  when  Pedro  obtained 
the  victory,  the  age  of  Pombal  returned  to  Portugal.  The  government  de- 
clared all  prelatic  sees  filled  by  appointment  at  Rome  on  Miguel's  presentation 
vacant,  and  placed  all  the  rights  of  ecclesiastical  patronage  in  the  hands  of 
the  government  (Aug.  5, 1833).  All  ecclesiastical  orders  were  dissolved  (May 
28, 1834),  all  monastic  property  was  confiscated,  and  nothing  but  friars  truly 
mendicant  were  left,  (t)  The  tithes  were  also  abolished,  and  when  the  pas- 
tors could  not  obtain  the  salaries  assumed  by  the  state  treasury,  they  were 

n)  Of  Feb.  22, 1842 :  Brl.  K.  Z.  1842.  N.  22.        o)  Ibid.  1S42.  N.  81. 

jp)  Ibid.  1844.  N.  31.  38.    D.  A.  Z.  1844   N.  238. 1845.  N.  61.  823. 184(5.    N.  22. 1S4T.   N.  21. 183, 
285.  297. 

q)  G.  Borrow,  The  Bible  in  Spain.  New  York.  1845.  8.  Lond.  ed.  3. 1843. 
r)  Brl.  KZ.  1851.  N.  44.  47.  87.       fi)  A.  K.  Z.  1822.  N.  49. 1828.  N.  43. 
f)  A.  Z.  1834.  N.  173. 


632  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1853 

unfortunately  directed  for  them  to  their  congregations,  (u)  The  pope  threat 
ened  to  place  the  king  under  the  ban,  and  the  exiled  usurper  was  received  bj 
him  as  the  lawful  king.  But  the  property  of  the  convents  found  purchasers, 
and  the  dioceses  were  administered  by  the  capitulary  vicars.  The  drcai1 
which  Gregory  felt  lest  a  complete  separation  should  be  produced,  conspired 
with  the  conscientious  scruples  of  Donna  Maria  herself  to  induce  both  pur- 
lies  to  come  to  an  agreement  (1841)  under  mutual  pledges.  The  golden  rose 
was  presented  by  the  nuncio  Capaccini  to  the  queen,  as  a  godfather's  present, 
and  a  few  bishops  appointed  by  the  government  received  canonical  investiture 
from  the  pope  (1848).  (r)  But  the  vast  demands  of  Home  and  the  commo- 
tions of  an  unsettled  constitutional  government  delayed  the  conclusion  of  a 
concordat.  3.  As  the  idea  of  independence  first  awoke  in  Spanish  America 
(1810)  when  the  mother  country  was  oppressed  by  a  power  which  had  no 
friendly  connection  with  the  Church,  the  clergy  were  generally  partial  to  the 
cause  of  freedom,  and  remained  in  the  unmolested  possession  of  their  wealth. 
In  most  of  the  republics  religions  toleration  was  proclaimed  merely  from  re- 
spect to  liberty  and  the  English,  but  Catholicism  still  remained  the  religion 
of  the  state.  In  the  mean  time  the  privileges  of  the  clergy  necessarily  camo 
in  conflict  with  the  demands  of  liberalism.  In  Chili  and  Peru  the  number 
of  holy  days  and  convents  was  diminished,  the  Congress  of  Central  America 
pronounced  monastic  vows  of  no  force  in  the  eye  of  the  law  (1830),  the  Con- 
gress of  Mexico  took  into  its  own  hands  the  right  of  patronage,  banished  those 
prelates  who  protested  against  their  proceedings,  and  seized  upon  their  reve- 
nues (1834).  A  powerful  party,  however,  in  the  latter  country,  arose  in  op- 
position to  every  interference  of  the  state  with  the  privileges  of  the  clergy. 
During  the  war  with  the  United  States  of  North  America,  when  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  country  were  extreme,  Congress  resolved  (Jan.  1847)  that  a  por- 
tion of  the  ecclesiastical  property  (15  millions  of  dollars)  should  be  sold  for 
the  deliverance  of  their  native  land,  (w)  The  keys  of  the  old  Jesuit  College 
in  Buenos  Ayres  were  presented,  August  26th,  1886,  to  six  priests  belonging 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus.  After  a  brief  dream  of  freedom,  Paraguay  was  ty- 
rannically but  patriarchally  governed  by  Dr.  Francia  (1814-40)  with  as  great 
a  seclusion  as  was  maintained  by  the  former  Jesuit  government.  This  dicta- 
tor broke  the  power  of  the  clergy,  converted  all  property  belonging  to  the 
convents  into  state  property,  and  declared  cannons  better  safeguards  than 
saints,  (x)  From  respect  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  Pius  VII.  was  deterred  from 
recognizing  the  republics  which  had  thrown  off  its  authority,  and  accordingly 
he  refused  to  bestow  canonical  investiture  upon  their  bishops.  Leo  XII.,  as 
late  as  the  year  1824,  enjoined  upon  all  American  prelates  to  adhere  to  the 

«)  A.  Z.  1838.    Append.  N.  447. 

v)  BrL  KZ.  1841.  N.  51.  54.  60.  81. 1842.  N.  53. 1848.  N.  43. 

?o)  P.  T.  Kobbe,  Gesch.  d.  Freihettskampfes  im  span.  u.  port  A.  Hann.  1832.  E.  HuUenpfordt, 
Sehildernng  d.  Rep.  Mexico.  Hann.  1844  2  vote.  Ev.  K.  Z,  1831.  N.  25.  A.  Z.  1834.  N.  205.  D.  A. 
Z.  1847.  N.  75.  77. 

«)  Renffffer  &  Longckamp,  d.  Rev.  v.  Parag.  u.  d.  Dictatorialregierung  d.  Dr.  Francia.  Stuttg. 
1S27.  B.J.P.&  W.  r.  Robertson,  Letters  on  Parag.  Lend.  1S3S.  2  vols.  [Francia's  Reign  of  Terror. 
Lond.  1837.  8.  CarlyUs  Essays  Crit  &  Mis.  p.  547.  (For.  Quar.  Rev.  1843.  &  Eclec,  Mag.  1848. 
Sept  p.  75.)] 


CHAP.  VL    CATH.  CHUECII  TILL  1853.    §  471.  8.  AMERICA.    §  472.  BELGIUM.    633 

legitimate  government.  But  as  there  was  danger  that  in  this  way  the  people 
would  become  completely  alienated  from  the  Holy  See,  the  principle  was 
finally  recognized  at  Rome  (1825)  that  in  matters  relating  to  the  Church,  ne- 
gotiations should  be  conducted  with  any  government  actually  in  power,  with- 
out thereby  deciding  any  thing  with  respect  to  its  legitimacy.  When  the 
pope  refused  to  confirm  the  appointed  Bishop  of  Rio  Janeiro,  he  was  re- 
minded by  the  Regency  of  Brazil  that  he  had  mistaken  the  age  in  which  he 
lived  (1834).  (y)  In  New  Grenada  the  priests  were  made  subject  to  the  civil 
authorities  (1845),  tithes  were  abolished,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  (1849),  all 
who  forsook  the  convents  were  promised  the  assistance  of  the  state,  the  con- 
gregations were  required  to  choose  their  own  pastors,  and  the  Archbishop  of 
Bogota  was  banished  (1851).  Pius  IX.  held  a  sorrowful  allocution  (Sept.  27, 
1852)  with  reference  to  these  proceedings,  and  in  opposition  to  the  wild  lib- 
erty which  every  one  in  that  country  enjoyed,  to  publish  through  the  press 
every  wild  abortion  of  the  brain,  (z)  But  the  popular  faith  in  South  America 
clung  to  its  connection  with  Rome. 

§  472.    Belgium  and  Holland. 

Sophronizon.  1826.  P.  2.  Tub.  Quartalschr.  1S26.  P.  1.  Eotn  u.  Belg.  Neust  1S31.  Le  livre  noir. 
Brux.  1837.  3  ed.  ubers.  (by  Bruns)  m.  Bemerkk.  by  Eheinwald.  Altenb.  1S38.  Eheinw.  Rep.  vol. 
XXIV.  p.  76. 169.  276.  XXV.  p.  17Sss.  XXVI.  p.  71ss.  Hist  pol.  fill.  vol.  VII.  p.  627.  vol.  VIII.  p. 
45.  210.  411.  501.  731.  IX.  p.  7S3ss.  IT.  Ileugh,  Notices  of  the  State  of  Eel.  in  Geneva  and  Belgium. 
Edinb.  1844  Junius,  d.  Jesuitismus  in  Belg.  Lps.  1846. 

1.  Against  a  Protestant  government  which  had  affixed  the  effigy  of  the 
traitorous  Bishop  of  Ghent  to  the  public  gallows,  had  closed  the  schools  of 
the  Jesuits,  and  had  attempted  to  educate  a  liberal  clergy  by  means  of  a 
philosophical  school  in  the  "College  of  the  Pope"  at  Louvain,  the  apostoli- 
cal pai%  did  not  hesitate,  although  the  Concordat  of  1827  was  formed 
according  to  its  will,  on  the  model  of  that  of  Napoleon,  (a)  to  conclude  an 
alliance  with  the  revolution  by  which  Belgium  was  to  be  separated  from 
Holland  (1830).  Catholicism  was  thereby  obliged  to  accede  to  liberal  forms, 
and  to  a  free  toleration  in  matters  of  faith  as  well  as  of  education.  After 
the  victory,  however,  these  parties  again  separated,  since  the  bishops  held  in 
their  hands  the  fate  of  the  lower  clergy,  by  the  power  of  arbitrarily  deposing 
all  who  were  sincerely  inclined  to  connect  themselves  with  the  interests  of 
liberty.  As  both  parties  were  well  aware  that  ultimate  victory  was  to  bo 
decided  by  the  education  given  to  the  next  generation,  the  Liberals  founded 
by  their  own  contributions  a  university  at  Brussels,  and  the  bishops  a  free 
Catholic  university  at  Malines,  which  was  afterwards  removed  to  Louvain, 
and  was  solemnly  opened  in  the  College  of  the  Pope,  that  the  old  Louvain 
might  once  more  be  restored.  (&)  By  the  law  of  1842,  the  clergy  were 
allowed  to  exercise  much  more  than  a  religious  influence  upon  popular  edu- 
cation, but  the  State-Gymnasia  were  guarded  (1851)  against  it,  and  were 

y)  Brl.  KZ.  1840.  N.  23.       2)  Ibid.  1850.  N.  68. 1851.  N.  43. 1852.  N.  70. 

«)  A.  KZ.  1827.  N.  165.  1829.  N.  109.  174s. 

1)  A.  Z.  1834.  Suppl.  N.  4C5s.  1835.  Suppl.  N.  513.  515.  Discussion  de  la  loi  sur  renseignement 
superieur  de  27  Sept,  1835,  et  de  la  loi  sur  le  jury  d'examen  du  8  Avril,  1844;  precede©  d'un  apercB 
nist  sur  1'organ.  universitaire  en  Belgique.  Brux.  1844.  4. 


634  MODERN  CHUECH  HI8TOEY.    PER,  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1853. 

therefore  deprived  by  the  Archbishop  of  Mechlin  of  the  customary  mass  tit 
All-Saints.  The  Bishop  of  Liege  refused  to  grant  absolution  to  the  Liberals 
by  withholding  it  from  the  Freemasons  (1837),  (c)  and  the  ardent  efforts  made 
in  behalf  of  missions  aroused  all  the  elements  in  the  state  in  opposition  to 
each  other  (1888).  When  the  Catholic  party,  by  means  of  the  liberal  law  of 
elections,  the  effect  of  which  was  to  give  a  controlling  influence  to  the  people 
from  the  country,  had  obtained  for  the  most  part  a  majority  in  the  Chambers, 
the  cities  collected  their  strength,  and  from  the  altered  position  of  the  Cham- 
bers proceeded  a  liberal  ministry  (Aug.  1847),  which  pronounced  the  state 
entirely  a  secular  (laique)  institution.  The  Protestant  king  has  hitherto 
understood  how  to  govern  the  two  parties  with  much  prudence,  by  balancing 
their  powers  against  each  other.  2.  In  Holland,  the  Concordat  of  1827  was 
never  fully  carried  out,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  population,  amounting  to 
more  than  a  million,  were  called  the  Dutch  Mission,  and  were  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  an  apostolic  vicar.  (</)  The  Constitution  of  1848  secured 
complete  freedom  of  faith  to  every  one,  and  equal  protection  to  all  religious 
societies  in  the  kingdom.  Accordingly,  the  government  declared  that  noth- 
ing prevented  a  systematic  arrangement  of  Catholic  affairs  under  its  super- 
vision. But  without  reference  to  this  supervision,  Pius  instituted  a  hierarchy 
for  Holland  and  Brabant,  consisting  of  four  bishops  under  the  Archbishop  of 
Utrecht  (March  4,  7, 1863),  placed^  it  under  the  conduct  of  the  Propaganda, 
and  solicited  for  it  the  alms  of  the  faithful.  The  consequent  storm  of  popu- 
lar rage  among  the  Protestants  accomplished  only  the  overthrow  of  the  lib- 
eral ministry  of  Thorbecke.  The  Netherlandic  government  made  known  to  tho 
Roman  Curia  the  unhappy  impression  produced  upon  it  by  tho  language  of  tho 
allocution  in  which  these  proceedings  were  announced,  and  made  some  inqui- 
ries respecting  the  oath  which  the  bishops  had  taken.  Cardinal  Antonelli 
promised  to  erase  from  tho  latter  the  offensive  passage  respecting  the  perse- 
cution of  heretics.  In  the  Hague,  the  opinion  gained  the  day  that  protection 
was  to  be  found  in  a  well-guarded  system  of  freedom,  and  after  some  very 
excited  discussions  in  the  Chambers,  a  law  was  passed,  Sept.  10,  declaring 
that  all  ecclesiastical  societies  were  entirely  free  to  arrange  their  own  eccle- 
siastical affairs,  and  were  merely  bound  to  inform  the  government  of  their 
proceedings,  and  were  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  civil  authorities  only  as 
fur  as  the  co-operation  of  such  authorities  was  necessary ;  that  the  royal  con- 
sent should  bo  required  with  respect  to  the  place  in  which  the  business  of  the 
synods  should  be  transacted,  the  place  in  which  its  supreme  authority  should 
reside,  and  the  acceptance  of  an  ecclesiastical  office  by  a  foreigner,  but  that 
this  consent  should  generally  be  refused  only  when  the  public  tranquillity  re- 
quired it ;  and  that  no  ecclesiastical  titles  or  offices  should  be  allowed  to  con- 
flict with  the  dignities  or  interests  of  the  civil  powers,  or  of  the  other  religious 
societies,  (e)  4 

c)  Acta  hist.  ecc.  1S87.  p.  22s.  BrI.  KZ.  1841.  N.  7. 

d)  0.  Mejer,  Propaganda,  vol.  II.  p.  SOss. 

e)  The  orig.  Docc. :  BrL  KZ.  1853.  N.  84.  86.  A.  KZ.  1S53.  N.  71s.  113s.  115. 121s.  198s. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §473.  GERMAN  CHURCH.  635 

§  473.     Restoration  of  the  German  Church. 

Neoeste  Grundlagen  d.  teutschkath.  Kirchenverf.  in  Actenst.  Stuttg.  1821.  Supplem.  in  Vater'a 
Anbau.  vol.  II.  p.  Glss.  Orig.  Docc.  in  Munch,  Cone.  vol.  II.  Droste-IIuZsTioff,  KEecht.  Munst 
1828.  vol.  I.  O.  Mejer,  Propaganda,  vol.  II.  p.  3S5ss. 

An  ecclesiastical  constitution  for  the  whole  of  Germany  was  not  perfected 
at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  (a)  Austria  had  preserved  her  ecclesiastical  con- 
dition untouched,  and  had  just  quietly  modified  the  prominent  points  of  the 
laws  which  Joseph  II.  had  given  to  the  Church.  (5)  The  ecclesiastical  rela- 
tions of  the  small  number  of  Catholics  dispersed  in  various  parts  of  Saxony, 
were  arranged  by  the  civil  laws.  These  could  easily  be  maintained  in  the 
Grand  Duchy  in  spite  of  the  complaints  of  the  Vicar-General  at  Fulda  (1823), 
and  in  the  kingdom,  notwithstanding  the  royal  favor  toward  the  Catholics 
there,  the  acceptance  of  an  apostolic  vicar,  and  the  displeasure  of  the  papal 
court  (1827).  (c)  In  other  places,  the  legal  doctrine  prevailed  that  the  eccle- 
siastical constitution  was  to  be  arranged  by  special  treaty  with  Koine.  The 
papal  court  avoided  establishing  a  German  national  Church  by  negotiations 
with  the  German  Confederacy.  The  first  power  which  separated  from  the 
others  was  Bavaria,  by  which  a  Concordat  was  concluded  in  1817,  which, 
after  much  debate  whether  it  was  consistent  with  the  constitution  of  the 
country,  was  introduced  in  1821.  Negotiations  were  entered  into  by  Prussia 
with  reference  to  the  five  millions  of  Catholics  residing  especially  in  the  bor- 
der provinces  ;  and  in  the  treaty  which  was  concluded,  the  mere  form  of  a 
Concordat  was  guarded  against,  (d)  This  example  was  followed  by  the  king- 
dom of  Hanover  (1824).  An  association  of  the  other  states  situated  generally 
in  the  southern  part  of  Germany,  was  formed,  after  many  great  schemes  had 
been  rejected,  and  the  parties  had  become  wearied  with  a  series  of  negotia- 
tions continued  through  many  years,  and  was  called  the  Ecclesiastical  pro- 
vince of  the  Upper  Ehine,  with  five  bishoprics,  and  Freiburg  as  an  archiepis- 
copal  see  (1827).  When  the  princes  made  a  condition  with  respect  to  the 
Eoman  enactments  on  this  subject,  reserving  every  thing  which  might  seeni 
to  be  demanded  by  their  sovereign  rights,  the  national  peculiarities  of  the 
Church,  and  the  equal  rights  of  Protestants,  Pius  VIII.  reminded  the  bishops 
concerned  (1830),  that  when  opposed  by  laws  tending  to  destroy  the  souls 
of  men,  they  should  obey  God  rather  than  men.  (e)  These  treaties  are  princi- 
pally confined  to  the  new  limitations  of  the  episcopal  dioceses,  to  the  boundaries 
of  the  provinces,  to  the  endowment  of  the  Church,  and  to  the  appointment  of 
the  higher  ecclesiastical  officers,  which  was  to  be  divided  between  the  sov- 
ereign and  the  pope.  The  various  measures  necessary  for  this  division  of  the 
appointing  power, 'was  the  principal  subject  of  negotiation.  That  which 

a)  Kluber,  TJebers.  d.  dipL  Verb.  d.  W.  Congr.  Abtb.  III.  p.  453ss.  ».  Acten  d.  W.  Congr.  vol.  L 
P.  2.  p.  28ss.  vol.  IV.  p.  SlOss. 

t)  J.  L.  E.  v.  Earth-Bartlienheim,  Oestt  geistl.  Angelegenh.  in  polit  admin.  Bezieh.  Vien.  1841. 

c)  Actenstucke  u.  d.  Verb.  d.  katb.  Glaubensgenossen  im  K  Sachscn.  Dresd.  1831.    Drjste- 
nulshoff,  p.  417.  382ss.  A.  KZ.  1S24.  N.  139ss.  1825.  N.  86. 

d)  Kluber,  nst  Einricbt.  d.  kath.  Kircbenwes.  in  Preuss.  Frk£  1S22.     A.  Muller,  Pr.  a.  Baiern 
iai  Cone.  m.  Rom.  Ncust.  1824. 

e)  Eisenschmid,  Bullarium.  vol.  II.  p.  81Sss.     Iff.  Longner,  Darst  d.  Recbtsverbaltnisso  d. 
Bcocbufe  in  d.  oberrh.  Kirchenprov.  Tub.  1840. 


636  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VL    A.  D.  164S-1S58. 

could  hardly  have  been  expected  at  that  time  from  Protestant  princes,  but 
•which  was  nevertheless  demanded  in  the  principal  article  of  the  imperial  depu- 
tation, was  accomplished  through  the  mediation  of  the  pope,  and  the  superior 
clergy  were  richly  endowed  with  worldly  property ;  but  as  the  Church  itself 
was  not  represented  in  these  negotiations,  no  peculiar  legal  jurisdiction  was 
secured  for  it.  The  manner  in  which  Wcssenberg  was  abused  and  dispos- 
sessed of  his  episcopal  authority,  proves  that  no  degree  of  merit  for  services 
done  for  the  Church  can  bo  sufficient  to  obtain  pardon  at  Komo  for  a  free 
and  German  spirit,  (/)  even  when  a  quiet  and  genuine  piety  was  not  excluded 
from  the  episcopal  sees.  (#)  The  whole  of  Protestant  Germany  was  looked 
upon  as  missionary  ground.  When  an  apostolic  vicar  was  sent  by  the  pope 
to  the  North,  to  take  up  his  residence  in  Hamburg,  preparatory  to  the  erec- 
tion of  a  bishopric  of  Hamburg,  the  governments  concerned  forbade  all  per- 
sons to  hold  any  official  intercourse  with  him  (1839s.),  and  this  vicariate  was 
attached,  as  it  had  been  at  first,  to  a  Westphalian  bishopric.  (K) 

§  474.     The  Ecclesiastical  Controversy  in  Prussian  Germany. 

Latpeyrts,  Oeacb.  u.  bentlge  Vert  d.  kath.  K.  Preass.  Hal.  1S40.  vol.  L— Acta  hist  ecc.  1886.  p. 
264&S.  1S87.  p.  879ao.  Die  kath.  K.  In  d.  preon.  Rbeinprovinz  n.  d.  Erzb.  Clemens  Aug.  Frkf.  1883. 
(Gteeltr)  Uc.  d.  coin.  Angelegcnh.  y.  Irenaens.  Lps.  1888.  Die  offentl.  Zustando  iin  Grossherz, 
Poflen.  HaL  1889.  K.  ffcue,  d.  beiden  Erzbisch.  Lps.  1889.  Personen  u.  Zustande  a.  d.  kirchlich  pol. 
Win-en  in  Pr.  Lpa,  1840.  Lit  Summary:  A.  KZ.  Lit  Bl.  1888.  N.  lOCss.  1889.  N.  22ss.  1840.  N.  SOss. 
89. 113«.  1841.  N.  40s.  [K.  R.  ITagenlach,  KGescb.  des  18.  n.  19.  Jahrh.  Vorles.  XV.  vol.  II.] 

Frederic  William  III.  had  bestowed  upon  the  clergy  an  ample  amount  of 
wealth,  and  he  had  established  schools  and  built  churches  for  them.  But  the 
dislike  felt  by  the  Catholic  Church  to  its  subjection  to  a  Protestant  state 
where  it  had  once  borne  sway,  was  increased  to  new  religious  fervor  as  it 
recollected  the  state  of  things  during  the  middle  ages,  and  it  found  an  open 
expression  in  Prussia  when  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  laws  came  into  collision 
on  the  subject  of  mixed  marriages.  The  Catholics  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
applying  to  the  case  of  Protestants  the  long-established  usage  condemning  all 
marriages  with  heretics.  But  after  the  thirty  years'  war,  the  custom  of 
mixed  marriages  had  become  established  among  the  people.  According  to 
ordinary  German  usage,  where  no  marriage  compact  determined  the  matter 
otherwise,  the  children  were  educated  according  to  the  faith  of  the  parent 
with  whom  they  corresponded  in  sex.  A  peculiar  legislation,  based  on  the 
principle  of  a  certain  legal  equality,  was  gradually  formed  in  the  different 
states  on  this  subject,  with  respect  to  which  nothing  was  said  by  the  Koman 
authorities.  In  Prussia,  the  common  law  was  so  changed,  that  where  the 
unanimous  wish  of  the  parents  was  not  opposed  to  it,  the  children  were  re- 
quired to  be  educated  m  the  Church  of  the  father.  By  an  order  of  the 
Cabinet  issued  in  1825,  this  requisition  was  extended  to  the  province  of  the 
Ehine,  and  to  "Westphalia,  by  declaring  that  any  obligations  of  betrothed 

/)  Denkscbr.  ft.  d.  Verfabren  d.  rom.  Hofe.  Carlsr.  1818.  Wess.  AngeL  Lps.  1820.  On  the  contro- 
versy, for  and  against:  Pavlus,  beurth.  Anzeige.  Hdlb.  1818.  and  Hermes.  1819.  Sect  1. 1820.  Sect  2. 
BU11  later:  A.  KZ.  1827.  N.  175. 1828.  N.  10. 

0)  E.  g.  A.  KZ.  1882.  N.  115.    E.  v.  Schenk,  d.  Bischofe  Sailer  u.  Wittmann.  Eatisb.  1S33. 12. 

K)  Brl.  KZ.  1840.  N.  48.    Jfejer,  vol.  IL  p.  507ss. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  474.  DEOSTE.    HEEMES.  637 

persons  to  the  contrary  were  not  binding,  and  any  requirements  made  as  con- 
ditions of  the  marriage  rite  by  the  Church  were  unlawful.  But  the  cere- 
mony of  marriage,  without  a  promise  that  the  children  should  be  educated 
in  the  Catholic  faith,  had  previously  been  performed  frequently  in  Eastern, 
and  rarely  in  Western  Prussia,  (a)  In  the  latter  country,  therefore,  the 
Catholic  clergymen  now  generally  refused  to  solemnize  marriage  unless  such 
promises  were  voluntarily  offered.  At  the  same  time,  the  Catholic  bride  had 
her  scruples  of  conscience  so  excited,  and  was  so  much  terrified  by  what  she 
must  meet  at  the  confessional,  that  she  was  never  satisfied  with  a  Protestant 
ceremonial.  "When  requested  by  the  government  in  some  way  to  accommo- 
date this  matter,  the  Western  Prussian  bishops  addressed  themselves  to  the 
pope,  to  know  whether  there  was  any  way  in  which  they  could  comply  with 
the  law  of  the  state.  Pius  VIII.,  in  an  apostolical  brief  of  March  25,  1830, 
pronounced  all  mixed  marriages  improper,  but  valid ;  he  did  not  forbid  the 
ecclesiastical  benediction  where  securities  were  given  for  the  Catholic  educa- 
tion of  all  the  children,  but  in  all  instances  permitted  the  parties  to  enter  the 
marriage  relation  in  the  presence  of  the  pastor,  without  any  ecclesiastical 
rites  (praesentia  passiva),  though  without  ecclesiastical  censures.  (&)  The 
government  did  not  publish  this  brief,  until,  by  a  secret  agreement,  the  bish- 
ops interested  in  the  matter  had  granted  what  had  been  refused  at  Borne, 
viz.,  that  as  a  general  rule,  marriage  should  be  solemnized  according  to  the 
forms  of  the  Church,  and  that  only  in  rare  cases,  easy  to  be  evaded,  the 
limitation  of  the  passive  assistance  should  be  applied,  (c)  This  agreement  of 
1834  was  denied  by  the  bishops  in  Eome,  until  a  written  confession  of  the 
dying  Bishop  of  Treves  brought  the  truth  to  the  full  knowledge  of  the  pope 
(1836).  Clemens  Droste,  the  suffragan  Bishop  of  Vischering,  who  had  pre- 
viously defended  the  unconditional  freedom  of  the  Church,  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne  (1836),  after  giving  a  promise  that  he  would  peaceably  and 
sincerely  conform  to  the  agreement  entered  into  with  respect  to  the  Brief  of 
1830.  (d)  With  him,  however,  a  party  came  into  prominence,  determined  at 
all  hazards  to  deliver  the  Church  from  what  they  called  the  yoke  of  the 
state,  (e)  When  the  archbishop  came  to  know  the  contradiction  which  ex- 
isted between  the  agreement  of  the  bishops  and  the  papal  brief,  he  forbade 
his  clergy  to  solemnize  the  marriage  rites  of  the  Church  without  a  promise 
that  the  children  should  be  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith.  In  vain  he  was 
reminded  by  the  government  of  the  promise  he  had  made  previous  to  his 
appointment.  The  offence  he  thus  gave  was  much  increased  by  his  informal  pro- 
ceedings with  respect  to  the  Hermesians.  In  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  con- 
fidence in  authority,  which  it  was  said  could  never  rise  above  doubt,  Hermes 
(1775-1831)  had  attempted  to  find  proof  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  absolute  necessities  of  human  reason,  (/)  and  left  behind  him  a 
school  which  extended  itself  from  Bonn,  and  prevailed  in  all  the  institutions 


a)  J.  liutschker,  d.  gem.  Ehen  v.  kath.  Standp.  Vien.  (183T.  1838.)  1841.-ff.  F.  Jacdbson,  n. 
d.  gem.  Ehen  in  Deutschland,  insb.  la  Pr.  Lps.  1838.    Ch.  F.  v.  Amman,  d.  gem.  Ehen.  D: 


Acta  hist  ecc.  1S35.  p.  15ss.        c)  Ibid.  1887.  p.  428ss.        d)  Ibid.  1S36.  p.  SISss. 
e)  Beitrage  z.  Kirchengesch.  d.  19.  Jahrh.  in  Deutschl.  Augsb.  1835. 
/)  EinL  in  d.  cbr.  kath.  Theol.  Munst.  vol.  I.  (1819.)  1831.  vol.  IL  (1829.)  1834.    Christkath.  Dog 


638  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1858. 

for  education  on  the  Rhine.  The  opponents  of  this  school  obtained  a  hear- 
ing at  Eome ;  and  in  consequence  of  a  trial,  the  most  responsible  actor  in 
which  was  afterwards  found  to  be  utterly  unacquainted  with  the  German 
language  and  literature,  (g)  the  writings  of  the  deceased  Hermes  were  con- 
demned in  an  apostolical  brief  of  Sept.  26,  1835.  As  his  system  had  not  been 
explained  with  much  precision,  and  a  distinct  deviation  from  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  had  not  been  proved,  the  Hermesians  were  not  without  hopes 
that  they  might  convince  the  Holy  Father  of  the  orthodoxy  of  their  instruc- 
tor. Archbishop  Drosto  impaired  the  influence  of  the  theological  faculty  at 
Bonn,  by  forbidding  the  students  at  the  confessional  to  hear  lectures  from 
the  Hermesians.  (A)  In  the  negotiations  of  the  government  with  the  arch- 
bishop, an  amicable  understanding  was  obtained  on  this  subject ;  but  with 
respect  to  the  mixed  marriages,  lie  adhered  to  the  declaration  that  he  could 
comply  with  the  agreement  of  1834  only  so  far  as  it  was  consistent  with  the 
Brief  of  1830.  He  was  therefore  threatened  with  a  suspension  of  his  official 
duties,  imprisoned  Nov.  20,  1837,  and  finally  brought  to  the  fortress  of  Min- 
den,  on  the  ground  set  forth  in  a  ministerial  decree,  that  he  had  violated  his 
promise,  undermined  the  laws,  and  excited  the  minds  of  the  people  under  the 
influence  of  two  revolutionary  parties.  Gregory  XVL,  as  early  as  Dec.  10, 
protested  against  the  violence  thus  committed  against  the  Church,  extolled 
the  martyrdom  of  the  archbishop,  and  rejected  the  illegal  evasion  of  the 
Brief  of  1830.  (*)  The  Prussian  ambassador  declared  that  the  measure 
against  the  archbishop  was  merely  a  temporary  act  of  self-defence,  and  ac- 
knowledged the  pope  himself  as  a  final  judge  in  the  case.  (£)  The  pope, 
however,  demanded  that  before  any  negotiations  could  be  entered  upon,  the 
archbishop  must  be  restored  to  his  former  position.  Both  parties  then  ap- 
pealed to  public  opinion,  by  presenting  to  the  world  representations  of  the 
original  grounds  of  the  quarrel.  (I)  Gorres,  as  a  voluntary  advocate  of  the 
archbishop,  made  an  attack  upon  Protestantism,  and  the  whole  official  body 
of  the  Prussian  government,  (m)  The  party  on  the  other  side  regarded  the 
controversy  as  a  struggle  between  German  liberty  and  Roman  dominion. 
Every  existing  element  of  discontent  was  for  the  time  involved  in  this  reli- 
gious contention.  The  sullen  humor  of  the  Catholic  people  on  the  Rhine 
and  in  Westphalia,  was  exhibited  in  individual  acts  of  violence.  The  other 
"West  Prussian  bishops  announced  their  renunciation  of  the  agreement ;  and 
although  the  government  refused  to  receive  it,  the  Cabinet  declared  that  it 
never  intended  to  compel  a  pastor,  contrary  to  his  conscience,  to  solemnize 

matik,  ed.  by  Achterfeldt,  Munst  1S34  2  vote—  0.  O.  Niedner,  Philosophiao  Hermesii  explicatio  et 
existimatio.  Lps.  1S3S.  Perrone,  z.  Gesch.  d.  Hermesianism.  A.  d.  ItaL  Ratisb.  1839. 

g)  Acta  hist  ecc.  1836.  p.  307ss.  Perronius,  Theologus  Romanus  vapulans.  CoL  1840.  Elvenich, 
d.  llermesianismus  u.  Perrone.  Brl.  1844. 

K)  Elvenich,  Acta  Hermesiana.  Gott  1836.  Braun  et  Elvenich:  Meletemata  thcol.  Lps.  1838. 
Acta  Romana.  Han.  1838.  (by  Rehfues)  Die  Wahrh.  in  d.  Hermes'schen  Sache.  Dannst  1837  Zell^ 
Acta  antiherm.  Ratisb.  1839. 

f)  Acta  hist  ecc,  1887.  p.  5ss.         k)  Ibid.  p.  575ss. 

1)  Darlegung  d.  Yerfahrens  d.  Preuss.  Regierung  gegen  d.  Erzb.  v.  Koln.  Brl.  1838.  4.  Esposizione 
di  fatto  documentata  su  quanto  ha  preceduto  e  seguito  la  deportazione  di  Monsignor  Drostu  Eoms, 
1838.  Ratisb.  1S38. 

m)  Athanasius.  Ratisb.  1838. 1.  ed.  in  Jan.,  4.  ed.  at  Easter. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHUECH  TILL  1853.    §  474.  DUNIX.    FEED.  WM.  IV.       639 

mixed  marriages,  or  to  forbid  him  to  make  discreet  inquiries  respecting  the 
education  of  the  children  (1838).  (n)  Dunin,  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen, 
had  even  in  183V  besought  the  government,  in  order  to  correct  the  abuses 
which  had  gained  ground  within  his  jurisdiction,  that  either  the  Brief  of 
1830  might  be  published  in  his  diocese,  or  that  he  might  be  permitted  to 
apply  for  a  decision  of  the  apostolic  see.  On  being  refused  both  requests,  he 
secretly  issued  a  pastoral  epistle  (Feb.,  1838),  in  which  he  declared  every 
priest  suspended  who  should  thereafter  solemnize  a  mixed  marriage  without 
a  security  that  the  offspring  should  be  Catholic,  (o)  The  government  de- 
prived this  order  of  all  force,  promised  its  protection  to  every  priest  who 
should  be  threatened  on  account  of  his  non-observance  of  it,  and  arraigned 
the  archbishop  before  the  superior  court  for  high  treason  and  disobedi- 
ence, (p)  He  denied  the  competence  of  the  court,  but  complied  with  a  cita- 
tion to  Berlin.  After  ineffectual  negotiations,  a  judicial  decision  was  here 
pronounced  (April,  1839),  which  deposed  him,  and  condemned  him  for  dis- 
obedience to  a  six  months'  imprisonment  in  a  fortress.  The  king,  however, 
condescended  to  regard  a  letter  of  the  archbishop  as  a  request  for  pardon, 
and  therefore  suspended  the  sentence  of  deposition,  and  remitted  the  punish- 
ment of  imprisonment,  though  on  condition  that  he  should  not  leave  the  city 
of  Berlin.  He  immediately  fled  from  the  city  to  Posen  (Oct.,  1839),  where 
he  was  seized,  and  brought  to  Colberg.  All  the  churches  in  his  diocese  were 
hung  in  mourning,  (q)  Frederic  William  IV.  found  this  complicated  state 
of  affairs  still  unsettled  at  his  accession.  All  the  Prussian  bishops  had 
adopted  the  views  of  the  Roman  court,  except  the  Prince-bishop  of  Breslau, 
who  was  compelled,  by  the  conflict  between  his  convictions  and  the  circum- 
stances in  which  he  was  placed,  to  resign  his  pastoral  staff  (Aug.,  1840).  (?•) 
The  Archbishop  Dunin  (d.  1842)  was  allowed  by  the  king  to  return  to  his 
diocese  ;  and  having  exhorted  his  clergy  to  be  lovers  of  peace,  he  gave  orders, 
that  as  they  were  forbidden  by  law  to  require  securities  for  the  education  of 
the  children ;  in  all  mixed  marriages  they  should  abstain  from  every  act  which 
could  be  construed  as  an  assent  to  them,  (s)  The  king  established  a  Catholic 
department  in  the  ministry  for  public  worship,  renounced  the  Placet  in  mat- 
ters of  faith,  and  gave  full  liberty  to  the  bishops  to  hold  intercourse  with  the 
Roman  see  (Jan.  1,  1841).  Negotiations  were  also  opened  with  the  papal 
court,  in  consequence  of  which,  Archbishop  Droste,  with  his  own  consent, 
on  account  of  his  ill  health,  was  appointed  coadjutor,  with  the  right  of  being 
the  successor,  to  John  of  Geissel,  Bishop  of  Speyer.  By  an  open  royal  letter, 
the  archbishop  was  honorably  released  from  his  confinement,  and  from  all 
imputations  of  a  guilty  participation  in  revolutionary  movements.  (0  He 


n)  A.  Z.  1838.  N.  70.  Suppl.  N.  ST.  Suppl. 

o)  A.  Z.  1838.  N.  88.  Suppl. 

p)  A.  Z.  1838.  N.  2GSs.  Preuss.  Staatsz.  1838.  N.  362.  A.  Z.  1839.  N.  85.  Esposizione  di  diritto  e 
di  fatto  con  autentici  document!.  Eoma,  11  Apr.,  1839.  Eatisb.  1839.  Bintel,  Vertbeidigung  d.  Erzb. 
Dunin.  Wurzb.  1839. 

q)  BrL  KZ.  1839.  N.  83. 102. 

»•)  A.  Z.  1839.  N.  20.  A.  KZ.  1841.  N.  81.  D.  A.  Z.  1845.  N.  5. 

e)  Brl.  KZ.  1840.  N.  64.  69.  74,    F.  PoM,  M.  v,  Dunin,  Marienb.  1813. 

0  BrL  KZ.  1841.  N.  14.  9.  comp.  61. 1842.  N.  3 


640  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTOET.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1W8. 

now  declared  that  he  only  wished  henceforth  to  spend  his  life  in  praying  for 
his  diocese  (March  9,  1842),  (u)  and  as  an  author,  somewhat  awkwardly  but 
honestly  defended  the  liberty  of  both  sides,  and  the  mutual  friendship  of 
Church  and  State  (d.  1845).  (v)  The  Eermesians  had  already  given  up  their 
own  cause;  and  when  their  two  last  advocates  maintained  at  least  that 
Hermes  had  not  taught  what  the  papal  brief  had  imputed  to  him,  on  an  ap- 
plication from  the  coadjutor,  they  were  dismissed  from  their  offices  (1844). 
Even  Pius  IX.  repelled  their  reference  to  his  Circular  (§  475)  as  an  act  of 
insolence,  (w)  "With  regard  to  mixed  marriages,  the  most  rigid  interpretation 
of  the  Brief  of  1830  has  been  adopted  as  the  rule  of  action,  but  the  possibil- 
ity of  a  ceremony  performed  by  Protestants  is  conceded  and  acted  upon,  (r) 
In  this  controversy  the  Catholic  Church  has  exhibited  a  powerful  self-reli- 
ance, (y)  which  might  proceed  so  far  as  to  threaten  once  more  a  division  of 
Germany.  In  other  countries,  where  the  circumstances  were  similar  to  those 
which  existed  in  Prussia,  the  clergy  were  obliged  to  make  use  of  the  same 
influences,  (z)  In  Wurtemberg,  when  the  ministry  proclaimed  that  all  those 
priests  should  be  displaced  who  refused  to  solemnize  mixed  marriages  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  1800,  which  provided  that  both  Churches  should  be  placed 
on  an  equal  footing,  Bishop  Keller  of  Rottenburg  (d.  1846),  an  old  and  faith- 
ful servant  of  the  government,  was  induced  to  present  a  proposition  (Nov. 
13,  1841)  in  the  assembly  of  the  states,  in  which  the  grievances  of  the  differ- 
ent parties  were  set  forth.  This  provided  that  the  free  exercise  of  those 
rights  which  the  civil  authorities,  in  direct  opposition  to  the  essential  objects 
of  the  constitution  of  the  Catholic  Church,  had  exercised,  should  now  bo 
restored  to  the  Church  and  its  bishops.  In  both  Chambers,  though  in  differ- 
ent ways,  the  full  rights  of  the  government  were  acknowledged,  and  a  con- 
fidence was  expressed  that  it  would  remove  every  well-founded  complaint. 
But  an  anonymous  letter  filled  with  threats  was  repelled  with  disgust  even 
by  the  Catholic  party.* 

§  475.     The  German  Church  since  1848. 

From  the  revolution,  the  clergy  obtained  charters  which  were  partially 
fulfilled  even  when  the  reaction  took  place,  in  consequence  of  their  agree- 
ment with  political  parties  hostile  to  each  other.  Although  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits  and  their  allies  from  Austria,  and  their  exclusion  from  all  Ger- 
man territories,  had  been  resolved  upon  in  the  first  glow  of  popular  feeling, 

«)  Brl.  KZ.  1842  N.  26. 

0)  Ueber  den  Frieden  unter  d.  Kirche  n.  d.  Staaten.  Munst  1843.  2  ed. 

w)  Bonner  Zeitschr.  1843.  P.  4.  Actenstucke  z.  gen.  Gesch.  d.  Hermesian.  by  Elvenich,  Brsl. 
1845.  Stupp,  die  letzten  Hermesianer.  Siegen,  1844,  Comp.  Bruns,  Eep.  1846.  vol.  VII.  p.  209ss.— 
BrL  KZ.  1847.  N.  72. 

aj)  BrL  KZ.  1841.  N.  37. 1S42.  N.  31. 

y)  J.  v.  Gorres,  K  u.  Staat  nach  Ablanf  d.  Coiner  Irrung.  Weissenb.  1842. 

e)  Die  kath.  Zustande  in  Baden.  Eatisb.  1841.  On  the  other  side :  Nebenius,  die  kath.  Zustando 
in  Baden.  Carlsr.  1842.  Der  Streit  u.  gem.  Ehen.  n.  d.  KHoheitsrecht  ira  G.  Baden.  Karlsr.  1847. 

*  A.  KZ.  1842.  N.  98. 103. 114-116.  123-126.  Brl.  KZ.  1842.  N.  6.  23.  30.  50.  55.  M.  J,  Mack, 
Catholica,  Mittheill.  a.  d.  Gescb.  d.  kath.  K  in  Wurt.  Tub.  1841.  Briefe  zweier  Freunde  u.  d.  Motion 
d.  B.  v.  Eott.  Stuttg.  1842.  2  ed.  Neueste  Denksch.  d.  Wurt  Staatsreg.  an  d.  riim.  Stuhl.  BcleuchteL 
Bchaffh.  1844 


CHAP.  YL    CATH.  CHUKCH  TILL  1853.    §  4T5.  GERMANY  SINCE  1848.        64 1 

it  was  regarded  as  a  permanent  law  of  the  German  nation.    Jesuit  missions 
then  traversed  the  country  (after  1850),  and  penetrated  districts  densely 
populated  by  Protestants,  (d)    With  the  view  of  forming  an  imposing  author- 
ity for  determining  political  and  social  questions  on  Catholic  principles,  a 
popular  society  was  commenced  at  Cologne,  and  named  after  Pius  IX.  (Aug., 
1848).    At  the  suggestion  of  the  pope,  and  in  consequence  of  the  altered 
state  of  the  times,  though  not  without  some  resistance  and  occasional  relapses, 
the  political  and  democratic  tendency  of  these  Pius-  Unions  on  the  Ehine 
was  given  up,  and  their  general  object  became  the  promotion  of  all  Catholic 
interests.    Branches  of  this  organization  were  extended  to  a  great  distance, 
but  they  had  no  permanent  place  of  meeting,  and  their  annual  assemblies 
itinerated  from  place  to  place.  (V)     But  the  General  Assembly  at  Vienna 
(1853)  found  that  the  masses  were  not  attracted  toward  them,  and  that  the 
spectators  at  their  meetings  were  always  the  same,  (c)    The  German  bishops, 
at  a  conference  in  Wurtzburg  (Nov.,  1848),  proclaimed  that  the  Church,  in 
living  connection  with  its  Holy  Father,  had  not  abandoned  the  work  of  re- 
generating their  native  land ;  that  it  accepted  with  confidence  the  assurance 
that  all  should  have  liberty  of  conscience ;  that  it  would  now  enter  upon  the 
full  enjoyment  of  the  independence  which  had  so  long  been  crippled;  and 
that  while  it  maintained  its  divine  right  to  educate  its  members  from  the 
common  to  the  high  school,  it  would  devote  itself  to  the  advancement  of 
true  progress  by  the  elevation  of  science,  the  establishment  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline,  and  the  restoration  of  the  synodal  system,  (d)    Accordingly,  trust- 
ing to  a  sacred  influence  pervading  the  present  age,  and  which  no  secular 
power  could  withstand,  they  put  forth  a  series  of  demands  upon  the  govern- 
ments, that  in  spite  of  the  existing  law  and  the  modern  state,  the  ideal  of  the 
canon  law  which  had  never  been  renounced  should  now  be  realized,  (e)    In 
Austria,  the  ecclesiastical  law  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  was  abandoned  in  the 
uttempt  to  carry  out  the  idea  of  the  two  Schwartzenbergs,  according  to 
which  the  mutually  conflicting  nationalities  were  to  be  held  together  under 
the  house  of  Hapsburg  by  the  interest  of  the  episcopate,  and  all  that  was 
Catholic  in  German  countries  was  to  be  rallied  around  the  throne  of  his 
apostolic  majesty.  (/)    The  imperial  patent  of  April  18,  1850,  (g)  dispensed 
with  the  requirement  that  all  papal  and  episcopal  edicts  should  have  the  con- 
sent of  the  state  to  their  promulgation,  made  the  clergy  independent  of  the 
secular  authorities  and  proportionally  dependent  upon  the  bishops,  and  abol- 
ished every  thing  which  had  impeded  the  exertion  of  the  penal  powers  of  the 
Church.     The  right  of  nominating  the  bishops  was  reserved  by  the  emperor 
to  himself,  as  one  which  had  descended  from  his  ancestors,  and  which  he 
promised  to  exercise  for  the  good  of  the  Church,  and  with  the  counsel  of  the 

a)  K.  A.  Leibbrand,  d.  Miss.  d.  Jes.  u.  Kedemptoristen  in  Deutschl.  n.  d.  ev.  Wahrh.  Stuttg 
1851. 

1)  Brl.  KZ.  1S4S.  N.  64.  77. 1849.  N.  41.  61s.         c)  D.  A.  Z.  1853.  N.  251. 

d)  Brl.  KZ.  1848.  N.  92.  99. 101.    A.  KZ.  1848.  N.  200s. 

e)  0.  Mejer,  d.  dt.  KFreih.  u.  d.  kunftige  kath.  Partei.  Lps.  1S4S.    C.  Knies,  d.  kath.  Hierarchic 
in  d.  dt  Staaten  s.  1848.  Hal.  1852. 

/)  Actenstucke,  d.  bischofl.  Versamml.  zu  Wien  betr.  Wicn,  1S50.   (by  Lonovics)  Der  Josephis- 
nni3  u.  d.  kais.  Verordn.  v.  18.  Apr.  A.  d.  Ung.  Wien,  1S51. 
<7)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  84s. 
41 


642  MODERN  CHUBCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

bishops.  The  prospect  of  a  more  perfect  regulation  by  a  concordat  was  also 
held  out.  And  yet  such  was  the  state  of  things  during  the  wars  in  Hungary 
and  Italy,  that  bishops  were  sometimes  imprisoned,  and  priests  were  hung. 
In  Bavaria,  the  national  bishops  demanded  (h)  the  complete  execution  of  the 
concordat  for  the  adjustment  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  powers,  for  on 
this  they  professed  to  think  the  welfare  of  Europe  depended.  For  this  pur- 
pose they  asked  for  the  recognition  of  certain  rights  as  inalienable  to  the 
Church,  the  possession  of  which  would  have  threatened  to  render  the  clergy 
not  only  independent,  but  superior  to  the  civil  power.  In  its  reply,  (*)  tho 
government  refused  to  surrender  its  position,  that  the  royal  assent  was  indis- 
•  pensable  to  ecclesiastical  edicts,  to  investitures  of  livings  by  bishops,  and  to 
missions  by  foreigners,  and  demanded  that  no  change  should  be  made  in  tho 
administration  of  Church  property,  and  that  every  member  of  tho  Church 
should  have  a  right  to  appeal  to  the  sovereign  for  protection  against  all 
abuses  of  ecclesiastical  power.  Only  such  decisions  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  as  exercised  no  influence  upon  civil  relations,  were  exempted  from  tho 
necessity  of  having  the^  royal  confirmation ;  and  with  respect  to  tho  royal 
patronage  of  benefices,  and  to  the  school  system,  it  was  agreed  that  tho  opin- 
ions of  the  bishops  should  be  consulted.  The  Catholic  party  thus  found  that 
the  government  had  conceded  only  non-essential  points,  and  had  maintained 
n  position  which  had  been  abandoned  even  in  some  Protestant  states.  After 
Prussia  had  proclaimed  the  independence  of  the  Church  (Dec.  6,  1848),  tho 
bishops,  instead  of  complying  with  the  invitation  of  the  Minister  to  enter 
into  some  definite  arrangement  with  the  state,  published  a  memorial  (Aug., 
1849),  (*)  in  which  they  claimed,  as  the  necessary  result  of  the  independence 
granted ;  that  all  Church  property  should  be  transferred  to  their  hands ;  that 
the  state  should  exert  no  influence  in  the  appointment  of  ecclesiastical  offi- 
cers ;  that  the  complete  direction  of  the  education  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  and 
of  Catholic  schools,  should  be  committed  to  them ;  and  that  the  sacrament 
of  marriage  should  be  allowed  to  be  administered  without  any  reference  to 
the  civil  law.  The  Constitution  (Jan.  31,  1850)  left  the  principle  of  indepen- 
dence as  it  was,  and  allowed  all  persons  freely  to  hold  intercourse  with  eccle- 
siastical superiors,  but  subjected  the  promulgation  of  ecclesiastical  edicts  to 
the  same  restrictions  as  were  imposed  upon  all  other  publications,  and  relin- 
quished the  investiture  of  ecclesiastical  officers  only  so  far  as  they  did  not 
depend  upon  patronage,  or  some  special  legal  title.  But  since  that  time,  the 
government  has  made  a  series  of  concessions,  (Z)  some  of  which  relate  even 
to  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  constitution,  (in)  The  limitation  of  theo- 
logical studies  in  foreign  Jesuit  institutions,  and  of  the  Jesuit  missions,  was 
again  discussed  (1852),  and  the  mildest  construction  given  of  it  which  the 
language  would  allow,  (n)  A  small  Catholic  party  was  formed  in  the  Cham- 

h)  Denksch.  der  v.  1-20.  Oct.  1850,  zu  Freysing  versammeltcn  Erzbischcife  u.  Bisch.  Bayerns. 
Munich,  1850.  4.  i)  Of  April  8, 1850:  Allg.  Z.  1852.  N.  118. 

k)  Printed  in  the  Katholik.  Mayence,  Proceedings  of  the  Chambers  in  Sept :  Brl.  KZ.  1849.  N. 
84ss.  88.  89. 1850.  N.  4. 

1)  Haee,  ev.  prot  K.  d.  dt  Eeichs.  p.  8S9ss.    Knies,  p.  13s. 

m)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  4.  33.  203.  Der  Conflict  d.  preuss.  Eeg.  m.  d.  kath.  Bisch.  in  Betr.  d.  Ver 
fcssungseides.  Lps.  1S50.  n)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  63.  80s.  103. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHUECH  TILL  1853.    §  475.  PRUSSIA.    MECHLENBUEG.    643 

bers,  which  did  not  scruple  to  connect  itself  with  the  Eight  or  the  Left, 
according  to  circumstances ;  and  as  the  government  were  obliged  to  rule  by 
a  party,  these  were  often  strong  enough  to  give  the  preponderance  where 
they  pleased.  But  a  complete  independence  of  the  clergy  was  not  effected, 
for  a  general  dislike  was  felt  to  the  establishment  of  an  independent  sacerdo- 
tal power,  subject  only  to  a  foreign  sovereign,  whose  decisions  were  formed 
by  divine  authority,  and  were  regarded  by  the  bishops  as  their  rule  of  right, 
to  which  the  heretical  ruler  of  so  many  ancient  ecclesiastical  countries  would 
be  tolerable  only  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  and  by  which  a  portion  of  the 
people  would  be  so  educated,  that  very  soon  a  second  Westphalian  Peace 
would  become  indispensable.  Even  the  complaints  from  Posen  respecting 
the  non-fulfilment  of  the  conceded  right  to  spiritual  jurisdiction,  the  admin- 
istration of  Church  property,  and  the  Protestantizing  and  denationalizing  the 
schools,  (o)  were  not  regarded.  "When  Arnoldi,  Bishop  of  Treves,  required 
(March  12,  15,  1853)  the  pastors  under  his  jurisdiction  to  allow  of  mixed 
marriages  only  when  the  non-Catholic  party  promised  upon  oath  to  have  all 
the  children  to  be  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  and  even  then  to  withhold 
the  ecclesiastical  benediction,  (p)  a  general  astonishment  was  expressed  at 
this  extravagant  application  of  the  papal  enactment  of  1830.  The  king  pro- 
claimed, that  every  officer  of  his  army  who  contracted  marriage  under  such 
dishonorable  'conditions,  should  be  immediately  dismissed  from  service.  The 
general  belief  that  an  apostolical  brief  of  such  a  tenor  had  been  issued  to  all 
the  Prussian  bishops,  was  partially  corrected  at  Treves ;  and  it  was  shown 
that  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  ascertain  whether  such  a  proceeding  would 
be  then  tolerated  in  Prussia,  by  such  a  limitation  imposed  upon  each  bishop 
by  the  Propaganda  at  the  renewal  of  his  quinquennial  faculties  (p.  460).  (?) 
In  Mechlenburg-SchwQr'm,  the  return  to  orthodoxy  which  was  favored  by  the 
higher  classes,  was  in  some  instances  carried  too  far ;  and  a  landed  proprietor 
who  had  recently  become  a  Catholic,  employed  a  priest  of  Mayence  as  his 
domestic  chaplain.  This  priest  was  conveyed,  by  order  of  the  government 
(Sept.,  1852),  out  of"  the  country,  on  the  ground  that  the  stated  employment 
of  a  priest  was  not  implied  in  the  privilege  of  domestic  worship,  and  that 
the  Catholic  worship  was  tolerated  merely  by  an  arrangement  with  the  sov- 
ereign (1788,  1809,  1811),  under  certain  local  restrictions,  (r)  A  complaint 
with  respect  to  this  proceeding,  founded  upon  the  sixteenth  article  of  the 
Act  of  Confederation,  was  sent  back  by  the  diet  in  accordance  with  the  ex- 
isting law,  and  by  the  Diet  of  the  Confederation  on  the  ground  of  incompe- 
tency.  (s)  The  five  bishops  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper 
Rhine  (£)  disclosed  also  to  their  respective  governments  what  they  regarded 
as  essential  to  the  ecclesiastical  independence  promised  them,  viz. :  free  inter- 


o)  Promemoria  betr.  d.  Beeintnicht.  d.  katb.  K.  im  G.  Posen.  Pos.  1848.  t 

p)  Brl.  KZ.  1853.  N.  83.  86.  45. 

q)  D.  A.  Z.  1853.  N.  161.— A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  134. 

r)  (A.  W.  v.  Schroeter,)  Die  kath.  Eel.  Uebung  in  Meckl.  Geschichtl.  u.  rechtlich.  Jena,  1852.  On 
the  other  hand :  ,J.  T.  B.  v.  Linde,  u.  d.  rechtL  Gleichstell.  d.  chr.  Eel.  Parteien  In  d,  dt  Bundesst. 
insb.  in  Meckl.  Giess.  1S52. 

s)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  100.  1853.  N.  50.    D.  A.  Z.  1852.  N.  444. 

t)  For  them :  M.  Lieber,  in  Sachen  d.  oberrh.  KProv.  m.  Actenst  Frettx  1858.    F.  Riess,  kirch- 


644  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1648-1353, 

course  with  Rome ;  the  validity  of  papal  and  episcopal  edicts,  without  th« 
concurrence  of  the  states ;  the  unrestrained  administration  of  Church  pro- 
perty ;  the  necessity  of  the  consent  of  the  bishop  to  the  instruction  given  in 
schools  of  all  kinds ;  the  establishment  of  seminaries  under  the  care  of  the 
bishop ;  an  alteration  of  the  academical  studies,  and  of  the  chapter,  so  as  to 
make  them  conform  to  the  principles  of  the  canon  law ;  a  recognition  of  the 
episcopal  right  to  examine  their  clergy,  to  the  exclusion  of  an  examination 
by  the  state ;  the  investiture  of  all  clerical  officers  by  the  bishop,  as  far  as 
was  consistent  with  a  well-established  right  of  patronage ;  the  restoration  of 
the  episcopal  right  to  control  priestly  functions  and  popular  missions ;  and 
the  unrestrained  exercise  of  the  power  of  punishing  all  members  of  the 
Church,  without  being  subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  civil  authorities,  (w)  The 
government  of  Darmstadt  refrained  from  enforcing  the  institution  of  the 
candidate  whom  it  preferred  for  the  see  of  Mayence,  and  who  had  been 
elected  by  the  chapter  in  the  informal  way  sanctioned  by  a  frequent  Roman 
usage,  (r)  allowed  a  bishop  to  be  invested  (1849)  who,  it  well  knew,  would  bo 
the  leader  of  the  opposition,  and  saw  the  very  last  student  forsaking  its  own 
theological  faculty  at  Giessen,  in  consequence  of  the  constitutional  freedom 
of  studies  proclaimed  in  the  seminary  he  re-established  at  Mayence  (1851.)  (w) 
When  the  commissioners  of  the  government  assembled  at  Carlsruhe  made 
them  no  reply,  the  bishops  remarked  that  they  would  in  any  case  act  as  if 
their  demands  had  been  complied  with  (Feb.  22) ;  and  when  these  demands 
were  finally  for  the  most  part  rejected  (March  5, 1853),  (x)  they  declared 
that  they  should  obey  God  rather  than  man ;  and  that,  in  accordance  witli 
the  doctrine  generally  received  in  their  Church,  and  the  law  founded  upon 
it,  they  should  oppose  the  regulations  prescribed  by  the  government,  on  the 
ground  that  their  supreme  ecclesiastical  head  had  long  since  condemned 
them  as  anticatholic  and  illegal  (April  12).  (y)  It  was  determined  that  an 
attempt,  which  should  be  an  example  for  all  other  places,  should  be  made  in 
Baden,  where  the  revolution  had  been  most  radical,  and  where  the  youth  of 
the  ruler  presented  the  greatest  hope.  Herman  of  Vicari,  Archbishop  of 
Friburg,  who,  contrary  to  all  precedent,  had  prohibited  the  funeral  solemni- 
ties prescribed  by  the  government  for  the  late  Grand  Duke,  on  account  of 
the  course  that  prince  had  pursued  toward  the  Church  (1852),  (2)  by  his  own 
authority  nominated  a  pastor  for  Constance  and  an  ecclesiastical  council,  had 
the  seminaries  examined  without  a  commissioner  from  government,  and  threat' 
ened  to  excommunicate  the  members  of  the  supreme  council  of  the  Church,  un- 
less they  would  either  act  according  to  the  episcopal  memorial,  or  resign  their 
offices.  Ho  was  admonished  by  the  ministry  (Oct.  31, 1853)  to  revoke  these 

Hch-pol.  Blatter  a.  d.  oberrh.  KPr.  Stuttg.  1853.  Against:  &  B.  Leu,  Warming  v.  Neuer  u.  Ueber- 
treibungen.  Lnz.  1S58.  Bischiifl.  Theorien  u.  posit  Recht  Stottg.  1858.— L.  A.  Warnkonig,  fi.  d. 
Conflict  d.  Episcopate  d.  oberrh.  KProv.  Erl.  1858. 

u)  Memorial  of  March,  1851,  in  Liebvr,  p.  ISss.    Abstract :  Brl.  KZ.  1851.  N.  45. 

«)  Leap.  Schmid,  u.  d.  jungste  Mainzer  Bischofswahl.  Giess.  2  ed.  1850.  Comp.  Hid.  Geist  d, 
Catholicism,  o.  grundl.  d.  chr.  Irenik.  Giess.  1848.  vol.  L 

w)  BrL  KZ.  1851.  N.  45.         «)  Decree  of  the  Baden  GOT.  in  Lieber,  p.  47ss. 

y)  Brl.  KZ.  1853.  N.  83.  Toe  reasons  for  the  Act  of  June  18:  Denksch.  d.  Episcopates  d.  oberrh. 
KPr.  in  Bezug  a.  d.  Wurt  Bad.  Hess.  u.  Nass.  Entschliessung  v.  5.  Marz.  Freib.  1853. 

z)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  88s.  40.  59. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  475.  BADEN.    §  476.  SWITZERLAND.    645 

acts,  which  were  opposed  to  the  laws  he  had  sworn  to  observe,  and  the  eccle- 
siastical constitution  which  had  been  peacefully  in  force  for  half  a  century ; 
but  he  replied,  that  he  could  no  longer  yield  obedience  to  laws  in  conflict  with  the 
right  of  ecclesiastical  self-government  guarantied  by  international  treaties,  and 
which  annihilated  the  order  Christ  had  bestowed  upon  the  Church.  The 
government  then  appointed  an  officer  (Nov.  7),  whose  indorsement  was  made 
indispensable  to  the  validity  of  all  archiepiscopal  edicts ;  those  clergymen 
who  ventured  to  obey  such  edicts,  regardless  of  this  arrangement,  were  threat- 
ened with  punishment  by  the  police,  and  those  who  obeyed  the  government 
were  assured  of  its  protection.  The  archbishop  dismissed  the  officer  of  the 
government  with  his  excommunication  (Nov.  10) ;  published  a  haughty  pastoral 
epistle  (Nov.  11),  in  which  he  expressed  a  desire  of  martyrdom ;  openly  chal- 
lenged the  ministry — though,  as  was  proper  under  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment, only  the  ministry — to  a  war ;  protested  against  this  ministerial  inter- 
ference, proceeding  from  Protestant  views,  with  his  holy  office ;  uttered  an 
excommunication,  to  be  read  from  every  pulpit,  against  each  member  of  the 
supreme  ecclesiastical  council  (Nov.  14) ;  and  gave  orders  that  this  matter 
should  be  explained  to  the  people  in  the  parish  churches  on  four  Sundays,  on 
the  basis  of  the  episcopal  memorial  and  the  pastoral  epistle,  (a)  The  govern- 
ment did  not  venture  to  lay  hands  upon  the  aged  archbishop,  but  the  subor- 
dinate executors  of  his  will  were  fined  and  imprisoned.  These  imprison- 
ments, however,  often  involved  the  members  of  the  congregations,  and  could 
not  be  carried  out  against  the  multitude.  Contributions  also  flowed  in 
from  abroad,  amply  sufficient  to  make  up  for  all  fines,  and  for  any  retention 
of  revenues.  But  the  Catholic  people  could  not  be  aroused  by  the  fanatical 
pamphlets  scattered  among  them,  (5)  to  make  any  very  imposing  demonstra- 
tion ;  the  councils  of  the  congregations,  and  even  clergymen,  prayed  to  be 
excused  from  the  not  very  edifying  four  discourses,  and  the  archbishop  was 
obliged  to  depose  a  number  of  deacons.  The  pope,  however,  highly  extolled 
his  remarkable  firmness  against  a  government  which  was  continually  worry- 
ing the  Church ;  (c)  and  almost  all  German,  Belgian,  and  French  bishops 
have  expressed  their  joyful  approbation  of  the  archbishop's  course,  and 
joined  with  him  in  directing  that  solemn  prayers  should  be  offered  up  in 
their  churches  against  the  persecutors  of  the  Church. 

§  476.     The  Swiss. 

L.  SneU,  C.  W.  Gl&ck,  u.  A.  Henne,  pragm.  Erzahl.  d.  kirehL  Ereign.  in  <L  kath.  Schw.  Mannh. 
1850s.  2  vols.— Die  rom.  Curie  u.  d.  kirchl.  Wirren  <L  Schw.  Offenb.  1841.  Die  Schweizer  Jesuiten- 
fra-e  ia  stoats-  u.  volkerrechtl.  Bedeut  (Schwegler,  Jahrb.  1845.  H.  8.)  Gesch.  d.  Jesuitenkampfes  in 
d.  Schweiz.  Zur.  1845.-Tub.  Quartalsehr.  1835.  P.  4.  F.  Ilurter,  d.  Befeindung  d.  katb.  K.  in  d. 

Scbw.  s.  1831.  Schaffh.  1842s.  4  Abth. 

According  to  ancient  usage,  the  Swiss  had  a  metropolitan  connection, 
some  with  Besanqon,  and  others  with  Mentz,  and  of  course  sympathized  with 
these  churches  in  their  tendencies  to  freedom.  The  connection  of  the  former 
portion  in  the  western  part  of  Switzerland  with  the  Gallican  Church,  was 

a)  Orlg.  Docc. :  D.  A.  Z.  1853.  N.  258.  268.  273.  279.    Append.  280.  803.    A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  ISft* 
"&)  "Katbolikcn.vhabt  achtl1' 
c)  Allocution  of  Dec.  19 :  D.  A,  Z.  1854.  N.  5. 


646  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  I64S-18N» 

broken  off  by  the  revolution.  The  most  important  part  of  the  confederacy 
belonged  to  the  bishopric  of  Constance,  and  had  received  from  that  source 
not  only  an  economical  administration  of  their  affairs,  but  protection  against 
the  claims  of  the  nuncio  at  Lucerne.  The  people  in  this  part  were  now  en- 
joying much  prosperity  under  the  influence  which  Wessenburg  exerted  for 
the  improvement  of  the  people  and  the  clergy.  Hence,  when  a  political 
reaction  took  place  in  1814,  the  nuncio  thought  a  favorable  time  had  como 
for  effecting  a  separation  of  Switzerland  from  Constance.  Pleased  with  the 
promise  of  an  independent  national  diocese,  the  Confederates  applied  for  a 
division  at  Rome,  and  in  violation  of  every  canonical  form,  Pirn  VII.  hastily 
rent  asunder  a  connection  which  had  existed  for  a  thousand  years,  (a)  As 
almost  every  canton  was  anxious  to  have  the  national  bishopric  within  its 
bounds,  and  hopes  were  secretly  encouraged  in  each,  the  administration  of 
ecclesiastical  affairs.came  into  the  hands  of  a  vicar-general  appointed  by  the 
pope,  the  Jesuits  got  the  control  of  all  education  in  Freiburg  and  in  the 
Valais,  and  Switzerland  became  the  headquarters  of  the  hierarchy.  Keller 
of  Lucerne,  who  about  this  time  swore  that  this  party  should  never  obtain 
the  victory  as  long  as  he  continued  a  magistrate,  was  soon  after  found  dead 
in  the  waters  of  the  Reuss  (1816).  After  tedious  intrigues,  it  was  decided 
that  a  few  small  dioceses  should  in  some  instances  be  continued,  and  in  oth- 
ers be  newly  formed  (1828) ;  and  all  of  them,  instead  of  being  placed  under 
an  archbishop,  were  made  directly  dependent  upon  Rome.  This  victory  soon 
became  of  but  little  importance,  in  consequence  of  the  revolution  of  1830. 
In  the  midst  of  many  controversies  between  the  lay  and  the  clerical  author- 
ities, the  cantons  of  the  progressive  party  united  at  Baden  (1834s.),  to  effect 
by  common  measures  the  establishment  of  a  national  archbishopric,  or  tho 
formation  of  a  German  Metropolitan  connection,  a  powerful  supervision  of 
the  Church  by  the  state,  a  free  national  education,  and  tho  appropriation  of 
the  aid  of  the  convents  to  pious  objects  of  general  utility.  (J)  Gregory  XVI. 
condemned  these  articles  adopted  by  the  conference  as  an  attempt  to  subject 
the  Church  to  the  laity ;  (c)  the  nuncio  withdrew  from  Lucerne,  and  took  up 
his  residence  at  Schwitz  (Nov.  14,  1885),  and  Catholic  associations  excited 
the  people  against  the  new  constitution  of  the  state.  But  the  Roman  party 
found  in  the  decided  popular  will  which  had  been  awakened  by  this  agency 
among  the  Catholic  or  mixed  cantons,  a  pious  but  rude  sovereign,  while  in 
the  overthrown  aristocracy  of  the  reformed  cantons  they  found  an  important 
ally.  The  Catholic  insurrection  in  Pruntrut  (1835)  was  suppressed  by  Berne. 
The  Catholic  clergy  in  Glarus  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
new  constitution,  except  with  a  reservation  in  favor  of  their  ecclesiastical 
obligations,  which  was  finally  allowed  to  them  (1837).  (d)  St.  Gall  unani- 
mously abolished  the  convent  of  Pfaefer  (1838),  the  Catholic  population 
merely  insisting  that  the  property  of  the  convent  belonged  exclusively  to 
their  charitable  institutions,  (e)  Aargau  undertook  the  administration  of  the 
property  of  its  convents ;  and  when  the  convents  protested  against  such  a 

o)  Archiv.  t  KG.  vol.  II.  p.  651  ss.         1)  Acts  hist  ecc.  1885.  p.  43ss. 

c)  Ibid.  p.  8ss.         d)  Ibid.  1887.  p.  125ss. 

«)  A,  KZ.  1833.  N.  45.  A.  Z.1838.  Suppl.  N.  217.  Erl.  A.  KZ.  1S39.  N.  101. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATII.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  476.  SWITZ.    SONDEEBUND.       G47 

course  as  an  injury  to  themselves,  the  government  replied  that  this  was 
apparently  the  first  step  for  the  aholition  of  convents  which  had  heen  guaran- 
tied in  the  treaty  of  the  league  (1837).  (/)  But  an  insurrection  of  the 
Catholic  minority,  in  opposition  to  the  constitution  revised  so  as  to  make  it 
conform  to  the  views  expressed  in  the  articles  of  conference,  was  made  use 
of  as  a  reason  for  taking  possession,  by  a  decree  of  the  great  council  (Jan. 
20,  1841),  of  eight  convents,  especially  of  the  wealthy  monastery  of  Muri, 
which  had  been  founded  by  the  house  of  Hapsburg.  It  was  alleged  that 
these  convents  were  used  as  places  of  rendezvous  for  those  who  were  en- 
gaged in  insurrection,  and  their  revenues  were  now  appropriated  to  objects 
connected  with  education  and  charity,  (g}  The  complaint  and  petition  for 
the  re-establishment  of  the  convents  was  under  discussion  for  a  long  time  in 
the  diet  with  doubtful  success,  until  more  than  twelve  cantons  declared 
themselves  satisfied  with  the  concessions  made  by  Aargau  for  the  establish- 
ment of  three  nunneries  (Aug.  31,  1843).  On  the  other  hand,  Lucerne,  at 
the  head  of  those  cantons  favorable  to  Rome,  protested  against  them,  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  an  infraction  of  the  terms  of  the  league.  Qi)  For  in 
Lucerne,  at  the  revision  of  the  constitution,  the  Eomish  party,  under  the 
influence  of  the  robbery  of  the  convents  of  Aargau,  had  obtained  the  as- 
cendency (May  1,  1841),  and  the  nuncio  returned  with  great  pomp  (Jan.  22, 
1843).  Switzerland  was  now  divided  into  two  hostile  parties,  distinguished 
by  their  apparently  external,  though  really  internal  affinities  and  antipathies 
of  Jesuitism  and  Radicalism.  In  the  Valais,  the  liberals  were  overthrown  at 
Trent  (May  1,  1844)  in  a  sanguinary  battle  by  the  sacerdotal  party,  and  the 
affairs  of  the  canton  were  then  directed  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  vic- 
tors, (i)  In  Lucerne,  also,  a  majority  of  votes  was  obtained  by  means  of  the 
country  people,  in  favor  of  a  recall  of  the  Jesuits,  and  intrusting  the  theo- 
logical schools  to  their  instruction.  (&)  The  party  which  had  previously  held 
the  supremacy,  was  now  supported  by  the  voluntary  assistance  of  those 
Catholics  who  were  of  the  same  views,  and  by  Protestants  from  all  the  can- 
tons. This  undisciplined  host  of  volunteers,  which  attempted  to  wrest  Lu- 
cerne from  the  possession  of  the  Jesuits  by  a  single  blow,  were  entirely  dis- 
persed (Dec.  8,  1844,  March  31,  1845)  by  the  army  of  the  original  cantons, 
and  all  domestic  opposition  was  overthrown.  (I)  In  view  of  this  victory,  as 
well  as  of  the  dangers  which  threatened  them,  Lucerne  immediately  con- 
cluded a  military  alliance  with  the  three  original  cantons,  and  with  Valais, 
Freiburg,  and  Zug,  for  mutual  protection  against  invasion  or  internal  commo- 
tion, and  the  allies  then  demanded  in  a  threatening  irianner  the  restoration 
of  the  convents  of  Aargau.  (m)  The  liberal  party  demanded  the  general 


/)  A  eta  hist  ecc.  1837.  p.  lS7ss. 

g)  Die  Auf  hebung  d.  Aarg.  Kloster.  Denkschr.  an  d.  Eidgeniiss.  Stande.  Aarau,  1841.  4  (Eheinw. 
Hep.  vol.  XXXIII.  p.  170.  264?s.)  Brl.  KZ.  1841.  N.  14. 

7i)  Ibid.  1848.  N.  103.  A.  Z.  1843.  N.  173.  247.  297.  884. 

t)  Die  Ereignisse  im  Wall.  Transl.  of  the  work:  la  contre-rcvol.  en  Valais,  by  M.  Harmann,  with 
Introd.  by  L.  Snell,  Zur.  1844.  (a  partisan  publ.) 

k)  Brl.  KZ.  1844.  N.  93. 1846.  N.  1. 

1)  D.  A.  Z.  1844.  N.  852.  Brl.  KZ.  1845.  N.  31.  Das  rothe  Buchlein  o.  d.  Freischaarenzug  Bern, 
1815.  in)  D.  A.  Z.  1846.  N.  27. 


548  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  as  indispensable  to  the  tranquillity  of  the  Confed- 
eracy, and  after  many  negotiations,  the  diet  declared  (July  20,  1847)  by  p 
small  majority  that  the  separate  alliance  (Sonderbund)  was  inconsistent  with 
the  general  confederation,  and  was  therefore  dissolved,  and  that  the  seven  can- 
tons should  be  held  responsible  for  its  continuance,  (n)  To  this  division  into  re- 
ligious parties  was  added,  on  the  one  side,  a  struggle  for  a  more  efficient  unity 
of  the  states,  and  on  the  other,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  sovereign  rights 
of  the  separate  cantons.  Pius  IX.  still  exhorted  them  to  the  cultivation  of 
peace,  (o)  but  he  did  not  venture  on  the  recall  of  the  Jesuits  as  the  measure 
most  likely  to  reconcile  all  parties,  but  it  appeared  probable  that  a  decision 
could  bo  attained  only  by  a  civil  and  religious  war.  A  superior  army  was 
called  into  the  field  by  the  diet,  and  the  miraculous  pennies  purchased  from 
the  Jesuits  to  secure  the  immediate  protection  of  the  Virgin  against  the  bul- 
lets of  the  enemy,  (p)  were  found  insufficient.  The  foreign  aid  was  too 
scanty ;  Freiburg  capitulated ;  the  small  affair  near  Gislicon  (Nov.  23)  be- 
came as  important  for  the  Protestants  as  that  at  Cappel  once  was  for  the 
opposite  party,  and  all  the  cantons  were  obliged  to  renounce  the  Sonderbund, 
and  submit  to  the  diet.  The  Jesuits  universally  had  fled,  and  from  the  pro- 
perty they  left,  the  conquered  cantons  paid  a  part  of  their  quota  for  the 
expenses  of  the  war.  (7)  These  events  produced  an  important  change  in  the 
administration,  for  in  Lucerne,  in  consequence  of  a  revolution  in  public  sen- 
timent, the  party  which  had  for  years  been  trampled  under  foot  now  gained 
the  ascendency,  and  in  Freiburg,  the  faction  which  had  long  governed  merely 
by  tlie  aid  of  foreign  arms,-was  now  obliged  to  defend  itself  against  a  series 
of  revolutionary  attempts.  In  1848,  Switzerland  availed  itself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity, when  Austria  and  France  had  enough  to  do  at  home,  to  form  itself 
into  a  confederacy.  In  the  new  constitution,  was  secured  liberty  of  con- 
science for  all  the  confessions  recognized  by  the  state,  and  equal  rights  for  all 
citizens ;  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  was  excluded  from  the  country,  and  every 
governmental  guarantee  for  the  monasteries  was  withdrawn,  (r)  The  federal 
authorities,  by  a  special  law  respecting  mixed  marriages  (1850),  have  entirely 
divested  them  of  ecclesiastical  restrictions,  have  made  the  education  of  the 
children  dependent  upon  the  will  of  the  father,  and  in  every  instance  have 
permitted  a  Protestant  clergyman  to  solemnize  a  marriage,  when  a  Catholic 
priest  has  refused  to  do  so.  («)  In  many  cantons,  monasteries  have  been 
either  abolished,  or  condemned  to  die  by  a  gradual  process.  Freiburg,  in 
connection  with  the  four  cantons  in  its  diocese  (Lausanne),  concluded  a  con- 
cordat containing  the  essential  principles  of  the  articles  of  the  Conference 
of  Baden,  (t)  The  Bishop  Marilley  sent  forth  secret  and  public  admonitions 
against  the  new  constitution.  When  asked  if  he  would  unconditionally  sub- 
ject himself  to  it,  and  submit  his  public  acts  to  the  approbation  of  the  gov- 
ernment, he  replied  that  he  would  prefer  death  to  such  a  servitude.  Chillon 
became  once  more  the  prison  of  an  illustrious  captive  (Oct.  29,  1848),  who. 

«)  D.  A.  Z.  1845.  N.  87.  1847.  N.  208.  252.  297.  299. 

o)  Ibid.  1847.  N.  808.         p)  Ibid.  1847.  N.  850. 

g)  Ibid.  N.  844.          r)  Art  44-48.  58. 

e)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  83.  but  coinp.  1851.  N.  39.         0  Ibid.  1848.  N.  86. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATE.  CHUECH  TILL  1S53.    §  4T7.  IKELAND.  649 

however,  soon  exchanged  his  confinement  for  banishment,  (w)  The  holy 
father  wept  with  him,  (»  appealed  to  the  federal  law  with  respect  to  freedom 
of  conscience,  to  justify  his  attempt  to  secure  the  independence  of  his  clergy, 
and  protested  against  all  aggressions  since  1847  upon  the  rights  of  the 
Church,  (w)  For  the  sake  of  a  general  reconciliation,  the  Bishop  of  Basle 
recommended  what  had  also  been  proposed  in  a  popular  society,  that  the 
remainder  of  the  debt  for  the  war  of  the  Sonderbund  should  be  paid  by  a 
voluntary  offering,  (x) 

§  477.    Ireland  and  England. 

Irische  Zusttinde.  (Eheinw.  Eep.  vol.  XIII.  p.  263ss.  XIV,  6Sss.)  F.  H(urter\  IrL  Zustand.  (Tub. 
Quartalsch.  1840.  H.  4.)  E.  F.  Vogel,  pragm.  Gesch.  d.  pol.  u.  rel  Verb.  zw.  EngL  u.  Irl.  Lps.  1S42. 
R.  Murray,  Irel.  and  her  Church.  Lend.  ed.  8.  1845.  3  vols. — 0.  Mejer,  d.  Propaganda  in  EngL 
1S51.— G.  de  Beaumont,  1'Irland  sociale,  politique  et  religieuse.  Par.  1839.  2  vols.  [Ireland,  from  the 
French  of  Beaumont  by  Taylor,  Lond.  1840.  2  vols.]— Ji  G.  KoU,  [Travels  in  Ireland,  from  the 
Germ.  New  York.  1S44.  8.  F.  v.  Itaumer,  Engl  in  1835.  in  Letters  from  the  Germ.  Lond.  1836.  8.] 

The  iniquity  of  the  fathers  had  descended  in  the  form  of  a  curse  of  mis- 
ery and  hatred  to  the  sons  both  of  the  spoilers  and  the  spoiled.  The  im- 
portance of  reconciling  seven  millions  of  its  subjects  to  the  state  under  which 
they  lived,  was  fully  acknowledged  by  the  government.  But  the  first  attempt 
which  it  made  to  relieve  them  of  their  burdens,  led  to  an  insurrection  in 
London  (1780).  Every  mitigation  of  then*  lot  was  obliged  to  be  carried 
through  Parliament  with  the  utmost  difficulty,  in  opposition  to  the  selfishness 
of  the  privileged  classes,  and  the  passions  of  the  Protestant  multitude.  The 
Irish  people  were  under  the  direction  of  O^Connell  (1809-47),  a  demagogue, 
but  one  who  aimed  at  what  was  indispensable.  By  the  aid  of  the  priests,  he 
kept  the  people  in  a  state  of  tremendous  excitement,  which  he  alone  could 
restrain  within  the  bounds  of  the  law.  The  spirit  of  justice  finally  obtained 
the  victory  in  the  bosoms  of  the  English  nation,  while  the  aristocracy  were 
alarmed  at  the  threatening  state  of  despair  in  which  they  beheld  the  Irish 
people.  Constrained  by  this  necessity,  Wellington  was  able  and  was  obliged 
to  accomplish  what  even  Canning  could  not  effect  with  all  the  magic  of  his 
eloquence  in  behalf  of  universal  freedom.  An  act  of  Parliament,  passed  April 
13th,  1829,  presented  a  citizen's  oath  compatible  with  the  Catholic  faith,  by  tak- 
ing which,  every  Catholic  became  eligible  to  a  seat  in  Parliament,  and  with  few 
exceptions  to  all  offices  in  the  state  and  parish,  (a)  But  a  people  who  lived 
as  tenants  in  their  own  country,  with  a  foreign  hierarchy  and  aristocracy, 
and  in  terror  of  starvation  every  winter,  could  see  only  a  distant  hope  in 
concessions  like  this.  "When  they  found  the  fulfilment  of  this  hope  still  de- 
layed, the  whole  nation  entered  into  an  open  conspiracy  (1831),  the  tithes 
were  refused,  and  whoever  dared  to  act  contrary  to  the  known  will  of  the 
people,  was  secretly  tried  and  executed.  The  expense  of  collecting  the  tithes 
was  greater  than  they  were  worth.  The  government  received  extraordinary 

it)  Snell,  vol.  II.  2.  p.  509ss.  Per  Terrorismns  im  K.  Freib.  (Hist,  poL  Bll.  1853.  vol.  XXXL  p. 
T45ss.)  «)  Brl.  KZ.  1849.  N.  18. 

w)  Ibid.  1848.  N.  86. 103. 1851.  N.  23.         x)  Ibid.  1852.  N.  20. 

a)  Wyse,  Hist  of  the  late  Cath.  Assoc.  Lond.  1829.  2  vols.  A.  Tfieiner,  Sainml.  \vicht  Actenst. 
z.  Gesch.  d.  Emanc.  d.  Kath.  in  Engl.  Mayence,  1835. 


650  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1648-1S5S. 

powers  from  Parliament  (1833)  for  putting  down  these  violent  proceedings, 
and  proposed  to  reform  the  Protestant  Church  of  Ireland.  The  changes  con- 
templated in  this  reform,  were :  the  abolition  of  taxes  for  the  erection  of 
churches ;  the  transfer  of  the  tithes,  with  an  abatement  of  their  amount, 
from  the  tenant  to  the  proprietor ;  the  diminution  of  the  number  of  thf» 
bishoprics ;  a  tax  upon  all  livings  according  to  their  value,  and  the  abroga 
tion  of  all  sinecures.  (&)  In  the  House  of  Lords,  however,  the  inviolability 
of  the  property  of  the  Church  was  resolutely  maintained.  The  cause  of  freo 
dom  in  general  became  identified  with  that  of  justice  for  Ireland.  The  lib- 
eral ministry  was  divided  upon  the  proposition  (May  27th,  1834)  to  apply  the 
surplus  of  ecclesiastical  property  to  objects  of  general  utility  in  the  state, 
under  the  direction  of  Parliament  (c)  Even  the  Tory  ministry  under  Sir 
Robert  Peel  acknowledged  the  necessity  of  a  reform,  but  contended  that  it 
should  be  without  depriving  the  Church  of  its  property.  The  tithes  were 
again  collected  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  and  the  only  son  of  a  widow  was 
shot  down  (Dec.,  1834).  (d)  The  Peel  ministry  retired,  and  then  Russell  carried 
a  proposition  in  the  lower  House  (April  7th,  1836),  (e)  which  required  that  all 
ecclesiastical  property  not  really  needed  for  the  support  of  the  established 
Church,  should  bo  applied  to  the  education  of  the  people.  This  principle  of 
appropriation  was  rejected  in  the  upper  House  as  a  robbery  of  the  altar,  and 
a  commencement  of  the  work  of  destroying  the  establishment.  When  the 
Irish  Church  Bill  was  returned  to  the  lower  House,  it  was  so  mutilated,  that 
this  body  preferred  to  leave  every  thing  in  an  alarming  uncertainty  to 
attempting  any  change  then  practicable  (Aug.,  1836).  (/)  Lord  Lyndhurst 
wished  to  know  nothing  of  justice  in  behalf  of  aliens  in  faith,  in  blood,  and 
in  manners.  (?)  The  tithe  bill  was  finally  passed  (Aug.,  1888),  without  tho 
clause  for  the  appropriation  of  the  surplus.  It  transferred  the  tithes  in  tho 
form  of  a  ground  rent,  with  an  abatement  of  25  per  cent.,  to  the  proprietor 
of  the  soil,  and  the  previous  arrears  were  to  be  paid  from  the  treasury  of  tho 
state.  (/<)  Even  O'Connell  advocated  this  law,  although  it  was  merely  an 
adjournment  of  the  question  respecting  the  existence  of  a  Protestant  Church 
supported  by  a  Catholic  people.  To  assist  the  people  in  the  work  of  deliver- 
ance by  their  own  exertions,  the  Dominican  Father  Matthew  (since  1840)  has 
excited  a  prodigious  enthusiasm  in  favor  of  total  abstinence  from  all  intoxi- 
cating drinks,  (0  and  during  the  spring  of  1843,  O'Connell  was  able  to  collect 
around  himself  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people,  at  what  he  called  his  mon- 
ster meetings.  The  object  of  these  assemblies  was  to  demand  justice  for 
Ireland,  with  threats  that  if  this  were  denied  them,  the  union  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  the  two  countries  should  be  legally  dissolved,  and  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons  should  be  thrown  off  (repeal).  For  language  used  on  these 
occasions,  he  was  sent  to  prison  by  the  House  of  Lords,  but  Ireland  was  no 
less  governed  by  him  in  his  confinement  than  before.  The  ministry  of  Sir 

I)  A.  KZ.  1883.  N.  88.  48.  A.  Z.  1834.  N.  220.  229. 
c)  A.  Z.  1834.  N.  155.         d)  A.  Z.  1835.  N.  4.  Suppl.  N.  9. 
e)  A.  Z.  1883.  N.  110s. 

/}  A.  Z.  1835.  N.  245. 1836.  N.  228.  A.  KZ.  1836.  N.  136.         0)  A.  Z.  1S36.  Suppl.  N.  877. 
A)  A.  Z.  1883.  N.  191.  199.  206.  208.  212.  232. 
i)  Brl.  KZ.  1340.  N.  4.  16.  A.  Z.  1843.  Supplem.  N.  143s. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  477.  IEELAND  &  ENGLAND.       65 1 

Robert  Peel  introduced  the  Legacy  Bill,  which  allowed  the  Catholic  Church, 
with  the  exception  of  the  monastic  orders,  to  acquire  property  in  its  own 
name,  (&)  and  carried  through  an  act  for  bestowing  a  splendid  endowment 
on  the  seminary  at  Maynooth,  for  the  education  of  the  Catholic  clergy 
(1845).  (I)  A  system  of  common  schools  supported  by  government,  but  care- 
fully avoiding  all  distinction  of  churches,  had  been  some  time  before  (1834) 
established,  and  now  four  royal  colleges  were  founded  by  Parliament  (1847) 
for  higher  education,  but  no  provision  was  made  for  religious  instruction, 
each  sect  being  left  to  secure  its  own  foundation  for  that  purpose  by  volun- 
tary efforts.  The  opinions  of  the  Irish  episcopacy  were  divided  respecting 
these  schools,  but  the  Archbishop  of  Tuam  excited  the  prejudices  of  the 
pope  against  them  on  account  of  their  destitution  of  religion,  and  they  were 
rejected  (1851).  (m)  Even  the  proposition  of  the  government,  after  having 
abolished  the  last  of  the  old  penal  laws  against  Catholic  worship,  (n~)  to  grant 
a  salary  to  their  prelates,  on  condition  that  it  should  have  a  right  to  an  influ- 
ence in  their  election,  was  declined.  Emigration  to  the  New  World  since 
the  last  famine  has  entirely  removed  the  surplus  population  from  the  coun- 
try. The  real  estate  of  the  great  landholders,  which  had  been  brought  to  a 
public  sale  in  consequence  of  enormous  poor  rates,  came  to  a  considerable 
extent  into  the  hands  of  a  Protestant  middle  class.  A  mission  of  a  hundred 
preachers,  belonging  to  different  Protestant  sects  from  London,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1853,  and  preaching  in  the  streets  as  in  a  heathen  country,  wa.s  the 
occasion  of  more  offence  than  of  edification  to  the  people.  (0)  But  some  per- 
manent missions  have  labored  during  the  last  ten  years  with  no  inconsidera- 
ble success,  by  scriptural  instruction  from  house  to  house,  by  the  distribution 
of  tracts,  and  by  schools  in  different  sections  of  the  country ;  although,  in 
consequence  of  their  supply  of  food  and  work  to  a  hungry  people,  the  con- 
verts were  stigmatized  as  soup-eaters  by  the  Catholic  population,  and  many, 
whose  consciences  had  not  been  carried,  returned  after  a  plentiful  harvest,  or 
when  dying,  to  the  Church  of  their  fathers,  (p)  The  hopes  of  the  Catholics 
in  England  were  much  awakened  in  consequence  of  the  ecclesiastical  stand- 
ing of  some  Puseyites  who  went  over  to  them,  and  the  popular  basis  supplied 
by  immigrants  from  Ireland,  for  the  number  of  these  converts  was  for  oppo- 
site reasons  much  exaggerated  by  Protestant  and  Catholic  public  journals. 
Belying  upon  such  hopes,  Pius  IX.  once  more  took  possession,  as  it  were,  of 
this  lost  territory,  by  appointing,  instead  of  the  four  apostolical  vicariates 
which  had  previously  governed  the  English  Catholics,  a  complete  episcopal 
hierarchy  for  all  England  (Sept.  29,  1850),  under  Cardinal  Wiseman,  the 
learned  and  ingenious  defender  of  his  Church,  as  the  Archbishop  of  "West- 
minster, (</)  and  contributions  were  invited  for  the  erection  of  a  splendid 
church  of  St.  Peter  in  the  very  heart  of  London,  (r)  Parliament  could  not 
but  yield  to  the  indignation  of  the  Protestant  community  produced  by  this 

K)  D.  A.  Z.  1845.  N.  11. 14.         t)  A.  KZ.  1S45.  N.  82. 
m)  A,  D.  Z.  1847.  N.  809.    Synod  of  Thurles:  Brl.  KZ.  1S50.  N.  80.  85. 
ri)  Brl.  KZ.  1847.  N.  23.         0)  A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  164. 

p)  Against  one-sided  Prot.  accounts,  but  still  not  less  one-sided  itself:  Hist  pol.  Bll.  1S53.  vcl 
XXXII.  II.  6.  comp.  Ev.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  92.  Brl.  KZ.  1853.  N.  10. 
q)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  90.  r)  Ibid.  1851.  N.  55. 


652  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORT.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1648-L858L 

proceeding,  («)  but  it  was  difficult  to  devise  any  legal  measure  against  tin 
papal  aggression  which  would  not  apply  equally  to  Ireland.  After  a  pro- 
tracted contest,  however,  the  matter  was  terminated  by  the  adoption  of  Rus- 
sell's proposition  (1851),  providing  that  all  papal  edicts,  and  all  jurisdictions, 
rank  or  titles  created  by  them  in  the  United  Kingdom,  should  be  null  and 
void ;  that  every  person  who,  without  legal  authority,  accepted  of  any  eccle- 
siastical title  derived  from  the  name  of  any  place  in  the  kingdom,  should  bo 
fined  one  hundred  pounds  for  every  instance  in  which  he  should  make  use  of 
it,  and  that  complaints  might  bo  received  from  any  private  individual  with 
respect  to  offences  of  this  nature,  (t)  A  serious  difficulty,  however,  appears 
to  have  been  discovered  in  the  way  of  substantiating  such  a  charge,  (u) 

§  478.    Form$  of  Catholicism. 

The  special  friends  of  the  Roman  Curia  and  of  the  bishops  have  become 
more  decidedly  opposed  to  one  another,  under  the  name  of  Ultramontanists 
and  Liberals.  The  former  defend  the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  and  the  im- 
possibility of  improving  the  Church,  by  planting  themselves  on  the  ground 
of  established  usages,  and  of  the  necessity  of  an  external  universal  authority. 
This  Itomith  Catholicism  was  not  long  since  popular  among  the  lower  classes 
in  Spain,  and  was  there  embraced  with  all  the  earnestness  and  energy  of  the 
national  character.  But  in  consequence  of  the  festivals  of  the  inquisition, 
and  the  political  parties  of  the  day,  it  there  assumed  a  gloomy  and  passion- 
ate character.  It  appeared  in  the  most  harmless  form,  until  the  revolution,  in 
Italy,  especially  in  the  south,  where  even  the  personal  ridicule  heaped  upon 
the  hierarchy,  and  the  more  dangerous  opposition  of  the  commercial  inter- 
ests, were  not  generally  prejudicial  to  the  ecclesiastical  system.  The  sensu- 
ous form  of  a  system  of  saint-worship  was  there  a  matter  of  necessity. 
Illuminations,  rockets,  and  the  roar  of  cannons,  form  necessary  parts  of 
divine  worship,  and  the  miracles  must  annually  be  repeated  at  the  joyful 
festivals.  The  Epistle  of  the  Virgin  Mary  to  the  people  of  Messina  must  be 
read,  (a)  the  domestic  animals  must  be  sprinkled  with  holy  water  under  the 
direction  of  St.  Anthony,  (b)  and  the  lambs  from  whose  wool  the  pallium  is 
woven,  must  receive  a  benediction  at  the  altar  of  St.  Agnes.  Every  thing  is 
there  connected  with  some  joyous  festival,  and  Mary's  tears  are  regarded  as 
at  least  equally  efficacious  in  the  work  of  atonement  with  the  blood  of 
Christ.  The  Church  has  not  done  much  for  the  intellectual  improvement  and 
morals  of  the  people,  but  it  has  kept  up  a  certain  kind  of  discipline,  pro- 
tected cheerful  and  pleasant  customs,  and  never  repressed  the  natural  talents 
of  this  highly  intellectual  people.  The  clergy,  with  their  officious  but  pleas- 
ant inefficiency,  are  only  the  culminating  points  of  the  popular  life,  and  as 
long  as  they  are  undisturbed,  they  are  kindly  disposed.  But  in  Germany  and 
France,  where  this  party,  as  a  peculior  section  of  Catholicism,  has  been  made 

«)  BrL  KZ.  1850.  N.  92a.  94.  lOla. 

0  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Act:   Brl.  KZ.  iS51.  N.  55.  u)  Ibii  N.  70. 

a)  Deutsche  Zettechr.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1852.  N.  49. 

b)  A.  KZ.  1828.  N.  192.    The  matter  was  pretty  much  as  It  is  there  related,  although  I  saw  notft 
tng  "blasphemous"  in  it. 


CHAP.  VI.  OATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1353.  §  478.  TJLTRAMONTANISTS.  LIBERALS.    653 

to  feel  that  the  spirit  of  the  times  is  fatal  to  its  interests,  it  has  come  int« 
conflict  with  every  kind  of  intellectual  freedom,  and  every  where  is  abhorred 
by  the  friends  of  liberty.  Hence  the  Ultramontanists  look  with  horror  upon 
all  universities,  the  freedom  of  the  press,  philosophical  studies,  and  the  read- 
ing of  the  Scriptures,  and  they  often  intentionally  encourage  superstition,  or 
at  least  mere  excitements  of  the  fancy,  (c)  In  consequence  of  old  traditions, 
much  impaired  however  by  modern  intelligence,  Bavaria  became  the  prin- 
cipal home  of  this  enthusiasm,  and  after  1838,  its  ministry  fell  completely  under 
its  sway.  The  mild  earnestness  of  the  dying  Bishop  Schwaebl,  and  of  the  king 
himself,  was  sometimes  indeed  aroused  against  the  rigid  Ultramontanism  of 
this  ministry,  when  its  zeal  against  every  thing  of  a  Protestant  nature  did 
violence  to  their  feelings,  but  it  was  not  till  184T  that  it  was  overthrown  by 
a  travelling  danseuse.  (d)  The  Liberals  possessed  much  influence  in  conse- 
quence of  the  education  which  the  clergy  of  Germany  received  at  universi- 
ties where  Protestants  and  Catholics  were  taught  together,  the  protection  of 
the  governments,  and  the  total  disinclination  of  the  spirit  of  the  age  to  all 
forms-  of  mental  slavery.  They  demanded  that  public  worship  should  be 
conducted  in  the  language  of  the  people ;  that  the  Scriptures  should  be  freely 
circulated ;  that  instead  of  inculcating  dependence  upon  mere  outward  forms, 
the  education  of  the  people  should  receive  a  spiritual  tendency ;  and  that 
national  churches  and  synods  might  be  so  constituted,  that  the  rights  of  the 
pope  might  remain  merely  honorary,  or  definitely  determined  by  the  consti- 
tution. Such  views  were  sometimes  expressed  only  in  literary  works,  and 
sometimes  through  petitions  and  associations.  From  Silesia,  they  generally 
came  connected  with  disclosures  of  all  kinds  of  abuses,  by  the  learned 
brothers  Theiner,  the  theologian  and  the  canonist.  (<?)  The  principal  object 
against  which  almost  every  kind  of  disposition  and  plan  was  directed,  was 
the  celibacy  of  the  clergy.  Petitions  for  its  abolition  have  been  presented  to 
the  episcopal  authorities  by  pastors  in  Silesia  (1826),  and  associations  have 
been  formed  against  it  in  Southern  Germany  (1830).  These  efforts,  however, 
have  been  sternly  repelled  by  the  bishops  and  by  the  government  of  Wurtem- 
berg.  (/)  The  chambers  of  Southern  Germany  (since  1824),  to  whom  ad- 
dresses on  this  subject  were  sent  up,  declared  that  they  had  no  jurisdiction 
in  the  case ;  until  finally  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  Baden  recommended  that, 
the  government  (1831)  should  addpt  suitable  measures  for  the  abolition  of  the 
law  relating  to  celibacy,  (g}  In  France,  priests  were  married  who  had  pre- 

c)  Miraculous  Medals :  Pflans,  d.  rel  L.  in  Frankr.  p.  222.     On  the  other  side :  Acts  hist  ecc. 
1837.  p.  314.    8.  Benedict's  pence:  D.  A.  Z.  184T.  N.  120.  comp.  §  480. 

d)  S.  Sugenheim,  Baierns  K.-  u.  Volks-Zustande,  Giess.  1842.  Brl.  KZ.  1841.  N.  22.  41.  47.  65. 
1S45.  N.  32.   D.  A.  Z.  1846.  N.  18.   A.  KZ.  1847.  N.  40. 

e)  H.  Amman,  Bestreb.  d.  Hochschnle  Freiburg  im  KEechte.  Freib.  1S82-6.  2  Beitr.    (Wessen- 
berg,)  Die  deutsche  K.  (Zur.)  1815.    Fetzer,  Deutschl.  u.  Rom.  Frkf.  1S30.    Kopp,  d.  kath.  K  im 
19.  Jhh.  Mentz.  1830.    Mersy,  sind  Reformen  in  d.  kath.  K.  nothwendig?  Beantw.  v.  d.  Pastoral- 
confer,  zu  Offenburg.  1832.  2  ed.  verm,  durch  Beleucht  des  darauf  erfolgten  Erlasses  des  erzb.  Ordi- 
nariats.  Offenb.  1833.    (Ant.  u,  Aug.  Tfoiner,)  Die  kath.  K.  Schles.  Altenb.  1826.  and  often,  comp. 
Ant.  Theiner,  ref.  Bestreb.  in  d.  kath.  K.  Altenb.  1846.  P.  2.  p.  66ss.— J.  B.  Hafen,  Mohler  n.  Wes- 
senb.  o.  Strengkirchlichk.  u.  Liberalism.  Ulm.  1842. 

f)  Erster  Sieg  des  Lichtes  u.  d.  Finsterniss.  Han.  1826.  Merkw.  Umlaufschr.  d.  Furstbisch.  v. 
Bresl.  Han.  1927.  Ueber  d.  Bildung  e.  Vereins  f.  d.  kirchl.  Anf heb.  d.  Cjlibatges.  Ulm.  1831.  A.  KZ, 
1831.  N.  70. 124. 174.  198.  (?)  A.  KZ.  1828.  N.  78. 103.-1831.  N.  174s.  181. 183. 1832.  N.  8. 14T. 


054  MODERN  CHUECn  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

viously  taken  the  vow.  The  French  courts  declared,  that  even  the  marriage, 
of  priests  who  had  given  up  the  duties  of  their  office  was  invalid,  (h)  The 
Liberals,  in  some  instances  as  Protestant  Catholics,  were  the  first  who  took 
part  in  Protestant  literature  and  science.  As  Fehronius  had  assailed  and 
shaken  the  fundamental  principles  of  ecclesiastical  law,  Blau  also  undermined 
the  principles  of  ecclesiastical  faith.  (»)  In  place  of  the  only  saving  Church, 
ho  wished  to  substitute  the  only  saving  religion  found  in  every  pious  heart.  (I) 
Others  labored  with  honest  intentions  in  behalf  of  Catholicism.  Instead  of 
the  religion  of  the  monks  and  the  virtues  of  the  saints,  Werkmeuter  (d.  1823), 
who  had  acquired  an  education  of  an  entirely  Protestant  character  in  the 
Benedictine  convent,  held  up  the  religion  of  the  gospel  and  the  moral  system 
which  Gellert  had  taught.  (/)  Ilirschtr  presented  the  simple  faith  of  the 
Bible,  in  contrast  with  the  scholastic  system  of  the  Church,  but  ho  submitted 
to  the  papal  judgment  upon  his  treatise  for  the  reconciliation  of  the  Catholic 
Church  with  the  science  of  the  present  day.  (m)  Hug  vied  with  the  Protes- 
tant theologians  in  ingenious  investigations  with  regard  to  the  canon  of  the 
New  Testament,  (n)  and  Scholz  turned  attention  once  more  to  the  manuscripts 
which  had  been  recently  obtained  from  Constantinople.  (0)  Occupying  an 
intermediate  position  between  the  Romish  and  the  Liberal  form  of  Catho- 
licism, inclining  sometimes  toward  the  first  and  sometimes  toward  the  latter, 
according  to  the  personal  preferences,  (/>)  the  position,  or  the  sincerity  of  tho 
individual,  an  Ideal  school  began  to  make  its  appearance,  which  pointed  out 
the  religious  ideas  involved  in  the  Catholic  dogmas  and  usages,  and  endeav- 
ored to  reconcile  Catholicism  with  modern  science  and  improvements.  (?)  It 
proceeded  from  France  in  the  form  of  a  poetic  and  artistic  glorification  of 
the  Church  (§  444).  German  philosophy  was,  sometimes  in  the  spirit  of 
faith,  and  sometimes  in  the  allegorical  strain,  incorporated  with  the  Catholic 
doctrines,  (r)  Qdrres  (b.  1776),  who  possessed  powerful  original  talents,  and 
united  with  them  a  poetical  and  philosophical  temperament,  attempted,  with- 
out regard  to  historical  truth,  once  more  to  conjure  up  the  spirits  of  tho  mid- 
dle ages.  Wherever  a  thorough  theological  discipline  was  permitted,  this 
Catholicism  vindicated  itself  by  showing  what  the  Church  had  been  to  past 
nges,  and  what  it  always  may  be  to  the  human  mind.  In  Germany,  this  ten- 


h)  A.  KZ.  1829.  N.  13.  83. 183.  1833.  N.  44.  65. 

f)  Kritische  Gesch.  d.  kirchL  Unfehlbarkelt  Frkl  1791. 

k)  (KMer,}  Katholikon.  Fur  alle  untcr  jeder  Form  das  Eine.  8  ed.  Aarau.  1S82. 

0  An  d  unbeschcidencn  Verehrer  d.  Heiligen,  bes.  Maria.  Ilanau.  1801.  Predigten.  Ulm.  1812ss. 
Svols. 

m)  Ue.  d.  Verb.  d.  Ev.  zu  d.  tbeoL  Scholastik.  Tub.  1823.  Die  kircblicben  Zustande  d.  Gegcnw. 
Tab.  1849.  8  ed.  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  16. 

n)  Einl.  in  d.  Schrr.  d.  N.  T.  Stuttg.  n.  Tub.  (1808-21.)  1826.  2  vols. 

o)  Gesch.  d.  Textes  d.  N.  T.  Lps.  182a   N.  T.  gr.  Lps.  1830-5.  2  Th.  4. 

p)  Tzschirner,  Briefe  Q.  Eel.  u.  Politik.  Lps.  1828.  KdJder,  Beitr.  z.  d.  Versuchen,  den  Kath.  zu 
idcalisiren.  Kngsb.  1828.  A.  KZ.  1832.  N.  155. 

q)  P.  B.  Zimmer,  pbiL  Eeligionsl  Landsb.  1805.  G.  M.  Klein,  Darst  d.  pbil.  Eel.  u.  Sittenl. 
Barab.  1818.  F.  Baader,  specuL  Dogmat  Stuttg.  1828ss.  2  P.  F.  A.  Staudenmaier,  Encykl.  d. 
tbeoL  Wiss.  Mentz.  1834.  \J.  A.  MoMer,  Symbolism,  or  Expos,  of  tbe  Doct  Differences  between 
Protestants  and  Catholics.  Lond.  8vo.] 

r)  Page  56.  &  111.    Symbolik.  Mayence.  1832.  ed.  4  1835.    Tub.  Quartalscb.  1838.  H.  8. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHUKCH  TILL  1853.    §  4T8.  IDEAL  SCHOOL.  655 

dency  was  represented  by  Hoelilcr  (1796-1838),  who  had  been  aroused  by 
Schleiermacher,  and  at  one  time  had  been  pervaded  by  enthusiasm  in  behalf 
of  free  investigation,  but  gradually  he  had  been  mastered  by  the  majesty  of 
his  Church,  and  now  infused  a  confiding  spirit  once  more  into  the  department 
of  science.  In  France,  since  Lamennais  has  retired  from  the  public  scene, 
its  principal  representative  has  been  Bantam,  who  learned  to  distrust  his 
reason  in  the  school  of  Kant,  until  he  was  prepared  to  surrender  himself  to 
the  direction  of  the  Scriptures  and  of  ecclesiastical  tradition,  the  infinite 
nature  of  whose  principles  was  unfolded  and  evinced  by  their  power  in  the 
human  heart.  In  opposition  to  him,  the  Bishop  of  Strasburg  defended  simply 
scholastic  reason  (since  1834).  (s)  Gunther  wished  to  substitute  for  the  hea- 
thenish philosophy  of  the  scholastics  and  the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  a  Chris- 
tian philosophy,  whose  mystical  and  profound  spirit  would  play  about  its 
rational  nature  in  the  manner  of  Jacob  Boehme,  like  an  aurora  borealis  or 
an  ignis  fatuus,  and  might  be  regarded  as  the  equal  sister  of  the  system  of 
faith  found  in  those  established  doctrines  of  the  Church  which  always  ap- 
proach nearest  to  the  truth.  But  this  "  Romish  Court  Philosophy"  of  Treves 
was  forbidden  by  an  order  from  Rome  (1852),  and  was  threatened  by  German 
denunciations  from  the  same  quarter,  (t)  The  same  disposition  and  views 
which  originated  and  sustained  an  old  orthodoxy  in  the  Protestant  Church, 
were  here  also  favorable  to  the  Roman  Jesuitic  Catholicism ;  and  now  when 
the  hierarchy,  with  its  extensive  possessions,  had  lost  also  its  splendid  posi- 
tion, it  received,  instead  of 'the  distinguished  worldly  prelates  it  formerly  pos- 
sessed, and  who  often  opposed  the  pope,  were  very  independent,  and  were 
restrained  only  by  their  political  position,  a  class  of  bishops  whose  personal 
characters  were  eminent,  who  were  entirely  dependent  upon  Rome,  and  who 
used  the  unbroken  power  of  the  episcopacy  to  educate  a  clergy  of  a  similar 
spirit.  The  literary  conflicts  of  these  three  parties  were  especially  exhibited 
in  the  German  periodicals,  (11)  since  in  countries  where  every  Church  was 
protected  by  law,  the  privileges  of  the  Catholic  Church  were  sufficiently 
upheld  by  a  censorship  of  the  press  and  deposition  from  office.  Rome  did 
not  prove  itself  the  seat  of  any  very  extraordinary  theological  learning,  and 
wherever  it  allowed  itself  to  be  drawn  into  literary  controversy,  it  interfered 
by  means  of  rather  rough  weapons,  (v)  Still  even  the  pope  prohibited  only 
the  reading  of  certain  books,  and  exhorted  all  to  collect  their  energies  against 

s)  Bautain :  de  1'enseignement  de  la  phll.  en  France.  Strasb.  1833.  Phil  du  Christianisme.  Str. 
1S35.— Acta  hist  ecc.  1S35.  p.  305ss.  1837.  p.  68sa.  C.  F.  Junge,  L.  Baut  (Zeitschr.  £  hist  Th.  1837. 
vol.  VII.  p.  2.)  Brl.  KZ.  1S42.  N.  85. 

f)  A.  Gunther :  Vorschule  z.  spec.  Th.  Vien.  (lS28s.)  1848.  2  vols.  Der  letzte  Symboliker.  Vien. 
1834.  andPa&stf;  Januskopfe.  Vien.  1S34  and  Veith,  Phil.  Taschenb.  Vien.  1849s.— Oischinger,  d. 
chr.  PhiL  vertieidigt  Munich.  1853.  F.  J.  Clemens,  d.  spec.  Th.  Gunthers.  Colog.  1853.  Bit  KZ. 
1852.  N.  61. 

u)  1;  Kirchenfreundby  Benkert,  Athanasia,  d.  Katholik  by  Weis.  kath.  Lit  Z.  by  Kerz,  Luzerner 
KZ.,  Sion,  hist.  pol.  Blatter,  by  Philipps,  J.  Gorres,  J.  E.  Jorg,  deutsche  (Kolner)  Volkshalle.  2. 
Frei'm.  Blatter  u.  Theol.  u.  Kirchenth.,  by  Pflanz,  kan.  Wachter  by  A.  Muller,  constit  K.  Z.  by 
Lerchenmuller,  Stimmen  a.  d.  kath,  K  Deutschl.  8.  Tub.  theol.  Quartalschrift,  Zeitsch.  f.  d.  Erzb. 
Freiburg,  K.  Z.  by  Sengler,  Jahrbb.  f.  Theol.  u.  PhiL 

•u)  Eraun,  d.  Lehren  d.  Hermesianismus  gutgeheissen  u.  die  entgegensteh.  Ansichten  verworfen 
v.  d.  Bischof  v.  Strassb.  nebst  e.  Breve  Greg.  XVI.  Bonn.  1885.  F.  Baader,  u.  d.  Emancip.  cL 
Katholic.  v.  d.  rum.  Dictatur.  Niirnb;  1889. 


656  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1S58. 

those  who  for  selfish  ends,  but  under  the  pretence  of  reform,  had  conspired 
against  ecclesiastical  and  divine  rights,  (w)  A  few  were  wise  enough  to  be- 
come reconciled  in  a  proper  manner ;  others  did  not  return  untU  t>ey  were 
obliged  to  do  so  as  penitent  forlorn  children,  and  still  others  fc-i.  out  entirely 
with  the  Church,  (x)  The  Great  Union  of  127  Catholics  at  Dresden  (1831) 
declared  that  the  gospel,  explained  by  the  light  of  reason  and  of  the  age, 
was  the  only  rule  of  their  faith,  and  among  their  festivals  they  reckoned  one 
for  the  Sun,  but  none  for  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  On  the  other  Imnd. 
Carmt  insisted  upon  the  literal  acceptance  of  the  ordinary  doctrines,  drove 
Catholicism  back  to  its  principle  of  an  infallibility  by  which  alone  men  could 
be  saved,  and  then  tormented  himself  and  others  by  practical  difficulties  in 
•  the  way  of  it.  (y)  The  Abb6  Utlsen  of  Brussels,  in  the  spirit  of  the  Cath- 
olic apostolic  Church,  exhorted  men  to  turn  from  the  Roman  Antichrist  to 
Christ,  but  it  was  not  long  before  he  died,  abandoned  by  all,  and  with  no 
confidence  even  in  himself  (1842).  (2) 

§  479.     German  Catholicism. 

Eduin  Bauer,  Gescb.  d.  deutocb-katb.  K.  Melss.  1345.  W.  A.  Lampadius,  d.  dentsch-katb.  IV- 
wcg.  Lps.  184<J.-Kath.  KBrform,  Monatochr.  ed.  by  A.  J/aur.  MWer,  BrI.  B.  1845,  Fur  freles  rcl. 
Lebcn.  Mnterialion  z.  Gescb.  u.  Fortblld.  d.  cbr.  GemelndcD  insb.  d.  frelcn  kstb.  cd.  by  T.  Ho/erich- 
Ur  and  /'.  Aui/yw,  BreL  ».  IMS.  Literary  Gen.  View :  by  Hase  and  Schwarz :  Jen.  A.  L.  Z.  1840.  N. 
181. 188.  221.  288.  2«9sat  184T.  N.  6800.  1848.  N.  187ss.  [Saml.  Laing,  Notes  on  the  Else,  Ac.  of  tho 
Germ.  Catb.  Chh.  Lond.  1845.  Gertlnus,  Mission  of  tbe  Ger.  Catholics,  transl.  from  Germ.  Loncl. 
1848.  Dubl.  Univ.  Mag.  (In  Eclectic  Mag.  Jan.  184C.)  Oct  1845.  art  on  Germ.  Catb.  Cbb.] 

The  Prussian  ecclesiastical  controversy  was  finally  celebrated  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Treves  (Aug.,  Oct.,  1844),  by  the  festival  of  the  seamless  coat 
of  Christ  (§  200).  More  than  a  million  of  people  went  thither  to  adore  this 
garment  of  our  divine  Lord  ;  and  when  the  grand  niece  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Cologne  had  experienced  a  partial  cure  there,  thousands  made  trial  of  its 
miraculous  power,  with  a  few  instances  of  apparent  success,  (a)  The  rejoic- 
ings occasioned  by  this  pilgrimage  (I)  were  in  some  degree  disturbed  by  a  letter 
from  Laurahutte  against  the  idolatrous  festival  at  Treves,  and  addressed  to 
the  resident  bishop  as  the  Tetzel  of  the  nineteenth  century,  (c)  The  vigorous 
and  bold  tone,  and  the  signature  of  a  Catholic  priest  which  this  letter  exhib- 
ited, made  it  a  standard  at  which  both  friends  and  enemies  directed  their 
attention.  The  writer  of  it  was  John  Eonge  (b.  1813),  a  chaplain  who  had 
been  suspended  for  disobedience,  and  excommunicated  by  the  episcopal  au- 

tc)  Gcgen  Offenburg  v.  4.  Oct  1883:  A-  KZ.  1884.  N.  174. 

«)  Chr.  Fucbs:  Schwelz  Eepublifcaner,  1884.  N.  73.  (comp.  Alois  Fucbs  u.  s.  Sospenslonsgesch. 
m.  Actenstucken.  Eappersw.  1838.)  Aug.  Theiner,  Gesch.  d.  gelstL  Bildungsanstalten.  Mayence. 
1835.  A.  KZ.  1S35.  N.  23s.  C.  A.  v.  Keichlin-Meldegg :  A.  KZ.  1882.  N.  59.  Fischer:  BrL  KZ. 
1S41.  N.  15. 

y)  Die  grosse  Einh.  d.  127  antiriim.  Kath.  Lps.  1S81.  A.  KZ.  1832.  N.  5.  J.  W.  Carort,  cL 
alleinsel.  K.  Frk£  1S26.  Die  letzten  Dinge  d.  riim.  Kath.  Lps.  1832.  Eiim.  Katholic.  in  d.  Papststadt 
Lps.  1851. 

e)  Ev.  KZ.  1S38.  N.  101.    Brl.  KZ.  184a  N.  11. 

a)  J.  Mam,  d.  AusstelL  d.  h.  Eocks.  Treves.  1S45.  [John  Eonge,  or  the  Holy  Coat  of  Treves. 
New  York.  1845.  18.]  V.  Hansen,  actenmass.  Darst  wunderb.  lleilunpen  b.  Ausst.  d.  h.  Eocks. 
Treves.  1845. 

&)  J.  v.  Gorres,  d.  Wallf.  v.  Trier.  Eegensb.  1S45. 

c)  At  first  in  the  Suchsische  Vatcrlands  Blatter,  of  Oct  1C,  1S44. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  479.  GERMAN  CATHOLICISM.        657 

thorities  at  Breslau.    After  these  proceedings  against  him,  he  had  published 
at  Breslau  some  polemical  writings  against  Romish  abominations,  and  in  favor 
of  the  establishment  of  a  German  national  Church.    His  style  was  rather 
declamatory,  but  his  sentiments  had  all  the  pathos  of  a  decided  convic- 
tion, (d)    In  Schneidemuhl,  a  town  belonging  to  Prussian  Poland,  the  vicar 
John  CzersU  (b.  1813)  had  been  suspended  because  he  would  not  renounce 
a  young  Polish  lady  to  whom  he  was  attached.    He  however  now  gave 
notice  (Aug.  22,  1844)  that  he  would  hold  no  further  connection  with  the 
Eoman  court  Church ;  and  without  renouncing  his  Catholic  priesthood,  he 
proceeded,  with  some  members  of  his  congregation  who  believed  as  he  did, 
to  establish  what  he  called  a  Christian  apostolic  Catholic  congregation,  (e) 
On  the  plan  of  this  congregation,  many  Catholics  dissatisfied  with  their 
Church  collected  around  Ronge  at  Breslau,  as  Christian  Catholic  congrega- 
tions (March  9,  1845).  (/)    Persons  of  similar  sentiments  in  nearly  twenty 
of  the  towns  of  Northern  Germany  presented  addresses  of  concurrence  to 
Ronge,  and  united  together  as  German  Catholic  congregations.    They  were 
agreed  in  their  opposition  to  the  Roman  Church,  against  which  the  Reforma- 
tion had  protested  from  the  very  first,  so  far  as  to  demand  a  free  use  of  the 
Scriptures  and  an  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church  by  the  congre- 
gation.   But  those  congregations  which  were  established  by  Czerski  firmly 
adhered  not  only  to  the  fundamental  principles  of  old  ecclesiastical  ortho- 
doxy, but  to  some  institutions  peculiarly  Romish  in  their  origin,  while  those 
which  proceeded  from  Breslau  were  of  a  rationalist  tendency.    To  give  unity 
to  this  Church,  without  much  previous  concert,  a  council  was  held  at  Leip- 
sic  on  Easter,  1845,  at  which  deputies  appeared  from  fifteen  congregations, 
and  provided  especially  for  the  liturgy  to  be  used,  and  the  general  order  of 
the  societies.     The  papal  hierarchy  was  unconditionally  renounced,  and  the 
Holy  Scriptures  were  recognized  as  the  foundation  of  a  faith  which  must  be 
modified  by  the  spirit  of  each  successive  age,  and  explained  and  compre- 
hended by  a  reason  pervaded  by  the  general  Christian  idea.    Nothing  was 
retained  of  the  second  article  of  the  modernized  Apostles'  Creed  except  a 
declaration  of  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  as  our  Saviour,  and  a  special  stress  was 
laid  upon  works  of  love  as  the  true  evidence  of  faith.  (<?)    Ozerski  consented 
to  this  triumph  of  the  Breslau  party,  as  the  particulars  of  the  creed  were 
left  to  the  free  choice  of  each  congregation ;  but  at  home  he  adopted  a  con- 
fession which  embraced  the  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed,  and  renounced  the  companions  of  the  Leipsio  confession  as  the 
worshippers  of  reason  and  the  enemies  of  Christ,  (h)     During  two  tours 
which  Ronge  took  as  far  as  the  borders  of  Switzerland,  he  founded  many 
congregations.    A  few  attacks  were  then  made  upon  him,  but  generally  ho 

d)  An  d.  niedere  kath.  Geistlichk.  Jena.  1845.    An  d.  kath.  Lehrer.  Altenb.  1345.    Rechtfertfg. 
Lps.  1845.    An  meine  Glaubensgenossen  u.  Mitburger.  Altenb.  1845. 

e)  Rechtfert.  meines  Abfalles  v.  d.  rom.  Hof  kirche.  Bromb.  1845.    Offenes  Glaubensbck.  d.  chr.  ap, 
kath.  K.  zu  Schneidem.  Danz.  1S45. 

/)  Die  christkath.  Gemeinde  zu  Breslau.  Bresl.  3  ed.  1845. 

fir)  Die  erste  allg.  KVersamml.  d.  deutsch-kath.  K.  zu  Leipsic,  ed.  by  B.  Mum  and  F.  I 
Lps.  1845.    [A  day  with  Kongo.  Dubl.  Univ.  Mag.  (in  Eclectic  Mag.  April.  1846.)  Jan.  1846.] 
h)  Czerski,  Sendschr.  an  alle  chr.  apost  kath.  Genieiaden.  Landsb.  1S45. 
42 


G5S  MODEEN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1G4S-185S. 

was  complimented  along  his  journey  with  public  dinners,  as  if  he  were  » 
second  Luther,  (i)  Czerski,  whose  believing  tendencies  found  acknowledg- 
ment only  in  a  much  more  limited  sphere,  and  even  there  came  sometime!' 
unpleasantly  in  contact  with  some  of  Rouge's  adherents,  (I)  was  induced,  at 
a  conference  assembled  at  Rawicz  (Feb.  8, 1846),  to  -acknowledge  his  other 
fellow-combatants  as  brethren.  This  ho  did  notwithstanding  his  undeviating 
and  cordial  adherence  to  the  standard  of  the  unabridged  apostolic  Creed,  on 
the  ground  that  it  might  tend  to  confirm  religion  to  recognize  the  common 
basis  on  which  their  faith  rested,  and  with  the  hope  that  they  might  recog- 
nize each  other  again  as  brethren.  (I)  The  congregations  which  acted  on 
these  views  at  a  synod  convened  at  Schneidemuhl  (July,  1846),  adopted  a 
simple  biblical  confession,  with  the  concession  that  the  old  Apostles1  Creed 
might  be  used  in  the  churches  and  schools,  although  they  acknowledge  that 
it  contains  some  historical  matters  of  minor  importance  for  the  Christian 
heart,  (m)  In  England,  a  short  time  after  this,  Czerski  himself  avowed  that 
his  views  on  this  point  had  been  radically  changed,  (n)  but  the  only  congre- 
gation which  thoroughly  represents  his  theological  system,  is  one  which  has 
been  collected  at  Berlin  for  the  very  purpose  of  a  protest,  and  which  has  even 
gone  beyond  his  exclusive  position.  (0)  Kongo,  on  the  other  hand,  anxious 
to  ennoble  Christianity,  and  exalt  it  to  a  complete  religion  of  humanity,  hns 
shown  himself  inclined  to  unite  with  the  free  Protestant  congregations 
(§  467).  (p)  The  proposal  for  such  a  union,  however,  was  quietly  laid  aside, 
when  it  was  made  in  the  two  ecclesiastical  assemblies  held  in  Berlin  at  Whit- 
suntide, 1847,  representing  a  hundred  and  fifty-one  congregations,  and 
thoroughly  adhering  to  the  Leipsic  resolutions.  (?)  German  Catholicism  has 
carried  out  its  forms  of  public  worship  and  its  constitution  in  smaller  synodal 
associations,  (r)  tho  former  with  Protestant  simplicity,  and  the  latter  with  a 
decided  stress  laid  upon  the  rights  of  particular  congregations,  not  only  with 
respect  to  their  own  pastors,  who  are  supported  by  voluntary  contributions, 
but  with  regard  to  the  powers  of  synods,  and  in  some  instances  the  women 
possessed  an  equal  right  with  others  to  vote.  A  few  clergymen  with  their 
adherents,  who  went  over  to  the  new  association,  were  excommunicated  by 
the  bishops  under  whoso  jurisdiction  they  had  lived,  but  generally  the  con- 
troversy was  merely  of  a  literary,  though  sometimes  of  a  disgraceful  charac- 
ter. («)  Ronge  has  proposed  himself  as  a  reformer  even  to  the  Protestant 
Church,  where  the  chief  point  of  his  reformation  consists  in  bringing  Christ 
down  to  the  brotherhood  of  human  poverty  and  suffering.  (£)  A  few  Keen- 

0  Ronge's  crate  Rondrclse.  BreL  1845,    (Schumann,)  Ronge's  Fahrten.  Rndolst  1846. 

k)  J.H.F.  Romb«rg,  <L  Spalt  d.  cbrist-kath.  Vereins  zu  Bromberg.  Bromb.  1845. 

Z)  Cfeer&W,  zweites  Sendschr.  an  alle  chrlst-katb.  Gemelnden.  Bromb.  1846. 

m)  Brl.  KZ.  1846.  N.  68.  68. 

n)  Katb.  KReform.  Nov.  1846.  p.  141.   Ev.  KZ.  184T.  N.  89s. 

o)  Olaubensbek.  der  nach  d.  Protest  v.  15.  Mai  zu  Berlin  sich  blldenden  cbristkatb.  Gem. 
BrL  1845. 

p)  BrL  KZ.  184T.  N.  8. 11. 15. 

5)  Die  zweite  christkath.  KVersamml.  za  Berlin,  ed.  by  R.  Blum  and  F.  Wigard,  Lps.  1847. 

r)  Grundzuge  d.  Glaubensl.,  d.  Gottesd.  u.  d.  Vert  genebm.  v.  d.  Syn.  zn  Brcslau.  BrsL  184$ 
Organ.  Statnt  £  deutsch-kath.  Gem.  v.  F.  Wigard.  Dread.  1845. 

«)  Offenes  Sendscbr.  der  TVItwe  Anna  Czerska  an  ihren  Sohn,  Jen  suspend.  Priester.  Ratisb.  18-15 

0  Ronge,  Neue  u.  rtoch  alte  Fcinde.  Desa.  1S45.    D.  Wesen  d.  frelen  cbr.  K.  Hamb.  1847. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §479.  GERMAN  CATHOLICISM.       650 

tiates  found  an  earlier  field  of  labor  in  German  Catholic  congregations,  and 
two  Protestant  congregations  in  the  country  found  it  convenient  to  connect 
themselves  with  the  German  Catholics  on  account  of  difficulties  in  their  local 
circumstances.  But  the  Protestant  population  has  almost  unanimously  offered 
the  new  Church  the  joint  use  of  their  own  churches,  a  considerable  assistance 
in  money,  and  the  power  of  their  daily  press,  with  no  wish  to  draw  away  its 
members,  and  at  first  with  great  expectations  of  national  results,  (u)  So  far 
as  their  relations  to  the  state  were  concerned,  the  German  Catholics  claimed 
all  the  privileges  which  had  been  conceded  to  the  Catholics,  without  modifi- 
cation. By  prohibitions  and  expatriations,  the  governments  of  Austria  and 
Bavaria  nearly  succeeded  in  entirely  excluding  the  sect  of  Ronge  from  their 
territories.  The  smaller  Protestant  states  allowed  the  Catholic  dissenters  to 
proceed  without  molestation.  The  governments  of  Hanover,  Saxony,  Baden, 
and  "Wurtemberg,  opposed  them  ;  the  two  latter  impaired  their  rights  of  citi- 
zenship, and  in  Hesse  Cassel  they  were  oppressed  with  still  greater  severity. 
In  every  country,  however,  their  rights  were  sustained  by  the  lower  legisla- 
tive chamber,  (v)  At  first,  Prussia  declared  that  it  would  not  then  interfere 
in  their  favor,  or  in  opposition  to  them  ;  afterwards,  the  displeasure  which 
it  felt  at  the  peculiar  Christianity  of  the  age  was  stronger  than  its  pleasure 
in  seeing  the  injury  to  the  hierarchy,  until  finally  the  natural  current  of 
affairs  brought  it  around  once  more  to  the  policy  of  non-interference.  (w>) 
German  Catholicism  has  prevailed  almost  exclusively  among  the  middle 
classes  of  society,  but  the  learned  Regenbreclit,  a  professor  of  canon  law  at 
Breslau,  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  it  when  the  congregation  was  formed  in  that 
city,  and  Theiner,  at  the  frequent  solicitation  of  different  parties,  contributed 
his  established  reputation  to  the  new  movement  (x)  Both  these  men,  how- 
ever, have  since  been  estranged  and  separated  from  all  connection  with  any 
congregation,  principally  in  consequence  of  the  course  which  Ronge  has  pur- 
sued. (y)  Near  the  end  of  the  year  1846,  it  became  evident  that  the  leaders 
in  this  movement  were  beginning  to  sink  in  public  estimation,  and  that  their 
cause  was  deficient  in  religious  energy.  It  could  not  therefore  be  concealed 
that  the  movement  itself  had  come  to  a  dangerous  pause.  The  new  Church 
then  numbered  about  60,000  members,  nearly  half  of  whom  were  in  Silesia. 
Where  the  Catholic  population  was  compact  and  unbroken,  scarcely  any 
inroad  was  made  upon  it  ;  but  the  remnants  and  advanced  posts  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  in  Protestant  countries,  which  had  been  gained  or  maintained 
with  difficulty  for  centuries,  were  either  lost  or  much  endangered,  and  seri- 
ous apprehensions  were  entertained  at  Rome  that  another  Reformation  was 
about  to  proceed  from  Germany.  March,  1848,  brought  complete  freedom  to 

*)  (fetftxu  :  d.  Mission  d.  D.  Kathollken.  Hdlb.  ISO.    [Gervin**.  Mission  ^he^™  Catho- 
lics, Lond.  1846.  12.]  (D.  SchenTcel,  d.  prot  Gdstlichk.  u.  d  D.  Katholiken.  Zur.  1846.)  D.  prot  Geist- 


*  S^  dic  stoaterechtL 

Verb.       m          taWHL  *  Baden.  Heidelb.  2  ed.  1845.    C.  Fri^ri^  Die  deutachka*. 

Ord*  ,  I**,  18*.    L.  *<***  d. 


> 

tf*fei»  Theiner,  d.  id!  Bestrebungen  I.  d,  katb,  K  Brsl.  1845s,  2  R        y)  Bit  KZ.  1847.  N.  15. 


660  •      MODERN  CHUECH  HISTOET.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1858. 

the  new  Chnrch :  in  Saxony  it  was  recognized  as  a  civil  corporation ;  (2)  the 
most  rigid  Catholic  countries  were  thrown  open  to  it ;  in  Vienna  and  Munich 
it  was  received  with  a  curious  interest ;  in  Austria  it  was  tolerated,  and  in 
Bavaria  it  was  recognized,  though  the  Archbishop  of  Freysingen  would  not 
allow  German  Catholicism  to  be  properly  either  Catholic  or  German.    It  was, 
however,  soon  found  that  the  religious  element  within  and  beyond  the  con- 
gregations became  less  and  less  prominent.    Kongo,  as  a  deputy  of  the  demo- 
cratic unions,  published  a  manifesto,  in  which  he  denounced  the  election  of 
an  irresponsible  imperial  officer  as  an  act  of  treason  to  the  people;  and 
Dowiat  perhaps  did  injustice  to  the  excitements  of  his  youthful  fancy,  when 
he  declared  that  he  had  looked  upon  the  religions  movement  as  only  the 
means  of  a  social  agitation,  but  that  he  now  regarded  such  a  mask  as  need- 
less.   The  authorities  of  the  Silesian  congregations  were  anxious  to  guard 
against  the  power  of  mere  brnte  force,  but  they  wished  also  to  sanctiiy 
democracy,  and  make  socialism  a  religion,  (a)    Probably  no  complete  congre- 
gations, but  some  individual  preachers  who  had  some  Hegelian  views,  hoped 
to  find  on  the  ruins  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches  their  new  reli- 
gion of  humanity,  a  true  theocracy  in  democracy,  and  God  himself  in  the 
congregation,  (ft)    The  German  Catholics,  and  those  attached  to  the  free  con- 
gregations, naturally  felt  a  sympathy  with  each  other,  and  had  therefore 
associated  together  to  a  considerable  extent,  (c)  before  the  proposition  for 
their  union  had  been  discussed  in  the  third  German  Catholic  council,  and  a 
free-congregational  diet  at  Leipsio-Coethen  (May,  1850).      Some  hesitation 
was  felt  by  the  German  Catholics  on  account  of  the  freedom  from  all  forms 
which  characterized  the  free  congregations;    and  the  free  congregations 
were  not  altogether  pleased  with  the  want  of  freedom  which  prevailed  among 
the  German  Catholics,  but  they  were  finally  united  in  the  presence  of  the 
police  of  both  cities,  so  as  to  constitute  a  religions  association  of  free  congre- 
gations for  mutual  assistance  in  their  religious  efforts,  but  on  the  basis  of  a 
complete  independence  of  each  congregation.    These  were  to  have  an  execu- 
tive committee,  to  be  chosen  by  a  triennial  assembly  of  deputies,  but  to  have 
no  power  except  to  express  its  opinions,  and  to  make  proposals  to  the  congre- 
gations. (<I)    Most  of  the  congregations  which  had  originated  in  the  Catholic 
Church  refused  to  agree  to  a  union  of  even  this  loose  character,  (e)    They 
could  not  therefore  escape  the  fate  of  the  free  congregations  (p.  584).    The 
peculiar  turn  which  events  took  in  Catholic  countries  was  such  as  to  render 
this  result  inevitable.    In  Austria,  after  a  long  delay,  the  government  refused 
(Jan.,  1850)  to  recognize  the  Free  Christian  congregation  at  Vienna,  on  the 
ground  that  the  negative  character  of  its  confession  gave  no  sstisfactory  evi- 
dence that  it  was  called  for  merely  by  the  religious  wants  of  the  people.  (/) 
"When  all  women  and  minors  had  been  excluded  from  the  German-Catholic 

e)  Law  of  Nov.  2, 1848 :  BrL  KZ.  1348.  N.  96. 

a)  Of  Sept  15, 1849 :  in  Kampe,  (nt  &.)  p.  816ss. 

V)  F.  F.  Kampe,  d.  Wesen  d.  DKath.  m.  bes.  Bucks,  a.  s.  Verb.  z.  Politik.  Tub.  1850. 

c)  A.  D.  Z.  1847.  N.  811. 

d)  Th.  Eofferichter,  d.  Union  d.  freien  Gemeinden  d.  Kath.  u.  ProL  Lps.  1850.  BrL  KZ.  1850 
N.  46.  48. 

e)  Ibid.  1850.  N.  68.  85. 1851.  N.  16.        /)  Ibid.  1850.  N.  20.  45.  1851.  N.  5. 103. 


CHAP.  VI.*  CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1858.    §480.  BAILEE.  EMMERICH.  661 

congregations  of  Bavaria,  they  were  dissolved  as  political  associations  (Nov., 
1851).  (g)  But  even  in  Protestant  countries,  the  dread  of  the  evils  of  reli- 
gious liberty,  or  a  desire  to  please  the  hierarchy,  generally  led  to  their  sup- 
pression. In  Prussia,  where  the  constitution  rendered  any  measure  to  pro- 
duce their  general  abolition  impossible,  individual  congregations  were  dis- 
persed, and  their  preachers  were  expelled  from  the  country  by  the  police, 
and  contributions  from  the  common  fund,  even  where  they  had  been  granted 
for  a  series  of  previous  years,  were  withheld,  because  the  government  pro- 
fessed to  have  discovered  that  they  were  political  rather  than  religious  asso- 
ciations, aiming  at  the  subversion  of  civil  and  social  order.  (K)  In  Hamburer, 
the  concession  which  had  once  been  made  them,  was  revoked  on  account  of 
their  departure  from  the  confession  of  faith  adopted  at  Leipsic.  (i)  Internal 
dissensions,  the  return  of  their  ministers  to  former  connections,  and  a  want 
of  worldly  means,  or  a  want  of  liberality  in  the  use  of  what  they  possessed, 
have  hastened  their  gradual  decline. 

§  480.    Mystics  and  Wonder-  Workers. 

A  circle  of  young  persons  was  at  one  time  assembled  aronLd  Bishop 
Sailer  (1751-1832),  whose  Christianity  was  confined  to  the  simple  doctrine 
of  salvation,  and  whose  religion  consisted  wholly  of  certain  fervent  exercises 
of'  feeling.  They  therefore  had  no  very  high  regard  for  ecclesiastical  forms ; 
they  earnestly  commended  the  works  of  Fenelon  and  Lavater,  and  were 
much  attached  to  the  Pietists  of  "Wurtemberg.  As  they  were  persecuted  by 
the  Romanist,  and  despised  by  the  Liberal  party,  some  of  them  became  dis- 
satisfied with  the  Church  itself  (I796ss.)  "When  Poeschl,  a  pastor  settled  near 
Linz,  was  compelled  to  leave  his  congregation,  every  other  minister  was 
rejected  by  the  people,  and  on  Good  Friday,  1817,  a  young  girl  was  actually 
killed,  that  she  might  thereby  follow  the  example  of  Christ,  in  dying  for  her 
brethren  and  sisters.  Sailer  humbled  himself  before  the  hierarchy,  and 
renounced  mysticism,  but  even  as  a  bishop  he  never  ceased  to  make  efforts  to 
extend  the  kingdom  of  love,  (a)  The  wonderful  prodigies  in  which  some 
believed  were  the  result  either  of  harmless  and  sickly  excitements,  or  of  a 
settled  purpose.  Emmerich  (1774-1824),  a  sister  belonging  to  the  Convent 
of  Agnetenberg,  within  which  all  her  desires  were  bounded,  gave  herself 
completely  up  to  the  contemplation  of  the  sufferings  of  Jesus,  from  whose 
hands  she  had  selected  the  crown  of  thorns  which  she  bore  upon  her  body, 
just  as  St.  Francis  had  borne  the  five  wounds  of  our  Lord ;  and  frequently, 
when  those  days  recurred  on  which  Christ's  passion  was  celebrated,  the 
wound  was  opened.  (5)  That  which  appears  to  have  been  effected  here  by 
an  active  and  plastic  imagination,  in  other  instances  was  evidently  the  result 
of  deception,  with  or  without  the  knowledge  of  the  subjects  of  them,  (c) 

g)  Brl.  KZ.  1851.  N.  99.         A)  Ibid  N.  14  83. 1852.  N.  14 

a)  J.  M.  Sailer,  siimtl.  Werke.  Sulzb.  1830-85.  26  vols.  Salat,  u.  Myst  m.  hist  Aufcchlussen  JL 
Myst.  in  Baiern.  Sulzb.  1822.  Comp.  §  474.  nt  g. 

Z>)  (C.  v  Brentano,)  Das  bittre  Leiden  misers  Herrn.  Nach  den  Betrr.  d.  sel.  A.  C.  Emm.  nebst 
d  Lebensumstanden  dieser  Begnadigten.  Sulzb.  1833.  6  ed.  1842.  Tholuck,  verm.  Schrr.  voL  I.  p.  Ills, 
vol.  II.  p.  477s.-Volksheilige  zu  Kaltern :  A.  KZ.  1833.  N.  175.  BrL  KZ.  1840.  N.  !K\ 

c)  Brl.  KZ.  1849.  N.  73. 1840.  N.  62.  67. 


662  MODERN  CHUBCH  HISTOEY.    PEE.  VL    A.  D.  164S-185S. 

The  miraculous  cures  accomplished  by  Prince  ffohenlohe  (about  1820,  d, 
1849),  then  a  canon  at  Bamberg,  were,  it  is  true,  much  extolled  among  the 
common  people,  but  they  had  too  little  importance  and  character  to  make 
much  way  against  the  police  and  the  prosaic  spirit  of  the  present  age.  Ift 
Rome,  the  conversion  of  a  wealthy  Jew  was  effected  by  an  appearance  of 
the  Virgin  Mary  (1842).  (<f)  She  also  made  her  appearance  in  other  places. 
In  Rimini,  thousands  of  pilgrims  were  convinced,  to  their  great  edification, 
that  the  Mother  of  mercy  moved  the  eyes  of  her  image  there  up  and  down, 
and  even  some  partisans  of  Mazzini  were  converted  from  their  errors  by  the 
sight.  («) 

§481.     Orders. 

Napoleon  remarked,  that  the  holy  zeal  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  led  them 
to  bestow  a  much  better  and  cheaper  attendance  upon  the  hospitals,  than  tho 
rewards  which  he  could  offer  to  mercenaries.  Ho  therefore  collected  their 
scattered  numbers  into  a  general  chapter,  over  which  the  mother  of  the  em- 
peror presided  (1807),  provided  them  with  a  rule,  and  supplied  them  with  all 
needed  assistance.  Tho  predilection  which  the  pious  sisters  exhibited  for  the 
conversion  of  Protestant  patients,  prevented  their  introduction  in  some 
instances  into  the  German  hospitals,  (a)  But  more  especially  in  France, 
where  a  convent  for  nuns  had  become  an  habitual  want,  they  were  renewed 
in  various' forms.  (J)  When  the  last  monk  of  St.  Maurus  died  a  member  of 
the  Institute  of  Franco,  a  few  friends  of  Lamennais,  under  tho  protection  of 
the  Bishop  of  Mons,  purchased  the  old  abbey  of  Soleme  (1838),  that  they  might 
revive  within  its  tranquil  seclusion  the  devout  learning  of  the  congregation 
of  St.  Maurus.  (c)  A  congregation  was  established  at  Rome  for  the  purpose 
of  rescuing  the  orders  which  had  been  despoiled  of  their  property,  and  in 
some  of  the  concordats  a  number  of  convents  were  promised ;  but  the  pious 
wishes  of  the  several  governments  were  generally  thwarted,  when  an  attempt 
was  made  to  restore  the  property  which  belonged  to  them.  In  Bavaria  alone 
more  was  accomplished  than  had  been  promised  in  the  concordat,  (d)  The 
various  orders  of  knights  had  for  a  long  time  entirely  lost  all  importance 
with  respect  to  the  Church.  The  Knights  of  St.  John  ceased  to  possess  any 
power  when  Malta  passed  from  their  hands  (1798),  and  in  the  treaty  of  Paris 
(1814)  was  recognized  as  a  fortress  for  the  protection  of  English  com- 
merce. («)  The  German  Masters  (Teutonic  Knights)  also  lost  all  their  politi- 
cal importance  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  Mergentheim  at  the  peace  of 
Vienna  (1810);  and  although  their  application  for  its  re-establishment  was 
seconded  by  the  general  voice  of  all  Europe,  their  appeal  to  the  European 

d)  BrL  KZ,  1842.  N.  67.  1348.  N.  46.        e)  BrL  KZ.  1850.  N.  43.  51ss.  69s. 

a)  (C.  v.  Brentano,)  Die  bannh,  Scbw.  CobL  1831.  Bheinw.  Eep.  voL  XVIII.  p.  23638.  C.  Buss, 
d.  O.  d.  barmh.  Bchw.  Schaffh.  2  ed.  1847. 

V)  ReuchZin,  Christenth.  in  Frankr.  p.  226ss. 

c)  A.  KZ.  1833.  N.  145.    Acta  hist  ecc.  1837.  p.  5.    Bpicileginm  Solesmense,  eur.  J.  B.  Pitra, 
Par.  1852.  vol.  I. 

d)  Acta  hist  ecc.  1S37.  p.  854  Brl.  KZ.  1846.  N.  15. 

«)  Via.  de  ViUeneuve-Bargemont,  Monumens  des  Grands-Maitres  de  1'ordre  de  8.  Jean.  Par 
1S29.  2  vols.  [L.  de  BoUgdin,  Anc.  and  Mod.  Malta,  and  H.  of  the  Knights  of  SL  John.  Lond.  1804 
8  vols.  4.} 


CHAP.  VL    CATII.  CIIUECU  TILL  1S53.    §  4S1.  OEDEES.    §  4S2.  MISSIONS.      663 

Congress  for  the  restoration  of  their  possessions  was  disregarded.  (/)  These 
orders  are  now  kept  up,  and  in  some  places  are  re-established,  especially  in 
Austria  and  Italy,  merely  for  the  decorations  and  pensions  which  the  nobility 
derive  from  them,  (g)  Such  Knights  of  St.  John  are  to  be  found  since  1812 
in  Prussia,  but  no  longer  as  a  Catholic  institution.  They  have  been  obliged 
to  return  (1852)  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  in  accordance  with  the  original  de- 
sign of  the  order,  but  they  are  allowed  to  do  this  by  the  payment  of  money 
for  that  object.  (K)  An  order  of  Templars  attracted  some  notice  in  Paris 
since  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  a  secret  lodge,  but 
since  1831  it  has  publicly  claimed  to  be  the  original  Christian  Church,  (i) 
According  to  them,  an  original  revelation  was  conveyed  and  cultivated  in 
the  Greek  and  Egyptian  mysteries,  from  which  it  was  derived  by  Moses,  wag 
renewed  and  re-established  by  Jesus,  and  was  transmitted  to  John  as  the  head 
of  the  Church,  and  to  his  successors,  among  whom  are  the  Grand  Masters  of 
the  Temple.  This  revelation  was  a  religion  of  reason,  and  proclaimed  that 
God  consisted  of  three  Powers,  viz.,  Existence,  Act,  and  Consciousness,  and 
that  the  world  was  distinct  from  God,  but  uncreated  and  divine.  A  gospel 
of  St.  John  accommodated  to  this  view  is  in  the  possession  of  the  order, 
which  possibly  had  its  origin  in  the  fourteenth  century.  (&)  The  order,  how- 
ever, has  nothing  in  common  with  Catholicism  but  a  hierarchy  to  which  the 
most  imposing  titles  are  given.  It  knew  also  how  to  give  the  most  enlight- 
ened interpretation  of  the  vows  of  the  old  Templars,  (I)  and  announced  that 
it  would  at  some  future  period  overthrow  the  Roman  Church.  For  a  while 
the  Parisians  were  much  amused  by  the  splendid  costumes  which  the  male 
and  female  members  of  the  order  exhibited  in  their  processions. 

§  482.    Spread  of  Christianity. 

As  the  Catholic  nations  of  Europe  were  distracted  by  the  revolutions  of 
that  period,  they  lost  their  colonies,  and  were  obliged  to  curtail  but  not  en- 
tirely to  abandon  their  missions.  When  the  Church  began  to  recover  its 
strength,  the  desire  to  promote  missions  to  the  heathen  revived.  The  Society 
of  the  Faith  at  Lyons,  which  became  more  influential  than  even  the  Propa- 
ganda, grew  up  from  a  very  humble  origin  (after  1820)  by  means  of  trifling 
weekly  contributions  from  a  small  circle  of  persons  who  read  the  Annals  of 
the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  until  the  annual  income  it  expended  for  mis- 
sions amounted  to  millions,  (a)  The  first  object  of  the  missionaries  for  the 
establishment  of  the  external  Church  continued  to  be  the  baptism  of  the 
heathen.  China  was  adhered  to  with  the  utmost  tenacity,  even  when  ail 

/)  A.  KZ.  1822.  N.  66.         g)  Brl.  KZ.  1840.  N.  13. 

/*)  Ibid.  1853.  N.  2.  8.  D.  A.  Z.  1853.  N.  130. 

i)  (Manuel  des  Chevaliers  do  1'ordre  du  Temple,  ed.  3.  Par.  1S25. 12.)  Leviticon.  Par.  1S31.  £glise 
chr6t.  primitive.  Lettre  pastorale  de  M.  Teveque  de  Nancy.  (Z'ZTofc.)  Nancy.  1S32.— Carvt^  d.  Mes- 
sianismus,  d.  neuen  Templer.  Lps.  1834.  J.  P.,  Eecherches  hist  sur  les  Templiera.  Par.  1835. 

*)  Hunter,  Notitia  cod.  graeci  Ev.  Jo.  variatum  continentis,  Hafn.  1S28.  Thilo,  cod.  apocr.  voL 
I.  p.  S19ss. 

1)  Brl.  KZ.  1839.  N.  88. 

a)  The  receipts  for  1S45  were  8,575,775  francs.  Annales  de  la  propagation  de  la  foi.  1 584ss.  publ. 
also  in  the  Germ.,  Engl.,  Flemish,  ItaL,  Spanish,  Portug.,  and  Dutch  languages.  A.  KZ.  1843.  N.  100. 
BerLKZ.  1847.  N.  52. 


564  MODEEN  CHUBCII  HISTORY.    PER.  VL    A.  D.  1643-1S58. 

reason  for  hope  with  respect  to  it  seemed  extinct.  Once  more  the  Church 
began  to  enlarge  its  territories  there,  when  a  map  of  the  country,  which  the 
missionaries  intended  to  send  to  Rome,  was  intercepted.  This  produced  a 
renewal  of  the  persecution  (180G).  Bishop  Dvfrczne  was  beheaded  (1815). 
A  martyrdom  quite  unfavorable  to  enthusiasm,  was  inflicted  by  means  of  the 
bamboo  and  the  gangue.  The  missionaries  were  subsequently  persecuted  or 
tolerated,  according  to  the  caprice  of  the  government.  The  crime  punished 
was  not  so  much  a  profession  of  Christianity,  as  a  connection  with  foreigners. 
At  last,  however,  the  victories  of  the  English  gave  protection  even  to  the 
Catholic  Church.  The  priests  are  generally  natives,  some  of  whom  are  edu- 
cated in  the  seminaries  of  the  country,  and  others  at  a  branch  of  the  Propa- 
ganda at  Naples.  About  one  in  two  thousand  of  the  population  of  Central 
China  have  been  baptized.  (6)  From  the  Eatt  Indie*,  where  frequently  the 
conversions  consisted  principally  of  mere  changes  back  and  forth  between 
the  Catholic  and  Protestant  missionaries,  the  candid  Dubols  returned  to 
Europe  (1828)  with  the  conviction  that  life  was  uselessly  spent  in  labors  to 
convert  the  people,  and  that  there  was  no  ground  for  hope  that  the  gospel 
would  ever  overcome  the  prejudices  of  the  Hindoos,  (e)  The  King  of  Cochin 
China,  where  Christians,  under  the  French  Bishop  Adran  had  attained  con- 
siderable political  importance,  extolled  the  wisdom  of  the  Emperor  of  Japan, 
who  had  got  rid  of  the  European  doctrines,  and  accordingly,  in  particular 
instances,  he  oppressed  them  after  1831.  By  a  decree  of  Jan.  6, 1838,  a  gen- 
eral persecution,  modified  indeed  by  the  local  authorities,  raged  especially 
against  the  priests  until  1842.  The  memory  of  the  martyrs  in  this  persecu- 
tion was  celebrated  at  Home  by  the  pope,  (d)  The  Abb6  Schoejffkr,  at  the 
head  of  a  mission  to  the  interior,  died  like  Cyprian  in  1851.  Under  the  free 
toleration  enjoyed  in  North  America,  the  Catholic  Church  has  acquired  con- 
siderable strength  principally  by  immigrations  from  Europe,  but  also  by  its 
judicious  management  of  its  internal  affairs,  (e)  The  Algonquin*  and  Iro- 
quois  made  (1881)  a  present  of  a  piece  of  wampum  and  some  moccasins  of 
their  own  work  to  the  holy  Father,  who  had  sent  to  his  children  of  the  wil- 
derness the  man  in  the  black  coat,  by  whom  they  had  been  instructed  and 
induced  to  acknowledge  the  unknown  God,  and  to  live  in  peace  with  one 
another.  (/)  A  French  diocese  has  been  formed  (1838)  in  Algiers,  and  an 
arm  of  St.  Augustine  was  solemnly  brought  back  to  Hippo  (1842).  (g)  In 
the  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  a  missionary  bishop  has  attempted  to  gather 
the  harvest  where  others  had  sown  the  seed  (§  473). — The  Catholic  Church 
numbers  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  adherents,  organized  into 
seven  hundred  and  sixty-three  bishoprics.  (K) 

ft)  Gesch.  <L  kath.  Miss,  in  China.  Vien.  1845ss.  Rhcinw.  Rep.  voL  XXVIIL  p.  281ss.  XXX. 
ISSss.  D.  A.  Z.  1845.  N.  224. 

c)  Duboi*,  Letters  on  the  State  of  Christ  in  India,  Loncl.  1828.  ii.  v.  Hoffmann,  Nenst  1824. 
Com  p.  KHist  Archiv.  1824  P.  8.     [Dubois  was  answered  by  Hough,  Townley,  and  others.   See 
p.  4T2,  nt  a.] 

d)  A.  Z.  1835.  Sappl.  N.  108. 1843.  N.  143.  Brl.  KZ.  1839.  N.  78.  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  90.  208. 

e)  Vogt,  d.  kath.  K.  in  d.  Verein.  Staaten.  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1841.  P.  1.) 
/)  A.  KZ.  1832.  N.  50. 

g,  Rheinw.  Rep.  vol.  XXIII.  p.  78s.  A.  KZ.  1889.  N.  63. 1843.  N.  2. 

K)  Charles  of  St.  Aloys,  d.  kath.  K.  in  ihrer  gegenw.  Ansbr.  a.  d.  Erde.  Ratisb.  1S45.    Girot 
Petri,  Gerarchia  della  s.  Chk-ta  catt.  apost.  Romana.  Lps.  1851. 


CHAP.  VII.  ^>KIENTAL  CHURCH.    §  483.  MECHITHAEISTS.    NESTOEIANS. 


CHAP.  VII.— THE    ORIENTAL    CHURCH. 


665 


§  483.     Catholic  and  Protestant  Influences. 

Greek  and  Armenian  congregations  composed  of  exiles  or  of  persons  en- 
gaged in  mercantile  pursuits  in  Catholic  countries,  were  obliged  to  purchase 
public  protection  by  an  acknowledgment  of  the  papal  primacy,  and  of  the 
procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Son  as  well  as  from  the  Father.  In 
return  for  this  the  pope  conceded  to  them  the  usages  of  their  country,  to- 
gether with  the  cup  for  the  laity,  and  the  marriage  of  their  priests.  Among 
the  Armenians  the  Mechitharists  were  confirmed  by  Clement  XI.  as  Benedic- 
tines (1712),  and  after  the  fall  of  Modon  (s.  1717),  in  imitation  of  their 
founder  MecTiithar  (Comforter,  1676-1749),  they  founded  a  monastery  at  St. 
Lazarus  among  the  lagoons  of  Venice,  which  was  designed  to  be  a  medium 
of  literary  intercourse  between  their  native  country  and  Europe.  A  branch 
of  it  was  established  at  Vienna,  which  has  confined  its  pious  literary  views 
to  Germany,  (a)  In  Transylvania  the  Wallachians  were  induced  by  the  Jes- 
uits to  enter  the  Union  (s.  1697),  but  a  holy  monk  who  came  over  the  moun- 
tains (1744)  filled  the  people  with  horror  at  this  alliance.  (5)  As  soon  as  the 
liberty  for  which  the  Hungarian  Protestants  had  contended  (§  470),  was  con- 
ceded also  to  the  United  Greeks,  the  result  was  likely  to  threaten  their  union 
with  the  Roman  Church.  When  the  American  missionaries  opened  schools 
(since  1831)  among  the  Armenians  in  Constantinople  and  Trebizond,  and  dis- 
tributed bibles  among  the  people,  many  have  been  opposed  to  all  worship  of 
creatures,  and  to  some  other  portions  of  the  Armenian  forms  of  service,  and 
have  finally  been  excommunicated  (1846).  Separate  congregations  were 
therefore  indispensable,  and  when  formed  they  experienced  the  most  bitter 
persecutions,  in  consequence  of  an  order  from  the  patriarch  requiring  that  all 
persons  should  withhold  from  them  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  social  and 
commercial  life.  But,  in  consequence  of  the  intercessions  of  others  in 
their  behalf,  and  the  favor  of  the  Turks  toward  a  form  of  worship  dispensing 
with  images  and  pictures,  they  have  gradually  attained  a  tranquil  state,  (c) 
The  American  missionaries  have  likewise  succeeded  in  confirming  (since 
1833)  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  those  remnants  of  the  Nestorians 
which  still  exist  in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  and  which  had  become  mere 
petrifactions  of  the  Church  of  the  fifth  century,  and  so  far  as  they  had  not 
become  subject  to  the  pope,  established  them  as  the  Protestants  of  the  East,  (d) 
In  many  other  countries  where  the  Oriental  Church  prevails,  schools  have 
been  established  and  the  Scriptures  have  been  distributed  by  Protestant  mis- 

a)  (Kiuver)  Yita  dell'  Abate  Mechitar.  Yen.  1S10.  Compendiose  notizie  snlla  congregazione  del 
Mechitaristi.  Ven.  (1819.)  1825.  Windischmann  d.  J.  in  d.  Tub.  Quartalschr.  1S35.  P.  1.  Ehehnv. 
Rep.  vol.  XXVIII.  p.  162ss.  XXX,  157ss. 

fc)  Acta  hist.  ecc.  vol.  X.  p.  HOss. 

c)  Brl.  KZ.  1846.  N.  35.  77. 1847.  N.  36.  42.  65.  A.  KZ.  1847.  N.  136s. 

(?)  A.  Grant,  The  Nestorians,  or  The  Lost  Tribes,  New  York  &  Lond.  1S41. 12mo.  (On  the  othei 
hand:  E.  Robinson,  [in  Bibl.  Eep.  for  1841.]  Keview  of  Grant's  Nestor.  New  York.  1841.)  [0.  P 
Badger,  Nestorians  and  their  rituals,  &c.  Lond.  1851.  2  vols.  S.]  Bruns.  Kep.  1845.  vol.  I.  p.  185ss.  II, 
OOss.  Ill,  84ss.  1846.  vol.  V.  pp.  107, 198,  292ss.  VI,  86ss. 


666  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

eionaries,  until  the  Oriental  Christians  have  themselves  begun  to  test  the  doo- 
trines  of  their  Church  by  the  Word  of  God,  and  complaints  have  been  made 
that  the  authority  of  the  Church  has  been  impaired,  (e) 

§484.    Eussia.     Cent,  from  §  418. 

King,  The  rites  of  the  Greek  Charch  In  Russia.  Load.  1721  4.  Big.  1773.  4  (Acte  hist  ccc.  nos- 
tri  terap.  vol.  L  p.  1. 187ss.)  Hup*,  klrchl.  Statist  v.Bass.  (Nord.  Misc.  Blga,  1786.  Sect  llss.)  SeUtr- 
mann,  Abr.  d.  BOM.  K.  Ert  1783.  A.  dt  StourcUa,  Considerations  surla  doctrine  et  1'esprlt  de  1'cgl. 
orthod.  Welm.  1S1C.  Q.  by  JTotooiM,  Lps.  181T.  Pintorton,  Bussla,  Lond.  1883.  (Ev.  KZ.  1384.  N. 
71st)  Brlefo  0.  d  Gottesd.  d.  morg.  K.  a,  d.  BOA  (bj  Morawieff)  by  K.  r.  Muralt,  Lps.  1838.  with 
Erklir.  Anbang  als  Lcxldlon  d.  morg.  K.  by  Ibid.  Lps.  1883.  [A.  Nic.  MuraicW,  Hist  of  the  Church 
of  Russia,  transL  (from  the  Russian.  Petersb.  1888.)  by  Blackmore,  Ox£  1842.]  Die  Staatsk  Russl. 
;m  J.  1889.  by  a  priest  of  the  Oratory.  Scbaffh.  1844  Die  Bedeut  d.  rnss.  K.  fur  d.  gegenw.  (Deatscbo 
Viertclj.  Schr.  1841.  N.  19.)  JTZoM,  Bus»L  klrebL  Statist  (Beater,  Bep.  1850.  II.  1.)  He/eU,  d.  russ. 
K.  (Tub.  Quartalsch.  1553.  II.  a)  A.v.  I/axVuiuten,  Studien  (L  d.  inncrn  Zust  Russl.  Han.  1847.  2 
vola.  [/to  Ciutin*  (Marquis),  The  Empire  of  the  Czar,  or,  Obss.  on  the  Boc.  Pol  &  Eel.  state  and 
Prospect*  of  B.,  from  the  French.  8  vola.  8.  Loud.  1847.  K.  W.Stactmore,  Doct  of  the  Boss.  Church, 
transL  from  the  Slavono-Eusa.  Originals.  Aberdeen.  1845.  8.] 

The  orthodox  emperor  was  now  the  natural  protector  of  the  orthodox 
Oriental  Church,  with  a  power  in  both  hemispheres  such  as  no  successor  of 
Constantino  ever  possessed.  After  the  death  of  the  patriarch,  Hadrian 
(1702),  Peter  the  Great  allowed  his  see  to  remain  vacant  until  the  people  had 
become  accustomed  to  see  its  duties  performed  by  a  college  of  prelates,  which, 
under  the  name  of  the  Holy  Synod,  was  declared  to  be  the  supreme  author- 
ity in  the  Church  (1721).  (d)  This  synod  is  dependent  upon  the  emperor, 
but  the  dignity  of  the  clergy  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  ecclesiastical  polity 
are  determined  by  the  national  character.  But  Catharine  first  took  posses- 
sion of  all  the  property  of  the  Church,  and  then  settled  upon  nearly  all  eccle- 
siastical offices  and  institutions  a  permanent  but  very  moderate  revenue.  On 
the  other  hand  the  convents  were  relieved  of  the  charge  of  invalids,  and  sem- 
inaries were  established  for  education.  The  clergy  are  in  the  habit  of  filling 
their  ranks  from  their  own  families  very  much  as  if  they  were  a  spiritual 
caste.  Sermons  Were  at  one  time  prohibited,  so  that  no  new  doctrines  might 
be  propagated  among  the  people,  but  many  primitive  and  symbolical  usages 
have  been  tenaciously  preserved  in  the  affections  of  the  people.  The  eccle- 
siastical language  is  the  old  Sclavonic.  Many  persons  were  dissatisfied  on  ac- 
count of  the  innovations  made  in  the  liturgy  by  the  patriarch,  Nicon,  and 
withdrew  from  the  Established  Church  (1666).  By  those  from  whom  they 
thus  separated  they  were  denominated  Roskolnilci,  but  by  themselves  they 
were  called  Staroverzi.  They  conscientiously  adhere  to  all  the  institutions 
of  their  ancestors,  abominate  the  fashions  and  articles  of  luxury  which  have 
been  introduced  in  modern  times,  and  do  not  recognize  the  Czar  as  the  con- 
secrated head  of  the  Church.  Many  new  sects  have  sprung  from  them,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  persecutions  they  have  endured,  many  of  them  have 
become  the  victims  of  a  gloomy  fanatical  spirit.  The  DucJioborzi  believe  in 
no  ecclesiastical  connection  except  that  which  exists  between  kindred  minds, 
but  they  are  friends  of  the  strictest  morality.  Others  have  adopted  a  mod* 

e)  Hist  pol.  Bll.  1853.  vol.  XXX.  H.  5. 

a)  KHist  Archiv.  1828.  vol.  L  sect  4  p.  87ss. 


CHAP.  VII.    ORIENTAL  CHURCH.    §  484.  RUSSIA.    ALEXANDER.  GOT 

of  worship  intermediate  between  the  extremes  of  abominable  lust  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  emmchism  on  the  other.  (5)    While  endeavoring  to  elevate  the 
intellectual  character  of  his  people,  Alexander  did  much  to  improve  the  con- 
dition of  the  National  Church.    On  all  lands  belonging  to  the  crown  village- 
schools  were  established,  the  seminaries  were  improved,  and  the  priests  were 
exempted  from  the  punishment  of  the  knout.    The  national  struggle  against 
Napoleon  subsequently  became  a  war  for  religion.    In  mature  life  the  pecu- 
liar fortunes  and  plans  of  the  emperor  inclined  him  (since  1812)  to  a  melan- 
choly style  of  piety,  (c)    When  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was 
formed  in  London,  at  the  emperor's  request  a  general  auxiliary  was  established 
at  Petersburg  (since  1813),  and  under  the  supervision  of  the  Holy  Synod  an 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  published  in  the  Russian  language  (1821), 
and  was  afterwards  gradually  sent  forth  in  almost  every  dialect  of  every  na- 
tion in  the  empire.    With  simple  confidence  the  Bible  was  placed  by  the 
people  among  their  sacred  pictures,  but  an  ecclesiastical  opposition  was  ex- 
cited against  it  throughout  the  nation,  which  was  strengthened  by  observing 
certain  erroneous  applications  of  passages  of  the  Scriptures  made  by  the  peo- 
ple.   The  emperor  was  therefore  finally  induced  to  abolish  the  Bible  Society 
in  Eussia  (1826).  (d)    And  yet  the  imperial  government  felt  constrained  to 
do  something  for  the  conversion  of  his  heathen  and  Mohammedan  subjects  in 
three  distinct  quarters  of  the  world.    Ecclesiastical  institutions  were  estab- 
lished for  the  education  of  missionaries,  and  inducements  were  held  out  to 
those  who  might  become  converts  to  Christianity.    Under  Nicolas  a  plan  has 
been  formed  and  generally  favored  by  the  people  (since  1825),  according  to 
which  the  whole  Eussian  nationality  is  to  be  civilized  by  efforts  from  within 
itself,  and  all  the  tribes  subject  to  its  government  are  to  become  one  in  lan- 
guage and  in  creed.    By  the  conquest  of  a  portion  of  the  Persian  territories 
(1828)  Eussia  obtained  possession  of  a  great  part  of  Armenia,  including  the . 
convent  of  Echmiadzin,  the  principal  seat  of  the  Catholicus  of  the  Armenian 
Church,  by  whom  alone  the  bishops  and  the  holy  oil  could  be  consecrated. 
Measures  were  however  taken  by  the  Armenian  Church  to  prevent  its  incor- 
poration with  the  Eussian.  (e)    Peter  I.  gave  freedom  of  worship  to  both 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  but  this  indulgence  was  confined  to  those  foreigners 
who  resided  in  the  country,  and  were  needed  in  the  public  service.    When 
Catharine  II.  acquired  possession  of  the  Polish  Eussian  provinces,  a  part  of 
the  population  became  members  of  the  United  Greek  Church  (p.  482),  and 
another  part  united  with  the  Eussian.    But  even  those  who  were  deeply  im- 
bued with  the  Eoman  element  finally  yielded  to  the  prevalent  inclination,  and 

6)  Strahl,  Sectemv.  d.  russ.  K.  (EHist  Arcbiv.  1824.  Sect  4  p.  26ss.  1S25.  Sect  I.  p.  42ss.) 
Lens,  de  Duchoborzis.  Dorp.  1829.  P.  I.  (Jen.  L.  Z.  N.  166s.)  Ev.  KZ.  1328.  N.  52ss.  1S85.  N.  lOss. 
Rheinw.  Rep.  vol.  XXII.  p.  270ss. 

c)  Especially  Pinfcerton:  H.  L.  E.  Notiz  u.  Alex.  Jena.  1S23.    [Lend.  Weekly  Rev.  for  Mar, 
1829.  (in  Littell's  Rel.  Mag.  vol.  III.  p.  502ss.  Philad.  1829.)    Schnitzler,  Seer.  H.  of  the  Court  <k 
Gov.  of  Russia  under  Alex.  &  Nicolas.  Lond.  1847.  2  vols.  8.] 

d)  Esp.  PinJcerton  ;  A.  KZ.  1822.  N.  70. 1840.  N.  40.  HOss. 

e)  Vater,  Anbau.  vol.  II.  p.  Hiss.  KHist  Arch.  1823.  P.  L  Kurze  hist  Darst  d.  gegenw.  Zust  d. 
arm.  Volks.  Petersb.  1821.    Smith  &  Dwight,  Researches  in  Arm.  Bost  1S83.  2  vols.     Tholuck,  lit 
Anz.  1882.  N.  17.    [M.  Chamich,  H.  of  Armenia,  transl.  &  cont  to  the  present  time  by  J.  Ardall, 
Calcutta.  1827.  2  vols.  8.] 


668  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1 S50. 

after  much  preparation,  the  higher  clergy  of  Lithuania  and  White  Russia  at 
the  Synod  of  Polotsk  (Feb.  12,  1839)  declared  that  their  people  were  anxious 
to  return  to  the  ancient  mother  Church.  By  order  of  the  emperor  the  Holy 
Synod  received  them,  together  with  their  congregations,  as  those  who  had 
been  separated  by  violence  and  were  now  reunited  by  love.  (/)  Gregory 
XVI.,  after  having  condemned  the  Polish  insurrection  (1831)  and  having  suc- 
ceeded in  persuading  Gutkoroski,  Bishop  of  Podlachien,  (g)  who  had  been 
imprisoned  for  his  fidelity  to  the  Russian  Church,  to  abandon  it  (1840),  now 
beheld  the  schools  in  Poland  closed  against  all  ecclesiastical  influence,  the 
confiscated  property  of  the  Church  given  to  a  Greek  nobility,  the  real  estate 
.which  had  belonged  to  the  hierarchy  taken  possession  of  by  the  state,  all  in- 
tercourse between  the  bishops  and  Rome  prohibited,  and  the  Catholic  princi- 
ple with  respect  to  mixed  marriages  turned  against  the  Catholic  Church. 
Nothing  was  now  left  him  but  to  lift  up  his  lamentations  over  the  distressed 
condition  of  the  Church,  and  the  loss  of  two  millions  of  Catholics,  and  to 
expose  to  the  world  the  means  by  which  this  had  been  accomplished.  (A) 
Macrena  Mieszlawska,  the  late  Abbess  of  the  Basilian  convent  at  Minsk,  ap- 
peared at  Rome  with  a  shocking  account  of  these  means,  but  there  wcro 
enough  who  knew  how  to  render  it  doubtful  whether  she  was  a  martyr  or  an 
impostor.  (*)  But  the  pope  and  the  emperor*  had  occasion  to  enter  into  an 
agreement  (1847s.),  according  to  which  a  new  diocese  of  Cherson  has  been 
formed,  whose  bishops  are  to  be  chosen  by  the  emperor,  but  canonically  insti- 
tuted by  the  pope ;  whose  consistorials  and  teachers  of  seminaries  are  to  be 
appointed  by  the  bishops,  but  with  a  reference  to  the  pleasure  of  the  govern- 
ment. These  bishops  had  also  the  management  of  the  spiritual  affairs  of 
their  diocese  in  canonical  dependence  upon  the  holy  see.  Other  matters  re- 
specting which  they  could  not  then  agree  were  left,  in  hope  of  some  future 
arrangement.  (£)  A  constitution  has  been  given  (1833)  to  the  Lutheran  Church 
by  the  emperor,  which  is  well  fitted  to  preserve  order  and  exclude  all  innova- 
tion. (Z)  Protestantism,  although  secured  in  the  interior  of  the  empire  by 
long  established  concessions,  and  in  the  German  provinces  on  the  Baltic  sea 
by  treaties,  must  nevertheless  lose  ground  with  each  generation  on  account 
of  the  many  laws  and  civil  proceedings  in  favor  of  the  Established  Church,  (m) 
In  the  year  1845  when  the  Letts  and  Esthonians  were  reduced  to  extreme  dis- 
tress, a  rumor  became  current  among  them  that  those  who  would  pass  over 
to  the  orthodox  faith  should  obtain  possession  of  the  landed  propertx  of  their 

/)  Ue.  d.  Wiederverein,  d.  Unlaten  m.  d.  rechtglaub.  K.  (from  the  Nordlschen  Biene)  a.  v.  A.  v. 
Oldekop.  Stuttg.  1840.  A.  Z.  1889.  SnppL  N.  82Sss.  1840.  N.  151. 

g)  A.  Z.  1S40.  N.  157. 169. 1TL  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  86. 

K)  Allocution  of  Nov.  22 :  A.  Z.  1839.  N.  887.  of  July  23  :  BrL  KZ.  1342.  N.  65.  Esposlzione  cor- 
redata  di  document!  sulle  incessant!  core  della  stessa  Santitu  sua  a  riparo  del  gravi  mail,  da  cui  e  af  • 
llitta  la  rel.  cattolica  negli  Imperial!  e  real!  dominii  di  Russia  e  di  Folonia.  Rom.  1842.  f.  EinsieO. 
1842.— (A.  Theiner)  Die  nenst  Zost  d.  kath.  K  beider  Ritus  in  Polen  u.  Russl.  s.  Kathar.  II.  Augshk 
1841.  2  voh.  (Sauten)  Der  Czar  u.  der  Nachfolger  d.  h.  Petrns.  Mayence.  1S43.  Bruns ;  Rep.  1845 
vol.  I.  p.  179SS.  II,273ss. 

f)  D.  A.  Z.  1846.  N.  86.  SuppL  57.  70. 118s. 

k)  Alloc.  of  July  8, 1848:  BrL  KZ.  1848.  N.  €2.  A.  Z.  1343.  N.  203.  Suppl. 

1)  Ev.  KZ.  1834.  N.  5ss.    Rohr,  Pr.  BibL  1834.  P.  4  p.  557ss. 

m)  Comp.  A.  Z.  1S40.    Suppl.  N.  153s,  163s. 


CHAP.  VII.    ORIENTAL  CHUECH.    §  4S5.  GKEECE.  669 

German  landlords,  and  some  fanciful  hopes  were  held  up  to  them  connected 
with  the  Grand  Duke  Michael  (according  to  Daniel  XI,  39.  XII,  1).  Fifteen 
thousand  peasants  were  accordingly  confirmed,  and  churches  were  built  by 
the  government  for  these  new  converts  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  (n)  Ger- 
man princesses,  when  they  became  connected  with  the  family  of  the  Czar, 
were  obliged  to  convince  themselves  that  the  Evangelical  Church  was  in 
error.  (0) 

§  485.     Greece  and  Turkey. 

Neander,  Progr.  d.  Bibelges.  Brl.  1830.  Eist,  de  Ecc.  graeca,  div.  providentlae  tcste.  Lugd.  1S31. 
Hartley,  Eesearches  in  Greece.  Lond.  1831.  (Ev.  KZ.  1832.  N.  12ss.)  F.  Fenger,  om  det  Nygraeska 
Folk  og-Bprog.  Kjobenh.  1832.  (Ev.  KZ.  1832.  N.  37s.)  F.  TMersch,  Essai  sur  1'dtat  actuel  de  la 
Grece.  1833.  2  vols.  G.  L.  <v.  Maurer,  d.  griech.  Volk  in  offentl.  kirchl.  u.  privatr.  Bezieh.  Heidlb. 
1S35.  2  vols.  J.  Wenger,  Beitr.  z.  Kenntn.  d.  gegenw.  Geistes  u.  Zust  d.  gr.  K.  in  Gr.  u.  d.  Turkei. 
Brl.  1839.  Eheinw.  Eep.  vol.  XV.  p.  183ss.  XVII.  185.  255ss.  XVIII.  177ss.  XXVII.  172.  27Gss.  (Ac- 
cording to  Brandis.  Lps.  1842.  vol.  III.)  XXXVIII.  p.  187.  269ss.  L'egl.  orthod.  d'Orient  Athen. 
1853.—  W.  Klose,  d.  Christen  in  d.  Turkei  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1850.  H.  2.)  [S.  G.  Howe,  Hist  Sketch 
of  the  Gr.  Eev.  New  York.  1828.  8.  T.  Gordon,  H.  of  the  Gr.  Eev.  &c.  Lond.  1842.  2  ed.  2  vols.  8.] 

In  the  spring  of  1821,  when  the  Greek  people  awoke  from  their  long  slum- 
ber, the  bishops  pronounced  their  blessings  upon  the  insurrection.  The  exe- 
cution of  the  aged  patriarch,  Gregory,  on  Easter  Sunday,  before  the  gates  of 
his  own  palace,  tore  asunder  the  last  link  which  connected  a  down-trodden 
people  with  their  tyrants.  It  is  true  that  a  policy  quite  foreign  to  all  Chris- 
tian sympathies  prevented  an  earlier  termination  of  their  sanguinary  and 
tedious  troubles,  and  allowed  Greece  to  receive  boundaries  which  nature 
never  intended  for  it ;  but  it  soon  entered  unavoidably  into  the  magic  circle 
of  European  improvement,  and  with  all  the  energy  of  an  independent  nation 
endowed  with  noble  capacities  were  produced  the  first  shoots  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical literature,  (a)  In  the  zeal  of  the  people  for  liberal  views,  the  civil 
and  judicial  authority  of  the  episcopal  court  was  speedily  broken  down.  (&) 
As  it  was  impossible  that  the  Church  should  continue  dependent  upon  a  pa- 
triarch appointed  by  the  sultan,  an  assembly  of  bishops  at  Syra  (Aug.  1833) 
was  directed  by  the  government  to  declare,  that  the  orthodox  Church  of 
Greece  acknowledged  no  head  but  Jesus  Christ,  that  the  administration  of  the 
Church  belonged  to  the  king,  and  was  to  be  carried  on  under  the  direction 
of  the  sacred  canons  by  a  Synod  of  Bishops  permanently  appointed,  but  an- 
nually renewed  by  him.  (c)  By  this  measure  on  the  part  of  a  Catholic  gov- 
ernment, and  by  the  abolition  of  the  inferior  convents,  to  obtain  an  ecclesi- 
astical and  school  fund  (1834),  the  feelings  of  the  nation  in  behalf  of  its 
Church  were  wounded.  The  first  exhibition  of  its  displeasure  with  respect 
to  the  new  improvements  was  made  against  the  schools  and  books  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  American  missions,  (d)  The  conspiracy  of  the  orthodox  Hetairia 

«)  A.  Z.  1845.  N.  218s.  Brl.  KZ.  1S45.  N.  89. 100s.  1846.  N.  4. 1847.  N.  67. 1349.  N.  97.  99. 

o)  E.  g.  Eheinw.  Eep.  vol.  XXXIII.  p.  86ss. 

a)  Rizo  Neroulos,  Cours  de  literature  grecque  moderne,  pubL  par  J.  Humbert,  Gen.  1S27.  "Wie- 
deranfange  d.  theol.  Lit.  in  Griechenl.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1841.  P.  1.)  ^iWay/ia  TU>V  bttuv  Kal  iepwv  Ka- 
v6vcaj>,  ed.  G.  A.  Ballis  et  M.  Botlis,  Athen.  1852.  2  vols.  &)  #«/&,  (p.  357.)  p.  llSas. 

c)  A.  KZ.  1833.  N.  191. 

d)  A.  Z.  1837.  SuppL  N.  184  A.  KZ.  1887.  N.  32.  D.  A.  Z.  1845.  Suppl.  N.  362.    The  chief  organ, 
T?  eyarye\</d)  ffd\Tn^,  edited  by  the  monk  Germanos. 


570  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  TL    A.  D.  1G4S-1S53. 

was  designed  to  destroy  every  thing  of  a  foreign  nature  which  had  been  forced 
upon  the  nation,  and  to  place  the  Church  (1839)  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
patriarch  Gregory  VI.  (e)  This  prelate  published  a  challenge  against  Lu- 
ther, prohibited  the  circulation  of  translations  of  the  Scriptures,  (/)  and  for- 
bade the  nuptial  benediction  upon  mixed  marriages  in  the  Ionian  Islands.  For 
these  proceedings  he  was,  at  the  request  of  the  English  ambassador,  deposed 
(1840).  (g)  The  revolution  of  1843,  professing  to  act  in  the  name  of  national 
freedom,  threw  away  all  the  supports  of  German  education  and  improve- 
ment. The  Constitution  of  1844  recognized  the  orthodox  Oriental  Church 
as  established  by  law,  required  that  the  successor  to  the  throne  should  be  a 
member  of  that  Church,  and  while  it  gave  free  toleration  to  other  forms  of 
worship,  it  forbade  efforts  to  proselyte  in  their  favor.  The  ecclesiastical  sta- 
tute of  1845  gave  to  the  Synod  a  position  much  less  dependent  upon  the 
government.  (A)  It  was  recognized  by  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
through  the  mediation  of  Russia  (1850),  on  the  condition  that  its  holy  oil 
should  always  be  obtained  from  the  mother  Church,  but  it  was  itself  to  bo 
chosen  by  the  clergy,  and  the  Bishop  of  Attica  was  to  be  its  perpetual  presi- 
dent, (i)  The  city  of  Athens,  then  the  principal  town,  was  dedicated  to  an- 
other Virgin,  (fc)  but  there  is  a  prophecy  current  among  the  people  that  at 
some  future  day  the  cross  will  be  fixed  upon  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia.  A 
tranquil  existence  has  finally  been  secured  to  the  Christians  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  sultan,  in  consequence  of  his  enfeebled  condition,  the  European 
reforms  which  he  has  introduced,  and  the  dependence  of  his  empire  upon 
Christian  powers.  By  the  Hattisherif  of  Gfilhane  (1889)  a  promise  was  given 
that  the  life,  honor,  and  property  of  all  should  be  secure,  and  that  Moslem 
and  Rayah  should  be  equal  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  (I)  but  the  government  is 
sometimes  unable  to  prevent  individual  instances  of  abuse  from  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  inferior  authorities,  and  the  fanaticism  of  the  people,  (m)  It  is, 
however,  the  power  under  which  all  the  different  parties  of  the  Oriental 
Church,  and  the  Franks  under  their  respective  consuls,  find  a  residence,  with 
no  power  to  injure  but  only  to  hate  each  other.  The  position  of  the  porte 
even  with  respect  to  the  holy  places,  for  the  keys  of  which  Russia,  in  behalf 
of  the  newly  acquired  rights  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  France,  in  behalf  of 
the  long  established  rights  of  the  Latin  Church,  contended  with  each  other, 
is  only  that  of  a  mediator,  (n)  But  when  Russia  claimed  to  be  the  perma- 
nent protector  of  the  orthodox  Christians  who  constitute  a  large  majority  of 
the  population  of  European  Turkey,  it  has,  relying  upon  the  aid  of  Christian 
powers,  indignantly  repelled  the  demand  as  a  virtual  requirement  that  it 
should  resign  its  sovereignty,  and  the  Czar  has  therefore  proclaimed  against 
it  a  holy  war  (1853). 

«)  A.  Z.  1840.  N.  27.  80,          /)  Acta  hist  ecc.  1837.  p.  SSlss.  g)  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  86. 

h)  A.  D.  Z.  1845.  N.  198.  i)  BrL  KZ.  1851.  N.  M.  k)  A.  KZ.  1822.  N.  48. 

t)  Beitrr.  z.  e.  Gesch.  d.  neusten  Eeformen  d.  osm.  Reicb.es.  In  Verbind.  m.  Kamis  Efendi.  ed.  by 
Petermann.  Brl.  1842. 

m)  (G.  Paczek,)  Die  Christen  In  Bosnien.  Vienna.  1853. 

n)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  94, 1851.  N.  82, 1852.  N.  93.  1853.  N.  44.  comp.  47. 


CHAP.  VIII.    GENERAL  AFFAIRS.    §  436.  CATHOLICISM  &  PROTESTANTISM.    67  1 

CHAP.  VIII.— COMMON  DETAILS  AND  MUTUAL  RELATIONS. 

§  486.     Catholicism  and  Protestantism. 

In  Germany  and  in  France  where  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches 
stand  side  by  side  in  the  enjoyment  of  equal  rights,  and -where  the  national 
character  has  no  decisive  inclination  for  either,  there  must  naturally  be  an 
intellectual  conflict  between  them,  frequent  attempts  at  accommodation,  and 
mutual  aggressions  of  a  proselyting  spirit.  In  the  polemical  writings  of  Prot- 
estants, Catholicism  is  represented  as  a  system  of  priestcraft,  or  at  best  as  an 
antiquated  form  which  could  have  had  no  existence  except  when  the  mind  of 
man  was  in  a  state  of  pupilage.  The  Catholics  call  the  Reformation  the 
second  fall  of  man,  and  revive  the  old  but  now  especially  obnoxious  reproach 
that  the  Reformation  must  necessarily  end  with  a  revolution.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  advocate  of  Protestantism  shows  that  whatever  is  true  in  this  as- 
sertion threatens  no  danger  to  any  legal  form  of  civil  government,  but  only 
to  Catholicism,  and  that  as  far  as  it  is  untrue  facts  show  that  the  home  of 
revolutions  is  in  Catholic  countries,  (a)  This  subject  was  discussed  with 
more  calmness  by  literary  men  among  Protestants,  since,  instead  of  contem- 
plating it  simply  as  a  polemical  matter,  they  investigated  the  respective 
creeds,  taking  a  purely  historical  view  of  the  different  systems  of  faith,  and 
regarding  them  as  points  of  development  for  the  Christian  spirit.  The  learn- 
ing of  a  Church  which  regards  all  beyond  itself  as  only  a  falsehood,  and  un- 
der condemnation,  could  never  entertain  such  a  train  of  thought  except  in 
appearance  only.  (5)  Besides,  that  was  often  attacked  which  no  one  ever 
defended,  on  the  one  side  unchangeable  Lutheranism,  and  on  the  other  an 
infallible  papacy.  The  controversy  was  also  much  embittered  by  the  exagger- 
ated ecclesiasticism  which  prevailed  in  both  parties.  Even  a  Judas-literatnre 
became  connected  with  the  controversy  between  the  two  churches,  (c)  To 
such  as  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the  creeds  of  both  sides  it  seemed  easy 
to  become  reconciled.  Such  was  the  origin  (1797)  of  a  party,  Christo  sacrum, 
in  the  French  Reformed  Church  at  Delft,  the  object  of  which  was  to  form  a 
common  ground  on  which  all  might  unite,  by  setting  forth  a  few  general  doc- 
trines relating  to  the  divinity  of  the  Scriptures,  and  redemption  by  Christ, 
without  requiring  any  to  renounce  the  Churches  in  which  they  had  been  re- 
spectively born.  It  went  indeed  so  far  as  to  assemble  after  its  public  recog- 
nition (1802)  a  few  members  of  different  churches  in  their  house  of  worship, 
but  it  was  universally  rejected  by  all  churches,  and  never  became  any  thing 
but  a  very  inferior  sect,  (d)  The  Freemasons'1  Lodges  originated  among  the 
Societies  of  architects  of  the  middle  ages,  and  even  in  the  new  spiritual- 
ized form  which  their  craft  received  from  England,  where  it  was  ex- 
tensively propagated  (1717),  it  kept  aloof  from  all  the  contentions  of  the  dif- 

a)  Tzschirner,  Prot.  u.  Kath.  a.  d.  Standp.  d.  Polltik.  Lps.  1822.  4  ed.  1824. 

V)  Moehler,  (p.  655.)    On  the  other  hand :  Baur,  Nitzsch,  Marheineke. 

c)  Der  Protestantismus  in  s.  Selbstauflosung.  Schaffh.  (1843.)  1846.  2  vols.  comp.  BrL  KZ.  1S4& 
N.  93. 

rf)  Archiv  £  KGesch.  voL  I.  sect  2.  p.  ITOss.  sect.  3.  p.  155ss.  KHist  Arck  1S23.  sect.  1.  p.  T2s& 
Fliedncr  Collectenreise.  voL  II.  p.  574ss. 


672  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    TER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

ferent  churches,  and  professed  in  a  region  far  above  them  to  construct  the 
temple  of  Humanity.  For  this  very  reason  it  was  condemned  (p.  CS4)  m  va- 
rious papal  decrees  (1738,  1751, 1829,)  which  were,  however,  enforced  only 
in  Southern  Europe,  (e)  The  Evangelical  Church  Journal  also  condemned 
them,  and  received  an  answer  through  an  act  of  the  royal  family  (Nov.  5, 
1853).  (/)  The  Rationalists  on  account  of  their  Pelagian  tendency,  and  the 
Pietists  on  account  of  their  rigid  ecclesiasticism,  were  accused  of  an  approxi- 
mation to  Catholicism.  A  few  regarded  every  kind  of  union  as  impractica- 
ble except  by  the  absorption  of  one  party  into  the  other ;  (g)  some  believed 
in  a  higher  development  of  the  present  ecclesiastical  system,  in  which  the 
distinctions  between  the  two  parties  were  to  be  forgotten ;  while  many  looked 
upon  these  distinctions  as  salutary  in  their  influence,  and  indispensable  to  the 
completeness  of  the  Christian  spirit.  (A)  Persons  were  frequently  induced  to 
pass  from  one  Church  to  the  other  by  the  prospect  of  some  personal  advan- 
tage, or  under  the  influence  of  false  views.  Such  instances  were  tolerated 
especially  in  the  Catholic  Church,  on  account  of  their  relation  to  future  gen- 
erations. Others  were  governed  by  considerations  altogether  foreign  to 
Christianity.  Such  was  Winkelmann  (d.  1768),  who  thought  that  the  great 
object  of  his  life,  which  could  be  pursued  only  at  Rome,  was  well  worth  a 
mass ;  especially  as  he,  with  all  his  recollections  of  pious  youthful  impressions, 
was  neither  a  Catholic  nor  a  Protestant,  but  a  contemporary  of  Pericles,  (i) 
But  some  were  really  anxious  to  correct  by  their  own  free  act  what  they 
honestly  believed  to  be  the  false  position  in  which  the  accident  of  birth  had 
placed  them.  The  primary  occasion  for  most  of  the  conversions  to  Catholi- 
cism was  that  exalted  state  of  artistic  or  poetic  feeling  which,  when  jt  became 
depressed,  fell  into  pietism,  but  which  found  in  the  Catholic  Church  a  pleas- 
ant and  splendid  form  of  life,  or  at  least  found  deli verance  from  a  state  of 
mere  irony,  and  a  position  in  the  earnestness  of  reality.  Another  cause  was, 
a  natural  disposition  which  was  annoyed  by  the  perpetual  conflicts  and  com- 
motions which  prevailed  in  the  Protestant  Church,  and  sought  peace  in  a  sen- 
suous nearness  to  the  divine,  and  in  an  external  and  infallible  authority.  It 
was  to  this  disposition  that  the  faithful  Voss,  who  mistook  its  more  profound 
motive,  opposed  in  a  violent  manner  his  Dutch  common  sense.  (&)  There  was 
also  an  historical  and  political  spirit,  imposed  upon  by  the  mediaeval  splendor 
and  perfect  constitution  of  the  Catholic  Church,  which  might  not  only  be 
mistaken,  but  stimulated  to  further  misapprehensions,  and  so  finally  conducted 
to  a  path  which  terminated  at  Rome  and  Vienna.  (?)  A  few  aristocrats  hoped 

e)  Kraiae,  <L  drei  altesten  Kunst-Urk.  d.  F.  M.  Brudersch.  DrecL  (1310.)  1819.  F.  W.  Lindner, 
Mac  Benac.  Lps.  1818.  Sareena,  Qesch.  d.  F.  M.  Ord.  Bamb.  1S20.  5  ed.  Lps.  1S85.-M.  Bull,  Rom. 
voL  XVIII.  p.  212s.  Hist  poL  BL  voL  VIII.  p.  65ss. 

/)  D.  A.  Z.  1S54.  N.  28. 

</)  (J.  A.  Stark,)  Theoduls  Gastmahl  a  Q.  Vereinig.  d.  Religionssocietaten.  Frk£  1809. 1  ed.  1S23. 

h)  flarxX,  Worte  d.  Friedens  an  d.  kath.  K.  gcgen  ihro  Vereinig.  m.  d.  prot  Gott.  1809.  Vom 
Streite  d.  Kirchen,  an  den  christL  Adel  deutscher  Nation.  Lps.  1827. 

i)  BrL  Monatschr.  vol.  XIL  p.  56ss.  Goethe,  Winkelm.  u.  s.  Jahrhundert.  Krech,  Erinn.  an  W 
BrL  1S35.  4. 

*)  Wie  ward  Fritz  Stolberg  ein  Unfreier  ?  (Sophronlzon.  1819.  vol.  III.)  Bestatigung  d.  Stolb 
(Jmtriebe.  Stuttg.  1820.—^.  Hicolovius,  Fr.  Leop.  G.  zu  Stolb.  Mayence.  1846. 

I)  F.  ffurter,  d.  Antistes  II.  n.  sogen.  Amtsbruder.  Schaffh.  1840.    Zehnder.  Ant  n.  a.  8.  vcrua 


CHAP.  VIIL    GENERAL  AFFAIRS.    §  4SG:  CONVERTS.  673 

they  could  get  rid  of  the  revolution  by  forsaking  the  Reformation.  Hack- 
neyed authors,  who  before  knew  nothing  of  religion,  found  in  the  Catholic 
ritual  that  which  interested  and  satisfied  their  excited  religious  wants,  (m) 
Sacerdotal  Puseyism,  and  even  zealous  Lutheranism,  estranged  as  it  is  from 
the  present  Protestant  Church,  have  sometimes  conducted  their  lost  sons  back 
to  the  holy  father,  (ri)  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  two  ways  by  which  a 
Catholic  might  be  conducted  to  the  Protestant  Church.  The  first  was  the 
same  feeling  which  at  one  time  moved  the  Reformers,  a  painful  sense  of  sin 
which  found  no  relief  in  the  works  and  penances  of  the  Church,  and  finally 
betook  itself  to  a  simple  faith  in  the  Scriptures  alone.  The  other  was  a  de- 
velopment of  the  spirit  of  religious  independence,  which,  when  it  could  no 
longer  find  complete  truth  in  the  doctrines  which  it  had  been  taught,  felt 
compelled  to  break  loose  from  an  infallible  Church.  The  former  path  con- 
ducted to  the  old,  and  the  latter  to  the  more  recent  form  of  Protestantism. 
The  latter  was  therefore  followed  by  individuals  of  a  speculative  turn  of 
mind,  or  such  as  thought  themselves  to  be  so,  while  the  former  was  entered 
upon  as  in  the  time  of  the  Reformation  by  whole  congregations,  pervaded  at 
once  by  the  same  feeling.  In  some  cases,  however,  where  the  feelings  of  such 
congregations  had  not  become  clearly  defined,  and  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties treated  them  with  mildness,  they  could  sometimes  be  reconciled  with 
the  old  Church.  (0)  From  the  nature  of  the  feelings  thus  defined  we  should 
of  course  expect  to  meet  with  persons  of  more  distinguished  reputation 
among  the  converts  to  Catholicism,  (p)  For  it  was  necessary  to  the  pacifica- 
tion of  those  consciences  which  were  inclined  to  Catholicism  that  the  pre- 
cise form  should  be  complied  with,  and  that  the  person  should  be  a  member 
of  the  only  Church  in  which  salvation  could  be  expected,  while  the  Protes- 
tant spirit  generally  felt  that  it  was  every  where  in  the  spiritual  Church,  it 
would  naturally  hope  to  exert  a  more  powerful  influence  in  behalf  of  truth 
in  its  original  sphere  of  life,  and  it  would  dread  the  severe  shock  occasioned 
by  a  change  of  ecclesiastical  relations.  Hence  generally  only  such  priests  as 
apprehended  some  overwhelming  act  of  oppression  from  their  ecclesiastical 
superiors,  effected  an  escape  by  connecting  themselves  with  the  Protestant 
Church. 

glimpften  Amtsbr.  Sch.  1840.— Schenfcel,  Zerwurfen  in  Schaffh.  u.  Barter's  Uebertritt  lias.  1S41. 
Ilurter,  Gcburt  n.  Wiedergeb.  Schaffh.  (1845.)  1847.  2  vols. 

in)  Ida  Griifin  JTahn-Ifahn,  von  Babylon  nach  Jerus.  Mayence.  1S51.  [From  Babylon  to  Jeru- 
salem, from  the  Germ,  of  Countess  Ida  v.  Hahn-Hahn.  New  York.  1852.]  F.  v.  Florencourt,  meine 
Bekehr.  z.  chr.  Lehre  u.  K.  Paderb.  1852. 

71)  Liitkemuller,  unsre  Zust.  v.  Tode  z.  Auferst.  Lps.  1852.  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  86. 

o)  Geschichtl.  Darst.  d.  Bekehrung  d.  Fursten  v.  Salm-Salm,  from  the  Fr.  (Par.  1826.)  Jen.  1826.— 
Gossner,  Martin  Boos,  Lps.  1826.  [Life  &  Persecutions  of  M.  B.  transl.  by  Bridges.  Lond.  1823. 
Lond.  Chr.  Obs.  Jan.  1828.  (in  LittellVReL  Mag.  vol.  I.  p.  2S9ss.)]  HenTiofer,  cnr.  Glaubensbek, 
Heidlb.  (1828.)  1824.  TzscMrner,  Euckkehr.  kath.  Christen  in  Baden  z.  ev.  Christenth.  Lps.  1S23.  4, 
ed.  1824.— Bericht  u.  Karlshuld  by  Pdchtner  vor  d.  Samtnlung  ev.  Predigten.  Barmen.  1887.— Helft- 
rich,  christl.  Glaubensb.  Friedb.  1835.  On  the  other  side :  UrkundL  Darst  d.  piet  Umtriebe  d.  vor- 
mal.  Pfer.  Helf.  Mayence.  1835.— J.  J.  Maurette,  d.  Papst  u.  d.  Ev.  from  the  Fr.  Heilbr.  1844.  8  ed. 
1846.  E.  Bruitte,  m.  Abschiedswort  an  Rom.  from  the  Fr.  Schleiz.  1844 

p)  F.  W.  P.  v.  Ammon,  Gallerie  d.  merkw.  Personen,  welche  v.  d.  ev.  z.  kath.  K.  ubergetreten. 
Erl.  1833.  J.  JToeninghdus,  chronoL  Verzeichniss  d.  denkw.  Bekehr.  v.  Protest  z.  kath.  K.  Aschaff. 
1837.  Nitzsch,  fi.  d.  Ursachen  d.  sich  mehr.  Uebertritte  z.  rum.  K.  (Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  W.  1S51. 
N.  29.) 

43 


674  MODERN  CHUECH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1G4S-1S53. 

§  487.     The  Fine  Arts.     Cont.  from  §  378,  390. 

* 

Art  has  generally  risen  superior  to  all  distinctions  of  creeds,  although  the 
populace  of  Strasbourg  would  not  tolerate  a  bust  of  Luther  on  the  monument 
of  Guttenberg,  (a)  and  even  some  painters  have  supposed  that  they  could  do 
better  justice  to  the  saints  when  they  adored  them.  Rome  became  once  moro 
the  home  of  the  arts  of  design,  when,  from  the  time  of  Clement  XIV.,  a  beau- 
tiful temple  was  opened  for  the  remnants  of  the  old  Olympic  world,  with 
such  an  enthusiasm  for  the  arts  that  it  did  not  shrink  from  even  a  sacrilege 
upon  the  sarcophagus  of  the  Scipios  and  of  St.  Helena.  Thorwaldsen  was 
directed  by  Consalvi  to  erect  a  lofty  monument  on  the  tomb  of  the  Holy  Fa- 
ther Pius  VII.  in  St.  Peter's  Church.  (1)  When  the  more  recent  popular  lifo 
had  been  developed,  the  Church  could  no  longer  give  existence  to  the  art  from 
its  own  materials,  but  it  was  obliged  to  be  a  mere  participator  in  it.  By  a 
profound  study  of  the  monuments  of  heathen  antiquity,  Winkelmann  rescued 
the  taste  for  the  arts  from  degenerating  into  a  trifling  mannerism.  What  ho 
could  only  express  in  words  Thorwaldten  embodied  in  brass  and  marble. 
Grecian  power  and  beauty,  it  is  true,  were  found  reproduced  in  living  fresh- 
ness in  his  studio,  but  as  an  expression  of  the  eternal  beauty  of  nature  they 
were  exalted  to  their  most  significant  form  when  employed  in  the  utterance 
of  Christian  ideas.  Gods  and  heroes  were  therefore  to  be  seen  there  by  the' 
side  of  our  Lord  and  the  apostles,  (c)  At  a  still  earlier  period  Danneclccr 
gave  a  sublime  representation  of  Christ  in  the  character  of  the  world's 
teacher ;  his  John  is  a  son  of  thunder  reflecting  upon  the  mystery  of  the 
Trinity ;  and  finally  he  is  himself  exhibited,  when  an  old  man,  contemplating 
the  smile  of  a  Christian  angel  of  death,  (d)  After  some  literary  attempts  to 
discover  the  general  basis  of  all  art  in  piety,  (e)  on  association  of  German 
painters  was  formed  at  Rome  (s.  1810)  which  endeavored  to  revive  the  art 
in  the  Christian  feelings  and  ecclesiastical  forms  of  the  middle  ages.  There 
is  a  kind  of  spectral  life  in  the  exaggerated  productions  of  this  Romantic 
School.  But  the  great  masters  of  it  have  each  in  his  own  way  revived  the 
splendors  not  only  of  the  middle  ages  but  of  antiquity.  Thus  Overbeck  has 
presented  a  delicate  pious  fervor,  and  Cornelius,  cheerfulness  and  sublimity. 
These  were  followed  by  Henry  Hess,  who  added  beauty  to  the  old  ecclesiasti- 
cal style ;  Kaulbach,  who  has  painted  the  minds  and  general  thoughts  of 
men ;  and  Lessing,  who  has  exhibited  Protestantism  in  the  persons  of  its  fore- 
runners. A  German  Union  for  religious  art  in  the  Evangelical  Church  (1851) 
evinces  an  inclination  to  pay  a  long  standing  debt  of  Protestantism.  (/)  In 
connection  with  this  interest  in  the  middle  ages  the  art  of  painting  on  glass 
has  been  once  more  discovered.  The  Cathedral  at  Milan  was  completed  by 
Napoleon.  Louis  of  Bavaria  restored  the  old  splendor  of  the  cathedrals  of 

a)  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  128. 1842.  N.  204s. 

1>)  Noticed  indeed  in  A.  KZ,  of  1830.  N.  27,  but  not  erected  until  1831. 

c)  Thiele,  Thorwaldsen's  Leben  u.  Werke.  Lps.  1832s.  2  vola.  £ 

d)  J.  J.  Hess,  u.  Danneckere  Christus.  Zur.  1826.    C.  Gruneiaen  u.  Th.  Wagner,  Dann.  "Wcrkflk 
Hamb.  (1842.)  4. 

e)  W.  If.  Wackenroder,  Herzensergiessungen  e.  kunstliebenden  Klosterbr.  ed.  by  Tieck.  BrL  1797. 
/)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  20.  24.  82. 


CHAP.  VI1L    GENERAL  AFFAIRS.    §  483.  CHURCH  ARCHITECTURE  &  MUSIC.  675 

his  kingdom,  and  had  all  the  different  forms  of  the  ecclesiastical  styles  of 
former  times  represented  in  the  churches  of  his  capital.  Frederic  William  III. 
had  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne  once  more  repaired  (since  1824),  and  Frederic 
William  IV.  laid  the  foundation  stone  for  its  completion  (Sept.  4th,  1842), 
that  it  might  he  a  work  of  brotherly  love  for  all  Germans,  (g)  Isaac's 
Church  of  Petersburg  raised  its  cupolas  and  granite  pillars  more  proudly  than 
any  other  church  of  Greco-Eoman  architecture.  The  three  great  masters  of 
instrumental  music  at  Vienna  have  contributed  none  of  their  peculiarities  nor 
their  highest  efforts  to  the  Church.  Haydn's  Creation,  great  as  it  is,  is  never- 
theless only  a  great  opera,  in  which  the  Lord  God  with  his  angels  are  repre- 
sented, (h)  Mozart  did  not  compose  his  Requiem  until  he  was  dying,  (i)  and 
Beethoven,  in  his  own  exalted  sphere,  felt  that  he  was  a  priest  of  God,  but  not 
In  an  ecclesiastical  sense,  and  his  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  and  his  Sec- 
ond Mass  were  indeed  a  Creation,  but  they  never  reached  their  seventh  day. 
Felix  Mendelssohn,  who  had  been  educated  in  the  rigid  school  of  Sebastian 
Bach,  and  amid  the  glories  of  Handel's  art,  has  given  a  harmonious  expres- 
sion to  the  direct  Word  of  God,  combining  profound  devotional  earnestness 
Avith  cheerful  artistic  beauty,  especially  in  the  lyrical  strains  of  his  Psalms, 
and  in  the  more  dramatic  works  Paul  and  Elijah.  Like  Eaphael,  however, 
he  was  taken  away  from  earth  (1847)  before  he  had  realized  in  his  language 
the  complete  ideal  of  his  Christ.  While  the  friends  of  art  in  Protestant  Ger- 
many, though  generally  without  reference  to  the  Church,  labored  to  promote 
an  understanding  and  love  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  muse,  (&)  the  Italian 
churches  resounded  with  the  most  frivolous  opera  melodies.  The  papal 
chapel  alone  preserved  the  old  serious  style,  though  much  of  the  skilful  per- 
formance of  former  days  was  lost.  When  the  mode  of  singing  hymns  in 
quartettes,  which,  in  some  Eeformed  churches,  and  particularly  in  Switzer- 
land, was  an  inheritance  from  their  ancestors,  was  first  introduced  by  an  as- 
sociation in  Stuttgard,  and  recommended  by  the  Synod  of  Wurtemberg  (1823), 
many  voices  were  raised  against  it  on  the  ground  that  such  a  style  of  singing 
was  too  artistic  for  a  congregation.  (I)  Liturgical  forms  of  divine  service 
were  brought  into  use  first  at  Berlin,  and  afterwards  in  other  places,  in  which 
the  old  Catholic  as  well  as  Protestant  masters  of  Church  music  were  re- 
vived, (m)  -  ,.'•  j./- 

§  488.    Emancipation  and  Conversion  of  the  Jews. 

liiesser,  der  Jude.  Alton.  1832ss.    ff.  W.  JBohmer,  Gleichstellong  der  Juden.  Gott  1833.    Jost, 
neuere  Gesch.  d.  Israel.  1815-45.  BrI.  1846.  2  vols. 

Since  Moses  Mendelssohn  (d.  1786)  and  Lessing  gave  to  each  other  the 
hand  of  fellowship  the  Jews  have  participated  with  much  eagerness  and  suc- 

g)  Brl.  KZ.  1842.  N.  73. 1848.  N.  69. 1849.  N.  80. 

\fi)  L.  A.  a  Bombet,  Life  of  Haydn,  in  Letters.  Prov.  1S20. 12. 

i)  K  Holmes,  Life  &  Corr.  of  Mozart.  New  York.  1845. 12.] 


k)  (Thibaut )  Ueber  Reinheit  in  d.  Tonkunst.  Heidlb.  (1825. 1826.)  1851. 

I)  Kocher,  d.  Tonk.  in  d.  K.  Stuttg.  1823.  A.  KZ.  1823.  N.  7.  105. 1825.  N.  45.-1S2*.  N. 


122. 1S24 


N.  28.  60. 1826.  N.  32. 

m)  Ev.  KZ.  1844.  N.  51s.  1845.  K  15. 105. 1851.  N.  48. 


676  MODERN  CHTTBCH  HISTOEY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1MS-1855. 

cess  in  tha  improvements  of  modern  times,  (a)  A  rational  tendency  has  thus 
been  formed  which  exhibits  a  purely  biblical  literature,  and  withdraws  the 
mind  entirely  from  the  Talmudic  institutes.  In  its  struggles  against  the  old 
Rabbinism  it  has  founded  a  new  Temple  with  a  simple  form  of  public  wor- 
ship in  the  language  of  the  people.  Some  attempts  to  accomplish  a  still 
more  extensive  reform  were  made,  and  it  was  found  that  in  doing  so  either 
the  Mosaic  system  without  circumcision  (to  which,  however,  Christian  gov- 
ernments compelled  the  Jews  to  adhere)  might  be  made  consistent  with  an 
unlimited  progress  in  improvements  (Frankfort,  1840),  or  their  national  dis- 
tinctions might  be  abandoned,  and  they  could  still  adhere  to  the  religious 
character  peculiar  to  Judaism  (Berlin,  1846).  (&)  The  educated  Jews  on  the 
west  of  the  Vistula  have  generally  given  up  their  religious  national  peculiari- 
ties, and  are  not  prevented  by  their  adherence  to  Moses  from  believing  also 
in  Christ.  They  stand  therefore,  with  respect  to  Christianity,  precisely 
where  Moses  Mendelssohn  stood.  It  was  natural  that  persons  in  this  condi- 
tion should  begin  to  demand  a  complete  equality  of  civil  rights.  The  watch- 
word— civil  and  religious  freedom  for  all  the  world  t  gained  a  powerful  party 
in  favor  of  such  an  emancipation.  Napoleon  called  a  meeting  of  the  great 
Sanhedrim  (1806),  (<?)  and  completed  the  work  of  Jewish  emancipation.  His 
enactments  on  this  subject  have  continued  in  force  until  the  present  time  in 
Holland  and  Belgium.  In  North  America  their  complete  equality  follows 
from  the  essential  nature  of  the  Constitution.  Even  in  German  countries  the 
civil  condition  of  the  Jews  has  been  much  improved  in  various  ways  since 
the  time  of  Joseph  II.,  but  their  complete  equality  with  other  citizens  has 
never  been  conceded  except  for  a  brief  period  while  the  French  were  masters 
of  the  country.  Against  such  an  equality  it  has  been  urged  by  a  party  which 
on  other  subjects  has  shown  a  liberal  spirit,  that  the  Jews  are  still  in  every 
sense  foreigners,  and  therefore  entitled  to  hospitality  but  not  to  the  rights  of 
citizens,  and  that  the  governments  of  the  country  were  founded  upon  Chris- 
tian principles,  which,  if  not  endangered  would  at  least  be  denied  by  the  pro- 
posed concession,  (d)  The  assemblies  of  deputies,  as  far  as  they  were  not  in- 
fluenced by  the  fear  of  the  Jewish  spirit  of  speculation,  were  inclined  to 
concede  to  them  their  full  rights  of  citizenship.  The  Prussian  law  of  1847, 
although  it  commenced  with  the  principle  of  equal  duties  and  equal  rights, 
made  many  exceptions  in  consistency  with  what  were  supposed  to  bo  the  de- 
mands of  a  Christian  state,  and  concluded  with  a  special  provision  for  the 
separate  existence  of  a  foreign  nation  in  exclusive  Jewish  communities,  (c) 

a)  J.  minemann,  M.  Mendelss.  Lps.  193t  StcinMm,  M.  M.  u,  8.  Scbule.  Hamb.  1840.  B.  Autr- 
1>ach,  d.  Judenth.  u,  d.  neueste  Lit  Stnttg.  1886.  [M.  Samuels,  Mem.  of  M.  M.  &  Corresp.  with  La- 
vater.  Lend.  1827.  2  «d.  8.] 

&)  U,  A.  Francolm,  d,  rationale  Judenth.  BrsL  1840.  Nethiboth  Olatn.  Vergleich  zw.  d.  rnodernen 
Jadonth.  u.  d.  EeL  Mosis  u.  d.  Proph.  (from  the  EngL)  Frkf.  1889.— A.  frdnJcel,  d.  mod.  Judenth. ;  d. 
Frankf.  Eef.  u.  d.  neue  Zeit  EeutL  1844.— D.  A.  Z.  1946.  N.  41. 

c)  Procea  verbal  des  seances  de  I'assemblee  des  deputes  franc,  professant  la  reL  Jufve.  Par.  1806. 
Eevue  des  deux  mondes.  1852.  Sept  15. 

d)  Pavlus,  die  jud.  Nationalabsondrnng.  Heidlb.  1881.    On  the  other  side:  Erug,  Henoticon. 
Entw.  e.  Eeligionsgesetzes  £  christl  Staaten.  Lps.  1886. 

«)  D.  A.  Z.  1847.  N.  161.  219.  M.  Veil,  d.  Entwurf  e.  Verordn.  f.  d.  Verb.  d.  Juden  in  Prenssen 
Lps.  1847.  Stahl,  d.  christl.  Staat  u.  sein  Verb.  z.  Delsmus  u.  Judenth.  Brl.  1847.  , 


CHAP.  VIIL  GENERAL  AFFAIRS.    §  488.  JEWS.    §  489.  SLAVERY.  677 

The  National  Assembly  in  St.  Paul's  Church,  over  which  on  one  occasion  a 
Jew  presided,  granted  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote  full  rights  of  citizenship 
to  the  Jews ;  (/)  but  the  execution  of  this  enactment  has  been  almost  uni- 
versally prevented  in  the  German  States  by  Christians  belonging  to  the  edu- 
cated and  the  ignorant  classes,  (g}  In  England,  Parliament  has  removed  the 
civil  disabilities  of  the  Jews  (since  1829),  but  the  oath  of  adherence  to  the 
Christian  faith  required  of  all  members  of  Parliament  has  prevented  their  ad- 
mission there.  And  yet  the  city  of  London  has  repeatedly  chosen  a  Roths- 
child for  its  representative  (since  1847).  The  Lower  House  has  more  than 
once  adopted  Russell's  proposal  to  change  the  form  of  this  oath,  but  the 
Lords  have  hitherto  rejected  it,  on  the  ground  that  the  admission  of  a  Jew 
would  be  an  insult  to  the  Son  of  God,  and  the  commencement  of  an  atheistic 
government.  (K)  While  the  rationalist  party  took  no  special  interest  in  the 
work  of  converting  rationalist  Jews,  (i)  the  pietists  entered  upon  it  with  p.e- 
culiar  zeal.  Societies  of  the  Friends  of  Israel  were  formed  for  this  purpose 
in  England  (1808),  in  America,  and  in  some  of  the  German  cities.  (&)  The 
result  of  these  efforts  proves  that  aside  from  those  Jews  who  live  in  countries 
not  professedly  Christian,  and  those  who  are  already  seeking  salvation,  and 
therefore  need  instruction  or  protection,  more  may  be  expected  from  the 
power  of  Christian,  improvements  in  Europe,  under  the  influence  of  which 
the  Jews  reside,  than  from  any  direct  attempts  at  conversion,  against  which 
they  have  such  prejudices.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Ghetto  in  Rome  were 
compelled  once  more  in  1823  to  listen  every  Sabbath  to  a  sermon  for  their 
conversion.  (I)  In  the  East  the  legend  of  the  middle  ages  with  respect  to 
the  fanatical  use  of  Christian  blood  was  now  revived,  and  used  to  justify 
every  kind  of  cruelty  and  horrible  outrage  against  the  Jews  (1840).  (wz) 

§  489.    Abolition  of  Slavery. 

E.  JSiot,  de  1'abolition  de  1'esclavage  ancien  en  Occident.  Par.  1840.  Tk  F.  Buxton,  d.  afrik  Scla 
venhandel  u.  s.  Abhiilfe  from  the  EngL  by  Julius.  Lps.  1841.  [The  African  Slave  Trade  and  Its  abe« 
tors.  Lond.  1841.  8.] 


The  Church  has  always  endeavored  to  mitigate  the  evils  of  slavery  (p.  138), 
and  as  soon  as  it  possessed  the  power,  to  restrain  them  by  legal  enactments. 
But  it  was  not  until  some  time  in  the  middle  ages  that  the  last  remnants  of 
European  slavery  were  abolished  by  law.  After  Europe  had  for  three  centu- 
ries gathered  up  the  riches  of  America  by  means  of  the  newly  introduced 
slavery  of  the  African  (p.  338),  the  great  principles  of  universal  liberty  com- 
bined with  those  of  the  gospel  in  demanding  the  emancipation  of  the  negro. 
44  A  party  of  the  Saints,"  as  they  were  called  in  derision,  which  had  sprung 

/)  Stenograph.  Bericht.  1848.  vol.  III.  p.  lT54ss. 

0)  A.  KZ.  1851.  33T.  119.  Brl.  KZ.  1851.  N.  83. 

A)  A.  Z.  1S34  N.  184. 1836.  N.  381.  (Jewish  Disabilities  Bill)  D.  A.  Z.  184T.  N.  362. 1S49.  N.  167. 

0  (Friedldnder)  Sendschr.  an  Tellern  von  einigen  Hausvdtera  jud.  BeL  Brl.  1T»9.  comp.  Tho- 
luck,  verm.  Bchrr.  vol  II.  p.  126. 

*)  Rheinw.  Rep.  vol.  XXIII.  p.  84, 186ss.  vol.  XXV.  p.  82,  274ss.  vol.  XXVIII.  p.  273ss.  Die 
Freunde  Isr.  Nachrichten  v.  d.  Ausbr.  d.  Reiches  G.  Bas.  1841.  3  P.  Qawsen,  d.  Verkund  d.  Ev 
unter  d.  Jnden.  from  the  French.  Ilamb.  1844. 

1)  A.  KZ.  182a  N.  41.        m)  A.  Z.  1840.  N.  140s.  &  others. 


678  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PEE.  VL    A.  D.  1643-1858. 

from  the  Methodistic  movement,  contended  for  a  long  time  almost  hopelessly 
in  Parliament  against  the  existence  and  the  necessity  of  slavery  in  the  colo- 
nies. Their  speeches  awakened  hopes  among  the  slaves,  which,  in  some  in- 
stances led  to  insurrections.  During  one  of  these,  among  the  negroes  of  De- 
marara,  the  passions  of  the  people  became  so  inflamed  that  a  missionary 
whose  name  was  Smith  was  condemned,  and  died  in  confinement  (1824) 
before  the  king's  pardon  arrived  from  England.  When  the  tumults  among 
the  slaves  of  Jamaica  had  been  quelled,  the  chapels  of  the  Baptists  and  Meth- 
odists on  the  island  were  demolished,  and  the  lives  of  their  preachers  were 
in  peril  because  they  had  preached  that  all  the  children  of  God  were  free,  (a) 
The  abolition  of  the  African  slave  trade  by  political  treaties  (1830)  was  found 
to  be  entirely  inadequate  to  effect  the  object  at  which  it  aimed,  as  long  as 
slavery  itself  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  laws,  (ft)  After  years  of  prepara- 
tion in  various  ways,  the  English  nation  made  an  offering  of  a  hundred  and 
twenty  millions  of  dollars  to  indemnify  the  masters,  that  after  a  certain  time 
of  preparation  by  instruction  the  slaves  might  be  introduced  to  the  privileges 
of  citizens,  and  that  all  of  them  might  be  declared  free  in  the  colonies  of 
England  after  the  1st  of  August,  1884.  As  the  slaves  had  become  Christian- 
ized by  such  means  and  by  previous  efforts,  their  emancipation  was  found  to 
be  practicable  and  safe,  (c)  An  Order  was  established  by  the  Abbess  Javohoy 
for  the  purchase  of  negroes  in  the  French  colonies  with  a  view  to  educate 
them,  and  thus  prepare  them  for  civil  freedom,  and  its  efforts  have  been  at- 
tended (s.  1888)  with  some  degree  of  success,  (d)  A  society  for  the  extinc- 
tion of  slavery  was  formed  at  Paris  (1885).  The  constitution  of  the  Repub- 
lic of  1848  abolished  all  slavery  on  French  territory,  and  the  National  Assem- 
bly of  1849  decreed  that  all  losses  of  the  owners  of  slaves  in  consequence  of 
emancipation  should  be  compensated  from  the  public  treasury.  Denmark  de- 
clared that  all  children  of  slaves  born  after  the  passage  of  the  act  of  manu- 
mission should  be  free,  and  fixed  upon  a  certain  year  (1847)  as  the  definite 
limit  beyond  which  all  slavery  was  to  cease  throughout  its  colonies,  (e)  In 
the  Southern  portion  of  the  United  States  the  material  interests  which  would 
be  seriously  injured  by  the  abolition  of  slavery,  came  into  violent  collision 
with  the  enthusiasm  which  demanded  that  all  who  had  been  redeemed  by 
the  blood  of  Christ  should,  at  all  hazards,  be  set  at  liberty.  The  sovereign 
people  began  (1885)  to  hang  those  clergymen  who  preached  against  slavery, 
and  the  negroes  who  listened  to  them,  in  accordance  with  their  own  forms 
of  justice  (Lynch's  law.)  (/)  Gregory  XVI.  having  reviewed  the  decrees  of 
his  predecessors,  condemned  the  trade  in  negroes  as  utterly  inconsistent  With 
Christianity  (1839) ;  (gr)  but  instead  of  being  diminished,  its  horrors  becam« 
more  dreadful. 


a)  A.  KZ.  1824.  N.  98,  Ev.  KZ.  1882.  N.  93.        1)  A,  Z.  1885.  N.  142. 
0)  Abschaffung  d.  Sklav.  in  d  Colonicn.  (Ausland.  1884.  N.  SSSsa.) 
d)  A.  Z.  1885.  Suppl.  N.  149».       e)  D.  A,  Z.  1847.  N.  252. 
/)  A.  Z.  1885.  N.  244.  ff)  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  19. 


CHAP.  VIII.    GENERAL  AFFAIRS.    §  490.  ST.  SIMON.    SOCIALISM.  679 

§  490.     St.  Simonism  and  Socialism. 

As  civil  liberty  triumphantly  advanced,  and  taught  men  that  they  had  an 
equal  right  to  the  natural  productions  of  the  soil,  and  as  at  the  same  time 
industry  became  freed  from  its  trammels,  and,  by  the  progress  which  it 
caused  in  the  natural  sciences,  produced  reciprocal  advantages,  the  wealth  of 
the  world  accumulated  in  the  possession  of  the  few,  and  threw  the  masses  of 
society,  on  the  other  hand,  into  a  state  of  the  most  hopeless  want,  (a)  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  idea  arose  with  great  power,  especially  in  the  minds 
of  many  in  France  and  England,  either  by  a  social  revolution  to  introduce 
a  community  and  a  just  distribution  of  goods  (Communism),  or  by  an  organi- 
zation of  labor  into  free  associations  for  trade  and  subsistence,  to  assist  those 
portions  of  society  which  have  been  oppressed,  in  obtaining  a  proper  share 
of  the  enjoyments  and  improvements  which  are  now  exclusively  in  the  pos- 
session of  a  few  (Socialism).  (5)  Christianity  was  found  compatible  with 
such  efforts,  and  even  countenanced  them  to  some  extent,  by  the  aid  of  such 
facts  in  its  primitive  period  as  the  compassion  of  Jesus  for  the  poor,  his  indig- 
nation against  the  wealthy,  one  attempt  at  a  community  of  goods,  and  in  the 
history  of  its  orders  and  sects  having  much  to  say  of  a  voluntary  surrender 
of  wealth,  and  a  community  of  goods  in  a  variety  of  forms,  (c)  But  as 
Christianity  was  interwoven  with  all  the  existing  relations  of  society,  and 
Pantheism  had  now  made  the  idea  of  renouncing  the  pleasures  of  this  life 
intolerable,  by  destroying  all  hope  of  another  world,  Communism  has,  in  the 
person  of  its  first  leaders,  who  fell  under  the  guillotine  of  a  merely  political 
revolution  in  France,  (d)  for  the  most  part  renounced  all  connection  with 
Christianity,  (e)  But  as  the  unavoidable  necessity  of  some  kind  of  religion 
was  perceived,  the  idea  was  adopted  of  making  it  the  basis  of  the  new  order 
of  things.  Accordingly,  in  France,  Count  St.  Simon  gave  to  his  plan  for 
improving  the  condition  of  laborers  by  elevating  industry  to  the  highest  pos- 
sible privileges,  the  name  of  a  religion — a  new  Christianity.  (/)  When  he 
died,  in  consequence  of  an  attempt  at  suicide  (May  19,  1825),  a  single  disciple, 
Olinde  Kodrigues,  stood  by  his  death-bed.  The  new  worldly  gospel  which 
had  been  introduced  in  the  midst  of  the  liberty  and  the  excitements  imme- 
diately following  the  revolution  of  July,  was  proclaimed  by  sermons,  mis- 
sions, and  polemical  treatises  sent  forth  from  Paris.  It  declared  that  Catho- 
licism was  in  its  dotage,  that  Protestantism  was  a  mere"  negation,  that  Christ 

o)  The  Claims  of  Labor.  Lond.  1845.    Engels,  d.  Lage  d.  arbeit  classo  in  Engl.  Lps.  1845. 
V)  L.  Stein,  d.  Social  u.  Commun.  d.  heutigen  Frankr.  Lps.  1848.    (BlunUchli^  Die  Communis- 
ten  in  d.  Schwciz  nach  d.  b.  Weitling  vorgefund.  Papieren.  Commissionsbcricht  Zur.  1843. 

c)  C.  B.  JTundeshagen,  d.  Commun.  n.  d.  ascetische  Socialreform  im  Laufe  d.  christL  Jahrhh. 
(Stud.  u.  Krit  1845.  H.  3s.)    J.  P.  Bomang,  d.  Bedeut.  d.  Comm.  a.  d.  Gesichtsp.  d.  Christenth.  n.  d. 
sittl.  Cultur.  Zur.  184T.— Proudhon,  d.  Sonntagsfeier.  a.  d.  Fr.  Eatisb.  1850. 

d)  F.  N.  Bdboeuf,  lo  tribun  du  peuple.  Par.  (1795.)    F.  Buonarotti,  la  conspiration  de  Baboeut 
Brux.  1S28. 

e)  (P.  554s.)  Coinp.  Gcneralbericht  an  d.  Staatsr.  v.  Neuchatel  u.  d.  geb.  dentsche  Propaganda. 
Zur.  1846.  Ev.  KZ.  1846.  N.  98. 

/)  Introd.  aux  travaux  scientiflques  du  19.  S.  Par.  1807.  2  vols.  4.  Reorganisation  de  la  societt 
Europ.  Par.  1814.  Catechisme  des  industriels.  Par.  1824.  Le  nouveau  cbristianisme.  Par.  1825, 
(Oeuvres  p.  O.  Rodrigues.  Par.  1832.  2  vols.  Extracts  in  Bucbholz  neuer  Monatschr.  vol.  21s.  84s.) 


680  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  YL    A.  D.  1648-1853. 

had  provided  only  for  the  spiritual  portion  of  our  nature,  and  that  St.  Simon 
was  about  to  reinvest  the  flesh  in  its  rights.  Siinonism  became,  on  the  one 
hand,  a  deification  of  the  world,  and  on  the  other,  a  consecration  of  industry 
as  a  series  of  operations  upon  the  divinity  itself.  Its  general  law  was,  that 
after  the  law  of  inheritance  had  been  abolished,  every  individual  should 
receive  from  the  common  stock  in  proportion  to  Lis  capacity,  and  every 
capacity  according  to  ita  works.  This  principle  was  to  be  carried  out  under 
the  direction  of  a  hierarchy,  whose  arbitrary  power  was  concealed  under 
tirades  about  love  and  self-sacrifice.  (?)  Even  noble  minds  wore  sometimes 
captivated  by  the  unsparing  manner  in  which  the  evils  of  the  present  state 
of  society  were  kid  bare,  by  the  substitution  of  merit  for  the  accident  of 
birth,  and  the  reinvestiture  of  the  disinherited  son  of  European  society  in 
the  rights  of  a  man.  The  boldest  language  which  this  spirit  of  the  age  ven- 
tured to  use,  was  that  in  which  an  exclusive  attention  to  material  interests 
was  dignified  with  the  name  of  religion.  But  when  Enfantin,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  this  party,  a  stately  and  energetic  but  narrow-minded  man,  in  his 
character  of  the  highest  revelation  of  the  Deity,  bestowed  his  principal  atten- 
tions upon  women,  and,  as  their  Messiah,  made  woman  free  by  destroying 
the  restraints  of  marriage,  and  aiming  to  attain  privileges  like  those  of  Mo- 
hammed, a  schism  was  produced  (Nov.,  1881),  and  Rodrigues  proclaimed  that 
Simonism  had  apostatized  from  St.  Simon.  The  saloon  of  the  Simonists  was 
closed  by  order  of  the  government,  and  they  were  themselves  arraigned  be- 
fore the  legal  tribunals  for  propagating  principles  dangerous  to  morality. 
Their  condemnation  (Aug.,  1832)  was  a  convenient  kind  of  martyrdom,  and 
the  supreme  Father  Enfantin  still  continued  the  object  of  a  confiding  venera- 
tion to  all  true  believers,  (h)  But  the  public  prominence  which  their  hier- 
archy and  morality  had  attained,  destroyed  all  public  confidence,  and  their 
monastic  seclusion,  their  costume,  and  their  phraseology  became  a  matter  of 
general  ridicule,  (t)  Robert,  Owen  (b.  1772),  a  benevolent  manufacturer  of 
England,  became  convinced,  by  observing  the  poverty  and  unhappiness  of 
those  around  him,  that  man  had  been  conducted  by  the  present  system  of 
civilization  to  the  very  verge  of  an  abyss.  After  vainly  attempting  to  regen- 
erate human  society  on  his  own  possessions  in  England  (since  1800)  and  in 
North  America  (1828),  he  turned  his  attention,  by  means  of  lectures,  tracts, 
and  missionaries,  to  the  neglected  portion  of  the  English  nation.  He  con- 
tended, that  instead  of  standing  in  the  way  of  one  another,  men  should  co- 
operate and  enjoy  the  fruit  of  their  common  toil ;  that  instead  of  the  present 
system  of  unnatural  marriages,  there  should  be  a  free  choice  of  kindred 
spirits  ;  and  that  instead  of  families,  there  should  be  congregations.  So  far 
as  our  knowledge  at  present  extends,  we  have  no  certainty  that  the  existence 


g)  Doctrine  de  SL  Sim.  Par.  1828.  cd.  3. 1S31.  vol.  L    Communion  g6n6rale  de  la  famille  de  St  8. 
Par.  1S31.    J.  Le  Chevalier,  rel.  St  Simonienne.  Enseignement  central.  Par.  1831.  (Zeitschr.  f.  hist. 
Th.  vol.  I.  Part  2.)  Association  TJnivereelle.  Par.  1831. 
.     7i)  Le  Chevalier,  sur  la  division.  Par.  1832.    Proces  des  St  S.  Par.  1882. 

i)  Carort,  d.  St  Sim.  u.  d.  neuere  franz.  PhiL  Lps.  1831.  Bretschmeider,  d.  St  S.  u.  d.  Chris- 
tenth.  Lps.  1832.  M.  Veit,  St  Simon  u,  d.  St  Simonisten.  Lps.  1884  Matter,  in  d.  Stnd.  u.  Krit 
1832.  P.  1.  Kapff,  in  d.  Tub.  Zeitsch.  1832.  P.  2. 


CHAP.  VIII.    GENERAL  AFFAIRS.    §  491.  HOLY  ALLIANCE.  681 

of  man  is  protracted  beyond  the  present  life,  and  hence  every  religion  which 
leads  the  mind  beyond  this  world  is  a  delusion.  Men  are  responsible  to  no 
superior  being;  but  should  they  be  placed  from  childhood  in  right  cir- 
cumstances, without  the  perverting  influence  of  poverty  and  ignorance,  they 
would  be  animated  by  a  spirit  of  kindness  toward  every  living  thing,  which 
would  render  any  division  of  property  entirely  unnecessary.  (£)  This  scheme 
of  Socialism  found  great  favor  (since  1836)  among  those  who  were  engaged 
in  manufactures.  Simonism  had  been  utterly  ruined  by  the  laughter  of  the 
French  people,  and  it  was  perfectly  safe  for  the  government  to  confide  the 
rectification  of  Owen's  theories  to  the  sound  sense  of  the  English  people. 
But  the  dangerous  spirit  of  Communism  is  still  undermining  the  foundations 
of  European  civilization,  and  has  not  yet  been  allayed  by  the  higher  authority 
of  the  State,  nor  by  the  benevolent  power  of  Christianity.  (?) 

§  491.     The  Holy  Alliance. 

Krug,  la  sainte  AIL  o.  Denkmal  d.  h.  Bundes.  Lps.  1S16.  (Gesamm.  Schrr.  vol.  III.)  Archiv  d.  h. 
Bundes.  Munich.  1818.  Notiz  ii.  Alex.  Jena.  1828.  p.  29ss.  Eylert,  Friedr.  Wilh.  IIL  voL  IL  Abth. 
2.  p.  24SSS.— F.  F.  Fleck,  d.  Krieg  u.  d.  Ewige  Friede.  Lps.  1849. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  then  consoling  himself 
for  his  lost  ideals,  and  seeking  religious  instruction  in  the  society  of  Madame 
de  Krudener  (p.  595),  (a)  the  princes  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  the 
King  of  England,  the  Pope,  and  the  Sultan,  organized  a  Holy  Alliance  (1815), 
that  the  members  of  it  might  become  a  great  Christian  family,  in  which, 
regardless  of  the  various  ecclesiastical  divisions,  the  law  of  Christian  love 
might  be  made  the  supreme  law  of  nations.  The  statesmen  of  Europe  smiled 
at  the  strange  language;  the  Holy  Alliance  in  its  actual  operation,  soon 
turned  out  to  be  very  much  like  other  holy  leagues  of  former  times,  and  it 
finally  dwindled  imperceptibly  away  (since  1830).  Monarchs  belonging  to 
the  three  Churches  of  Christendom  in  1840,  even  conquered  the  Holy  Land 
for  the  Turks.  And  yet  this  ideal  thus  involuntarily  recognized,  or  in  the 
commotions  of  an  extraordinary  period  rapidly  vanishing,  is  an  everlasting 
truth,  and  a  prophecy  of  a  future  reality.  For  the  accomplishment  of  what 
Henry  IV.  and  Elizabeth  once  had  in  view,  (J)  and  respecting  which  many 
philosophers  have  dreamed,  an  annual  Congress  of  the  friends  of  peace  has  . 
been  formed  (since  1843),  under  the  influence  of  an  American  association  of 
Quakers  (since  1815).  The  advocates  of  this  movement  declare,  that  the 
welfare  of  Europe  is  sacrificed  to  sustain  the  expense  of  an  armed  peace 
establishment ;  that  the  principles  of  Christianity  utterly  forbid  war ;  and 
that  all  the  disputes  which  arise  between  different  governments,  may  be 

&)  Ev.  KZ.  1889.  N.  43.  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  81.  50.  BrL  KZ.  1840.  N.  22.  Khctnw.  Bep.  1841.  voL 
XXXII.  p.  179ss.  242ss.  [R.  D.  Owen,  Book  of  the  New  Mor.  World.  N.  York.  1S44.  New  View 
of  Society.  N.  York.  1825. 12.  Debate  with  Campbell  Cine,  1880.] 

0  P.  591.  Hirscher  (p.  654.)  A.  Vinet,  d.  Social  in  s.  Princip.  from  the  Fr.  by  Hofmeister,  with 
Vor\v.  by  A.  Neander,  Brl.  1849.  If.  Mera,  Armuth  u.  Christenth.  Stuttg.  1S49.  ZT.  Arnim-BLvan- 
lerg,  d.  hohern  Stunde  wie  sie  sein  sollten  u.  wie  sie  sind.  Brl.  1851. 

a)  C.HI.  Eynard,  Vie  de  Me.  de  Krudener.  Par.  1849.  2  vols. 

&)  G.  G.  Gervinus,  Einl.  in  d.  Gesch.  d.  19.  Jahrh.  Lps.  1853.  p.  194s.  [Introd.  to  the  Hist  of  the 
19th  Cent.,  from  the  Germ,  of  Gervinus.  Lond.  1853.  12.  p.  75.] 


682  MODEEN  CHUECH  HISTOET.    PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1643-1S53. 

brought  to  an  amicable  termination  by  the  decisions  of  arbitrators,  (c)  The 
declamations  of  this  Congress,  and  Elihu's  pipe  of  peace,  have  been  made  the 
subject  of  general  derision,  for  even  Christ  has  brought  a  sword  into  our 
world ;  but  the  gospel,  attended  by  an  advancing  civilization,  holds  up  this 
Peace  of  God,  this  holy  alliance  of  the  nations,  as  the  great  ideal  which  it 
perpetually  strives  to  attain. 

c)  A.  KZ.  1650.  N.  121.  [R  Burritt,  Thoughts  and  Things  at  Home  and  Abroad,  with  Life,  by 
Mary  Howitt  Boston.  1858. 12.  T.  C.  Upham,  Manual  of  Peace.  N.  York.  1886.  8.  C.  Sumner,  The 
Grandeur  of  Nations.  Boston.  1847.  (Orat  and  Addresses.  Boat.  1850. 12.)  J.  Dymond,  Accordance 
of  War  with  Chr.  Phtlad.  1888. 12.] 


APPENDIX, 


[Some  of  the  first  pages  of  this  translation  were  stereotyped  before  the  seventh 
German  edition  was  announced  in  this  country.  The  following  is  nearly  all  the 
additional  matter  in  the  course  of  those  pages,  and  all  which  seemed  of  importance.] 

P.  7,  the  author  says  of  Matthias  Flacius  and  Caesar  Baronius,  that  they 
"  were  agreed  in  acknowledging  the  authority  of  the  primitive  Church  and 
its  dogmas,  and  in  regarding  the  history  of  the  Church  as  a  conflict  between 
Christ  and  Satan ;  but  according  to  Baronius,  Christ,  though  sometimes  slum- 
bering in  his  little  vessel,  has  conducted  it  safely  through  every  storm; 
while,  according  to  Flacius,  Antichrist  has  set  up  his  seat  of  power  in  the 
midst  of  the  Church  itself." 

Add  to  the  last  sentence  of  §  11 :  "  The  necessities  of  modern  times  have 
been  provided  for  especially  by  the  graceful  work  of  Berault  Berncastel,  (a) 
by  the  compilation  of  Henrion,  (&)  and  by  Rohrlacher,  (c)  whose  labors  dis- 
play a  considerable  sympathy  with  the  researches  of  German  scholars." 

Near  the  middle  of  p.  10,  Neander  is  said  to  have  given  to  the  pietistic 
school  before  represented  by  Milner,  "a  scientific  character,  by  uniformly 
referring  to  the  original  authorities,  by  entering  heartily  into  the  peculiarities 
and  earnestly  developing  the  doctrines  of  past  times,  and  by  giving  promi- 
nence to  long-neglected  representations  of  the  Christian  life,  as  they  were 
variously  exhibited  in  particular  individuals  of  uncommon  talents.  He  dis- 
plays a  confidence  in  Christianity  as  a  divine  leaven,  which  must  gradually 
pervade  all  human  affairs ;  and  though  affectionately  attached  to  the  Church 
as  the  fellowship  of  the  saints,  he  is  tolerant  toward  all  who  oppose  it  on 
merely  doctrinal  grounds,  and  he  clothes  his  descriptions  with  an  ample  and 
devotional,  but  unassuming,  simple,  and  natural  oriental  drapery.  (cT)  In  the 
same  spirit,  Jacobi  has  commenced  a  Text-Book,  in  which  general  principles 

a)  Hist  do  1'eglise.  Par.  1778-91.  24  vols.  With  Contin.  by  Pelier  de  Lacrofo,  RoUano,  etc. 
&)  New  e<L  Hist.  ecel.  depuis  la  creation  jusqu'au  pontifical  de  Pie  IX.,  publiSe  par  Migne,  Par. 
1S52.  vol.  I.  (To  be  completed  in  25  vols.) 

c)  Hist.  Universelle  de  1'egl.  Par.  1842-48.  29  vols. 

d)  The  6th  vol.  of  Neander's  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Eel.  until  1517,  was  left  in  a  fragmentary  state,  and 
has  been  ed.  by  K.  F.  T.  Schneider,  2  ed.  1-4  vol.  1842-47.  [and  has  Seen  transl.  by  Torrey,  N.  T. 
1854.]— Hageribach,  Neand.  Verdienste  um  d.  KGesch.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1851.  H.  8.)    JacoU,  z.  Erinn, 
an  Neand.  (Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1841.  N.  20ss.) 


684  APPENDIX.    INTRODUCTION.    LITERATURE. 

are  presented  in  an  abstract  classification  of  events,  and  in  isolated  charac- 
ters, and  ScJiaff  a  more  extended  work,  in  which  he  endeavors  to  give  the 
German  Church  in  America  the  results  of  German  theology."  (a) 

P.  10,  "the  later  editions"  of  GuericMs  Church  History  are  said  to  have 
"  gradually  become  a  careful  collection  of  interesting  characteristic  traits  of 
the  piety  of  our  forefathers.  The  revival  of  the  spirit  of  the  various  con- 
flicting creeds  of  former  times,  has  necessarily  had  some  influence  upon  eccle- 
siastical history.  Lindner  has  attempted  to  show  that  the  position  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  is  correct,  by  showing  that  the  law  of  spiritual  life  is  not 
progress,  which  he  regards  as  a  purely  mechanical  and  an  unscientific  idea, 
but  development,  and  has  collected  an  abundant  store  of  materials,  with  not 
much  criticism  or  exactness,  but  with  considerable  moral  judgment  and  pious 
benevolence.  Kurtz's  School-Book  has  finally  become  a  learned  manual,  in 
which  the  language  and  the  descriptions  are  vigorous,  and  almost  popular ; 
the  Lutheran  is  set  forth,  with  as  much  criticism  as  the  circumstances  allowed, 
as  the  only  true  ecclesiastical  system  of  doctrines ;  and  the  co-operation  or 
resistance  of  men  is  exhibited  in  a  scheme  of  salvation  founded  on  the  merits 
of  the  incarnate  Redeemer  on  the  cross,  and  under  the  fostering  care  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  advancing  to  universal  dominion.  Notwithstanding  the  exclusive 
ecclesiasticism  of  the  two  last-named  writers,  both  founded  their  division 
into  periods  on  the  national  elements  of  the  Graeco-Roman  and  the  Germanic 
civilization,  and  Kurtz  went  so  far  as  to  separate  many  things  which  for  the 
time  at  least  belonged  together.  (J)  Niedner,  on  the  other  hand,  investigat- 
ing and  philosophizing  with  perfect  freedom,  though  with  obvious  inequality 
in  his  execution,  and  in  a  style  which  is  rather  dry  and  scholastic,  but  with  a 
strictly  logical  connection,  has  collected  a  great  abundance  of  particular 
views.  He  was  followed  by  Fricke,  with  great  designs  and  much  labor 
attempting  to  compose  a  Text-Book,  in  which  Church  History  was  to  be 
delivered  from  those  petty  details  which  are  so  painful  and  even  fatal  to 
many  minds,  and  addressing  himself  to  his  work  with  youthful  ardor,  but  in 
a  peculiar  and  frequently  distorted  style,  and  in  an  unnatural  order  of  logical 
development."  (c) 

At  the  close  of  §  12,  Gf rarer  is  said  to  have  "pointed  out  the  immense 
importance  of  the  mediaeval  Church  for  the  German  states." 

Add  to  the  close  of  §  22 :  "  And  yet  the  necessity  of  supernatural  aid, 
and  with  this  a  confidence  in  its  reality,  had  been  vividly  felt  even  in  more 
fortunate  times.  The  unconscious  longings  of  the  Roman  people  were  ex- 
pressed by  their  poets  in  hopes  full  of  anxious  forebodings,  and  by  their  his- 
torians in  gloomy  presentiments.  (cZ)  Among  the  oriental  nations,  a  hope 

a)  J.  L.  Jacdbi,  LB.  d.  KGesch.  BrL  1850.  1  vol.  till  590.  Phil.  Schaff,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  K.  Von 
ihrer  Grund.  b.  a.  d.  Gegenw.  Mercersb.  1851. 1  vol.  Apost  Zeit  (Intended  to  be  in  9  vote.)  [Hist, 
of  the  Apost  Church,  from  the  Germ,  of  P.  Scha$  by  E.  D.  Yeomana,  N.  York.  1853.] 

6)  Bruno  Lindner,  LB.  d.  chr.  KGesch.  m.  bes.  Berucks.  d.  dogm.  Entw.  Lps.  1848-52.  2  Abth. 
&  3  Abth.  1.  H.  (till  1648.)  J.  IT.  Kurtz,  (LB  d.  KGesch.  Mietau.  1849. 1850.)  HB.  d.  allg.  KGeech. 
(as  3.  ed.)  Miet  1853. 1  vol.  (Intended  to  be  in  2  vols.  in  4  Abth.) 

c)  C.  W.  Niedner,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  K  LB.  Lps.  1346.    P.  G.  A.  Fricke,  LB.  d.  KGesch  Lps.  1850. 
1  vol.  (till  768.) 

d)  Virgil,  Eclog.  IV,  4-10.— D.  W.  ffittictier,  proph.  Stimmen  a.  Rom.  o.  das  Christl.  in  Tacitn* 
Hamb.  1840.  2  vols. 


PHILO.    STEPHEN.    PAUL    JOHN.  685 

then  extensively  prevailed  that  salvation  would  come  from  the  East,  and 
proceed  in  every  direction  from  Judea,  where  the  fulfilment  was  already 
approaching.  This  expectation,  though  known  to  the  Roman  court,  was 
regarded  as  trivial,  and  of  no  political  importance."  (a) 

Add  after  PMlo,  p.  21,  line  5th  from  the  bottom :  "  a  weak  thinker,  but 
with  an  exalted  moral  and  a  profound  religious  spirit." 

Near  the  middle  of  p.  25,  Stephen  is  said  to  have  been  "  probably  a  Hel- 
lenist, whose  ardor  had  rendered  him  prominent  in  the  controversy.  Such  a 
controversy,  however,  shows  that  he  had  broken  through  the  ordinary  bar- 
riers of  the  Christianity  of  that  period,  and  portended  the  doom  which  then 
threatened  the  unbelieving  Jews.  But  the  angelic  aspect  he  exhibited  in 
view  of  death  could  not  save  him,"  &c. 

The  first  sentence  of  §  31  continues :  "  and  from  the  synoptic  gospels  we 
have  reason  to  conclude  that  there  were  some  churches  on  the  shores  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee." 

In  the  sentence  closing  with  "  (64)  "  p.  29  :  "  Paul  did  not  survive  the  per- 
secution under  Nero." 

After  "  sinfulness,"  on  line  10th,  p.  30 :  "  Paul  had  been  brought  involun- 
tarily and  with  violence  to  Christ ;  and  in  the  profound  consciousness  of  the 
utter  nothingness  of  all  creatures  before  God,  he  believed  that  man's  destiny 
was  arranged  by  an  immutable  decree,  and  it  was  in  this  way  that  he  solved 
the  mystery  of  a  temporary  rejection  of  God's  people,  until  the  Gentiles  shall 
have  entered  the  divine  kingdom." 

Before  "  Paul,"  near  the  close  of  §  33  :  "  Yet  the  new  man  is  necessarily 
produced  by  faith,  through  which  the  believer  dies  and  rises  again  with 
Christ." 

P.  31,  on  line  4th,  instead  of  "  Borne,"  read :  "  the  Roman  Church,  which, 
according  to  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  was  founded  neither  by  Peter  nor 
by  Paul." 

On  the  first  line  of  p.  33  :  Paul  "held  up  to  those  in  Corinth  (1  Cor.  15), 
who  protested  against  the  resurrection,  not  on  the  ground  of  the  old  He- 
brew and  Sadducean,  in  opposition  to  the  Pharisaic  arguments,  but  on  that 
of  inferences  from  Grecian  literature  (Acts  IT,  32),  the  simple  fact  that  Christ 
had  actually  risen  from  the  dead ;  and  he  showed  from  his  Pharisaic  position, 
that  an  opposite  opinion  would,  if  consistently  carried  out,  lead  to  the  sensual 
life  of  an  Epicurean."  After  the  close  of  the  section,  it  is  said  that  the  sim- 
ple gospel  "  naturally  developed  itself  in  his  mind,  until  in  contrast  with 
those  various  orders  of  spirits,  he  placed  the  Redeemer  as  the  Son  of  God, 
who  had  not  only  lived  before,  but  had  actually  created  the  world."  (5) 

On  p.  34,  line  8th,  the  conflict  beyond  which  John  appears  in  his  later 
writings  to  have  lived,  is  defined  to  be  that  between  Christianity  and  u  Juda- 
ism, and  which  seemed  to  him  as  the  great  crisis  of  the  conflict  between 
light  and  darkness  in  the  world,  already  in  the  past." 

a)  Tacit.  Hist.  Y,  13.    Suet.  Vesp.  c.  4.    According  to  Josephi  Bell.  Jud.  VI,  5.  4. 

J)  Col.  1, 18-1T.  is  only  the  most  pointed  expression  of  the  development  proceeding  by  means  of 
the  epistles  to  the  Colossians,  Ephesians,  and  Philippians.  For  their  Pauline  origin :  Reuss,  Qeseh, 
d.  H.  Schriften.  vol.  I.  p.  lOlss.  119s8.  Against  it:  £aur,  Paul.  p.  417ss. 


686  APPENDIX.    APOSTOLIC  CHUECH. 

§  39  is  rewritten :  "  The  writings  which  have  come  down  to  us  from  the 
apostolic  Church,  originated  not  in  a  love  of  authorship,  but  from  the  reli- 
gious exigencies  of  the  times.  They  were  circulars  in  which  Paul  continued 
after  death  to  communicate  with  the  congregations  he  had  established,  recol- 
lections of  the  earthly  life  of  Jesus,  and  prophetic  glimpses  of  the  end  of  the 
world,  for  the  consolation  of  those  who  were  to  live  in  the  approaching 
troubles  of  the  Church.  An  inclination  toward  the  popular  language  of  tho 
Greeks  naturally  followed  when  Christianity  passed  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
Judaism  of  Palestine,  though  an  oriental  coloring  and  a  profounder  religious 
meaning  was  necessarily  imparted  to  many  of  its  words  and  phrases.  Among 
tho  epistles  by  an  unknown  hand,  is  that  which  was  addressed  to  the  Hebrews. 
Its  style  of  thought  is  that  which  prevailed  in  the  Alexandrian  school,  and 
was  adapted  to  Jewish  Christians ;  the  allegorical  mode  of  explaining  tho 
Scriptures  is  used  to  show  that  the  whole  temple  service  which  then  existed 
in  its  glory,  was  an  unsatisfactory,  shadowy  form,  whose  rites  needed  to  be 
continually  repeated,  and  had  now  attained  their  true  reality  in  Christ,  the 
everlasting  High  Priest,  and  the  perpetual  sacrifice  for  sin ;  and  saving  faith 
is  shown  to  be  a  confidence  in  things  unseen,  and  a  development  of  the  divine 
trust  exhibited  in  the  Old  Testament,  (a)  A  sudden  rupture  from  the  living 
spirit  of  former  writings  is  immediately  perceptible  when  we  enter  upon  the 
productions  of  the  apostolic  Epigonoi,  who  lived  until  near  the  middle  of  the 
second  century,  and  were  honored  by  the  Church  as  Apostolic  Fathers.  A 
doctrinal  treatise,  ascribed  to  Barnabas  by  the  Alexandrian  doctors  of  the 
third  century,  has  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
though  its  historical  views  appear  to  have  had  no  dependence  upon  the 
canonical  gospels  (Life  of  Jesus,  §  122,  nt.  c).  When  referring,  however,  to 
the  ruins  of  the  temple,  the  author  seems  to  have  regarded  Judaism  not  only 
as  then  rejected  by  God,  but  as  already  broken  when  Moses,  in  anger  at  the 
idolatrous  people,  dashed  in  pieces  the  tables  of  the  law.  He  appears  also  to 
have  looked  upon  the  whole  popular  practice  of  the  ceremonial  law  as  found- 
ed upon  a  misunderstanding  of  the  divine  intention,  according  to  which  it 
was  merely  a  prophetic  image,  whose  particular  parts  are  referred  with  a 
playful  fancy  to  Christ  as  a  new  lawgiver,  and  whose  true  interpretation  con- 
stituted a  complete  gnosis.  (&)  The  epistle  of  Clement  was  written  in  the 
name  of  the  church  of  Rome  to  the  church  of  Corinth  (80-90),  for  the  pur- 
pose of  effecting,  through  the  influence  of  former  friendship,  a  reconciliation 
between  the  several  parties  which  had  broken  out  in  the  latter,  and  we  find 
that  it  was  read  as  a  sacred  book  in  the  Corinthian  Church  in  the  second 
century,  (c)  It  contains  no  reference  to  the  Jewish  law,  introduces  many 
notions  then  current  among  the  Greeks,  and  enforces  the  doctrine  of  salva- 
tion through  faith  and  good  works,  (d)  The  Shepherd  also  had  its  origin  in 

a)  After  the  Introdd.  to  the  Commentaries  (esp.  of  D.  Schulz,  Bleek,  Tholuck) :  T.  A.  Seyffarth, 
de  Ep.  ad  H.  Indole  peculiar!.  Lps.  1821.  Ease,  u.  d.  Empfanger  d.  Br.  an  d.  H.  (Winer's  u.  Engelh. 
Journ.  1823.  vol  IL  H.  8.)  Baumgarten-Crusiua  de  orig.  Ep.  ad  H.  Jen.  182a  W.  J.  Rink,  in  d. 
Stud.  u.  Krit  1839.  H.  4. 

6)  Comp.  Eefele  in  d.  Tub.  Quartalsch.  1839.  H.  1. 

c)  Dionys.  of  Corinth,  in  JEus.  H.  ecc.  IV,  23.  6.  Iren.  Ill,  3, 

d)  Ritschl,  p.  2S2ss.  against  Schwegler,  vol.  IL  p.  125ss.  Comp.  C.  E.  Francte,  d.  Lehre  d.  Clem. 


CLEMENT.    HERMAS.    ECCLES.  ANGELS.  687 

the  Roman  Church,  (a)  After  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  it  was 
regarded  in  many  congregations  as  a  sacred  writing,  and  from  its  many 
primitive  but  offensive  references,  we  conclude  that  it  may  belong  to  the 
close  of  the  first  century,  though  Hermas,  the  brother  of  Pius  I.,  Bishop  of 
Rome  (142-157),  was  the  first  who  collected  these  inspired  dreams,  visions 
of  angels,  and  parables  together,  and  gave  them  his  primitive  name  (Rom. 
16,  14).  (&)  It  consists  principally  of  admonitions  to  a  strictly  moral  life, 
and  recognizes  on  this  very  account  the  rights  of  those  who  had  fallen  away, 
but  had  penitently  returned  after  baptism.  In  the  allegorical  form  in  which 
the  Church  is  there  presented,  Christianity  appears  almost  exclusively  as  a 
faith  in  one  God,  and  a  renunciation  of  the  world,  and  Christian  Judaism  as 
a  trust  in  the  meritoriousness  of  works,  and  as  a  mere  theological  form." 

After  the  first  sentence  on  p.  39  :  "  But  the  seven  stars  of  the  angels  of 
the  churches  of  Asia  Minor,  do  not  designate  the  overseers  of  those  con- 
gregations, but  in  the  style  of  the  inspired  prophets,  the  genii  by  whom 
the  distinct  character  of  each  church  is  supposed  to  be  represented,  like  the 
national  spirits  mentioned  in  Daniel  (ch.  10),  and  hence  they  are  sometimes 
addressed  as  personal  beings,  and  sometimes  as  identical  with  their  respective 
churches."  (c) 

The  second  sentence  on  the  same  page  is  continued  thus:  "and  were 
ordained  by  the  imposition  of  the  hands  either  of  the  whole  congregation,  or 
of  the  distinguished  teachers  belonging  to  it."  (d) 

After  the  second  sentence  on  p.  40  :  "  All  were  full  of  the  expectation 
of  something  supernatural,  and  they  therefore  put  confidence  in  what  claimed 
to  be  manifestations  of  divine  power,  although  no  one  felt  that  he  could  ad- 
vance any  claims  upon  it  for  personal  aid.  Every  natural  talent  according  to 
its  peculiar  nature,"  &c. 

Before  "  Fastings,"  middle  of  p.  40  :  "  even  the  women  took  occasion  to 
lay  aside  those  marks  of  propriety  which  were  then  generally  observed."  (e) 

Before  "  All  hope,"  near  the  close  of  §  43,  the  previous  sentence  con- 
tinues :  "  the  gospel  had  already  shown  how  it  could  quietly  exalt  society 
above  the  utmost  limits  of  the  ancient  world.  (/)  And  yet  some  admoni- 
tions to  be  obedient  for  conscience'  sake  to  those  who  were  actually  in  au- 
thority, were  not  altogether  superfluous  for  the  new  royal  priesthood,  (g} 
which  had  no  conception  of  the  labor  and  patience  needful  before  its  true 
historical  development  would  be  attained.  It  is  true  that,"  &c. 


(Zeitsch.  f.  luth.  Th.  1841.  II.  3.)  An  epistle  claiming  to  bo  the  2d  of  Clement  was  found  with  the  1st 
in  the  Codex  Alex.,  but  is  a  doubtful  fragment  of  a  generally  devotional  character. 

a)  Iren.  IV,  8.  Schwegler,  vol.  II.  p.  82Sss.  RitscU,  p.  297ss.  Lucke,  Einl.  in  d.  Off.  d.  Joh.  p. 
337ss.  (as  belonging  to  the  first  half  of  the  2d  cent) 

Z>)  Fragm.  de  canone  in  Murat,  Antiqq.  Ital.  voL  III.  p.  853.  It  may  after  all  have  been  intended 
only  for  a  Montanistic  object  ( Tertul.  de  pud.  c.  2 :  illo  apocryphus  Pastor  moechoruin.)  Comp. 
Thiersch,  d.  K.  im  Ap.  Zeita.  p.  251ss. 

c)  Rev.  1,  20.  2, 1.  8. 12.  18.  8, 1.  7.  Neither  with  Gabler,  (1.  c.  p.  14ss.)  Agents,  and  at  the  same 
time  personifications  of  the  Churches,  nor  with  Roihe  (p.  423s.),  ordinary  bishops,  but  which  ex- 
isted originally  in  the  plan  of  the  apostles,  nor  with  Thiersch  (K.  in  Ap.  Zeita.  p.  278ss.),  superior 
pastors,  a  kind  of  bishops.  Comp.  De  Wette,  Offcnb.  Jo.  p.  41s.  d)  Acts  6,  6.  13,  3. 

«)  1  Cor.  11, 1-15. 

/)  Ep.  ad  Philemon.   Gal.  3,  2S.         fir)  Rom.  13, 1-7.    1  Pet.  2, 13-16. 


688  APPENDIX.    CONFLICTS  OF  CHRISTIANITY. 

In  the  first  sentence  of  §  44 :  "  The  devotional  exercises  of  the  Christian 
assemblies,  like  those  of  the  Jewish  synagogues,  consisted,  in  addition  to  an 
attendance  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  upon  the  temple  service,  generally  of 
prayers,  singing  of  psalms  and  even  of  the  first  strains  of  the  Christian 
hymns,  (a)  the  reading  of  the  proper  sections  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
discourses  founded  upon  these."  It  is  also  said,  that  "Apostolic  epistles 
were  sometimes  exchanged  between  different  congregations  (Col.  4,  15s.)," 
and  that  "  in  Greek  congregations,  baptism  was  sometimes  administered  to 
those  who  stood  as  proxies  for  the  dead.  (&)" 

On  p.  45,  after  what  is  said  of  Sept.  Severus :  "  but  the  process  of  trial 
by  torture,  to  induce  the  accused  to  deny  their  faith,  which  had  been  author- 
ized by  Trajan,  and  after  the  time  of  Marcus  Aureliua  had  been  practised 
with  increased  severity,  was  strictly  enforced  by  the  courts,  at  least  in 
Africa,  (c)"  After  what  is  said  of  Alex.  Severus :  "  and  yet,  in  the  code  of 
laws  which  TJlpian  collected  for  the  use  of  the  proconsuls,  were  included  tho 
penal  enactments  against  the  Christians.  (<Z)" 

On  p.  66,  after  the  first  word  at  the  top :  "  Thus  the  story  of  the  massa- 
cre of  the  Theban  Legion  in  a  narrow  pass  of  the  Vallais  (287),  was,  accord- 
ing to  its  earliest  traditional  form,  merely  that  of  the  martyrdom  of  Mauri- 
tius, with  seventy  soldiers,  in  the  East ;  and  the  more  extended  form  of  it 
which  has  since  been  propagated  in  the  West,  was  made  known  near  tho 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  at  the  same  time  with  the  coming  to  St.  Maurice 
of  the  sanctuary  of  this  martyr-legion,  with  which  the  local  services  of  tho 
different  places  became  connected  in  the  cities  of  the  Lower  Khine.  (e)" 

On  p.  57,  respecting  the  Ap.  Constitutions:  "The  7th  and  8th  books 
were  independent  collections,  entirely  revised  with  respect  to  their  language 
in  the  fourth  century,  and  supplied  with  some  later  ecclesiastical  usages,  but 
not  in  a  sense  specially  favorable  to  the  Arians.  As  a  complete  collection, 
they  have  never  attained  the  authority  of  law,  and  they  have  been  put 
together  variously  in  the  different  national  churches  of  the  Roman  empire. 
In  its  primitive  form,  it  was  especially  the  compilation  of  the  church  of 
Alexandria.  (/)" 

On  p.  58,  "  Choir-leaders  (^aXrai)  (gy  are  mentioned  among  the  semi- 
clergy,  and  it  is  added :  "  Widows  and  deaconesses  were  also  appointed  for 
the  service  of  the  church ;  the  latter  as  virgins,  but  yet  distinguished  from 
the  former.  (A)" 

a)  Col.  3, 16.  Eph.  5, 19.    Comp.  Plinii  Ep.  X,  96. 
1)  1  Cor.  15,  29. 

c)  Tertul.  Apol.  c.  2. 

d)  Domitius  TTlp.  de  officio  proconsulis,  libro  VII.    According  to  Lactant.  Instt  V,  11. 

e)  Theodoret.  (about  427.)  Graecar.  affectt  curat  disp.  8.  (Opp.  vol.  IV.  p.  923.)— Vita  S.  Eomani 
after  460,  &c.    For  a  solution  of  the  story :   Rettberg,  KGesch.  DeutschL  voL  I.  p.  94ss.    A.  J.  Bin- 
terim,  Kalendarium  Ecc.  Coloniensis  8.  IX.  ad  illustr.  Hist  TJrsulae  et  sociarum  virgg.  Col.  1824.  4. 
<?.  Hagerfs  Eeim-chronik  der  Stadt  Colin,  ed.  by  Groote,  Col.  1334.     Comp.  Kheinwald's  Eep. 
1835.  vol.  IX.  p.  201SS.    Rettberg  in  Ibid.  p.  lllsa.  Eespecting  Massa  Candida:  Prudent.  Hymn.  13. 
TUlemont,  vol.  IV.  p.  175ss. 

/)  Note  a.  p.  57.  Bunsen,  Hippolytus,  p.  418-527. 
0)  Em.  H.  ecc.  VI,  43. 

7i)  Cone.  Carth.  in  Statuto  Ecc.  Afric.  c.  11.  Const,  app.  VI,  17.  comp.  Tertul.  de  poenit  c.  18, 
de  virgg.  vel.  c.  9.  Bunsen,  Hippol.  p.  486. 


CALLISTUS  I.    MAEEIAGE.    CHILIASM.  689 

On  p.  69,  after  the  first  sentence  in  §  59 :  "  The  congregation  were 
directed  to  obey  the  bishop  as  Christ,  and  the  presbytery  as  the  apostles.  («)" 

After  "interchangeably,"  middle  of  p.  59,  insert:  "traces  of  the  resist- 
ance of  the  presbyteries  to  the  new  authority  are  discoverable  in  both  centu^ 
ries ;  and  this,"  &c. 

On  p.  61,  after  the  words,  "her  subsequent  empire,"  insert :  "Even  a 
swindler  and  a  fugitive  s.ave  snatched  from  suicide,  was  able,  after  seeking  by 
violent  means  a  martyr's  death,  to  obtain  complete  control  over  Zephyrinus, 
a  Bishop  of  Eome,  but  unacquainted  with  ecclesiastical  laws,  and  to  become 
his  successor,  Callistus  I.  (219 — about  224).  He  was  disposed  to  grant  par- 
dons for  all  kinds  of  sins,  and  gave  offence  to  his  opponents  in  the  presbytery, 
by  asserting  that  a  bishop  could  never  be  deposed  by  a  presbytery,  nor  be 
compelled  to  resign  his  office,  though  guilty  of  a  deadly  sin.  (&)" 

On  p.  63,  after  "  Luke "  ;  "  but  the  laws  of  the  Church  were  not  yet 
agreed  with  regard  to  the  exclusion  of  women  at  certain  seasons  from  public 
worship,  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  Old  Testament,  (c)" — 
After  "  severest  penances"  :  "Adultery  was  the  only  ground  on  which  mar- 
riage could  become  void ;  death  alone  could  sunder  the  nuptial  bond,  and  a 
second  marriage  was  called  a  decent  adultery,  (d)" 

The  following  is  added  at  the  close  of  §  6§Y  "  But  the  sacrifice  of  all 
earthly  joys,  which  the  whole  Church  looked  upon  as  indispensable  to  its 
true  ideal  of  religion,  found  ample  compensation  in  the  belief  in  a  millennial 
kingdom,  founded  upon  a  perverted  notion  of  the  Messiah  revealed  by  tradi- 
tion, and  the  Eevelations  of  John,  (e)  This  kingdom,  which  the  returning 
Christ  would  establish  after  the  subversion  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  the 
brief  dominion  of  the  Antichrist  whom  they  regarded  as  the  returning  matri- 
cide, was  to  be  earthly,  according  to  its  essential  nature,  but  its  images  of 
sensuous  pleasure  were  also  symbols  of  religious  bliss.  The  faithful  who 
died  before  the  fulfilment  of  these  hopes,  were  consoled  with  the  prospect 
that  they  should  be  raised  again  to  participate  in  the  glories  of  this  kingdom. 
Such  was  the  faith  of  the  whole  Church,  (/)  until  the  common  ecclesiastical 
doctrine  became  suspicious  on  account  of  the  extravagances  of  a  party  (§  67), 
and  it  was  opposed  by  the  school  which  contended  that  none  but  spiritual 
blessings  were  of  any  importance  (§  85).  And  yet  this  old  and  popular  faith 
of  the  Church  was  never  surrendered  to  individual  enthusiasts,  until,  instead 
of  the  vainly  expected  and  sudden  overthrow  of  heathenism  by  a  miraculous 
advent  of  Christ,  the  Church  experienced  for  a  long  period  the  historical 
power  of  Christianity,  and  the  clergy  at  least  beheld  the  dawn  of  the  earthly 
kingdom.  (#)" 


a)  Ignat.  ad  Trail,  c.  13.  ad  Smyrn.  c.  8. 

1)  (Orig.~)  Philosophumena  s.  Haeres.  Eefut.  ed.  Miller,  1.  IX.  p.  2S4ss. 

c)  In  favor  of  them :  Dionys.  Alex.  Ep.  canon.  (Routh,  Beliq.  sacr.  vol.  II.  p.  392.)    Against 
them :  ConsUt.  app.  VI,  27s. 

d)  Athenag.  Deprecat.  c.  28.    On  the  other  side  still,  Hermae  Pastor  II,  mand.  4,  4. 

e)  Rev.  20.   Iren.  V,  83.  3. 

/)  Papias :  Eus.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  89.    Justin,  c.  Tryph.  c.  80.    Iren.  V,  82s. 

00  (Corrodi)  Krit  Gesch.  d.  Chiliasm.  (Frkf.  u.  Lpz.  ITSlss.)  Zur.  1794.  4  vols.    Munscher,  hist. 
Entwurf.  d.  L.  v.  tausemlj.  Eeich  in  d.  3  ersten  Jhh.  (Henke's  Mag.  vol.  VI.  Tt  2.) 
44 


690  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHUECH. 

Beginning  of  §  66 :  "  Candidates  for  admission  to  the  Church 
uf i/ot),  from  the  number  of  whom  all  persons  connected  with  any  employment 
in  the  heathen  temples  or  the  theatres  were  excluded,  («)" — After  "  pro- 
tracted to  the  end  of  life,"  insert :  "  Near  the  end  of  the  third  century,  fixed 
forms  of  penance  were  devised,  as  steps  hy  which  offenders  might  return  to 
the  full  communion  of  the  Church." 

Before  the  last  sentence  in  §  60,  insert :  "  though  many  rigid  persons 
established  the  conviction  in  some  congregations,  that  the  Church  could 
admit  of  no  penance  or  pardon  for  particular  sins,  or  at  least  for  their  repe- 
tition. Among  these  were  included  those  sins  which  were  called  mortal.  (&)" 

On  p.  67,  the  title  of  §  68  is  altered  so  as  to  read :  "  The  Novatian  and 
'Meletian  Schisms  "  ;  and  before  the  last  sentence  in  the  section :  "  About  the 
same  time  a  schism  was  created  in  Egypt  in  consequence  of  the  ambition  of 
Meletius,  Bishop  of  Lycopolis.  This  man  had  been  a  confessor  in  the  time 
of  the  Dioclesian  persecution,  and  now  raised  the  watchword  that  the  pen- 
ances to  bo  imposed  upon  those  -who  had  fallen  ought  not  to  be  determined 
until  a  period  of  tranquillity.  He  interfered  with  the  hitherto  undefined  pre- 
rogatives «f  the  Metropolitan  of  Alexandria,  by  consecrating,  in  the  place  of 
many  living  priests,  a  large  number  of  others  whose  salaries  could  not  be  ob- 
tained without  the  establishment  .of  an  opposition  Church.  The  bishops  of 
this  new  Church  were  recognized  at  Nicaea  as  the  future  successors  of  those 
of  the  legitimate  party ;  but  as  they  took  part,  to  a  considerable  extent,  with 
the  defeated  party  in  the  council,  they  shared  also  in  its  subversion.  Some 
remnants  of  them,  however,  were  found  as  late  as  the  fifth  century." 

References  for  §  69 : 

"Mander,  u.  Ycranlass.  u.  Beschaffenh.  d.  ult  Passabstreitigkeiten.  (KHisL  Arch.  1823.  Pt.  2.) 
Itettlery,  die  Pascbastreit  (Zeitsch.  £  hist  Th.  1832.  vol.  II.  Pt.  2.)  Gie«eler,  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit. 
1S98.  H.  4,—Schwegler,  Montan.  p.  191ss.  JBaur,  kan.  Evv.  p.  834ss.— K.  L.  Weitzel,  die  Passahfeler 
d.  ersten  Jhh.  Pforzh.  1848.  (On  the  other  Bide:  £aur,  in  d.  Th.  Jabrbb.  1848.  II.  2.  Hilgenfeld, 
Ibid.  1849.  H.  2.)  Ibid.  z^Passahfeier  d.  alt  K.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1848.  IL  4.)" 

The  sentences  (p.  68,  line  6)  on  the  Paschal  Controversy  are  altered  thus : 
"  In  Asia  Minor,  the  saving  Pa:sover  (TT.  O-COTIJPIOI/,  oTavpd>o-t/zoi>)  was  kept  with 
a  love-feast,  as  a  festival  of  rejoicing  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  work  of  re- 
demption, at  the  close  of  the  great  fast  on  the  evening  of  the  fourteenth  of  Nisan. 
In  other  parts  of  the  Church,  the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord  (TT.  avaa-Tdai^ov) 
was  celebrated  on  the  Sunday  after  the  full  moon  in  the  spring,  and  the  pre- 
ceding week  of  the  fast  was  observed  as  a  representation  of  the  Passion-week. 
"When  Poly  carp  visited  Rome  (about  160),  this  difference  in  reckoning  was 
discussed,  though  without  injury  to  Christian  unity.  But  the  Roman  bishop, 
Victor,  attempted  to  excommunicate  the  Asiatic  congregations  as  heretics 
(196),  for  their  course  in  this  matter.  Public  opinion  was  in  favor  of  the 
Roman  usage  with  respect  to  this  festival,  but  it  could  not  sustain  the  violent 
measures  of  the  Roman  bishop  against  those  who  differed  from  him  only 
upon  a  ritual  observance.  Polycrates,  in  behalf  of  the  Asiatic  bishops,  ap- 
pealed, as  Polycarp  had  done,  to  the  example  of  John,  who  had  observed  the 

a)  Constitt.  app.  VIII,  32.    Comp.  Stinsen,  Hippolyt  vol.  I.  p.  492. 

6)  Herm.  Pastor  II.  mand.  4, 1.     Tertul.  dc  pudic.  c.  12.     Cone.  Jttiberit.  c.  Is.  7.  etc. 


PASCHAL  CONTROVERSY.    WORSHIP.    BAPTISM.  69 1 

Passover  in  their  way  among  them  and  their  ancestors,  (a)  But  in  Laodicea 
and  the  country  around  it,  the  churches  continued  to  eat  the  paschal  lamb  in 
the  Jewish  manner,  as  a  type  of  Christ's  sacrifice.  A  remonstrance  against 
this  was  presented  (about  170)  from  Alexandria,  from  Kome,  and  even  from 
Asia  Minor,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  inconsistent  with  the  whole  represen- 
tation of  John  in  his  gospel,  in  which  Christ  was  never  said  to  have  par 
taken  of  the  paschal  supper  according  to  the  law,  because  he  was  himself  the 
true  Lamb  of  God,  (5)  The  Roman  usage  finally  prevailed  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, and  even  then,  those  who  contended,  though  in  ignorance,  that  this 
festival  should  be  kept  according  to  the  Jewish  law,  were  spoken  of  in  Eome 
among  the  heretics,  (c)  But  there  were  still  some  deviations,  in  different 
parts  of  the  Church,  from  the  general  usage  of  reckoning  the  Easter  Sunday 
from  the  course  of  the  moon,  (d)  The  fifty  days,"  &c, 

Near  the  close  of  §  70,  instead  of  the  "  cock  and  anchor;"  "  and  the  palm ; 
symbols  taken  principally  from  the  Old  Testament,  but  of  typical  import. 
From  the  use  of  these  in  their  houses,  Christians  were  led  to  use  them  IL. 
ornamenting  their  tombs;  and  as  works  of  art  in  fresco  or  mosaic,  they 
were  gradually  introduced  from  the  catacombs  into  the  churches.  But 
even,"  &o. 

Instead  of  the  first  sentence  of  §  71 :  "  On  the  basis  of  the  apostolic  wor- 
ship, and  under  the  influence  of  obscure  recollections  of  the  services  of  the 
temple  on  Zion,  a  solemn  form  of  worship  was  gradually  introduced,  though 
some  peculiarities  prevailed  in  the  different  metropolitan  districts  which  pre- 
vented entire  uniformity  in  its  details,  (e)  Prophetic  and  apostolic  writings, 
in  the  most  extensive  sense  of  these  words,  and  the  acts  of  the  martyrs,  dif- 
ferent according  to  local  usage  and  interest,  were  read  in  the  public  assem- 
blies. The  homilies  which  followed  were  delivered  principally  by  the  bishop 
alone ;  they  were  in  the  East  constructed  and  uttered  in  a  rhetorical  style, 
and  they  were  therefore,  even  in  the  third  century,  extemporized  by  those 
whose  peculiar  talents  fitted  them  for  such  an  exercise.  The  songs  in  honor 
of  Christ  as  a  God,  in  which  the  oldest  hymns  that  have  reached  us  were 
used,  had  a  resemblance  to  the  Pindaric  odes,  and  show  an  Alexandrian 
spirit.  (/)" 

In  the  same  section,  the  bread  and  wine  presented  by  believers  are  called 
"  oblationes  ;"  "  the  consecrated  bread  taken  home  by  them,  or  sent  to  the 
absent,  was  eaten  every  morning  before  any  thing  else ; "  (g}  u  baptism  was  ad- 
ministered usually  by  immersion  three  times,  to  the  sick  by  sprinkling  (B, 
clinicorum),  with  reference  to  the  death  of  our  Lord,  and  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ; "  "  anointing  (^pta/ia),  as  well  as  impo- 

a)  Eus.  H,  ecc.  V,  28-25.    Tertul.  de  pracscr.  {Append.)  c.  53.    Socrat.  H.  ecc.  V,  21. 
&)  Eus.  H.  ecc.  IV,  26.    Chronicon  pascli.  ed.  Dindorf,  voL  I.  p.  12ss.  (Melito,  Bp.  of  Sardes. 
Clemens  Alex.,  Apollinaris,  Bp.  of  Hierapolis,  Hippolytus.) 

c)  (Orig.)  Haeres.  Rcfut  p.  274ss. 

d)  F.  Piper,  Gesch.  d.  Osterfestes.  Brl.  1S45. 

e)  Constitt.  fipp.  VIII.    Comp.  the  Alexandrian  view  according  to  Tattam's  representation  in 
Bunsen,  Hippol.  p.  494ss. 

/)  Clem.  Paed.  Ill,  12.     (Clem.  Hymn,  in  Salv.  ed.  Piper,  Gdtt.  18S5.)    U«bers.  b,  Munter, 
Sinnb.  u.  Kunstvorst.  p.  16s. 

ff)  Tertul.  ad  uxor.  II,  5.  comp.  JBuneen,  Hippol,  p.  504. 


692  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

sition  of  hands,  was  the  consummation  of  baptism ;  and  confirmation  (COD- 
signatio)  hecame  finally  a  distinct  rite." 

P.  71,  instead  of  the  sentence  commencing  with  "Justin":  uTho 
memorabilia  of  the  apbstles,  quoted  by  Justin ,  correspond  essentially  with 
the  history  given  in  the  synoptic  gospels.  But  some  deviations  from  it  can- 
not be  fully  explained  by  allowing  that  they  were  written  from  an  indepen- 
dent recollection.  They  rather  imply  that  he  could  not  have  made  use  ol 
these  synoptic  gospels,  but  that  he  must  have  had  besides  them,  or  instead 
of  them,  such  a  revision  as  was  in  use  among  the  Jewish  Christians,  like  the 
Gospel  of  the  Hebrews,  or  the  Gospel  of  Peter,  (a)" 

After  the  ninth  line  on  p.  78  :  u  In  these  respects  they  entirely  correspond 
with  the  Martyr- Acts  of  Ignatius.  (&)  The  feelings  of  humility  and  of  self- 
respect,  as  well  as  the  desire  to  die,  shown  in  them,  were  very  possible  in  a 
character  highly  esteemed  in  the  age  in  which  the  martyr  lived,  and  the 
abuse  of  the  soldiers,  and  his  free  intercourse  with  his  friends,  were  consistent 
with  the  Roman  laws  on  imprisonment.  But  not  only  have  we  indubitable 
evidence  that  the  more  extensive  text  has  been  revised,  (c)  and  that  other 
epistles  have  been  added  to  the  original  seven,  but  even  the  shorter  text  dis- 
covered again  in  the  seventeenth  century,  has  not  proved  to  be  perfectly 
genuine,  (d)  The  newly-discovered  Syriac  translation  of  three  epistles,  in  the 
briefest  and  the  rather  less  hierarchic  text,  produces  the  impression  that  it 
can  be  only  an  extract,  (e)  But  if  even  the  germ  of  these  epistles  should 
prove  to  be  spurious,  and  not  essentially  the  same  with  the  fundamental  ideas 
in  the  more  extended  work  we  now  have,  they  would  still  be  an  important 
document  of  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  (/)  The  Epistle  of  Polycarp 
to  the  Philippians  is  a  modest  admonition  to  morality,  was  written  with 
reference  to  the  actual  circumstances  of  their  Church,  makes  several  allusions 
to  Paul,  and  is  pervaded  by  the  same  spirit  as  the  first  epistle  of  John,  and 
the  pastoral  epistles.  The  obvious  reference  to  Ignatius  is  probably  of  a 
later  origin.  (0)  Papias,"  &c. 

The  title  of  §  74  is  changed  into  "Apocryphal  Literature."    References  are  : 

a)  Note  Z>.  p.  7t.  Semisch,  d.  app.  Denkw.  d.  Just  Goth.  1843.  ffilgenfeld,  krit  TJnters.  u.  d, 
Erv.  Jnst,  d.  Clem.  Homilien.  u.  Marcion's.  HaL  1850. 

6)  (After  the  editt.  of  the  Patres  app.)  Corpus  Ignatlanum  by  Will.  Cureton,  Lond.  1849.  Ignatti 
quae  feruntur  Epp.  cum  ejusd.  martyrio,  coll.  editt  graecis,  vereionibusq.  syriaca,  armen.,  lat  rec.  J. 
IL  Petermann,  Lps.  1849.  M.  J.  Wocher,  d.  Brr.  d.  h.  Ign.  fibers,  u.  erklart  Tub.  1829. 

c)  On  the  other  hand  only  paradoxically :  K.  Meier,  d.  dopp.  Rec.  d.  BIT.  d.  Ign.  (Stud.  u.  Krit 
1S3S.  H.  3.) 

<£)  Against  the  genuineness:  J.DaUaeus,  Baur,  J.  E.  C.  Schmidt,  (abridged  in  his  KGesch.)  and 
Netz,  (as  referred  to  in  Note  a.  p.  78.)  Schwegler,  nachap.  Zeita.  voL  II.  p.  159ss.  (respecting  a 
Pauline  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  Petrine  Clementines  in  Rome  after  the  middle  of  the  2d  cent) 
For  the  genuineness :  Pearson,  Voas,  Kothe,  Huther,  and  Dusterdieck,  (as  referred  to  in  Note  a. 
p.  73.) 

e)  Note  &.  p.  73.  C.  E.  J.  Bunaen,  Ign.  u.  s.  Zeit  7  Sendsch.  an  Neander.  Die  3  achten  u.  4 
unachten  Brr.  d.  Ign.  Hmb.  1847.  4.  On  the  other  side :  Baur,  Die  Ign.  Brr.  n.  ihr  neuester  Kri- 
tiker.  Tub.  1848.— H.  Denzinger,  u.  d.  Aechth.  d.  bish.  Textes  d.  Ign.  Brr.  Wurzb.  1849.  G. 
Uhlhorn,  d.  Verb.  d.  syr.  Rec.  d.  Ign.  BIT.  z.  d.  kurtzern  griech.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1851.  H.  1.) 

/)  (Polycarpi,  Ep.  c.  13.)  Iren.  V,  28.  Orig.  in  Luc.  Horn.  6.  (vol.  III.  p.  938:)  Eus.  H.  ecc. 
Ill,  86. 

00  Note  c.  p.  78.  For  the  genuineness,  with  the  exception  of  interpolations  (but  more  vigorom 
than  Dallaeus  and  Bunsen) :  Hitachi,  altkath.  K.  p.  604ss. 


GNOSTICISM.    SA.TUENINUS.    OPHITES.  693 

«JUbsheim,fo  causls  suppositt  libror.  inter  Christt  (Dss.  ad  H.  ecc.  vol.  I.  p.  217ss.)  LucJce, 
jEinl.  in  d.  Offenb.  Job.  ed.  2.  1848.  p.  66ss.  Reuss,  Gesch.  d.  H.  Schriften  N.  T.  ed.  2.  Abtb.  I. 
p.  235ss." 

Add  to  §  74 :  "  Commencing  with  the  written  controversy  with  heathen- 
ism (§  52),  this  kind  of  ecclesiastical  literature  was  now  developed  in  a  con- 
troversy with  the  heretics,  and  penetrated  deeply  not  only  the  sense  of  the 
Scriptures,  but  the  spirit  of  the  Church  itself.  It  is  divided  into  three 
schools,  according  to  local  traditions,  but  in  consequence  of  the  intercourse 
which  then  prevailed  in  the  Church,  these  traditions  were  very  extensively  , 
diffused." 

Kef.  §  75  :  Schliemann  is  to  be  corrected  with  respect  to  Ebionism,  by, 

"  Ritsclil,  altkatb,  K  p.  102ss." 

After  " apostate"  (line  17),  p.  75  :  "According  to  Roman  accounts,  they 
trusted  to  the  law  for  justification,  as  they  believed  that  Christ  was  justified, 
and  became  the  Messiah  by  completely  fulfilling  it.  (a) 

On  Gnosticism  (p.  76),  after  the  reference  to  Eitter : 

IT.  Rossel,  Gesch.  d.  Untersuch.  u.  d.  Gnost.  (Th.  Scbrr.  eingef.  v.  Neander.  BrI.  1847.  vol.  I. 
p.  179ss.") 

In  the  first  sentence  of  §  76  (p.  76),  after  "  infinite "  :  "  and  indeed  re- 
specting the  origin  and  development  of  the  divine  existence " ;  and  at  the 
close  of  the  same  sentence :  "  which  combined  all  the  speculations  and  fan- 
cies of  earlier  and  contemporaneous  philosophies,  and  endeavored  to  pene- 
trate all  the  mysteries  of  the  divine,  as  well  as  of  human  history." 

P.  77,  Saturninus  is  said  to  have  had  "  a  special  relation  to  Menander," 
and  to  have  held,  that  "  Satan  was  the  original  ruler  over  matter  (vXrj)"  • 
that  the  seven  planetary  spirits,  "  with  the  view  of  founding  a  kingdom  for 
themselves,  wrested  from  Satan's  kingdom  the  materials  of  the  present  uni- 
verse," and  that  "  the  God  of  the  Jews  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  plan- 
etary spirits,  and  to  assist  them,  raised  up  a  series  of  prophets.  But  as  their 
God  could  not  prevail  against  the  demoniac  powers,  one  of  the  highest 
Aeons  (vovs),  as  Christ  in  the  semblance  of  a  body,  came  to  redeem  the  supe- 
rior human  race 'from  the  power  of  Satan,  as  well  as  of  the  planetary  spirits. 
To  effect  this,  he  gave  them  the  Gnosis  and  the  Law,  which  directed  them  to 
abstain  from  every  thing  by  which  men  became  subject  to  matter.  The  fol- 
lowers," &c. 

§  78,  on  the  Hellenistic  Gnostics,  commences  thus :  "  1)  The  Ophites 
(Naao-o-TjiW)  constituted  the  transition  from  the  Oriental  to  the  Hellenistic 
Gnostics.  They  originated  probably  in  Phrygia  before  the  time  of  Christ, 
and  called  themselves  simply  Gnostics ;  but  in  Egypt  they  adopted  Christian 
notions,  though  they  always  remained  openly  hostile  to  Judaism.  They  pro- 
fessed to  believe  that  the  Son  of  Man  emanated  from  the  Original  Source 
(/3u3os),  in  which  the  male  and  female  powers  were  combined,  and  that  the 
Mother  of  Life  (rrvcvjjia  aytov)  sprung  from  him  and  his  parent.  From  her 
connection  with  the  former  original  types  of  humanity,  Christ  was  born,  and 
from  the  excess  of  light  then  sent  forth,  was  produced  Sophia,  i.  e.,  the  prin- 

a)  (Oriff.)  Haeres.  Eefut  p.  257. 


(594  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHUECH. 

ciple  of  redemption  and  of  creation.  TFhen  Sophia,  the  imperfect  and 
adventitious  offspring  of  this  connection,  aspired  to  be  like  God,  she  plunged 
into  chaos,  and  gave  birth  to  Jalddbaoth,  i.  e.,  the  son  of  chaos.  This  being, 
that  he  might  create  a  special  kingdom  for  himself,  brought  forth  the  seven 
planetary  spirits ;  and  when  these  also  aimed  at  independence,  in  great  rage 
he  threw  himself  into  the  slime  from  which  the  universe  was  formed,  and 
the  outward  image  of  his  wrath  became  quickened  into  the  serpent-spirit 
(dcptopopcpos).  To  supply  the  planetary  spirits  with  employment,  he,  with 
their  assistance,  formed  man  in  his  own  image ;  and  after  Sophia  had  given 
inspiration  to  this  work  of  his  hands,  he  animated  it  with  his  own  spirit  to 
have  dominion  over  divine  things.  But  in  this  process  he  had  parted  with 
his  highest  powers,  and  now  saw  with  terror  that  his  creature  was  superior 
to  himself.  To  prevent  man  from  becoming  conscious  of  these  exalted  pow- 
ers, he  commanded  him  not  to  eat  of  the  tree  of  knowledge.  Sophia,  having 
been  brought  by  the  apostasy  of  her  offspring  to  repentance  for  her  fault, 
and  to  a  consciousness  of  her  divine  nature,  now  endeavors  to  attract  to  her- 
self and  to  purify  the  spiritual  light-power  in  the  world  created  by  Jalda- 
baoth.  Availing  herself  of  the  enmity  of  the  serpent-spirit  against  its 
parent,  she  induces  man  to  transgress  the  prohibition  respecting  the  tree  of 
knowledge.  Hence,  what  is  called  a  Fall  in  the  books  of  the  God  of  the 
Jews,  was  in  fact  a  transition  to  a  higher  mental  state.  In  great  wrath  the 
Creator  of  the  world  now  throws  men  down  to  the  lowest  material  world, 
and  harasses  them  with  all  the  pains  and  temptations  incident  to  matter,  but 
reserves  a  chosen  people  for  his  own  special  possession.  Individual  persons, 
endowed  with  high  intellectual  powers,  are  raised  up  by  Sophia,  but  she 
vainly  strives  to  free  them  from  their  bonds,  until  the  Aeon  Christ  unites 
himself  with  the  Messiah  sent  by  the  Creator  of  the  world,  and  brings  to 
men  the  saving  knowledge  of  the  true  God.  Jaldabaoth  had  his  own  Mes- 
siah crucified,  that  he  might  thus  destroy  the  superior  being  connected  with 
him,  but  who  had  previously  departed.  In  the  end,  Sophia,  with  her  pneu- 
matic followers  among  men,  will  be  led  back  to  the  blissful  fellowship  of 
God;  and  the  God  of  the  Jews,  deprived  of  the  light  of  all  the  pneu- 
matic powers,  will  gradually  sink  into  the  abyss  of  annihilation.  The  ser- 
pent," &c. 

"  2)  Basilides  of  Alexandria  (120-130)  completed,  and  at  the  same  time 
transcended  the  Gnosticism  which  professed  to  be  an  esoteric  doctrine  pre- 
served by  Matthias.  The  Ineffable  (TO  apfarov\  the  Deity  who  exists  not 
merely  for  time  (6  OVK  &v  3eds),  has  the  germ  of  every  thing  in  himself,  and 
gives  existence  to  every  thing  not  by  emanation  (TrpojSoXq),  but  as  Jehovah 
does  to  the  light.  In  this  germ  of  the  universe  (rravo"rrepp.ia  TOV  KOO-/IOV)  ex- 
isted a  threefold  sonship  (vio-rqs  Tpi^pr)s)j  which  the  Original  Being  produces 
by  the  attractive  power  of  his  beauty.  The  first  mounts  directly  up  to  him- 
self, and  constitutes  the  happy  world  of  spirit  (TrX^pw^a) ;  the  second  forms 
the  confines  of  this  heaven,  and  is  represented  by  the  Holy  Ghost  (TO  n&optov 
Trvtvpd) ;  and  the  third  remains  in  the  original  germ  of  the  universe,  and 
needs  purification.  From  this  last  sprung  the  first  and  the  second  ruler  of  the 
world  (apx<aj/),  each  of  whom,  in  accordance  with  the  decree  of  the  Origina. 


GNOSTICISM.    BASILIDES.    VALENTINUS.  695 

Being,  gave  birth  to  a  superior  son.  The  first  of  these  created  for  himself 
the  upper,  and  the  last  the  lower  planetary  heaven.  From  the  germs  of  these 
was  developed  the  lowest  world  with  the  race  of  man.  Until  the  time  of 
Moses,  this  was  the  kingdom  of  the  lower  Archon.  But  Moses  made  known 
to  it  the  higher  Archon,  by  whom  the  prophets  were  commissioned.  The 
great  Archon  supposed  himself  to  be  God ;  but  when  through  his  Son  he 
received  the  gospel  from  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  reverently  submitted  himself  to 
its  revelations.  Hence,  in  due  time,  the  son  of  Mary  in  this  lower  world  was 
enlightened  by  the  gospel,  and  his  nature  was  purified  from  all  worldly  ele- 
ments by  the  necessary  process  of  his  sufferings.  Accordingly,  these  elements 
were  left  on  earth ;  his  physical  part  remained  at  his  ascension  in  the  plan- 
etary heaven,  and  his  pneumatic  part  ascended  to  the  pleroma  as  the  type  of 
all  the  redeemed.  In  the  end,  when  all  who  are  susceptible  shall  have 
attained  their  destiny,  this  lower  world  will  be  again  covered  with  ignorance, 
and  all  things  will  be  confirmed  in  the  permanent  state  of  existence  for 
which  they  are  naturally  fitted.  This  Eoman  account,  (&)  founded  upon  the 
writings  of  Basilides  and  his  son  Isidore,  and  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  they 
used  the  term  faith  to  designate  the  reception  of  salvation,  and  yet  maintained 
the  necessity  of  the  redemption  of  that  which  is  divine  from  a  nature  originally 
alienated  from  God,  seems  to  imply  that  the  materials  of  the  universe  are 
independent.  The  revelation  of  the  Original  Being  in  365  kingdoms  of 
spirits,  according  to  astronomical  relations  indicated  by  the  mystic  watch- 
word Abraxas  (or  a/3pa<rd£),  may  find  a  sufficient  place  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
threefold  sonship,  but  in  other  accounts  was  looked  upon  as  an  emanation 
from  the  Original  Being,  or  a  gradual  deterioration  of  his  essence,  until  the 
seven  angels  of  the  lowest  spiritual  world,  with  the  Archon,  the  God  of  the 
Jews,  at  their  head,  created  the  world  from  the  materials  which  they  found, 
and  furnished  their  men  with  all  kinds  of  worldly  powers,  and  with  such 
spiritual  powers  as  they  themselves  possessed.  To  effect  the  deliverance  of 
this  spiritual  power  from  its  connection  with  matter,  the  first-born  celestial 
power  (vovs)  united  himself  with  Jesus  at  his  baptism.  Though  this  Jesus 
was  a  perfect  man,  he  needed  an  atonement  for  himself,  and  it  was  he  alone 
who  suffered  and  died.  In  this  manner,  it  is  possible  that  even  the  Basi- 
lideans  adopted  the  peculiarities  of  Gnosticism,  and,  especially  in  the  "West, 
carried  the  idea  of  freedom  from  the  law  so  far  that  it  amounted  to  moral 
indifference,  ascribed  to  the  Eedeemer  only  the  semblance  of  a  body,  and 
hence  may  have  regarded  a  denial  of  him  as  of  no  importance.  In  this  state 
of  elevation  above  all  positive  religious  forms,  they  maintained  an  existence 
until  late  in  the  fourth  century." 

"  3)  Valentinus,"  &c.  The  scheme  of  Valentine  is  said  to  be  (p.  78)  "  a 
lofty  religion  of  the  spirit,  founded  on  the  religion  of  nature  professed  among 
the  heathen." 

After  the  word  u  events  "  (line  5,  p.  79) :  "  in  an  ascending  scale  of 
forms,  possessing  a  material,  psychical,  and  pneumatic  nature,  in  accordance 
with  this  mingling  of  influences,  and  the  variable  moods  of  the  Sophia." 

«)  Haer.  Eefut  p.  225-244.— Basil,  philosophi  gnostic!  sententiae  ex  Hippol.  libro  illustr.  ecL  J. 
L.  JucoU,  Eegiom.  1852. 


696  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHUKCH. 

After  the  word  "  century,"  tenth  line  from  the  foot  of  p.  79,  continue  the 
sentence :  "  divided  into  an  Oriental  and  an  Italian  school.  The  former  held 
that  the  body  of  the  Saviour  was  pneumatic,  because  the  Holy  Ghost  over- 
shadowed Mary ;  the  latter  contended  that  it  must  have  been  psychical,  since 
the  higher  principle  did  not  come  upon  him  until  his  baptism.  According  to 
the  Roman  account,  (a)  Ileracleon  and  Ptolemaeus  belonged  to  the  latter 
school,  and  ascribed  to  external  works  no  other  importance  than  that  of 
sensibly  expressing  our  spiritual  unity  with  Christ.  The  gospel  of  John  has 
been  very  seriously  and  piously  explained  by  Ileracleon,  who  fully  believed 
that  it  corresponded  with  his  views,  and  sometimes  his  interpretation  is  sim- 
pler than  that  of  Origen.  (&)  Ptolemaeus  is  &&.d  to  have  regarded  the  Aeons 
which  Valentine,"  &c. 

P.  80,  after  the  first  line :  "  Finally,  Marcus,  who  boasted  that  he  had 
given  a  proper  direction  to  this  school,  has  indeed  enlarged  the  number  of 
Aeons  by  poetical  allegories  and  a  literal  application  of  Pythagorean  num- 
bers, and  has  described  the  universe  as  an  utterance  of  the  Ineffable,  or  a 
gradual  decadence  of  the  divine  essence ;  but  the  gorgeous  system  of  the 
Marcosian  worship,  with  its  twofold  baptism,  its  change  of  wine  into  blood, 
and  its  attractions  for  women  of  eminent  talents,  gave  occasion  to  scandal 
about  philters,  magic,  and  juggling,  (c)" 

4)  "  Carpocratcs,"  &c.  After,  "  The  same  was  true  of,"  (lino  5,  p.  81) : 
insert :  "  the  son  of  Joseph,  who  carried  with  him  in  a  pure  state  through  all 
earthly  things,,  the  recollections  of  what  he  had  witnessed  in  a  superior 
state,  and  overthrew  the  law  of  the  mundane  spirits." 

Additional  references  to  §  79 : 

"  4)  Tertul.  adv.  Hermogenem.  Ilaercs.  EefuL  p.  273s.  Theodoret,  Ilaer.  fabb.  1, 19.  comp.  Eut. 
II  ecc.  IV,  24.— G.  Eoehmer,  Ilerm.  Africanus.  Sand.  1832." 

The  sentence  (p.  81,  last  line)  ending  with  "concealed,"  continues:  "in  a 
body  net  formed  of  earthly  materials,  but  fitted  for  activity  and  suffering 
among  men.  (d)" 

Note  d,  p.  79,  reads : 

"  They  are  the  principal  topic  of  Iren.  (I,  Iss.  II,  1.  Haer.  Eefut  177-94)  and  of  Tertul.  (adv.  Val- 
cntinianos),  but  the  representation  which  they  give  was  even  then  that  of  Ptolemaeus.  Some  par- 
ticulars in  Clement.  OHff.  in  Jo.  torn.  13.  Epiph.  Haer.  31s.  Munter,  Odae  gnosticae,  thebaiw  et 
lat  Hafn.  1812.  The  Coptic  MS.  Sophia,  preserved  in  the  Brit  Museum  as  a  trans,  of  the  lost  prin- 
cipal treatise  of  Valentine  (lat  fee.  M.  G.  Schwarze,  ed.  retermann,  Ber.  1851.)  is  an  unimportant 
Ifcter  production  of  the  Marcosian  party.— If.  Eossel,  d.  System  Val.  (Th.  Schrr.  p.  250ss.)" 

At  the  close  of  §  79,  add  :  "  4)  Hermogenes  of  Carthage  (about  200)  came 
upon  Gnostic  ground,  only  when  he  taught  that  the  Deity  in  creation  acted 
upon  the  wild  chaotic  mass  from  which  the  world  was  made,  and  which  was 
like  himself,  eternal,  as  it  were  with  the  power  of  beauty,  and  thus  formed 
from  it  the  natural  world  and  mankind  ;  and  that  even  deformed  and  wicked 

«)  EefuL  Haer.  p.  195.        I)  Extracts  in  Oriff.  torn,  in  Ev.  Jo.  comp.  Epiph.  haer.  86. 

c)  Iren.  I,  13-21.  Haer.  Eefut  p.  200.  (Scarcely  any. thing  but  Extracts  from  Iren.)   Epiph. 
haer.  34. 

d)  The  Eoman  account  (Haer.  Eefut  p.  253s.)  is  confused,  since  the  doctrine  of  a  later  Marcionito 
named  Prepon,  according  to  which  the  Eedeemer  himself,  as  the  Mediator  between  the  good  and 
evil  principle,  was  only  righteous,  is  made  to  imply  a  change  of  views  in  Marcion  himself!    Comp 
*iie  correct  derivation  from  Cerdon.  (Ibid  p.  259.) 


HEEMOGENES.    EBIONITES.    IEENAEUS.  697 


things  .now  enter  into  the  universal  system  as  a  resisting  remnant 

but  will,  after  the  development  of  all  which  is  capable  of  improvement,  sink 

back  into  chaotic  nothingness.    Tertullian  vented  his  wrath  against  Hermo- 

genes  by  an  attack  upon  the  imitative  arts,  and  all  liberal  culture  in  the 

Church." 

§  80  is  entitled  "  Gnostic  Ebionites,"  &c. 

About  the  middle  of  p.  84,  the  sentence  beginning,  "  The  Homilies,"  may 
read  :  "  The  Homilies  were  never  the  creed  of  the  Eoman  Church,  but  were 
composed  or  revised  in  Eome  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  to 
reconcile  the  Jewish  Christianity,  which  was  not  yet  denounced,  but  was  de- 
clining there,  with"  &c.  (a) 

P.  85,  8th  line,  after  "  baptism,"  read  :  "  and  in  addition  to  this,  highly 
commended  circumcision  to  Jews  by  birth." 

At  the  close  of  §  80,  add  :  "  At  the  commencement  of  the  third  century, 
a  book  of  this  sect  was  brought  from  Syria  to  Rome,  which  claimed  to  have 
come  from  the  hand  of  a  gigantic  angel.  It  required  circumcision,  but  of- 
fered pardon  for  even  the  most  unnatural  sins  on  a  second  baptism,  and  was 
rejected  by  the  Eoman  Presbytery.  (7>)  Origen  knew  of  this  party  even  in  his 
day,  and  speaks  of  their  selection  from  the  law  and  the  gospel,  their  book 
which  fell  from  heaven,  and  of  their  new  forgiveness  of  sins,  (c)" 

P.  85,  last  line,  after  "  appreciated,"  read  :  "  but  the  fantastic  nature  of 
their  dogmas,  their  partial  adoption  of  pagan  notions,  their  high-wrought, 
or,  sometimes  on  the  contrary,  variable  system  of  morals,  and  the  position 
which  they  endeavored  to  maintain  in  the  Church,  (d)  or  at  least  their  ordi- 
nary connection  with  Catholic  Christianity,  render  a  judgment  respecting 
them  at  the  present  day  on  various  accounts,  a  matter  of  difficulty,  (e)" 

§  83  is  entitled  —  "I.  The  Asiatic-Eoman  School,"  and  reads  :  "A  Chris- 
tian theology  was  produced  especially  in  the  controversy  with  the  Gnostics, 
in  which  an  attempt  was  made  to  adhere  to  the  historical  basis  of  Christian- 
ity as  the  common  property  of  all,  and  to  apprehend  its  practical  relations  in 
a  scientific  manner.  While  therefore  philosophy  was  recognized,  true  Chris- 
tianity was  looked  upon  as  consisting  in  the  writings  and  traditions  which 
had  been  preserved  from  the  apostolic  times,  and  those  things  which  were 
intelligible  to  the  common  people.  Irenaem  v/as  the  principal  agent  in  intro- 
ducing this  'school  to  the  "West.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Poly  carp,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  intercourse  between  Asia  and  the  congregations  recently  estab- 
lished upon  the  Ehone  he  became  a  presbyter  in  Lyons.  During  his  absence 
on  a  mission  to  the  Eoman  bishop,  Eleutherus,  to  effect  an  accommodation 
with  the  Montanists  (ITT),  he  escaped  the  massacre  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  (/) 
The  same  year,  however,  he  became  the  successor  of  Pothinus,  the  martyr- 

a)  According  to  the  genuine  epistle  of  Clement,  the  Pastor  of  Hennas,  and  the  writings  of  Jus- 
tin in  opposition  on  the  one  hand,  to  Schwegler,  nachap.  Zeita.  vol.  L  p.  402ss.  and  on  the  other  to 
Dorner,  L.  v.  d.  Person  Chr.  vol.  I.  p.  156.  Comp.  KitscM,  altkath.  K.  p.  253ss.  Hilgenfeld,  Evv. 
Justins.  p.  220. 

l~)  Haer.  Eefut.  p.  292ss. 

c)  In  Ens.  II.  ecc.  VI,  38. 

d)  Comp.  §  79.     Tertul.  c.  Valent  c.  4. 

e)  E.  g.  Vopisous,  Vita  Saturnini  c.  2.  Just.  Apol.  I.  c.  26.       /)  Eu-s.  H.  ecc.  V,  4. 


698  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

bishop  of  ninety  years  of  age,  and  soon  restored  the  agitated  congregation  tc 
its  former  prosperity.  The  only  proof  of  his  own  martyrdom  (about  202; 
consists  in  some  remembrances  or  wishes  which  existed  at  a  much  later  period 
in  the  Frankish  Church,  (a)  The  recollections  of  his  youth  went  hack  nearly 
if  not  quite,  to  apostolic  times,  (J)  and  he  was  therefore  strenuously  opposed 
to  Gnostic  speculations  and  all  attempts  to  explore  the  abyss  of  Deity,  (c] 
His  confidence  in  the  writings  of  John  was  no  less  than  his  familiarity  with 
them,  and  we  therefore  find  him  using  the  most  glowing  imagery  of  Asiatic 
tradition,  and  maintaining  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  still  poured  out  upon  the 
Church,  (d)  and  that  the  millennial  kingdom  was  near  at  hand,  (e  )  He  was 
practically  inclined  to  nothing  in  Montanism  but  the  moral  earnestness  which 
he  found  in  it,  and  though  he  rebuked  the  assumptions  of  the  Roman  bishop, 
he  was  accustomed  in  the  spirit  of  peace,  and  in  opposition  to  those  who 
would  rend  the  glorious  body  of  Christ  on  account  of  a  mere  difference  in 
the  mode  of  apprehending  Christian  truth,  (/)  to  point  the  whole  "West  to 
the  Roman  see  (§  62,  nt.  <»,  §  69,  nt.  5).  His  writings  were  to  his  people  as  if 
composed  in  a  foreign  land,  and  consequently  were  but  little  known  among 
them ;  with  respect  to  their  peculiar  meaning  they  soon  became  to  a  consider- 
able extent  foreign  to  the  whole  Church,  and  the  principal  part  of  them  were 
therefore  at  an  early  period  lost,  (y)  The  Roman  presbyter,  Caius,  in  an  elo- 
quent dialogue  with  Proclus,  the  principal  advocate  of  Montanism  at  Rome, 
presents  us  with  a  good  representation  of  that  system,  and  the  arguments 
urged  against  it  (202-18).  (K)  "With  the  moderate  feelings  of  a  Roman  con- 
versant with  the  trophies  of  apostolic  martyrdoms,  this  distinguished  presby- 
ter presumes  to  reject  not  only  the  Phrygian  prophecies  but  the  notion  of  an 
earthly  millennial  kingdom,  the  authorship  of  which  he  transfers  from  an 
apostle  to  a  heretic.  (2)  nippolytus,  who  calls  himself  a  disciple  of  Irenaeus, 
has  left  some  allegorical  explanations  principally  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
some  works  against  heretics,  which  were  regarded  as  very  valuable.  (&)  The 
nature  and  style  of  these  writings,  as  far  as  the  titles  and  fragments  we  have, 
afford  us  the  means  of  judgment,  (?)  the  general  acquaintance  with  them 
which  the  Syrian  Church  possessed,  (m)  and  the  veneration  as  a  martyr 
which  was  given  him  at  Antioch,  indicate  that  he  resided  in  Asia,  but  his 
statue  found  near  Rome  in  the  old  Tiburtine  street  (1551)  with  a  catalogue 
of  his  writings  and  the  Easter-cycle  engraved  upon  his  cathedra,  (ri)  and  a 

a)  Greg.  Turon.  II.  ecc.  Franc.  I,  29. 

Z>)  Ep.  ad  Florinum :  JSus.  H.  ecc.  V,  20.        c)  Iren.  II,  23.  6. 

d)  Ibid.  Ill,  11.  9.       e)  Ibid.  V,  25-86.      /)  Ibid,  IV,  33.  6. 

0)  Note  &,  p.  83.    L.  Duncker,  d.  h.  Iren.  Christol  im  Zusammenh.  m.  dessen  theol.  u.  anthrop. 
GrundL  Gott  1843. 

Ji)  Eus.  H.  ecc.  II,  25.  VI,  20. 

f)  This  sense  of  Eus.  H.  ecc.  II,  23.  can  no  longer  be  disputed,  since  tbo  account  of  Dionysius 
Alex,  has  been  compared  with  it 

£)  Phot  cod.  121.  Eusebius  (H.  ecc.  VI,  22  comp.  23.)  thought  that  the  period  of  bis  literary  ac- 
tivity was  only  just  before  that  of  Origen,  and  from  this  Jerome  (Catal.  c.  61.)  has  inferred  that  he 
exerted  a  direct  influence  upon  the  latter. 

1)  8.  Hipp.  Opp.  ed.  J.  A.  Fabricius,  Hamb.  1716-18.  2  vo!s.  f.     GaUandii  BibL  voL  IL 
m)  Ebedjesu  in  Assemani  BibL  or.  voL  III,  P.  1. 

TO)  Note  ff,  p.  96.  A  horrible  engraving  of  it  is  given  in  Fabric,  vol.  L  p.  86,  but  a  better  litho 
graph  is  before  Bunsen's,  [Hippolytus  and. his  age,  new  ed.  Lond.  1854.  2  vols.  W.  E.  Taylor,  Hip 
poL  &,  the  Chr.  Church  of  the  3d  cent  Lond.  1S53.  IS.] 


ASIATIC-ROMAN  SCHOOL.    HIPPOLYTUS.  699 

Roman  festival  in  which  a  great  annual  feast  was  observed  by  the  people  to 
his  honor  in  the  fourth  century,  imply  that  he  must  have  resided  in  a  Eoman 
territory.  Not  .only  does  the  most  ancient  testimony  favor  this  "Western  resi- 
dence, but  it  would  seem  that  the  Portus  Eomanus  mentioned  as  his  see  can 
be  no  other  than  the  Eoman  harbor  opposite  Ostia.  (a)  As  he  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  astronomers  of  his  day  he  made  the  first  calculation 
of  Easter  for  the  West.  (5)  As  was  naturally  to  be  expected,  the  tradition 
from  Irenaeus  through  the  Eoman  clergy,  if  not  a  moral  sympathy  with  the 
Montanistic  tendency,  produced  in  such  a  man  a  strong  partiality  for  the 
Eevelation  by  John,  and  for  a  kingdom  of  Christ  at  the  second  advent,  though 
the  time  for  it  was  placed  far  in  the  future,  (c)  The  work  against  all  here- 
sies found  in  1842  on  Mount  Athos  ((T),  has  been  partially  and  arbitrarily 
abridged,  and  many  passages  in  it  have  been  in  various  ways  corrupted.  As 
the  first  book  had  long  been  known  under  the  name  of  the  Pholosophumena 
of  Origen,  the  whole  work  was  published  under  the  same  name,  (e)  but  it 
bears  unquestionable  evidence  of  having  been  composed  by  some  distinguished 
member  of  the  Eoman  Presbytery  under  Zephyrinus  and  his  successors.  (/) 
The  representation  of  the  32  heresies  is  to  some  extent  literally  borrowed 
from  Irenaeus,  with  the  omission  merely  of  declamatory  expressions,  but  it  is 
also  enlarged  by  accounts  from  original  documents.  The  heresies  themselves 
are  traced  to  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks,  to  the  systems  of  magic,  and  to 
the  ancient  mysteries  ;  they  are  assigned  to  these  philosophical  schools  in  a 
rather  violent  manner,  and  these  schools  are  described  so  as  to  favor  such  a 
division.  The  whole  is  pervaded  by  moral  seriousness  in  contrast  with  an 
easy  submission  to  Callistus,  the  Eoman  bishop,  who  is  described  as  the 
patron  of  all  heretics  (§  62).  The  authorship  of  it  must  be  referred  to  either 
Caius  or  Hippolytus,  and  as  it  contains  nothing  which  reminds  us  of  the  po- 
lemics of  the  first  ;  as  the  writer  acknowledges  himself  the  author  of  a 
work  on  the  Universe,  (g)  which  on  the  cathedra  is  ascribed  to  Hippolytus, 
and  as  no  witnesses  speak  of  a  treatise  against  all  heresies  except  by  him,  (h) 

a)  Peter,  the  Metropolitan  of  Alexandria  about  306,  in  the  Prooemium  of  the  Chron.  paschale  p.  12  : 
eVto-KOTTos  Tltprov  irX^iov  rys  'Pw/iijs.  E.  J.  Eimmd,  de  Hipp,  vita  et  scriptis.  Jen.  1839.  P.  I. 
Z.  F.  W.  Seinecke,  Leben  u.  Schrr.  d.  H.  (Zeitsch  f.  hist.  Th.  1842.  H.  8.)  On  the  other  hand  :  since 
Le  Moyne  has  written  much  in  favor  of  Portus  Eom.  in  Arabia,  now  Aden  ;  C.  F.  Haenell  (de 
Hipp.  Gott.  1884.  4.)  is  in  favor  of  Sostra,  in  consequence  of  a  misunderstanding  of  uvavrus 
in  Eus.  H.  ecc.  VI,  20.  Comp.  Dorner,  Lehre  v.  d.  Person  Chr.  I.  p.  604ss. 

V)  Canon  paschalis,  a  cycle  of  16  years  seven  times  repeated  from  the  year  222,  in  the  treatise 


e)  On  the  Cathedra:  "fwep  rov  Kara  'Iwavvnv  fvayyehtov  /cut  airoKa\fyeus.  Perhaps  also: 
Uepl  xa/Jto>iciTa>j>  airoffr.  TrapdSoffis,  belongs  here.  Tlepl  'Ayrtxpltrrov  is  preserved  in:  Fabric. 
vol.  L  p.  4ss.  In  Ebedjesu  :  Ke<£aAaia  irpbs  Tawv. 

d)  In  the  context  regularly  :  6  /caret  itu.ff<av  alpffffuv  l\eyx°S' 

e}  Origenis  Philosophumena  s.  omnium  Haeresium  Eefutatio.  E.  cod.  Parisino  ed.  Emmanuel 
Miller,  Oxon.  1851.  The  1st  Book  is  from  the  works  of  Orig,  the  2d  &  8d  are  wanting,  and  the  10th 
is  without  the  conclusion. 

/)  Prooem.  p.  8.  1.  IX.  p.  279.  285.  289. 

g)  p.  334:  Uepl  TTJS  TOV  iravrbs  ovaias.  Photius  alone  mentions  Caius  as  the  writer,  on  the 
authority  of  a  gloss  uncertain  to  himself. 

1C)  Eus.  H.  ecc.  VI,  22.  IIpo?  airdvas  rets  alpefffis,  in  like  manner  Jerome  ;  on  the  cathedra  it 
was  perhaps  intentionally  omitted. 


700  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHUBCH. 

the  question 'must  be  decided  in  his  favor,  (a)  The  earlier  or  even  contem- 
poraneous see  of  a  neighboring  bishop  within  the  bounds  of  the  Roman  pres- 
bytery is  consistent  with,  and  explains  the  more  recent  ecclesiastical  order, 
As  Hippolytus  on  the  one  hand  refers  the  Roman  opponents  of  the  essential 
divinity  of  Christ  to  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
replies  to  their  objection  that  this  doctrine  was  an  innovation,  by  appealing 
to  well-established  Roman  traditions ;  (5)  &o,  on  the  other  hand,  he  announced 
the  mysteries  of  Christ's  human  Godhead  in  lofty  parables,  in  opposition  to 
those  who  exalted  this  divine  nature  until  the  pre-existent  personality  of 
Christ  was  destroyed,  (c)  Prudentius  has  sung  (d)  the  martyrdom  of  an  Hip- 
polytus, whom  he  calls  a  much  esteemed  Novation  presbyter,  and  who,  in 
prospect  of  death,  returned  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  says  that  after  his 
execution  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  his  remains  were  conveyed  to  the 
Roman  catacombs,  and  that  afterwards  a  stately  chapel  was  erected  to  him 
on  the  spot  where  his  statue  had  been  found.  Hippolytus  could  hardly  have 
lived  to  witness  the  Novatian  schism,  and  the  last  historical  notice  of  him 
mentions  his  transportation  with  the  Roman  bishop  to  Sardinia,  where  con- 
demned persons  were  doomed  to  die  (236)  ;  («)  but  it  is  very  possible  that 
this  member  of  the  Roman  clergy  who  was  so  learned  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
who  was  so  unsparing  in  his  treatment  of  a  Roman  bishop,  asserted  princi- 
ples which  were  afterwards  called  Novatian,  and  was  therefore  regarded  as 
belonging  to  that  schism,  and  yet  that  his  reputation  in  the  congregation  at 
Rome  as  an  author  and  &  martyr  was  justified  by  the  legend  of  his  return  to 
the  Church.  Julius  Africanus  also  appears  to  have  had  an  Asiatic  educa- 
tion, to  have  resided  and  been  highly  esteemed  in  the  ancient  Emmaus  (Nico- 
polis),  and  to  have  been  a  friend  of  Origen,  though  more  advanced  in  age  (d. 
about  282).  Ho  attempted  to  harmonize  the  history  of  the  world  as  given  in 
the  Scriptures,  especially  in  -  its  chronology,  with  the  researches  of  Greek 
writers,  and  from  his  epistles  he  appears  to  have  been  a  liberal  critic  of  the 
sacred  history,  and  yet  to  have  defended  its  essential  facts  against  the  attacks 
of  still  bolder  assailants.  (/)  In  this  tendency  we  perceive  the  germs  of  a 
new  school  of  Scriptural  learning." 

The  next  section  is  entitled — "  II.  The  Roman  African  School,"  and  com- 
mences thus :  "  The  only  literature  which  the  Latin  Church  possessed,"  &c. 


a)  J.  L.  Jacoli  in  the  Deatsch.  Zcitsch.  t  cbr.  Wlss.  1951.  N.  25ss.  K  C.  J.  Sunsen,  Ilipp.  u.  s. 
Zeit.  Lps.  1852.  vol.  I.  On  the  other  hand  In  favor  of  Caius :  Fewler  In  the  Tub.  th.  Qnartalsch.  1852. 
p.  299ss.  2?aur  in  the  th.  Jahrbb.  1858.  ILL 

1)  In  the  fj.iKpbs  Aafivpivbos  (Kara.  TTJJ  'ApTenwos  aipffffus  Aoyoi)  which  the  writer  of 
the  treatise  on  the  Universe  (nt  g,  last  p.)  quotes  as  his  own  work,  and  from  which  the  passages  in 
Ens.  IL  ecc.  V,  28.  are  probably  taken.  Comp.  Theod.  Haer.  fabb.  II,  5.  Niceph.  II.  ecc.  IV,  21.  On 
the  other  hand :  Phot.  cod.  48.  as  the  work  of  Caius. 

c)  Upbs  NO^TOV.    (Fabric.  voL  IL  p.  5ss.)       d)  Peristeph.  hym.  11. 

e)  In  the  Catalogus  Liberianus  of  821,  and  in  the  Liber  pontificalis;  see  its  newly  discovered  text 
in  Bunson,  p.  156s.  The  fact  that  some  one  of  the  name  of  Hippolytus  bore  a  message  or  epistles 
from  Dionysius  of  Alex,  is  the  only  reason  for  supposing  that  his  life  was  protracted  longer. 

/)  XPovo~fPa$L<'>v  TreVre  o-7roi»8a<r^oTo  (preserved  only  in  Eusebius'  chronicle).  'EiriffT.  irfpl 
TT)S  KOTO  ^.ovaavvav  iVroptar,  with  an  apologetical  answer  in  Origen.  'Eiriffr.  irpbs  'ApKTTciSrjy, 
Harmony  of  the  Genealogies  of  Jesus.  Eus.  H.  ecc.  I,  7.  VI,  31.  IfUr.  Cat.  c.  63.  Routii,  Eelif 
eacr.  vol.  II. 


ROMAN-AFKICAN  SCHOOL.    TERTULLIAN.    CTPEIAN.  701 

After  "  Rome,"  4th  line  from  the  foot  of  p.  88 :  "  was  amply  educated  in 
Greek  general  learning," — and  it  is  said :  "his  wit  was  sometimes  very  natu- 
ral but  sometimes  far-fetched," — and  "  he  supplied  the  African  Church  with 
the  watch-word  that  Christ  calls  himself  the  truth,  not  usage."  (a) 

The  llth  line  on  p.  89  continues  thus :  "  The  Montanistic  spirit  is  percep- 
tible in  them  all,  but  in  the  earliest  of  them  it  holds  up  the  simple  noble  na- 
ture of  Christian  morality  in  opposition  merely  to  an  effeminate  form  of  civi- 
lization, gradually  it  proceeds  to  still  severer  demands,  and  shows  an  increas- 
ing consciousness  of  its  pneumatic  nature  in  opposition  to  those  who  were 
merely  psychical  Christians,  (£>)  and  finally  it  was  especially  hostile  to  the 
Eomish  Church,  in  proportion  as  the  latter  ceased  to  favor  Montanism.  For 
it  was  not  so  much  Tertullian  as  the  Eoman  bishop  who  changed  his  views  (c) 
with  reference  to  that  system,  and  we  need  not  be  surprised  that  a  liberality 
like  that  which  sprung  up  under  Zephyrinus,  and  an  act  of  pardon  like  that 
which  Callistus  proclaimed  for  all  who  had  been  expelled  for  licentious  con- 
duct, should  have  made  this  church  in  the  eyes  of  the  stern  disciplinarian 
worse  than  a  den  of  robbers,  (d)  And  yet  the  West  continued  so  tolerant 
toward  Montanism  that  a  number  of  female  martyrs  adhering  to  that  system 
have  been  canonized  in  the  African  Church,  (e)  and  Tertullian,  to  whom  the 
Paraclete  was  rather  a  restorer  of  apostolical  order  than  an  innovator,  and 
religious  ecstasy  was  rather  a  theory  than  a  principle,  became  so  prominent, 
that  he  was  looked  upon  as  the  model  for  the  Latin  theology.  This  theology 
was  then  disinclined  to  any  philosophical  theories  respecting  divine  things ; 
it  spoke  of  Athens  and  the  Academy  as  irreconcilable  with  Jerusalem  and 
the  Church,  and  turned  its  whole  attention  to  questions  respecting  the  con- 
dition of  the  Church,  and  things  essential  to  salvation.  A  congregation  of 
Tertullianists  in  Carthage  could  have  had  nothing  but  a  local  importance,  and 
reunited  with  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  time  of  Augustine.  (/)  Thascius 
Caecilius  Cyprianm  may  be  regarded  as  the  personal  representative  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  his  day.  (g~)  Having  enjoyed,"  &c. 

After  "assistance,"  p.  90,  8th  line  from  the  bottom:  "and  to  encourage 
others  to  a  similar  course  he  extolled  such  acts  as  an  expiation  for  all  the  sins 
of  believers."  Qi) 

Instead  of  the  sentence  beginning  "  Cyprian  had  now  become,"  p.  91,  line 
7th,  read :  "  Cyprian  was  now  pledged  to  die  a  martyr's  death,"  (i) — and  at 
the  close  of  §  84,  p.  91,  add:  "Both  leaders  in  the  African  Church  died  in 
the  assurance  that  they  would  soon  be  raised  again  from  the  dead  by  the 

a)  Be  virgg.  vel.  c.  1. 

6)  De  poenit.  c.  7ss.  comp.  de  pudic.  c.  1.  comp.  16.  Ad  uxor.  I,  3.  comp.  de  fuga  in  persecut. — De 
virgg.  vel.  c.  Is. 

c)  Note  e,  p.  89. 

d)  The  edictum  peremtorium  Tert.  de  pud.  c.  1.  has  now  its  complete  explanation  :  (Orig.)  Haer. 
Eefut.  1.  IX.  p.  290s. 

<?)  Note/  p.  89.      /)  Aug.  haer.  16. 

g)  Yita  Cypr.  per  Pontium,  ejus  Diaconum  (Cypr.  Opp.)  Among  the  Actis  Martyrii  are  the  twc 
older  beginning :  Cum  Cypr.  and  Imp.  Valeriano. — J.  Pearson,  Annales  Cyprianici,  before  Fell's  edi- 
tion. F.  W.  Rettberg,  Cypr.  nach  s.  Leben  u.  Wirken.  Gott.  1831.  Eudelbach,  chr.  Biographic.  Lpa 
1850.  vol.  1. 1. 

fy  De  Opere  et  Eleemosynis  (251.)        i)  De  exhortat.  martyrii  (252). 


702  APPLNDIX.    ANCIENT  CHUECH. 

voice  of  their  returning  Savior,  but  Tertullian's  views  were  more  ardent  and 
fanciful,  since  his  eye  was  fixed  upon  a  kingdom  of  intellectual  and  spiritual 
blessings  indeed,  but  a  kingdom  where  every  thing  which  believers  lost  or  de- 
epised  in  the  present  life  would  be  recompensed  by  terrestrial  enjoy- 
ments." (a) 

The  next  section  is  entitled  "  III.  The  School  of  Alexandria,"  and  in- 
cludes the  two  following  sections. 

After  the  third  sentence  of  the  section  read:  "  Athenagoras  the  Apolo- 
gist (p.  51),  who  ventured  to  invoke  philosophy  to  the  defence  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection,  (&)  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  this  school." 

The  sentence  near  the  middle  of  p.  92,  commencing  "  His  superior,"  &c., 
is  altered  thus : — "  The  works  of  Clement  were  alone  capable  of  assisting  his 
higher  development,  nothing  but  his  position  as  a  teacher  took  him  to  the 
school  of  Aramonius  Saccas,  and  he  never  was  concerned  in  transmitting  the 
New-platonic  traditions  with  a  rank  equal  to  that  of  Plotinus  himself."  (c) 

The  sentence  ending  with  the  word  "  traditions,"  p.  93, 4th  line  from  bot- 
tom, continues  thus :  "  and  is  conditioned  by  an  exaltation  above  all  mutable 
interests." 

To  the  section  closing  on  p.  95,  add : — "  His  zeal  in  this  respect  was  ex- 
ceeded by  Ilieraca*,  whose  contemporaries  had  not  yet  learned  to  regard 
such  views  as  heretical.  This  founder  of  an  ascetic  association  near  Leonto- 
pblis,  was  the  means  of  exciting  a  high  degree  of  literary  activity,  the  re- 
sults of  which  have  been  entirely  lost.  He  wrote  in  the  Coptic  popular  lan- 
guage, and  taught  that  the  Fall  of  the  soul  was  the  direct  result  of  its  efforts 
to  free  itself  from  corporeality.  He  thought  that  the  only  distinction  be- 
tween the  old  and  the  new  law  consisted  in  the  prohibition  of  marriage  by 
the  latter.  To  his  allegorical  explanations  of  the  Scriptures  belongs  his  incar- 
nation of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  Melchizedek.  There  was  nothing  repugnant  or 
hopeless  to  the  Alexandrian  doctrine  of  freedom  in  his  denial  of  salvation  to 
children  even  when  baptized."  (d) 

After  the  word  "  churches,"  line  10,  p.  97 :  "  1)  Gospels  of  the  Child- 
hood, the  Passion,  and  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus.  («)  2)  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles, especially  of  Peter,  and  an  account  of  the  unknown  fortunes  of  the 
twelve,  filled  with  fanciful  stories  of  their  miracles.  (/)  8)  The  Clementine 
Homilies  contain  the  controversial  discourses  of  Peter,  especially  with  Simon 
Magus,  which,  in  opposition  to  the  many  internal  and  external  parties  col- 

a)  Tertul,  do  orat  c,  5.  Adv.  Marc.  Ill,  24.  (De  0pe  fldellom  Is  lost)  Cypr.  de  exhort  mart  c. 
1.  De  mortallt  c.  2.  Do  unit  Ecc.  c.  16. 

1)  n«pl  avcurrdfffus  -riav  vtupStv,  ed.  Redienberg,  Lps.  1685. 

c)  Only  the  former  assertion  follows  from  Origen's  Epistle  in  EM.  II.  ecc.  YI,  19.  and  the  other 
must  rest  upon  the  authority  of  Porphyry,  (Vita  Plotlnl  c.  2sa.)  who  certainly  knew  this  father  In  his 
youth,  and  upon  that  of  Longinus,  who  may  be  styled  another  Orlgen  among  the  heathen.    Note  c, 
p.  92.    R.  T.  Schmidt,  Orlg.  des  Neu-Platonikers  Schrifl  OTI  ^bj/ot  ironjTris  6  BflwrtAevy.  (Stud.  u. 
Krit  1842.  H.  1.) 

d)  Epiph.  haer.  67. 

e)  K.  HOM,  Leben  Jesu.  §  11.     Also,  Evv.  apocrypha  ed.  C.  Titchendorf,  Lps.  1853. 

/)  Note  c,  p.  97.  Fragmm.  Actunm  S.  Jo.,  ed.  ThUo,  HaL  1847.  Acta  App.  apocr.  ex  XXX.  cdd. 
grace,  ed.  Tischendorf,  Lps.  1S51.— Ki'jpvy/io,  Upd^is,  'AirofcoAinJ'is  Herpov.  Em.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  a 
Credner,  Beitrr.  vol.  I.  p.  851ss. 


APOCEYPHAL  LITERATURE.  703 

lected  at  Eome  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  endeavored  to  recon- 
cile the  various  tendencies  in  the  Church  on  the  basis  of  a  peculiarly  colored 
Jewish  Christianity,  and  were  mingled  with  the  romance  of  Clement,  (a) 
The  continued  embellishment  of  this  story,  but  with  a  still  further  removal 
of  the  doctrine  into  the  background,  and  with  a  greater  approximation  to 
the  popular  faith  of  the  Catholics,  is  found  in  the  Recognitions  (di/ayyoxrety), 
translated  by  Eufinus.  (&)  In  the  first  half  of  this  work,  reference  is  made 
to  another  composition  from  Palestine,  probably  The  Preaching  of  Peter 
(/crjpvyjua),  of  which  Peter  was  the  hero.  Of  the  two  epistles  to  James  pre- 
fixed to  the  Homilies,  the  first  was  written  in  the  name  of  Peter,  and  the 
other  in  the  name  of  Clement,  but  in  compliance  with  Peter's  last  directions. 
It  is  not  yet  quite  clear  whether  the  Catholic  Church  attempted  to  make  use 
of  the  historical  portions  of  the  fictitious  Homilies  by  means  of  the  Eecog- 
nitions,  (c)  or  whether  the  Homilies  were  formed  from  the  Eecognitions  for 
party  purposes,  or  whether  both  were  not  independently  formed  out  of  a 
still  older  work.  (c£)  In  their  confused  references  to  the  consular  and  first 
Bishop  of  Eome,  both  evidently  claim  to  be  the  composition  of  Clement,  who 
sprung  from  the  imperial  family,  and  after  many  unsuccessful  philosophical 
inquiries  after  truth,  found  not  only  peace,  but  the  lost  members  of  his  family 
in  Peter's  church.  4)  Jewish  imitations  of  earlier  prophetic  visions  were 
sometimes  used  by  Christians  with  their  own  interpretation,  and  sometimes 
were  imitated  by  them,  in  many  cases  with  a  meaning  hardly  reconcilable 
with  Christianity,  and  in  others  to  complete  the  Messianic  prophecies  by  facts 
from  the  life  of  Jesus,  (e)  Thus  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah  mingles  together 
Jewish-Christian  and  heretical  elements  in  its  two  principal  parts ;  the  Be- 
loved one  descends  from  the  seventh  heaven  to  accomplish  in  human  form  his 
work  on  earth,  and  the  prophet  ascends  that  he  may  behold  the  future  course 
of  the  Messiah's  kingdom,  until  the  final  judgment  and  the  glories  of  the 
divine  Father,  and  dies  under  the  saw,  for  and,  according  to  his  own 
prophecy.  (/)  The  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs  contain  the  moral 
exhortations  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  on  their  dying  beds  to  the  Jewish  nation. 
The  work  professes  to  have  come  from  a  period  before  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
to  contain  prophecies  of  a  Christ  from  the  tribes  of  Levi  and  Judah,  the 
High  Priest  and  the  King  of  an  everlasting  kingdom,  (g)  Its  fundamental 
principles  indicate  that  it  was  written  by  a  native  Jew  of  the  second  century, 


fl)  Ta  K\r)(*.evria,  KAi^ei/Tos,  TCOV  Uerpov  eTnSTj/xiwj/  KrjpvypdTuv  CTTITO^.  After  the 
edltt.  by  Cotelerias  (Patres  app.)  and  Gallandi :  Clem.  Eomani  quae  fenmtnr  Homiliae,  recogn.  A. 
Schwegler,  Stuttg.  1847. 

&)  After  the  editt  by  Cotelerius  and  Gallandi :  S.  Clem.  Eom.  Eecognitiones  Eufino  interprete, 
cur.  E.  G.  Gersdorf,  Lps.  1838. 

c)  D.  v.  Colin.  Clementina  in  d.  Hall.  Encykl.  vol.  XVIII.  p.  86ss.    A.  Sckliemann,  d.  Clemen- 
tinen  nebst  den  verwandten  Schrr.  u.  d.  Ebionitism.  Hamb.  1844.  nt  c,  p.  84 

d)  A.  Hilffenfeld,  d.  Clem.  Eecog.  u.  Homilien,  nach  Urspr.  u.  Inhalt  Jena.  1848.    RitscU,  alt- 
kath.  K.  p.  153ss.  (making  the  Kerygma  against  Basilides  about  120,  the  Eecognitions  against  Valen« 
tine  about  140,  and  the  Homilies  against  Marcion  about  160.)    Comp.  Hilgenf.  d.  Evv.  Just  p.  307ss, 
(who  makes  the  Eecogn.  original  only  in  substance.) 

e)  Note  e?,  p.  97.        /)  lUd.  last  part 

g)  Ibid.  Fabr.  Cod.  pseud,  vol.  I.  p.  496ss.— A.  Kayser,  d.  Test  d.  12  Patr.  (Strassb.  Beitrr.  Jena. 
1851.  H.  3.) 


704  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHUP.CH. 

but  by  one  who  humbly  submitted  to  the  counsel  of  Jehovah,  and  recognized 
in  the  last  apostle  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  a  chosen  instrument  of  Provi- 
dence, (a)  5)  The  lost  prophecies  ascribed  to  Hystaspes,  an  ancient  Persian 
seer,  gave  the  Asiatic  Christians  a  native  prophet  of  the  Messiah.  (5)  6)  "When 
the  Hellenistic  Jews  appropriated  to  their  own  use  the  prophetic  voice  of 
nature,  mythically  personified  among  the  heathen  in  the  Sibyls,  many  Chris- 
tian Sibyllists  arose  to  express  in  this  poetic  form  the  confidence  they  felt  in 
the  ultimate  victory  of  their  cause,  and  their  wrath  toward  evil  men ;  and 
the  Christian  apologists  appealed  to  these  divinely  inspired  voices  of  pagan- 
ism as  witnesses  among  the  heathen  themselves  of  equal  rank  with  the  Scrip- 
tural prophecies.  The  eight  books  of  the  Sibylline  Oracles,  gradually  collected 
after  the  second  century,  contain  a  heterogeneous  mixture  of  heathen,  Jew- 
ish, and  Christian  poems,  the  Christian  commencing  soon  after  the  eruption 
of  Vesuvius  (79),  and  throwing  out  fresh  shoots  until  some  time  in  the  fifth 
century,  (e)" 

§  90  is  entitled  "  The  Son  of  God,"  and  additional  references  for  it  are  : 

UJ.  A.  Dorner,  Entwicklngsgesch.  d.  L.  v.  <L  Person  Chr.  vol.  I.  is  on  the  first  4  centt.  Stuttg; 
(1889).  1345.    (Hate)  Cbr.  Dogm.  p.  201ss.  518ss." 

In  the  sentence  beginning  "  According  to,"  the  little  regard  for  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  qualified  by  the  clause  "  except  among  the  Montanists," 

The  sentence  near  the  middle  of  p.  99,  closing  with  the  word  "  Tertul- 
lian,"  continues :  "  who  reproached  him  with  having  performed  two  of  the 
devil's  works  in  Rome,  viz.,  driving  away  the  Paraclete,  and  crucifying  the 
Father.  But  Theodotus  the  Tanner,  who  came  about  the  same  time  from  By- 
zantium to  Rome,  excused  his  denial  of  Christ  by  saying  that  he  only  denied 
a  man,  and  he  was  driven  from  the  Church  by  Victor.  Theodotus,  the 
money-broker,  honored  Melchizedek,  a  heavenly  Redeemer,  more  than  the 
earthly.  Noetus  of  Smyrna,  and  probably  a  presbyter  of  Ephesus,  was  ex- 
cluded from  his  church  (about  200)  as  a  Patripassian,  notwithstanding  his 
denial  of  the  charge,  and  the  charge  itself  is  to  be  explained  only  on  the 
ground  that  he  held  to  the  second  kind  of  Monarchianism.  But  as  Praxeas 
was  favored  by  Victor,  (d)  tho  doctrine  of  Noetus,  which  was  propagated  in 
Rome  by  Cleomenes,  was  favored  by  the  bishop  Zephyrinus  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Callistus,  who  regarded  the  Son  as  only  a  human  manifestation  of 
the  Father  by  the  divine  Spirit  in  Christ,  so  that  the  Father  as  such  did  not 
suffer,  except  in  connection  with  the  Son.  Callistus  called  those  presbyters 
who  resisted  him  Ditheists  (&'2fot),  and  they  retorted  against  their  bishop 
that  the  heresy  of  the  Callistines  originated  with  tho  principle  of  Seraclitus, 
according  to  which  every  thing  may  be  its  opposite,  (e)  The  party  of  the 
first  Theodotus  was  distinguished  for  secular  learning,  treated  the  Scriptures 
as  merely  human  productions,  and  was  powerful  enough  to  elevate  a  confes- 
sor to  the  episcopal  see.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  their  bishop  was 


«)  Test  Benjamin  c.  11.         1)  Note  «,  p.  97. 

c)  Note  f,  p.  97.    C.  Alexander,  Par.  1841.  2  vols.    Friedlieb,  Lps.  1852.— Ibid,  de  cdcL  SibylL 
mss.  in  usum  nondnm  adhibitis.  Vrat  1847. 

cf)  Tertul.  adv.  Prax.  c.  53.       e)  (Origen,  Haercs.  Eefutat  p.  279ss.) 


8UBOED1NATIONISTS.    ECCLES.  LITEKATUEE.  705 

attacked  in  the  night  by  divine  or  episcopal  emissaries,  and  compelled  to  ab- 
dicate at  the  feet  of  Zephyrinus,  and  Artcmon,  who  maintained  that  the  doc- 
trine which  the  apostles  had  preached,  and  which  had  always  prevailed  in 
Home,  was  that  the  Son  of  the  Virgin  was  superior  to  all  other  men,  merely 
on  account  of  his  righteousness,  and  that  this  had  been  corrupted  first  under 
Zephyrinus,  was  excommunicated,  (a)  Thus  these  three  contradictory  opin- 
ions were  then  (218-23)  openly  maintained  at  Borne,  but  the  merely  human 
view  had  been  already  condemned,  and  its  opposite  extreme  was  represented 
by  a  bishop  whose  reputation  had  been  tarnished.  In  Arabia  the  bishops 
took  decided  ground  against  their  colleague  Beryllus  of  Bostra,  who  de- 
nied," &c. 

The  sixth  sentence  of  §  92  reads :  "  All  these  wrote  on  the  same  stand- 
point as  Eusebius,  in  the  spirit  of  the  dominant  Church."  It  is  said  that 
"PhilostorgiiLs  found  and  honored  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  vanquished 
party," — that  "  Evagrim  was  mild  in  his  general  judgments,  but  in  his  par- 
ticular application  passionate  for  orthodoxy," — and  that  "  of  the  5  last  books 
of  NicepJi.  Callist.  nothing  now  remains  but  the  table  of  contents." 

To  the  references  for  Chap.  I.  p.  103,  add  : 

"  E.  Chastel,  Hist  de  la  destruction  du  paganisme  dans  Peinpire  d'orient  Par.  1850." 

For  §  93 : 

"  J.  Burckhardt,  d.  Zeit  Const,  d.  Gr.  Basel.  1853." 

Near  the  middle  of  p.  103 :  "  the  consulting  of  oracles  as  well  as  the  of- 
fering of  sacrifices  was  prohibited,  but  ineffectually," — and  "  the  emperor 
stamped  upon  his  coins  not  only  the  emblems  of  Christ  but  of  Apollo." 

For  §  94  an  additional  reference  is  made  to 

* 

"  F.  Strauss,  der  Eomantiker  a.  d.  Throne  o.  Julian  d.  Abtr.  Manh.  1847." 

And  for  §  98  to 

"  Hefele  d.  Akten  d.  ersten  allg.  Syn.  zu  Nic.  (Th.  Quartalsch.  1851.  H.  1.)    Ibid.  Entsteh.  u.  Cha- 
rakterist.  d.  Arian.  (Ibid.  H.  2.)  " 

To  the  second  sentence  of  §  102  it  is  added,  that  Arius  thought  the  Son 
of  God  "  might  also  be  adored  as  God." 

Substitute  for  the  word  "question,"  after  the  middle  of  p.  112:  "matter 
which  threatened  to  thwart  his  two  great  aims,  the  unity  of  the  Church,  and 
of  the  empire." 

It  is  said  (p.  114)  that  Aetius  and  Eunomius  "  denied  that  Christ  pos- 
sessed any  underived  divine  nature," — in  §  104,  that  Marcellus  "  declared  that 
the  Logos  was  the  eternal  wisdom  of  God,  and  manifested  itself  as  the  power 
which  created  the  world,  but  did  not  become  the  only  begotten  Son  of  God 
until  the  Incarnation,"  &c. — and  that  his  deposition  was  "  at  Constantinople." 

In  the  first  sentence  of  paragraph  3d,  p.  115,  instead  of  "  a  sensuous  na- 
ture," read :  "  the  mere  incarnation  of  the  Logos." 

The  sentences  at  the  top  of  p.  117  are  changed,  and  read :  "  The  whole 
theological  literature  was  tinder  the  direction  of  two  schools  ;  that  of  Alex- 

rt)  Eus.  H.  ccc.  V,  23. 

45 


7 Ob  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

andria,  with  the  new  tendency  which  it  received  during  the  ecclesiastics 
controversies,  and  that  which  had  recently  sprang  up  at  Antioch.  In  tho 
former  prevailed  an  earnest  effort  to  comprehend  in  one  the  finite  and  tho 
infinite,  an  allegorical  mode  of  interpretation,  the  general  spirit  of  Origen, 
though  "  &c.  From  the  Alexandrian  school  proceeded  "  none  hut  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  theology  which  had  then  hecome  ascendant  in  the  Church." 
AtTianasius  (middle  of  p.  117)  "was  full  of  wrath  against  all  who  wished 
to  rend  the  indivisible  coat  of  Christ." — Basil  the  Great  was  "  the  admirer 
of  Libanius  as  well  as  of  St.  Anthony." — Synesius  (2d  sentence  in  §  107) 
"  was  powerfully  impressed  by  the  principles  of  Christianity,  but  remained  a 
faithful  disciple  of  Hypatia." 

For  the  first  word  of  §  108,  read  "  Many." 

Add  to  tho  references  for  "  III.  Tho  Pelagian  Controversy." 

"Jo.  Gf/vken,  Hist  scmipelaglanismi  antlqnba.  (till  434.)  Qott  1S26.  4.  J.  O.  Voigt,  De  Uiooria 
Augustinlana,  SemlpoL  ct  Bynergist  Ooctt  1S29.  Lenizen,  de  PclagUnor.  doctr.  prinelpiis.  Colon. 
lS8a  J.  L.  Jacobi,  d.  L.  d.  Pel  Lpa.  1S42." 

To  those  for  §  110  : 
"  Po^dulat,  Hist  de  8.  Aug.  Ucbers.  v.  Hurter.  Schaffh.  1845ss.  2  vols." 

§§111  and  112  are  arranged  in  one  section,  and  entitled :  "  Augustinism 
and  Semipelagianism." 

Nestorius  (p.  126,  after  "orthodoxy  ")  "  attacked  the  honor  paid  to  a 
mother  of  God  as  a  new  paganism." 

After  "  epistle  "  (4th  line,  p.  128) :  "  Christ  is  one  person,  in  his  divinity 
eternally  from  tho  Father,  in  his  humanity  from  tho  virgin  mother  of  God, 
with  two  natures,  inseparable  but  without  confusion,"  &c. 

§§  121  and  122  are  united  and  entitled  :  "  The  Roman  Empire." 

Before  the  last  sentence  of  §  122 :  "  For  although  in  the  East  the  emperor 
himself  was  looked  upon  as  invested  with  a  kind  of  sacerdotal  character,  the 
people  regarded  it "  &c. 

After  the  first  sentence  of  §  123  :  "It  took  from  slavery  its  confidence  in 
its  own  equity,  and  every  act  of  manumission  was  encouraged  by  the  Church 
as  a  work  of  piety :  but,  on  the  other  hand,  those  who  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge the  owners  of  slaves  as  Christians  were  rejected,  slaves  were  admonished 
to  render  obedience  for  God's  sake,  and  masters  to  regard  their  slaves  as 
brethren  redeemed  by  the  same  price  as  themselves."  (a) 

After  "  protection  "  (line  8,  p.  188)  :  "  Laws  were  enacted  to  sustain  the 
sacredness  of  marriage,  but  the  old  Roman  penal  laws  against  coelibacy  were 
abolished  even  in  the  time'of  Constantino." 

The  sentences  at  the  foot  of  p.  139  should  read :  "  Institutions  of  benevo- 
lence of  every  kind  to  mitigate  the  miseries  of  a  gradually  decaying  social 
condition  originated  in  the  Church.  (&)  Its  wealth  contributed  to  its  power 


«)  Greg.  M.  Ep.  VI,  12.  Cfirysost.  ad  Philem.  (voL  IL  p.  773.)  Bier,  ad  Marcel.  Ep.  20.— Cone. 
Gangr.  can.  8.—Neander,  Denkw.  voL  II.  p.  153sa.  [Memorials  of  Chr.  Life,  transl.  by  Ryland, 
Lond.  1852.  p.  305.]  Moefder,  Aufheb.  d.  Sklav.  durch  d.  Christenth.  in  d.  ersten  15  Jhb.  (Tub.  Quar- 
talsch.  1834.  II.  1.) 

Z>)  E.  Chastel^  Etudes  hist,  sur  I'lnfluence  de  la  cbarit 6  durant  les  premiers  sieclea  chret  Par.  1858 


SARDICA.    CHARITIES.    HERMITS.  707 

and  freedom.  The  management  of  its  funds  -was  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  bishop  through  a  steward  (ofcovo/iof ),  the  distribution — "  &c. 

The  application  of  the  2d  sentence  in  §  126,  should  be  limited  to  "  the 
East." 

The  sentence  beginning  in  the  6th  line  from  the  foot  of  p.  140  should  com- 
mence :  "  In  the  fourth  century  female  presbyters  disappear,  (a)  and  the  ordi- 
nation of  deaconesses,"  &c. 

The  sentence  before  the  last  on  p.  142  should  read :  u  On  account  of  these 
divisions  the  council  of  Sardica  (347)  committed  to  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome, 
a  judicial  cognizance  of  the  reception  of  appeals  in  the  case  of  bishops.  But 
when  this  decree  was  presented  to  the  African  Church  as  a  regulation  coming 
from  the  Nicaean  Synod,  it  refused  obedience,  and  threatened  every  one  who 
should  appeal  to  any  ecclesiastical  authority  beyond  the  sea."  (5) 

Before  "  Synods  "  in  line  2d,  p.  143,  insert  "  first." 

In  tlie  last  sentence  on  p.  145,  Gregory  is  said  to  have  improved  Church 
music  "  by  simplifying  its  style,  and  by  his  school." 

After  **  charms  "  in  the  last  line  of  p.  147 :  "  the  Church  contended  con- 
tinually against  superstitions  derived  from  paganism,  but  unconscious  of  their 
origin."  (c) 

Before  "  The  Church,"  line  10th,  p.  148  :  "  The  Christian  duty  of  bene- 
ficence which  was  even  then  performed  with  a  munificent  generosity,  was 
enforced  by  preachers  on  communistic  principles,  appealing  to  the  avarice  of 
men."  (<$)  After  "  Spirit,"  a  few  sentences  beyond :  "  and  even  the  old  idea  of 
the  millennial  kingdom  had  to  yield  to  the  interpretation,  that  it  meant  only 
the  spiritual  influence  of  the  gospel,"  (e) 

The  2d  sentence  of  §  134  reads:  "The  necessity  of  some  fellowship 
brought  the  hermits  together  in  a  community  of  neighboring  huts  (Xavpa)." 
Instead  of  u  Amun  in  the  desert  of  Mtra "  in  the  next  sentence,  insert : 
<;  Macarius  in  the  Sketic  desert"  (/) 

The  date  near  the  foot  of  p.  150  should  be  "  422." 

w  Add  to  the  sentence  ending  on  line  7,  p.  152 :  "  and  in  the  African 
Church  offerings  for  the  dead  were  laid  upon  their  graves,"  (g} — and  to  the 
last  sentence  of  the  same  section :  u  seeking  edification  from  the  vestiges  of 
past  ages."  Qi) 

Add  to  the  references  for  §  139  : 

"  A.  Z.  Zestermann,  die  antiken  u.  chr.  Basilikea.  Lps.  1847.  J.  Kreuser^.  chr.  KBau,  s.  Gescfe. 
Symbolik,  Bildn«re!.  Bonn.  1851.  2  vols.— F,  Kugler,  HB.  d.  Gtesch,  d.  Mal-erei  s.  Constantly  2  ed. 
Brl.  1847.  vol.  I.  p.  1-107." 

a)  Conv.  Laodic.  can.  11. 

&)  Cone.  Afric.  Ep.  ad.  Bonif.  {Constant,  p.  1013s.)  Cone.  MiUvit,  can.  22.  (Codex,  cann.  Ecc. 
Afric.  c.  28. 

c)  Syn.  Trull,  c.  61.  62.  65.    Comp.  Ohastel,  Destruct.  da.  Pagan,  p.  809ss. 

d)  Chrysost.  Horn,  in  Act  It  24.    (Opp.  vol.  IX.  p.  93.) 

e)  Aug.  De  civ.  Dei  XX,  4ss. 

/)  Macarii  Aegyptii  Epp.,  Homillarum  loci,  preces,  od.  U.  J.  Floss,  Col.  1850.  Comp.  TiscTuM- 
dorf,  Eeise  in  d.  Or,  voL  L  p.  IWs. 

g)  Aug.  .Confess.  VI,  2. 

h)  Already  Eus.  VI,  11.— Itinerarium  Hierosolymitanum,  a.  333.— «£  H.  Meideffffer^  d«  peregriaa- 
Uonib.  rel.  Tur,  1670.  EoMnson,  Palestine,  vol.  II.  p.  208ss. 


708  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  OHUECH. 

The  last  clause  of  the  2d  sentence  in  this  section  is  limited  to  "  the  "West- 
ern Church." 

Before  the  last  clause  of  the  3d  sentence,  insert :  "  the  central  portion 
elevated  about  the  height  of  the  windows  above  the  side  aisles,"  &c. 

Before  the  last  clause  of  the  5th  sentence  insert :  "  where  monuments 
were  usually  erected,"  &c. 

A  few  sentences  after,  "  the  Roman  temple-form,"  should  read :  "  built  in 
the  form  of  the  Rotunda  for  temples  and  baths." 

After  "  Safaator,"  Kne  2,  p.  156 :  "  surrounded  with  emblems  of  the  sal- 
vation of  man,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  apostles,  whose  countenances  were 
serious  and  dignified,  and  whose  persons  were  in  the  ancient  Roman  costume. 
In  the  seventh  century,  however,  this  style  ceased  to  be  popular,  for .  then  a 
general  decline  took  place  in  all  the  arts,  and  the  Byzantine  style  which  origi- 
nated in  Constantinople,  and  showed  a  sympathy  with  this  corruption,  pre- 
vailed with  its  inherited  skilfulness,  but  its  complete  want  of  nature." 

After  "  chosen  "  in  line  7th,  p.  156,  the  sentence  continues :  "  and  Chris- 
tian and  pagan  symbols  were  mingled  together,  especially  in  the  reliefs  of  the 
sarcophagi."  (a) 

After  the  1st  sentence  of  §  142 :  "  At  its  foundation  lay  also  the  question 
which  had  then  become  so  prominent,  whether  the  whole  influence  of  the 
priesthood  was  derived  from  the  personal  character  of  its  members,  or  from 
the  general  grace  communicated  through  their  order." 

The  first  sentence  of  §  143  :  "  Audius  (Udo)  broke  off  from  the  Church 
in  Mesopotamia  because  it  would  not  listen  to  the  exhortations  to  repentance 
which  the  zealous  layman  gave  it,"  &c. 

After  the  last  sentence  in  §  148  :  u  A  class  of  persons  who  arrogantly 
called  themselves  Apostolical*  (also  'An-orajcrucoO,  from  their  little  corner  in 
Asia  Minor  claimed  to  be  the  only  true  Church,  and  held  out  no  hope  to 
those  who  possessed  property  or  lived  in  marriage.  They  agreed  substantially 
with  the  tendency  which  proceeded  from  Eustathius,  the  honored  Bishop  of 
SebasU,  according  to  which  there  was  no  special  merit  in  martyrdom,  which 
proudly  or  restlessly  separated  from  the  great  Church,  and  were  finally  cut 
off  from  it  at  the  Synod  of  Gangra  (between  862  and  870)." 

An  additional  reference  for  §  144 : 

"  Eplph.  hacr.  52.    August,  haer.  81." 

After  the  Isfc  sentence  of  §  144 :  "  Their  worship  reminds  one  of  the 
Adamites,  who  were  followers  of  a  pupil  of  Carpocrates,  and  were  first  men- 
tioned during  the  last  part  of  the  fourth  century,  under  the  imputation,  by 
common  report,  of  wishing  in  their  grotto  churches  to  bring  back  a  state  of 
paradisiac  innocence,  by  means  of  a  paradisiac  style  of  dress.  They  there 
fore  rejected  all  relations  founded  upon  distinctions  of  sex.  The  condernna 
tion  of  the  Priscillianists  was  obtained  at  the  synod."  &c. 

After  "  letters  "  in  2d  line  of  §  147 :  "  and  in  the  modern  legislation." 
In  the  middle  of  p.  164 :  "Thor  is  the  god  of  thunder  who  overcomes 


a)  Piper,  Qesch.  d.  Osterfestes.  (Berl.  1345.)  vol.  L  p.  88.  77ss. 


THOB.    THE  GERMANS.    SPANISH  CHRISTIANS.  709 

winter  and  all  the  powers  of  nature  hostile  to  man,  and  is  the  hero  who  is 
especially  the  friend  of  the  people." 

After  "  unmolested,"  line  4th,  p.  166  :  "  The  conquerors  revered  a  saint 
like  Severinus  (d.  about  481)  of  unknown  origin,  who,  without  official  dig- 
nity, but  claiming  to  act  by  the  divine  command,  with  an  extensive  spirit- 
ual influence,  ameliorated  the  miseries  of  the  national  migrations  in  the 
countries  along  the  Danube.  The  German — "  &c. 

After  "  sect,"  in  the  last  sentence  of  §  153 :  "  some  sought  martyrdom 
by  reviling  Mohammed,  others  despaired  of  Christ,"  &c. 


INDEX. 


A 

Aargau,  Convent"  in,  646. 
Abel  Ministry,  578,  658. 

Alexander  Bererua,  46. 
Alexander  of  Alexandria,  112; 
of  Hales,  820;  of  Russia,  667, 

Anglican  Church,  421s.,  442,  497&, 

Abelard,  241,  888. 

631. 

AnhElt.  418 

Abderrhaman,  163. 

Alexander  II.,  192  ;  III.,  202s^ 

Anna  Lee,  576. 

Abgarus,85. 

214,  216;   V.,  276;    VL.  232, 

Annegarn,  12. 

Abraham  a  St.  Clara,  520&, 

858;    V1L,  612,  617;   VI  11., 

Anomians,  114 

Abraxas,  78,  695, 
Absalon  of  Roeakilde,  249. 
Abubekr,  110. 

618. 
Alexandria,  Bishopric,  61,  141. 
Alexandrian  Theology,  9lss. 

Ansemi^antab.,  193,  239;   of 
Laon,  Glossea,  243. 

Aby^nU,  108. 

Alexandrian     and     Antlochian 

AMgar,245. 

Acaciua.114.128. 

schools,  117,  126,  706, 

Anspach,  Gen.  Synod,  574 

Academy,  Platonic,  17,  823. 
Achamoth,  79. 

Alexlani,  813. 
Alexias  Comnenus,  262. 

A  lithiums,  129. 
Anthropoinorphltes,  121,  153, 

Acta  Apostolornm,  97. 
Adelbert  of  Bremen,  914;   of 

Alfadur,  165, 
Alfred  the  Great,  284 

Antldicomarianites,  152. 
Antlnomian  Controv.,  402s. 

Menu,  185,  199;   of  Prague, 

A  :.'!,r..  •;.;». 

Antioch,  Bishopric,  61. 

250. 
Adamites,  708. 
Adlaphoriadc  Controv^  897,  405, 

Alli'-ri  (ir.-_-.>rio,  .KV 
AllemsiMl  of  Aries,  280. 
Alliance  Evang.,  692  ;  German, 
605:Gennan  Diet,  674;  Uo- 

Antlochian  School,  117,  126. 
Antitrinitarlans,  482. 
Antonelli,  628,  684 
Antoninus  Pius,  45;   of  Flor- 

AdoptionlstB, 130. 
Advent,  154;  Second,  40,  94 
Advocatia,  216. 

ence,  264. 
Antonius,  Hermit,  64  ;  of  Padua, 
293  ;  Hospitallers  of  St.,  228. 

Aegidius  of  Vlterbo,  234 
ipitolma,  42. 

AkfLNL 

Alombrados,  519s, 

Antony  Ulricb,  493. 
Aphthartodocetae,  129. 

vollanua,  47. 
Aeneas  Sylvius,  230s. 

Altar,  69. 
Altenburg,  865,  563. 

Apocrypha,  71,  96,  614  ?02ss. 
'Airo>coT<£<rTa(rir,  79,  94 

Aeons,  76se. 
Aerius,  159. 
Aettus,  114,  706. 
Affro,  Archbishop,  623. 
African  Churches,  62,  616. 

Altenstein,  Minister,  560. 
Altorf.  Soclnians,  485. 
Alvarns  Pelagius,  848. 

Amafrich  of  Bena,  840. 

Apolllnaris,  115,  116. 
Apollonins,  45;  of  Tyana,  47. 
Apollc*,  82! 
Apologists,  5083.,  885,  600. 
Apology/  Augsburg  Conf.,  833. 

Agabus,88. 

Ambroslus,  118,  183,  158,  159. 

A|.i..-ii.-s  'j:..  ;;-«. 

Agatho,  182. 

America,  883,  475  ;  North,  601a«. 

Apostolical^,  841s.  703. 
Apostolic  Brethren,  841s.  ;  Can- 

Agenda Controv.,  667s. 

Ammianns  Marcellinus,  102. 

ons,  57s.  ;  Church,  24s.  ;  Con- 

Agnes, Bt,  152. 
Agobard  of  Lyons,  283. 
Agonistlci,  Circumcelliones,  153. 

Aininor.iu-i  S:i.x-as  -K 
Ampulla  Sacra,  166,  625. 

gregation,  617  ;  Constitutions, 
57s.  ;  Fathers,  86s.,72s.  ;  Vicars, 
684 

Agrlcola,  897,  403. 

Amyrald,  490. 

Appeals  to  Gen.  Councils,  291. 

Agrippa,  25. 
'AKf<(>a\oi,  123. 

Anabaptism,  70,  90. 
Anabaptists,  431s.  610. 

Appenzel,  Reform,  886. 
Appropriation,  Principle,  650. 

Albanians,  856. 

Ananus,  26. 

Apuleius,  47. 

Alberlcus,  188. 

Anastasius,  128,  182. 

Aquarii,  64 

Albert    of   Brandonburjr,   875  ; 

Auathematlsms,  126. 

Arabians,  108s.,  168,  235. 

of  Mentz,  863,  372,  892;    of 

Anderson,  418. 

Aranda  of  Spain,  527. 

Riga,  251  ;  of  Strasbourg,  204. 
Albert  Durer,  806,  445. 

Andraea  Jac.,  409  ;  J.  YaL,  449. 
Andronlcus,  854 

Arcesilaus,  17. 
Archbishops,  244s.,  see  Metro- 

Albertinus  Mussatus,  264 

Angel  Brethren,  508. 

politans. 

Albertus  Magnus,  820. 
Albigensian  "War,  255s. 

Angela  of  Brescia,  463. 
Angelica  of  Port  Royal,  517s. 

Archdeacons,  141,  215. 
Architecture,  Ecclea.,  155ss.,  802 

Albordoz,  274. 

Angelico  of  Fiesole,  805. 

675s. 

Alculn,  179,  180. 

Angels,  Worship  of,  152. 

Archpresbyters,  141. 

Aleander,  871. 

Angelus  Silesius,  520. 

Arelate  Synod,  114 

INDEX. 


711 


Arianism,  11  IBS.,  165. 

Ariininum  Synod,  114. 

Aristides,  Apologist,  50. 

Aristotle,  16s.,  236,  320. 

Arius,  112,  119. 

Armenians,  62, 108, 181,  260, 665. 

Arminians,  415ss.,  491,  610. 

Arnauld,  517. 

Arndt,  448. 

Arnobius,  ,52. 

Arnold,  8;  of  Brescia,  200;  «.f 
Citeaux,  256. 

Arnulf,  Emperor,  1ST:  of  llheims, 
189. 

Arsenius,  354s. 

Artemon,  99,  705. 

Arts  in  Middle  Ages,  302. 

Asa,  Doctrine  of  the,  164. 

Ascensio  Jesaiae,  703. 

Ascetics,  63. 

Aschaflenburg  Concordat,  281. 

Asiatic-Koman  School,  88,  697ss. 

Asses,  Festival  of,  221. 

Asylum,  138. 

Athauarich,  165. 

Athanasius,  113s.,  115,  117. 

Athenagoras,  51,  95,  702. 

Athens,  116. 

Athos,  354. 

Attila,  144. 

Audius,  158,  708. 

Augsburg  Confession,  883 ;  Diet, 
383. 

Augusti,  10. 

Augustine  Eremites,  316. 

Augustinism,  122s?.,  380,  509. 

Augustinus,  106,  122ss.,  138, 15S, 
176;  of  Canterbury,  167. 

Augustus  of  Saxony,  408. 

Aurelianus,  46. 

Auricular  Confession,  148,  176, 
223. 

Austria,  Catholic,  635, 640 ;  Prot- 
estant, 417s.,  493ss.,  548,  606. 

Avignon,  273,  274,  275,  525,  526, 
531. 

B 

Baanes,  160. 

Babylonian  Exile,  272,  368. 

Bach,  J.  Sebastian,  485. 

Bacon,  Koger,  326 ;  of  Verulam, 
489. 

Baden  Conference,  646 :  Contro- 
versy, 644;  Disputation,  387; 
Synod,  572. 

Babrdt,  537. 

Bajus,  467. 

Ba'ldur,  165. 

Baldwin,  Flandr.,  197,  207. 

Balsamon,  Theodore,  135. 

Ban,  176,  811. 

Baptism,  41,  70,  252,  691. 

Baptisterium,  155 ;  of  Florence, 
304. 

Baptists,  431s.,  603,  610. 

Baradai,  Jacob,  181. 

Bar  Cochba,  42. 

Bardas,  258,  260. 

Bardesanes,  83. 

Barlaam,  354. 

Barletta,  Gabriel,  300. 

Barnabas,  28,  36. 

Baronius,  7. 

Bartholomew's  Night,  426s. 

Bartolomeo  Fra,  305. 

Basedow,  545. 

Basilica,  155,  303. 

Basilides,  78,  694s.,  694s. 

Basiliscus,  123. 

Basilius,  258;  Magnus,  117,149, 
706. 

Basle,  Council,  279,291, 350;  Tie- 
formation,  387 ;  Society  at,  539. 


Basnnge,  10,  361. 

Bassi.Matteode,  462s. 

Bauer,  Bruno,  553. 

Baur,  24.  594s. 

Bautain,'  655. 

Bavaria,  375,  892.  527,  536,  572, 
605s.,  635,  642,  653. 

Bayle,  861,  490s. 

Beatification,  807. 

Beatoun,  Card.,  424. 

Beaumont,  519. 

Becket,  Thomas  a,  203. 

Bede  Venerabilis,  161, 179. 

Beethoven,  675. 

Beghards,  Beghines,  318. 

Belgium,  633. 

Bellarmine,  458,  468s. 

Bells,  153. 

Bena,  Amalrich  of,  340. 

Benedict,  Levita,  185,  209;  of 
Nursia,  151 ;  III.,  186 ;  VIII, 
190;  IX.,  190;  X.,  192;  XI., 
272;  XII.,  274;  XIII.,  276, 
513;  XIV.,  514,  519. 

Bengel,  491. 

Bequests  to  the  Church,  139. 

Berault-Berncastel,  683. 

Berengarius,  237s. ;  II.,  189. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  189,  200, 
229,  240,  242. 

Berne,  Deception  at,  801;  Re- 
formation, 387. 

Bernini,  464. 

Berno  of  Clugni,  226. 

Berthier,  532. 

Berthold  of  Calabria,  230;  of 
Eatisbon,  300. 

Berulle,  Petrus  de,  462. 

Beryllus,  100,  705. 

Bessarion,  356. 

Bethmann-Hollweg,  590. 

Beza,  402,  447. 

Bezieres,  256. 

Bible  Hours,  445 ;  Prohibition, 
243,332,  670;  Societies,  612ss., 
667;  Versions,  331s.,  373. 

Biblia  Pauperum,  332. 

Bickell,  562s. 

Biel,  322. 

Bilderdyk,  596. 

Birgitte,  309,  317. 

Bishop  of  Bishops,  61. 

Bishops,  3S,  59,  214,  293s. ;  Suf- 
fragan, 293;  Protestant,  443s., 
567s. ;  Three  Great,  61s. 

Blandrata,  434. 

Blau,  654. 

Blood  Baptism,  70,  313. 

Boccaccio,  327. 

Bockelsen,  431. 

Bodin,  522. 

Boehme,  Jacob,  448. 

Boehmer,  J.  H.,  492. 

Boethius,  133. 

Bogomiles,  262. 

Bohemians,  248s.,  347ss.,  477. 

Bohemian  Brethren,  850s. 

Boleslaus,  249. 

Bolingbroke,  500. 

Bologna  University,  236. 

Bonaventura,  297,  325. 

Bonifacius  (Winfred),  163,  173, 
176, 179 ;  VIII.,  271,  286,  301. 

Borgia,  Caesar,  282s.,  284 ;  Kod- 
erigo,  282. 

Borromeo,  Charles,  461. 

Bossuet,  8,  360,  515,  520. 

Bourbons,  426ss.,  607s. 

Bourdaloue,  516. 

Bourignon,  519s. 

Bouthillier  de  la  Eance,  521. 

Bradwardina,  333. 

Brahminism,  471s. 


Bramantes,  304. 

Brazil,  633. 

Bremen,  245,  413,  564. 

Brentz,  889s.,  891,  408. 

Breslau    Union,  569;    German 

Catholics  at,  657. 
Bridaine,  516. 
Britain,  53, 167, 173. 
Brown,  423. 
Brethren,  Bohemian,  Moravian, 

350 :  of  Christian  Schools,  521 ; 

of  the  Free  Spirit,  340 ;  of  the 

Common  Life,  318. 
Bruggler  Sect,  509. 
Bruhellesco,  304. 
Bruno,  Carthusian,  227;  Jord., 

448. 

Bucer,  390. 
Suddens,  491. 
Buddhism,  473s. 
Buffon,  523. 
Bugenhagen,  880,  419. 
Bulgarians,  256. 
Bullinger,  361. 
Buonaparte,  532. 
Burchard  of  Worms,  210. 
Burgundians,  165s. 
Burial,  69. 
Buttler,  510. 
Byzantines,  253,  260s. 


Caecilianus,  157. 

Cainite?,  80. 

Cajetanus,  271 ;  and  Luther,  361 

Caius,  Presbyter,  699. 

Calas,  John,  548. 

Calasanza,  463. 

Calcutta,  Bishopric,  615. 

Calderon,  464. 

Caliphs,  110. 

Calixtines,  350. 

Calixtus  of  Helmstadt,  8,  4S6s. ; 

II.,  199 ;  III.,  281. 
Callenberg,  511. 
Callistus,  689,  704. 
Calovius,  485,  486. 
Calvin,  401ss.  447. 
Calvinism,  412ss.  595s. ;   Saxca 

407. 

Camaldoli,  227. 
Cambray,  League  of,  234. 
Cameel,  Sultan,  266. 
Camisards,  495. 
Campanus,  433. 
Campegius,  376. 
Camus,  529. 

Canon  of  the  N.  T.,  71s.,  447. 
Canones  Apostolici,  57. 
Canonici,  177,  213s.,  292s. 
Canonissae  Saeculares,  317s. 
Canonization,  213,  307. 
Canossa,  195. 
Canute  the  Great,  246. 
Capaccini,  632. 
Capellus,  490. 
Capito,  399. 
Capuchins,  463. 
Caracalla,  45. 
Caracci,  464. 
Carbeas,  Paulician,  202. 
Cardinals,  213s.,  290. 
Carlos,  Don,  629s. 
Carlstadt,  365s.,  372,  380,  33d 
Carmelites,  229s.,  316. 
Carneades,  17. 
Carpocratians,  80s.,  696. 
Cartesius,  489. 
Carthusians,  227s. 
Carthage,  Synod,  124. 
Casas,  Barth.  de  la,  883. 
Cassander,  463. 
Cassianus,  125. 


712 


INDEX. 


Casslodorus,  133, 151. 

Cafitellio,  447. 

Casuistry,  833s.,  454s. 

Catacombs,  69. 

Cataphryges,  66. 

Catechism  of  France,  534;    of 

Heidelberg,  418 ;  Luther's,  3S2 ; 

Roman  us,  466. 
Catechumens,  65. 
Catharine  de  Bora,  8SO ;  de  Me- 
dici, 427;  of  Russia,  666;  of 

Siena,  808s. 
Catharists,  251ss.,  842. 
Cathedrals,  141,  804,  674. 
Catholic  Church,  62, 146. 
Catholicism,   68,  147,  151,  460, 

652 ;  and  Protestantism,  463s., 

4S6SS. 

Catholicns,  62,  667. 
Cellitae,  818. 
Cclsus,  49. 

Censorship  of  Books,  288,  460s. 
Centuriae  Magdeb.,  7. 
Cerdon,  81. 
Cerinthus,  84 
Cevennen,  495. 
Chalcedon,  127. 
Chaldean  Christiana,  127. 
Chalmers,  597. 
Chantal  Fnincisca,  468. 
Chapters,  214,292;  Controv.  on 

Three,  180. 
Charles  Albert,  622. 
Charles  Alex,  of  Wurtemb.,  493; 

the  Great,  169,  178,174,  179; 

Augustas,  540 ;  the  Grow,  187 ; 

the  Bald,  1S7;  of  Anjou,  866, 

270;  Mattel,  163,  172;  Stuart 

I  .  425 ;  1 1.,  497s. ;  I V.  of  Spain, 

•-'  7 1 ;  V.,  870s.,  414*,,  429 ;  V 1 1 1. 

of  France,  282,  852;  I3L,  428; 
625s.;    IX.   of   Sweden, 

418s. 
Charter,  German,  578 ;  Imperial, 

418. 

Chateaubriand,  534. 
Chazars,  256*. 
Chemnitz,  Martinus,  898s.,  409, 

411). 

( 'lierhury,  409. 

Chleregati,  -71 

Children,  Bft[.tism  of,  70,  224, 
481. 

Chlllafm,  40.  94,  298s.,  707. 

Chtlperic,  178. 

China,  108,  838,  474*,  521s.,  CIS, 
88te 

Choral,  441 

Choreplscopl,  60,  214,  293. 

Chosroes,  107. 

Christian  L  of  Saxony,  410s. ;  of 
Mayence,  221. 

Christians,  26. 

Christicrn  II.,  419 :  III.,  419. 

Christina  of  Spain,  680s. ;  of 
Sweden,  512. 

Christmas,  154. 

Christopher,  152. 

Chrlsto  Sacrum,  671. 

Christ  Party  at  Corinth.  82. 

Chrodegang  of  Mentz,  17»;. 

Chrysocheres,  Paulician,  202. 

Chrysostom,  120s. 

Chubb,  500. 

Church,  1;  Ideal  of,  437?.:  Kl- 
ders  of,  571 ;  Architecture, 
155s.;  Alliance  Evan?.,  590; 
Conference,  537 ;  Singing.  153, 
800s.,  445s.,  675s.;  History, 
Idea  of,  I ;  Province,  2 ;  Value 
of,  3;  Property,  216;  Music, 
465,  4S5,  675. 

Cimabue,  305. 


Circumcelliones,  158. 

Cistercians,  228. 

Civil  Marriage,  624. 

Clara  of  Assisi,  296. 

Clarendon,  Diet  of,  203. 

Claudius,  Emperor,  37;  of  Tu- 
rin, 233;  of  Wandsbeck,  542. 

Clausen,  561. 

Clausenburg,  Diet  of,  417. 

Clemangis,  325,  844. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  91s. ;  of 
Rome,  86.  57 ;  Droste,  639s. ; 
Flavius,87;  II  ,190;  III.,  196; 
IV.,  268,  270;  V.,  272s.,  811; 
VL,  274;  VII.,  275,  876,  890, 
421,450;  VIII.,  456,  466,467; 
IX.,  512,  518;  X.,  512;  XI., 
618,  618;  XII,  514;  X11I., 
524;  XIV.,  525. 

Clement,  Dominican,  428. 

Clcmentinae,  88s.,  2S6,  702&.  697. 

Clrnry,  57,  140,  176,  193s.,  201s., 
814. 

Clermont,  Synod,  196, 197. 

Clovls,  166. 

Clugnt,  Congregation,  226. 

Cocct-ius,  490. 

Cochin  China,  664 


(  oek,  i  >,•.:,:••;. 
Codex  Dionys.,  Theod.,  and  Jus- 
tin, 185*. 

CoelestlneIII.,205;  V.,  270. 
Coclestlus,  122,  124 
Coellbacy,  68, 148, 176.  198,  222, 

ObdtolM,  i''7! 

Cola  di  Klenzo,  274s. 

Collgny,  428. 

CollegYallsm,  492,  572. 

Ooneftaots.  481 

Collins,  499. 

Collyridianl,  162. 

Colomt.ino,  817. 

Colonna  Sciarra,  272. 

Columba,  167, 177. 

Columbanus,  163. 

Columbus,  888. 

Commines,  264. 

Coimnodua,  45. 

Comr.enl,  261,  262,  855 

Communism,  679,  707. 

Conception,    Immaculate,   224, 

801. 
Concord,  Bootof,410;  Form  of, 

409. 
Concordat,  AschafTcnburg,  281 ; 

New  German,  635;    1  r.  n<-h. 

285,  688s.,  625 ;  Tuscan,  628 ; 

of  Worms,  199. 

Concordium  of  Wittenberg,  899. 
Condillac,  528. 

ConfeoBlo  Augustana,  8S3 :  Hel- 
vetica,    416;     Tetrapolltana, 

890. 


ConflMon,  M. 
Confederation,  590;  Swiss,  883s. 
Conflrmation,  70,  692. 
Confucius,  474. 
Confutatio  Cont  Augsb.,  888. 
Congregatlo  de  Auxfliis,  467. 
Congregation  Apost,  617. 
Congregations,  445. 
Congregationalism,  603. 
Conrad  III.,  201 ;  of  Hochstede, 

803;  of  Marburg,  294,  808. 
Conradino,  26S. 
Consalvi,  533,  674 
Conscientiarians,  501. 
Consistories,  441 ;  Prussian,  5S6. 
Consistory,    Supreme,    French, 

608;  Prussian,  578. 


Constance,  Council.    277s.,  291 

848s.  ;  Bishopric,  646. 
Constans  II.,  132. 
Constantta  of  Sicily,  203,  206.  270 
Constantinople,  Synod  of.  115s. 

130,132,156,259,355;  Storm 

ing  of,  207,  856. 
Constantinus   Magnus,  55,   103 

118,  152,  157;    Donation    of, 

184;    Copronymus,  156;    Po« 

gonatus,  132  ;  Sylvanus,  159. 
Constantius,  114;  Chlorus,  55. 
Constitution  Unicenitus,  518; 

Civil,  of  French  Clergy,  531. 
Constitutiones  Apostolicae,  57. 
Contarini,  89a 
Convent  Life,  149s.,  225s.,  816s.. 

462s.,  662s. 
Convcrtites,  470,  672s. 
Convocations,  442. 
Convnlslonalres,  519. 
Copernicus,  489. 
Copts,  181. 
Coquerel,  609. 
Coran,  109,  110. 
Corday,  Charlotte.  581. 
Cordicolatras,  521.' 
Corinth,  Parties  in,  82. 
Cornelius,  674;  Rom.  Bishop,  67 
Corpus  Christ!  Festival,  801. 
Corpus  Evangelicorum,  492. 
Corpus  Juris  Canon  ici,  286. 
Correjrgio,  464 
Coscia,  Cardinal,  513s. 
Cothen,  Assembly  at,  579. 
Covenant,  Scottish,  424. 
Cramer,  9. 
Cranmer,  422. 
Crell,  Nic.,  411. 
Cre«cen^  51. 


CresconitiB,  186. 

Cromwell,  426. 

Cross,  Elevation  of  the,  154. 

Crucifixes,  156. 

Crusades,  196,  220  ;  End  of  the, 

269. 

Crypto-Calvinism,  407. 
Culdees,  167. 

Cumberland  Presbyterians,  604. 
Cup,  Withholding  of  the,  224s. 

Curiaiists,  239,  478. 

CypriamiB,  48,  89ss.,  701. 

Cyran,  Abbot  of  8t,  517. 

Cyrillus  of  Alexandria,  126,  182 
(Constantinns),  248;  of  Jeru- 
salem, 118;  Lucarls,  4SO. 

Cyrus,  181. 

Czechen,  606. 

Czerskl,  657. 


Dalberg,  686. 

Damiani,  192,  221,  224,  812. 

Damietta,  268. 

Dancers,  818s.,  446,  605. 

Dandolo,  207. 

Dannecker,  674 

Dannenmayr,  11. 

Dante,  826s. 

Danz,  10. 

Darby,  611. 

Darmstadt,  644. 

David  of  Dlnanto,  840. 

Deaconesses,  89, 140,  707. 

Deacons,  88,  58. 

Death,  for  Heresy,  158,  430. 

Decius,  46. 

Decretals,  False,  184 ;  Gregorian 

286. 

Deists,  498SS. 
Demetrius  of  Alexandria,  92. 


INDEX. 


713 


Democritus  (Dippel),  501. 
Denmark,  245,  246,  419s.,  561s., 

Extern,  131. 
Elders,  88,  58,  572s. 

Exorcism,  70,  411. 
Extravagantes,  286. 

678. 
Denuntiatio  Evangelica,  215s. 

Eleutherus,  699. 
Elias  of  Cortona,  298. 

Eyck,  Van,  806. 

Des  Cartes,  489. 

Eliot,  510. 

F 

Desiderius,  196. 
Deventer,  818,  330,  519. 

Elipandus,  180. 
Elizabeth  of  England,  422;    of 

Faber,  Stapulensis,  832  ;  of  Con. 
stance,  886. 

Devil,  221,  440. 

Brunswick,  493  ;  Saint,  808. 

Fabricius,  496. 

De  Wette,  549. 
Aiocnropct,  21,  108,  505. 

Elkesaites,  85,  698. 
Eller,  Elias,  509. 

Facultates  Quinquennalcs,  460, 
643. 

Diderot,  523. 

Elvenich,  638,  640. 

Faith,  Rule  of,  72. 

Didymus,  118. 

Elzevir  Press,  465. 

Falckenberg,  334. 

Dimitrij,  481. 
Dio,  Jo.  di,  463. 

Emancipation  of  Jews,  675ss.  ; 
of  Catholics  in  Ireland,  649s.  ; 

Farel,  400. 
Fasts;  67s.,  154. 

Diocletianus,  54 
Diodorus,  118s. 

of  Slaves,  677s. 
Emblems,  Sacred,  69,  691. 

Fathers  of  the  Faith,  625. 
Faust,  810. 

Diognetus,  51. 

Emmerich  Nun,  661. 

Faustus,  125. 

Dionysius  Alex.,  95,  100;  Are- 

Empire,  136,  174,  210,  533;  Ko- 

Febronius,  528. 

opagita,    132,    177  ;    Exiguus, 

man,  136  ;  Koin.  German,  174, 

Felicissimus,  90. 

135  ;  Komanus,  100. 

210  :  Latin,  207. 

Felix  of  Urgel,  ISO;  of  Valois, 

Dioscurus,  127,  144. 

Ems,  Punctation  at,  528. 

230;  II.,  128;  V.,  280. 

Diospolis,  Synod  of,  124. 
Dippel,  501. 

Encratites,  64,  83. 
Encyclopaedia,  523. 

Fenelon,  515,  520. 
Ferdinand  I.,  392,  417,  468  ;  II., 

Disciplina  Arcana,  70. 

Enfautin,  680. 

477;  VII.,  629;  the  Catholic, 

Dissenters,  497s.,  598ss. 

Engelhardt,  9. 

287. 

Dissidents,  420,  434,  494. 
Divorces,  71. 
Docetae,  35. 

England,  167s.,  203s.,  208,  421s&, 
497s.,  649ss. 
Enlightenment,  Age  of,  537ss. 

Feretti,  620. 
Feudal  Law,  171  ;  Monarchy,  182. 
Feuerbach,  554. 

Dodwell,  500. 

Eon,  253s. 

Fichte,  543,  552. 

Dolcino,  342. 
Dollinger,  12. 

Eperies,  Massacre  at,  494. 
Ephesus,  Synod,  127,  123. 

Filioque,  116,  258. 
Finns,  250. 

Dome,  303,  304,  674. 

Ephraein,  118. 

Firmian  of  Salzburg,  493. 

Dom  Gerle,  529. 
Dominicus  Dominicans,  296ss. 

Epictetus,  47. 
Epicurus,  17. 

Firmilian  of  Caesarea,  91. 
Fisher,  421. 

Domitianus,  37. 
Domitilla,  87. 

Epiphanes,  80s. 
Epiphanius  of  Constantia,  118. 

Flacius,  Illyricus,  7,  406,  447ss., 
469. 

Donatello,  804. 

Epiphany,  68. 

Flagellants,  312. 

Donation  of  Constantino,  183s.  ; 

Episcopacy,  59s.  ;  Constantino's, 

Flavianus,  127. 

of  Otho,  190  ;  of  Pipin,  173. 

137;  of  Prot  Princes,  441. 

Flechier,  516. 

Donatists,  157s. 

Episcopal    System,    59s.,    289  ; 

Fletcher,  506. 

Donauworth,  476. 

Protestant,  441. 

Fleury,  A.  II.,  518;  Claude,  8. 

Dort,  Synod  of,  415s.,  442,  596. 
Dositheus,  27. 

Episcopalians  in  U.  S.,  602. 
Episcopi  in  Partibus  Infidclium, 

Florence,  Synod  of,  280,  355. 
Fontainebleau  Concordat,  535. 

Droste,  637s. 

293. 

Fontevraud,  Order  of,  228. 

Druids,  53. 
Dubois,  Cardinal,  518;  Mission- 

Episcopius, 416. 
Episcopus  Universalis,  141. 

Fools,  Festival  of,  218. 
Formosus,  187. 

ary,  664. 

Erasmus,  330s.,  331,  345,  379s. 

Fortunatus,  90. 

Duchoborzi,  666. 

Erastians,  425. 

Fox,  C.  J.,  599  ;  George,  502. 

Duels,  231. 

Erdmansdorf,  606. 

France,  Protestant,  426ss..  494s., 

Dufresne,  664. 

Eric,  St.,  250. 

607s.,  comp.  627. 

Dulon,  564. 

Erigena,  233,  234. 

Francia,    Dr.,    632;    Francesco, 

Dunin  of  Posen,  639. 

Ernest  the  Pious,  484. 

806. 

Duns  Scotus,  321. 
Dunstan,  221. 

Ernesti,  538. 
Erwin  of  Steinbach,  308. 

Francis  I.  of  France,  285,  870  ; 
of  Paris,  518s.  ;  of  Sales,  461. 

Dutch  Keformed  Church,  604. 

Espartero,  630. 
Essenes,  22  ;  Christian,  26. 

Franciscans,  296s. 
Franciscus  of  Assisi,  295s.;  De 

Este,  457;  Duchess  of,  429. 

Paula,  317. 

E 

Esthonians,  251,  668. 

Francke,  A.  H.,  4S7s. 

Easter  Chronicle,  102;   Contro- 

Ethelbert of  Kent,  167. 

Frank,  Sebastian,  436. 

versy,  63,  154  ;  Laughter,  300. 
East  Indies,  108,  470ss.,  510,  522, 

Ethics,  147,  333. 
Eucharistic  Controv.,  234s.,  237, 

Frankfort,  Synod  of,  178,  180. 
Franks,  166,  172. 

615,  664. 

389,  399s.,  401s. 

Kransoni,  624. 

Ebel  of  Koenigsberg,  560. 

Enchites,  158,  262. 

Fratres  de  Communitate,  298; 

Ebionites,  74,  83s.,  698. 

Eudo  de  Stella  (Eon),  253s. 

Minores,  296;    Praedicatores, 

Eckard,  Dominican,  322. 

Eudoxia,  121s. 

296. 

Ecclesiastical  Law,  Docc.  on,  56, 

Eugenius  III,  200  ;  IV.,  279. 

Fratricelli,  299. 

170s.,    210,    286s.,    843,    440s., 

Eunomians,  114,  705. 

Frederic  I.,  202,  204;  II.,  205ss., 

393s.,  492,  571ss.  ;  Diets,  590s.  ; 

Eusebians,  113. 

206,265ss.,  340;  III.,  280;  the 

Assemblies,  60,  146,  290s.  ;  Dis- 

Eusebius of  Caesarea,  14,  95,  102, 

Great,  501,  538,  547  ;  the  Wise, 

cipline,  65,  147s.,  175s.,  222s., 

111,  117;   of  Emisa,  118;    of 

864s.,  371.  875;  I.  of  Denmark, 

311s.,   439;    Property,    139s., 

Nicomedia,  113. 

419;    III.   of  the  Palatinate, 

171s.,  216s.,  443s.;    Architec- 
ture, 155s. 

Eustathius,  159,  708. 
Eutyches,  127. 

412  ;  V.,  477;  of  Austria,  273  ; 
Augustus  of  Saxony,  492;  Wil- 

Eck, 365s.,  370,  387. 
Edda,163,  164. 

Euthymius  Zigabenus,  261. 
Evagrius,  102,  705. 

liam  I.,  of  Saxony,  411;   II., 
540  ;  III.,  540s.,  566,  636,  675 

Edelmann,  501. 

Evangelia  Apocrypha,  692s. 

IV.,  576,  580,  5S2s.,  639,  675. 

Edessa,  53  ;  School  at,  127. 

Evangelical  Alliance,  592;  Church 

Freemasons,  303,  634,  671. 

Edward  I.  of  England,  271  ;  III., 
346  ;  VI.,  422. 

Alliance,  590;  Conference,  587; 
Society,  595,  608;  KZeitung, 

Friars,  Mendicant,  295. 
Friends,  605. 

Egede,  Hans,  510s. 

555,  562,  579. 

Fritigern,  165. 

Eginhard,  161. 

Evangelists,  38,  608. 

Froissart,  264. 

Eichhorn,  Minister,  580;  Pastor, 

Excommunication,  65,  176,  311, 

Fronto,  49. 

572. 

584. 

Frumentiu?,  108. 

714 


INDEX. 


Fry,  Elizabeth,  503. 

Fryth,  421. 

Fulco  of  Neuilli,  207. 

Fulda.169. 

Fulgcntius  Ferrandns,  186. 

Funk,  G.,  404. 

Gailer  of  Kaisersberg,  800. 

Galerius,  54. 

Galileans,  25. 

Galilei,  460. 

Galilean    Church,  58,  178, 

2S7,  51458.,  425,  624. 
Galileans,  46. 
Gallus,  46,  168. 
Gamaliel,  22,  2$, 
Ganganelli,  525s. 
Gangra  Synod,  708. 
- 


Gassner,  527. 


Gebbard  of  Cologne,  476. 
Gelasel,  Coadjutor,  689. 
Gelasiui  1L,  199. 
Gellert,  541. 

General  Synods,  146,  290  ;  Gen. 
Germ.  Library,  689. 


Gennadlus,  856. 

Gentile  Christianity,  8L 

Gentilis,  483. 

George  of  Saxony,  875&,  891. 

QflrtMTt  IttTttC 

Gerhard,  412,  469;  Groot,  818; 

ttcgarellt,  841. 
Germ.  Catholicism,  656  ;  Church, 

1600S.,  685s.  ;  Order  of  Knlgfata, 

282.  836*.,  662;  Theology,  822  ; 

Informed  Church,  604. 


Gerson,  276,  277, 
Gessius,  Floras,  87. 
Gcysa  of  Hungary,  250. 

<;fr..r.-r,  11. 

(.liibcllinoH,  206;  Heretical,  840. 

Gl.lbcrtl,804 


Gieaeler,  M. 

Gifts  of  Grace,  40,  63. 


Giotto,  800. 
Glass,  Pain 


Glass,  Painting  on,  308,  674 


Greek  Church,  Schism,  259s.; 
Union,  855,  665,  667. 

Greenland,  247,  510s. 

Gregoire,  529s.,  626. 

Gregorius  Ilium.,  62 ;  Nazienzen, 
115,  117;  Nyssa,  117;  Turo- 
nensis,  161 ;  Thauinaturgus, 
95;  Festival  of,  224 

Gregory  the  Great,  142,  145s., 
167;  IV..  184;  V.,  189;  VI.,  190; 
VIL,  188, 191s.,  198SS.,  221, 288, 
248;  VIII.,  199,  204;  IX.,  266; 
X.,269;  XL,  275,  346;  XII., 
276;  XII L,  423,  451s.;  XV., 
457s. ;  XVL,  619s.,  680,  688, 
668 ;  V.  of  Constantinople,  669 ; 
VI.,  670. 
ribfaUQLOta, 

;ru~!.a.-!i,  ;.:'•_'. 

Groot,  Gerhard,  818. 
Grnndtvig,  661. 
Gualbert,  227. 
Guelphs,  196,  206. 
Guericke,  10, 669,  510,  579. 
,655. 


Gnosticism,  76&,  6950s.,  697. 

Gobat,  676. 

Gobet.485. 

Gocb,  John  of,  851. 

God,  Friends  of,  841;  Judgment 

of,  218. 

Godfathers  and  Godmothers,  70, 
Godfrey   of   Bouillon,   197;   of 

Lorraine,  192;  of  Strasbourg, 

244. 

floerres,  688,  654 
Goethe,  642. 
Gomarus,  415. 
Gorham,  600. 
Gospel,  Everlasting,  299. 
Gothic  Architecture,  802s. 
Goths,  165. 
Gottschalk,  235 ;  Prince  of  the 

Wends,  249. 

Grammont,  Order  of,  227. 
Granvella,  893. 
Gratianus,  Emperor,  105s.,  158 

Decretals  of,  209s. 
Gravamina  of  the  Germ.  Nation 

872,  874. 

Gray  League,  3S7,  478,  479. 
Gr't  Britain,  Reformation,  421ss. 


Greece,  Ancient,  15ss. ;  Modern 
669s. 


Guicclardlni,  265. 
Guido  of  Spoleto,  187. 
Guinefortts,  Sainted  Dog,  220. 
tata*  oSm&m, 

;u./.>!,  r,7'j. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  425. 
Gnsuvns  Adolphus,  478;  Socie- 


t 

Onyon,  520. 


B 


Haco  the  Good,  246. 

Hadrian,  Emp.,  45,  60:    1.,  174, 

.  201,  202, 

B7«i    vi, : -.••••-.,  •»•>'. 
Hatrne,  Societies  at,  689 ;  Synod, 

Hagen,861. 

aZwWjn. 

ii:,!, M.  :.•••.'. :,:.'. 

Hall,  Snabian.  840. 

H  •::.-,  IM.  188,  Mfc 

Hnllcr,  Bertbold,  886. 

Haniann,  642. 

Hamburg,  949, 668s.,  610s.,  686. 

Hamel,  467. 

Hamilton,  Patrick,  424 

Handel,  485. 

Hanno  of  Cologne,  192. 

Hanover,  478,  496. 

Haas  BMfat,  *74 

Harald  Haarfager,  246;  of  Jut 

land,  245. 
Harmonist*,  658. 
Harms,  661. 
Hange,  647. 
ll:t\.::i.  <'.7.\ 
ll.'i\  in".-'.' •  -!. 

Heart  of  Jesus,  621. 
Heathenism,  Germ.,  162?.,  169s. 
175,  247;  Greek  Koman,  13 

Heber,  Reginald.  615. 

Hebrews,  Sect  of,  609. 

Heerbann,  171. 

Hegel,  561,  679. 

Hegesippus,  14. 

Hamburg,  845. 

Heine,  654 

Helena,  St,  1S2,  C74. 

Heliogabalus,  45. 

Hellenism,  21. 

Helmstadt,  486. 

Heloise,  242s. 

Hclsen,  656. 

Uelvetii  Eefunn.,  334,  899. 


e'Jvctlus,  523. 
emming,  837. 
emmerlin,  344. 
engstenberg,  555*,  570 

enkei  in  Hesse,  463. 
enoticon,  115. 
cnrion,  688. 

enry  I.  of  Germany,  1SS  ;  III. 
190;  IV.,  192,  198,  193;  V. 
198;  VI.,  205;  VIL,  287;  L 
of  Engknd,  19S;  II.,  2^3; 
VII..  -j>7;  VIII,  877,  421; 
III.  of  France,  428 ;  IV.,  423, 
461 ;  of  Brunswick,  892:  Lion, 
249;  Monk,  253;  of  Walpot, 

leracleon',  696. 
leraclius,  107,  181. 
U-nk-r,  541. 
leresy,  74  842. 
leruiann  of  Cologne,  892,  89C. 
lermas,  86. 
[ennesians,  637s.,  640. 
lermias,  6L 
lermits,  150. 
I.  r:n. •_-,•:,.•.-.  r.'.it'.-*. 
lerod  Agrippa.  25. 
lerrwl  of  Landsperg,  243. 
k-rrnhutters,  424 
!—.  071. 

lease,  881s.,  440s..  662s. 
Hessbusiu5,40s,  411. 


l,-;,-r.»!.-\y,  :.:,'.>. 
letzer,  488. 


lierecas,  702, 
lierarchy,  20,  57s,  187s.,  1S2, 
617s. 

Herocles,  60. 

licronymns.    Bee  Jerome,  817. 
Iieronymltea,817. 
lilarion,149. 
Hllarius,  118,  144;  of  Arelule, 

144. 

Hlldcbrand,  191ss.,  238. 
Hincmar    of    Laon,   187 ;     o» 
Khclins,  187.  288,  285. 

aippoSyjlfa,  664 

Il/.'.r..-.'^. 
Hirscher,  654 


Hochsteden,  Conrad  of,  803. 
Hochstratcn,  829. 

llcM-niuvrn,  :.''.'.". 


Hohenlohe,  648 :  Alex.,  6C2. 

Hohenstaufen,  202,  267s. ;  Over- 
throw, 267. 

Holbach,  528. 

Holland,  696,  634. 

Holstein,  561. 

Holy  Alliance,  284,  891,  631; 
Land,  152, 196, 670;  Scriptures, 
71,  111,  881s.  878,  446s.,  465s., 
592s.;  Spirit,  115;  League, 

Iloinberg,  882. 
'O/toou<rioj,  100, 102s. 
'O/j.oiovffios,  113. 
Honorius  L,  131 ;  II.,  192  ,  III 

265,  296. 
Hontheim,  528. 
Hormisdas,  134 
Hortig,  12. 

Hosius  of  Cordova,  112. 
Hospitallers,  228,  comp  432. 
Hottinger,  7,  861. 
Huet,  515. 
Hug,  654 


INDEX. 


715 


Hu«ro  Capet,  189 ;  de  Payens, 
232;  Grotius,  415;  of  Prov- 
ence, 188;  of  St.  Victor,  240. 

Huguenots,  427,  494s. 

Humanism,  554. 

Humanists,  32T,  828,  417. 

Hume,  500. 

Humiliates,  231. 

Hungary,  250,  417,  479,  493,  548, 
606. 

Hurter,  205,  434 

Huss,  347SS, 

Hussites,  349s. 

Hutten,  Ulrica  von,  329,  367. 

Hutter,  413. 

Hypatia,  106. 

Hypsistarians,  107. 

Hysiaspes,  97,  698. 
I 

Ibas,  127, 128, 130. 

Iceland,  247,  420. 

Iconoclasm,  156s.,  178. 

Iglau,  850. 

Ignatius,  45,  59,  72,  692;  Patri- 
arch, 258;  de  Loyola,  452s. 

Ignorantius,  521. 

Ilanz,  Disp.  of,  887. 

Illuminates,  527,  536. 

Illyria,  142, 143. 

Images,  156, 178 ;  Tumult  about, 
156s.,  178. 

Imitative  Arts  of  the  M.  A.,  302 ; 
Protestant,  444s. ;  Later  Cath., 
464s.  ;  most  recent,  674s. 

Impostors,  Three,  267. 

In  Coena  Domini  Bull,  811,  453, 
623. 

Incorruptibility  of  Christ's  Body, 

Independents,  423s.,  425s.,  611. 
Index  Prohibitorum,  461. 
Indulgences,  222s.,  301,  312,  351, 

363. 
Infallibility  of  the  Church,  147, 

344;  of  the  Pope,  212,  288. 
Infant  Baptism,  70, 152,  224,  431. 
Ingeburge,  207. 
Innocentius  I.,  121, 124, 143;  II., 

200;  III.,205ss.,  230,  231,  255; 

IV.,  267;  VI.,274;  VIII.,  282, 

310 ;  X.,  511 ;  XI.,  512s.,  f  18 ; 

XII.,  513;  XIII.,513. 
Inquisition,  293ss.,  414,  429,  460, 

629. 

Interdict,  223,  311. 
Interim,  396s.,  405;  Leipsic,  397. 
Investiture  Controv.,  198,  199. 
Ireland,  167,  422,  649. 
Irenaeus,  88,  236,  699s. 
Irene,  157. 
Irminsul,  163. 
Irnerius,  216. 
Iroquois,  664. 
Irving,  558s. 
Isabella  of  Spain,  631. 
Isenbiehl,  527. 
Isidorus  of  Pelusinm,  132 ;  His- 

palis,  134,  136,  178;    Pseudo, 

184;  Gnostic,  695. 
Islam,  110, 168,  335. 
Itacius,  158. 
Itala,  111. 
Italy,  173s.,  211s.,  287,  535,  617s., 

620s.;  Protestantism  in,  429s., 

609. 

Ivan  Basilowitz,  481. 
Ivo  of  Chartres,  210. 

J 

Jacob  Baradai,  131 
Jacobi,  548,  633s. 
Jacobins,  296. 
Jacobites,  131s.,  261. 


Jaenicke,  613. 

Kerz,  12. 

Jagello,  837. 
Jamblichus,  48. 

Kettler,  Conrad,  420. 
Kiow,  257,  481. 

James  the  Just,  25,  178;  of  Ba- 

Knights, Orders  of,  231s.,  813, 

den,  476  ;  I.  of  England,  425  ; 

481;  of  St  John,  282,  818,  431. 

II.,  498  ;  de  Voragine,  807. 

Knox,  424. 

Jansenism,  516. 

Knutzen,  501. 

Janssen,  509. 

Koenig,  485. 

Japan,  478. 

Kodde,  482. 

Javohey,  Abbess,  678. 

Kohler,  509. 

Jean  Petit,  334. 

Koorland,  420. 

Jena,  405,  540,  543. 

Koran,  109,  110. 

Jeremias  II.,  Patriarch,  480. 

Kornthal,  Cong,  of,  557s. 

Jerome,  120,  124,  159  ;  of  Prague, 
848s. 

Krudener,  Ma3.  de,  595,  631. 
Krummacher  of  Bremen,  564. 

Jerusalem,  Bishopric,  576;  Con- 
quest of,  87,  197  ;  Patriarch  of, 

Kuhlmann,  508. 
Kurtz,  594,  684. 
Kuttenberg,  Diet  of,  850. 

Jesuates,  317. 

Jesuits,  452ss.,  524s.,  617s.,  625, 

L 

640s. 

Labadie,  508. 

Jesus  Christ,  24 

Labarum,  103. 

Jewish  Christians,  26,  81,  74. 
Jews,  20s.,  86s.  42s.,  835s. 
Joachim  of  Flores,  298s.  ;  of  Bran- 

Lachmann, 592. 
Lacordaire,  626. 
Lactantius,  96. 

denburg,  392. 
Joanna  Papissa,  186;  of  Naples, 

Ladenberg,  583. 
Lady  Days,  154 

275. 

Laesare,  547. 

Joasaph  II.,  Patriarch,  480. 

Lainez,  453. 

Johannic  Christians,  77. 

Laity,  57,  140s.,  440s. 

John  of  Antioch,  126;   Apostle, 

Lalande,  523. 

83.  34;  Baptist,  154;  Festival 

Lama,  837. 

of,   154;   the    Constant,  875; 

Lamartine,  624s. 

Faster,  135,  142  ;  of  England, 
208  ;  Damascenus,  134  ;  of  Je- 

Lambert of  Aschaffenburg,  132; 
of  Avignon,  382  ;   of  Spdeto, 

rusalem,  124  ;  Prester,  337  ;  of 

187. 

Laski,  407  ;  Matha,  230  ;  of  Ne- 
pomuk,     477;    of   Salisbury, 

Lamennais,  625,  626. 
Lanfranck,  237. 

241  ;  of  Vicenza,  300  ;  of  Philo- 

Lange,  10. 

ponus,  133;    Scholasticus,  56, 

Langlon,  208. 

185;  Zonaras,  260;  Sigismund 
of  Brandenburg,  413  ;  Frederic 
the  Magnanimous,  891,  397; 

Laplace,  490. 
Lapland,  337,  510. 
Lapsi,  65s.,  67,  90. 

VI.,  484  ;  III.  of  Sweden,  418  ; 

Las  Casas,  338. 

Knights  of  St.,  232,  819,  662s.  ; 

Laterau  Synod,  132,  198,  199  ;  1  1., 

VIII.,  Pope,   186,  259;    X., 

200,  208,  238,  284-285. 

183;   XL,   188;    XII.,  188s.; 

Latitudinarians,  491. 

XXL,  186;  XXIL,  273,  299; 

Laud,  426. 

XXIIL,  278,  339. 

Laurentius,  61  ;  Valla,  327,  331. 

Jonas  of  Orleans,  233. 

Lausanne  Disp.,  400. 

Joris,  434. 

La  Valetto,  525. 

Jornandes,  161. 

Lavater,  542. 

Joseph  II.,  527,  548,  676. 
Jovinianus,  159. 

Law  and  Gospel,  403,  409. 
Lay  Brethren,  225s. 

Jubilee  Indulgences,  623  ;  Tear, 

Lazarists,  463. 

301s.,  619. 
Julia  Mammaea,  46. 

League,  Holy,  428. 
Lee,  Anna,  546. 

Julianists,  129. 

Legacies,  140. 

Julianus  Apostata,  104s.  ;  Cardi- 
nal,   279,    845;    of  Eclanum, 

Legate,  Nuncio,  213,  523. 
Legend,  Golden,  307. 

124;  Minorite,  619. 

Legends,  4. 

Julius  II.,  2S3s.,  304,  885;  III., 

Legio  Fulminatrix,  45. 

451,  455  ;  Africanus,  95,  700  ; 

Legnano,  Battle  of,  203. 

Severus,  42. 

Lehnin,  Hermann,  576. 

Jumpers,  546.                  • 

Leibnitz,  489s.,  496. 

Jung  Stilling,  542. 
Jurisdiction  Eccles.,  13Ss.,  215, 

Leightoun,  498. 
Leipsic   Apost.    Symbol,  565s.  ; 

467. 

Disp.,  365,  562  ;  Synod,  658. 

Jus  Spoliae,  Eegaliae.  Stolae,  216. 
Justification,  332,  467. 

Lent^k 
Leo  I.,  Emperor,  128  ;  Isauricus, 

Justinianus  I.,  106,  129,  139. 
Justinus  I.,  128  ;  II.,  130  ;  Mar- 

156;  Juda,  386;    the  Great, 
123,143;   III.,  174;  IV.,  186; 

tyr,  43,  50s.,  71,  692. 

VIII.,   189;    IX.,   191;    X, 

Justus  Jonas,  880. 

285s.,  312.  364,  869,  450  ;  XII., 

619. 

K 

Leopold  of  Tuscany,  528s. 

Kant,  543. 

Less,  467. 

Katerkamp,  12. 

Lessing,  541,  674. 

Kaulbach,  674. 

Libanius,  106. 

Keller  in  Lucerne,  646  ;  Bishop, 

Libellatici,  56. 

640. 

Liberal  Catholics,  652,  653. 

Kellner,  570. 

Liberius,  143. 

Kepler,  411. 

Libertines,  401. 

716 


INDEX. 


Licinins,  55,  103. 

Maria  of  Portugal,  631;   The- 

Missa, 13S,  146;  Marcelll,  465. 

Light,  Friends  of,  579,  5S1. 

resa,  526. 

Missions,  Inner,  591  ;    Catholiq 

Liguori,  521. 

Marriage,  63,  70s.,  139,  176,  225, 

668s.  ;  Priests  of  the,  468,  625 

Lindberg,  562. 

706;    Double,  489s.;    Mixed, 

Missionary  Societies,  612ss. 

Lindner,  684 

636s. 

Moehler,  14  655. 

Lindsey,  611; 

Mariana,  458. 

Mogilas,  481. 

Literature,'  Revival  of,  826s. 

Marienburg,  837. 
Maronites,  132,  260,  4S2. 

Mohammed,  lOSss.  ;  IL,  356 
Molay,  819. 

Lithuania,  837s. 

Marozia,  188. 

Molina,  467. 

Liturgy,  224 
Livonia,  250,  420,  668. 

Marquesas  Islands,  615. 
Marsilius  Ficinus,  835. 

Molinos,  520. 
Momiers,  595. 

Locberer,  12. 

Martin  of  Tours,  151,  177;   I., 

Monarchia  Siciliae,  196. 

Locke,  4S9. 

132;  IV.,  270;  V.,  278s. 

Monarchians,  98s.,  196,  704 

Logos,  22,  84,  94,  98,  112. 

Martyrs,  55s.,  69,  154 

Monasticism,  149,  150,  225. 

Loke?164s. 

Masora,  8S1. 

Monastic   Life,   149,   150,   816, 

Lollards,  818. 

Mass,  146,  800. 

462s.,  481. 

Lombardus,  Peter,  239. 

Massalians,  107,  158. 

Mongols,  887s. 

Longobards,  166,  17a 

Massillon,  516 

Monod,   Fred.,   608;    Adolphe, 

Lord's   Supper,  70,   158,  224s.; 
Bull  of,  811,  458,  623. 

Master  Song,  815,  446. 
Matilda,  Countess,  194,  196,  198. 

6()9. 
Monophysites,  128,  130s. 

Loretto,  Holy  House,  809s. 
Lorsch,  Annals  of,  161. 

Miitti-o  iK-  I'.a^i,  4  rt:S. 
Matthew,  Father,  650. 

Monothelites,  181. 
Montalembert,  628. 

LothaireIL,187,200. 
Loots  the  Bavarian,  273  ;  of  Ba- 
varia, 658,  674;  the  German, 

Matthew  Paris,  264 
Matthias,  Emperor,  418,  477. 
Matthiesen,  481. 

Montanism,  66s.,  89s.,  701. 
Monte  Cassino,  151. 
^Montesquieu,  523. 

187;   the  Pious,  184;   Saint, 
268s.;  of  Anioo,  275;   VIL, 
201;    XII.,  284;    XIV.,  494, 

Maulbroun.  Disa  at,  418. 
Manr,  Monks  of  8t,  462,  481. 
Maurice  of  Hesse,  418  ;  of  Sax- 

Montesquieu, 580. 
Montlosier,  626. 
Moral  Science,  147s.,  838. 

612,518,514,518;   XV.,  618; 

ony,  898,  895s.,  896,  897;  of 

Moralities,  802. 

XVI.,  485;  XVIII.,  624;  Phi- 

Oruniro, 41.',s. 

Moravia,  248. 

lippe,  626  ;  Napoleon,  60S,  629. 

Mauritius  68& 

Moravian  Brethren,  850,  605. 

Lou  vain,  688. 
Love-Feast,  41,  70,  153. 

Manry,  680,  685. 
Mauvillon,  687. 

Morgan,  500. 
Mormons,  612. 

Lucerne,  884,  647. 

Maximilian  I.,  870;  II.,  417;  of 

Morrison,  616. 

Lucke,  698. 

Bavaria,  477. 

Mosbelm,  9. 

Lultprand,  182. 

Maximinus,  65;   tho  Thracian, 

Mozarabes,  168. 

Lotto*  MM* 
Luncville.  Peace  of,  538,  586. 

46. 
MaxlmuR,  158. 

Mozart,  675. 
Muckers,  559s. 

Luther,  861s.,  877s!,  894s.,  899l, 
440,446. 
Lutherans,  861ss.,  890s.,  669,  804 
Lutheranism,  402es.,  6898ft. 
Lyndharst,  Lord,  650. 

Mayence,  169,  280. 
Mayer,  Chancellor,  846. 

M:iVn.«,ti,.  «;;-!. 

Miu/ini.  •;•_••_•. 
Mecbatharists,  865. 

MuMberg,  Battle  of,  896. 
Muller,  Daniel,  508;  Henry,  449. 
Minster,  Anabaptist*  of,  431s. 
Munzor,  Thomas,  878. 
Muri,  647. 

Lyons,  Soc.  of  Faith  at,  668; 

M  ••'•'»  !c:i!  iu  r  '  i  ':i[!it>l'.<\  C>  l;'. 

Murillo,  464 

Synod  at,  125,  267,  865. 
Lyra,  Nic.  de,  881. 

Mediolanum,  Synod  of,  114. 

Musa,168. 
Music  Eccles.,  153,  465,  675. 

M 

Melancthon,  866s.,  878,  878,  883, 
891,  898,  404&,  489s.,  446s. 

MysUcisoL  289s.,  822ss.,  S44t5W, 

Mablllon,  615. 

Mclchlzedekians,  99,  702. 

655s.,  661. 

Macarius,  707. 

M  i-li'h  itf»    1  •  '>\ 

Machiavelli,  828. 

UetotfoiMO. 

N 

Macedonians,  115. 

Mellto,  51,  71. 

N3be,  10. 

Menander,  27. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  428,  494 

MadSAMtf.  life      ' 

Mendaeans,  77 

Naples.  629. 

Madlai,  609. 

Mendelssohn,  Felix.  Moses,  675. 

Napoleon,  532,  688,  648,  676. 

Mficdcburc  &6& 

M«*!i'l  i<"iiit  i  *r<l*T^  *'(|.*i- 

Nassau,  418. 

Ui|l4  W  :<"'.'.  ' 

Mennas,  180. 

Natalia,  Alexander,  8. 

Magna  Charta,  208. 

Mennonites,  432,  610. 

Natalia,  68. 

Maimbourg,  860. 

Menzel,  860  (Errata). 

Naturalism,  49Sss. 

Maimonides,  885. 
Mainottes,  107,  256s.,  856s. 

Mercy,  Brethren  and  Sisters  of, 

National  Churches,  292. 
Naumburg  Bishopric,  392  ;  Prin- 

Major, 405s. 

Itated'AaMtn&ail 

ces'  Diet  at,  404 

Majorinus,  157. 

Merlin,  810. 

Nazareans,  25,  74 

Maistre,  Do,  625. 

Messias,  Klopstock's,  641. 

Nazoraeans,  74 

Malachias,  290. 

Methodists,  606,  695,  604 

Neander,  History,  10,  6b3  ;  Bish- 

Mandeville, 499. 

Methodius,  95,  248,  256. 

op,  568. 

Manfred  of  Sicily,  267s. 
Manichaeism,  86ss.,  123  ;  of  Mid- 

Metropolitans, 60s. 
Michael,  177;   Cerularius,  259; 

Neri,  Philip,  462. 
Nero,  87. 

dle  Ages,  252s. 

Palaeologus,  269,  854,  855;  of 

Nerva,  88. 

Manuel,  886. 

Cesena,l99;  Angelo,  804,805. 

Nestorians,  126s.,  838,  CC5. 

Marburg   Colloquy,    890;    Free 

Michaelis,  688. 

Nestorius,  124  888,  706. 

Congg.,  SSL 

Mtchelet,  628. 

Netherlands,  Reform,  414;  L,o- 

Marca,  Petrus  de,  515. 
Marcellinus,  61. 
Marcellus,114705;  IL,  451,  465. 

Miguel  Dom,  631. 
Milner,  10. 
Miltitz  and  Luther,  865 

cent  State  of,  596s. 
Neuberg,  Count  Palatine,  470. 
New  Israelites,  547. 

Marcianus,  127. 

Milton,  498. 

New  Jerusalem,  506ss.,  605. 

Marcion,  71,  81s. 

Minimi,  817. 

Newman,  599s. 

Marcus,  696  ;  Aurelius,  45. 

Ministerinm,  68. 

New  Platonism,  47ss. 

Margaretta  Peter,  559. 

Minnesingers,  244 

New  Testament,  71,  592. 

Marheineke,  10,  860. 
Mary,  Worship  of,  152,  218,  221, 
224,  307,  521;    the  Catholic, 

Minorites,  297ss.,  318. 
Minucius,  Felix,  49,  51. 
Mirabeau,  531. 

New  Year's  Day,  154 
Niebelungen,  Lay  of,  243. 
Nicaea,  Synod  of,  L   112*3.;  IL 

422  ;  Stuart,  424 

Miserere,  465. 

157,  178. 

INDEX. 


17 


Nicephoras  Calllst,  705. 
Nicephorus,  102. 
Nicetas  Choniates,  2C1. 
Nicolas  of.Clamengis,  325,  844; 

of  Cusa,  845 ;  of  the  Flue,  808 ; 

of  Lyra,  881;  Methone,  261; 

of  Eussia,  667s. ;   I.,  185,  186, 

258 ;  II.,  192 ;  V.,  281. 
Nicolai,  539. 
Nicolai  tans,  35. 
Nicon,  Patriarch,  666. 
Kiedner,  11. 
Nielson  Hauge,  547. 
Nihus,  469. 
Nismes,  428,  607. 
Nitzsch,  586. 
Noailles,  Cardinal,  518. 
Nobili,  Jesuit,  472. 
Nobility  of  the  German  Nation, 

867. 

Noetus,  100, 704. 
Nogaret,  272. 
Nogent,  242. 
Nollbrethren,  318. 
Nominalism,  239,  321s. 
Nomocanon,  135,  260. 
Nonconformists,  423s. 
Nonintrusioniste,  597s. 
Norberti  Praemonstrant,  229s. 
Nordhausen,  581. 
Normal  year,  479. 
Normans,  246s. 
North  America,  417,  510,  601ss., 

617,  664. 

Norwegians,  246,  420. 
Notarii,  Paulicians,  160. 
Notker  Labeo,  236. 
Novalis,  555. 
Novatians,  67. 
Nuremberg,  Diet  of,  373s.,  376  : 

Eel.  Peace,  384. 
Nuncios,  213,  459. 

O 

Oak,  Synod  of  the,  121. 

Oberlin,  546. 

Obscure  Men,  Letters  of,  329. 

Occam,  321. 

Occhino,  463. 

O'Connell,  649,  650. 

Odense,  Diet  of,  419. 

Odin,  164. 

Odilo,  226. 

Odo,  226. 

(Ecolampadius,  386,  389. 

O3cumenius,  261. 

(Ecumenical  Councils,  146;  Pa- 
triarchs, 142s. 

Oetinger,  507,  539. 

Officials,  Episcopal,  292. 

Officiuin  of  the  Virgin,  224. 

Olaf,  St.,  or  Olaus,  St,  247; 
Schooskonig,  246;  Trygvesen, 
247. 

Olavides,  527. 

Oldenbarneveldt,  415. 

Oldenburg,  Church  GOT.,  ?>75. 

Old  Testament,  71. 

Olevianus,  413. 

Olivetans,  817. 

Olga,  257. 

Olshausen,  570. 

Oncken,  Missionary,  610s. 

Ophites,  80,  693s. 

Orange,  Synod  of,  125. 

Oratory,  Priests  of  the,  462,  465. 

Orders,  225,  295,  462ss.,  662. 

Organs,  153. 

Origen,  52,  71,  92, 130,  703. 

Original  Sin,  122. 

Orleans  Eegent,  513;  Dynasty, 
626ss. 

Orosius,  106, 124. 


Osiander,  403. 

nan,  256  ;  de  Murrhone,  270 

Osseni,  85. 

de  Viueis,  266,  and  Paul,  Fes- 

Otho of  Bamberg,  249  ;  of  Frcy- 
singen,  188;  I.,  189,  249;  III., 
189;  IV.,  206,216. 

tival  of,  154;  the  Great,  666. 
Peter's  Church,  304. 
Peterson,  418. 

Overbeck,  674. 

Petrarca,  827. 

Owen,  680. 

Petrus  Alexandrinus,  65  ;  Apos- 
tle, 26,  30,  81,  154  ;  Fullo,  128  ; 

P 

Pachomius,  149. 

Lombardus,  224,  239;  Mogilas, 
481;    Venerabilis,   229,    242; 

Pack,  Otho  von,  881. 

Waldus,  254. 

Paganism,  104. 

Peucer,  408. 

Pa|i,  8. 

Pfaff  of  Tubingen,  492. 

Painting,  69,  804s.,  445.  464,  674. 

Pfefferkorn,  329. 

Paion,  490. 

Pfeffinger,  406. 

Palamas,  855. 

Pflug,  Julius  von,  892,  393. 

Palatinate,  392;  of  Bavaria,  492, 

Phanaroea,  160. 

528. 

Pharisees,  22. 

Palestrina,  465. 

Philalethes,  553,  581. 

Palavicini,  860. 

Philip    I.  of  France,  194,  196, 

Pallium,  153,  173,  212. 

198;  Augustus,  204,  207  ;  the 

Pamphilus,  95. 

Fair,  271,  819s.  ;  of  Hesse,  375, 

Panoplia,  261. 

882,  390,  891,  396,  898;  of  Sca- 

Pantaenus,  91. 

bia,  206;  II.  of  Spain,  414,  429, 

Pantheism,  551s.,  554. 

461. 

Pantheon,  152,  464. 

Philippists,  404. 

Papacy,  61s.,   142s.,  183s.,  195, 

Philippopolis,    262;    Synod  of, 

265ss.,  288s.,  450s.,  511ss.,  524ss., 

114. 

617ss. 

Philippus  the  Arabian,  46. 

Paphnutius,  148. 

Philo,  21. 

Papias,  73. 
Paracelsus,  448. 

Philoponus,  133. 

Philostorgius,  102,  705. 

Paraguay,  475,  524,  C32. 

Philostratus,  47. 

Paris  Univ.,  236,  276,  320  ;  Synod 

Phocas,  142. 

of,  178,  340,  535. 

Photinus  of  Sirmium,  114. 

Parma,  525. 

Photius,  258,  260  ;  Heathen,  1064 

Parson's  Letter,  288. 

Phthartolatrians,  129. 

Pasagii,  252s. 

Piarists,  463. 

Pascal,  517. 

Picards,  341. 

Paschal  Controv.,  68,  154,  691. 
Paschalis  II..  197ss. 

Picts,  167. 
Pietism,   487,    491;    Orthodox, 

Paschasius  Eadbertus,  224,  234. 

555. 

Passau,  Treaty  of,  398. 

Piligrin  of  Passau,  250. 

Pastors,  293. 
Paterini,  252. 

Pilgrimages,  152,  213. 
Pipin,  172,  173. 

Patriarchs,  141  ;  of  Constantino- 

Pisa, Synod  of,  276s.,  284,  291. 

ple,  356s. 

Pistoia,  Synod  of,  528s. 

Patricias,  167,  190. 

Pius  II.,  281  ;  IV.,  451,  455  ;  V.. 

Patripassians,  98. 

451,  467;   VI.,  526,  531,  532; 

Patronage,  214. 

VII.,  533,  617,632,646;  VIII. 

Paulus,  Apostle,  27s.,  31s.,  40  ;  of 

619,  635,  637;  IX.,  620ss.,  633; 

Bernried,  193;  Gerard,  484s.; 

Unions,  641. 

of  Samosata,  100;   of  Thebes, 

Planck,  360. 

64s.;    the   Simple,    150;    II., 

Plastic  Arts,  304. 

281s.  ;  III.,  890,  895,  450,  452, 

Plato,  16. 

454;   IV.,  451,  462;   V.,  457, 

Platonism,  47,  93,  328. 

467;  Warnefrid,  161,  179;   of 

Plays,  Sacred,  302. 

Heidelberg,  544. 

Pleroma,  78,  694. 

Paulicians,  159s.,  261. 

Pletho,  355. 

Peace,    Everlasting,    681s.  ;     of 

Plinius,  44. 

God,  208,  217;  of  Linz,  479; 

Plotinus,  48. 

of  Westphalia,  479  ;   of  Vien- 

Plutarch, 47. 

na,  417s.  ;  of  St.  Germain,  427. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  611. 

Peasant's  War,  377s. 

Poeschl,  661. 

Pedro,  Dom,  631. 

Poissy  Conference,  427. 

Peel,  600. 

Poland,  249,  420,  494,  668. 

Pelagian  Controv.,  122,  383,  467. 
Pelagius,  122  ;  Eom.  Bishop,  130. 
Pella,  87,  74. 

Polentz,  George,  375. 
Polotzk,  Synod  of,  668. 
Polycarp,  45,  73,  690,  692. 

Penances,  65,  175s.,  222. 

Polycrates,  690s. 

Penitential  Convulsions,  487s. 
Penitentials,  292s. 
Penn,  William,  502. 

Pomare  II.,  614. 
Pombal,  524,  631. 
Pomerania,  249. 

Pentecost,  24,  68. 

Pomponazzo,  328. 

Pepuziani,  66. 

Pontifex  Maximus,  103. 

Peripatetics,  828. 

Pontius,  Abbot,  229. 

Persians,  107. 

Pornocracy,  188,  388. 

Perugino,  306. 

Porphyrians,  118. 

Pestalozzi,  545. 
Petavius,  515. 
Peter    D'Ailly,    277,    844;    of 

Porphyrius,  48,  50. 
Portiuncula  Indulgences,  293. 
Port  Eoyal,  516. 

Amiens,  197  ;  of  Aragon,  207, 
270  ;  of  Bruys,  253  ;  of  Castel- 

Portugal,  524,  527,  629. 
Possevino,  481. 

713 


INDEX. 


Pothlnus,  C97,  C99. 

Eavaillac,  42& 

Roskolnici,  666. 

Poussin,  464. 

Rawicz,  658. 

Rossi,  Count,  622. 

Prague  Bishopric,  249  ;  Univer- 

Raymond of  Bezieres  256  ;  de 

sity,  826,  34$. 
Pragmatic   Sanction,   268,   2S1, 

Pennaforte,  286;  de  Sabunde, 
825;  du  Puy,  232;  of  Thou- 

Rothschild,  677. 
Rousseau,  528. 

2S4,285. 

louse.256. 

Rovaard,  11. 

Praxeas,  99.  704 

Raynal,  528. 

lioyko,  11. 

Preaching  Friars.  296. 

Raynaldus  & 

Rubens  464 

Predestinarians,  125,  285. 

Readers  547. 

Ruchat,  861. 

:  i  nation,  1  22,  225,  879,  401. 
Premonstrants,  229. 

Realists,  239,  321s. 
Recognitions  of  Clement,  692,708. 

Rudoljih  cf  ITapsbunr,  2C9s.;  a 
8nablsl95;  11.,  417. 

I'r.-byteresses  89,  707. 
Presbvterles  in  Bavaria,  672s. 

Redemptorists  621. 
Redeemer,  Order  of  the,  817. 

RQgen,  249. 
Rnffo,  Cardinal,  535. 

Presbyterians  428,  498,  697,  604 

Reformation  in   Cath.  Church, 

Rulinus,  98,  120. 

-H.  89.  68,  140. 
Present!*  Passlva,  687. 
:  John,  887. 

276s.,  888,  848;   Forerunners 
of  the,  861;  Protestant,  860; 
Introduction  of.  886. 

Rupert  of  Deutz,  24a 
Rnpp,680,684,689, 

to&aa,  I...M.  r......  c.». 

Prierias  863. 

Reformed  Church,  884s.,  899s., 

Russian  Church,  257,  481s.,  666. 

Pri^thood,  57,136,187,188,448s. 
Priestley,  611.      * 

696s.;    Presbyterian   Church, 

Russia,  Protestantism  in,  670*., 
668. 

Prtmarius  of  Adrymetum,  188. 

Regalia,  216,  2S7. 

K;l;r.-:M,.<-k.K>. 

I'ri-'-illiannslSS. 
Probabilism,  884,  464,  517. 

i:.  ..•••iif-r.  .-:.t.  .-,-,:.. 
Regino  of  Pruem,  210. 

\l\\\  -\'T'  irk.  •"..:'. 

Ryswick,  Peace  of,  493. 

Proclns  48. 

Rehm.10. 

Proooplus  188,  161,  850;   Ga- 

Reichlln-Meldegg,  11 

8 

/.;•••!',  ;..:. 

P.elmarus  687. 

Sabbatarians  447,  610. 

Professlo  Fidel  Tridentlna,  466. 

!;,.;;    1     ir,]      ,',«„•, 

Sabellicns  265. 

Proll,  668. 
Propaganda.  470. 
l'r..pliecy.  Messianic,  20s. 
I  'n  phots,  88:  Little,  495. 

)•.-.-.  ^  :,-.-.;.  '•.:.'. 

Reynardus  24&s^  816. 
Religion,  Prussian  Edict  of,  640. 
Kelirions   Peace  of  Angsburg, 

..•-••.:  •  !   N  ..:•  :n!  •  r.-,  :,^4. 
Rejlgl«l,225. 

Bacerdotintn,*63. 

Sacharelll,  a 

Sacramentarian  Controv.,  284s., 

P.-.~.-;:i-m.  47".   91%. 

!•,..•.  !::,-  1  rind^Mft 

287,  889s,  899s.,  401. 

Protestation  of  Spej  -i  r 
Protestantism,  487s.;    Develop- 
'  of,  648m;  and  Calho- 

. 

Remonstrants  418. 
top*]  M,  ,-.!!._-.  .-.:.',. 

liege,  Law  on,  625. 
Saints  Worship  of,  151s.,  228, 

.ing  Parties,  169,  251es., 

Resdtittlo?Edict  of,  479. 

807s,  620. 

::,-. 

1  '  •   '  r   i  '  '  t   '  '  i  •  '  '  .  -      I  '*•''.-' 

8t  Germain,  Peace  of,  427. 

Provincial  Synods  60,  290s.,  631. 

Reuciilln,  829. 

St  John.  Knights  of,  232,  819s  ; 

PrudeottoaTuA  rOtt 

ItovcrMiJ^L  60T 

Disciples  of;  77. 

Prussia,  886,  875,  666ss.,  576s*., 

Kcvlvals  in  America,  601. 
Revolution,  EofL,  497s  ;  French, 

Bt  M.-irin.  Ml. 
St  Maurus  462,  481. 

Pscudo-IsidoVus,  1S4. 

L,629ss.;  ILT«6ss. 

Bt  BtOMb  »',7-.». 

I  '      .'''ill-*      "  '  -  ' 

Reynard  the  Fox,  816. 

**  •  1  i1  ;  '  i    "'  '  i 

naeus,696;  of  Lucca,  265. 

I:,,M-:,  B^MKOttiMt 

Sales  Francis  of,  461. 

Public   Worship,    168s,    177s., 

Rhonso,  Electoral  Alliance  of, 

Salisbury,  John  <.f,  241. 
Salle,  Baptist  de  la,  621. 

!'  :."n.  r..i,  I:;.' 

274,  287. 

BMnS  "•'• 

Porntory.  I-*-'. 
Puritans  862,  864,  480,  601. 
stn,  509s. 

Rlcd,  Jesuit,  474s 
Richard  Ccear  de  Lion,  204s; 
Simon,  615;  of  St  Victor,  240. 
RkMte  »:-. 
Richer,  460. 

Sakburg,  Evangelicals  of,  498. 
Samaritans  28,  26s 
Samosatenlani,  100. 

Samiisaeans  85. 
BMMML  MB, 

(juadratus  Apologist  50, 
QuartodeclmanI,  154 

Rienxo,  Cols  de,  274s. 

Rubber  sVnod,  128,  144 
Robert  Onlscard,  192,  196;  of 

teebo  L,tOTi. 

Sandwich  Islands  614s. 
Ban  Gnd,  -.M». 
Sardlca,  bynod  of,  118s.,   142, 

(  MU'lcn  6*tx 

rlssei,    828;    of   Clteaux, 

707. 

0  lenjudt  •)<•. 

228;  Stephens  466. 

8arpl,860,457. 

Quesn.:. 

Robespierre,  631. 

Saturntnus  77,  69a 

Quietism.  519s. 

liobinSOD.  4mfh 

Saumur  Academy,  490. 

Rodrignes  Ollnde,  679. 

Savonarola,  852a. 

Quinisexta,  134 

i:  .hr,  M.\  .VI. 
ROnnow  of  Roskilde,  419. 

Saxony,  169,  685. 
Saxon  Reformation,  3C3s,  492s 

R 

Roger  of  Sicily,  196,  200. 

662,678s. 

Rabanns  Mannis  283,  184 

i;,,!  rb'K-li.-r   .;"-:'. 

Scanderbeg,  856. 

llabbl  Akiba,  42. 

Roman  Catholics  in  the  U.  S., 

Scapular  of  the  Virgin,  230. 

Rabbinism,  42s, 

602. 

Schaff,  684 

liadbod,  King  of  Prisons  168. 

Rome,  Pagan,  17^  48s.  ;  Bish- 

Scheibel, 569s. 

Radicalism,  563,  647s. 

opric  of,  61,  142s;  Republic, 

Schelllng,  650s^  552. 

liammohnn  Roy,  615s 

mm, 

Schiller,  542. 

Kanke,  360s.     ' 

Romantic  School,  655,  674 

Schism,  275. 

Raphael,  806. 

Romualdo,  227. 

Schleiermacher,  11,  650. 

Kapp,  558. 

Roncalian  Plains,  Battle,  202. 

Schmidt,  J.  R  Ch.,  9. 

Ratherius,  286. 

lion  2*%  6^6s. 

Schneidemuhl,  658. 

Rationalism,    500s.,    507s.,    644, 

Ronsdorf,  509. 

Schoeffler,  Abbe,  664. 

550s. 

Roothaan,  61S. 

Schoenherr,  660. 

Ratisbon,  Alliance  of,  376  ;  Diet, 

Rosary,  800. 

Scholasticism,  238s.,  820s 

393,  412,  477. 

Roscellinus  239. 

Scholz,  654 

Ratramnus,  234,  235. 

Rosenkranz,  553. 

Schroeck,  9. 

Rauroer,  583. 

Rosicrusians,  449. 

Schulz,  Court  Preacher,  540. 

INDEX. 


719 


Scriptures,  see  Holy  Scriptures. 

Sclmderoff,  571. 

Schurf,  381. 

Schurmann,  508. 

Schwenckfeld,  435. 

Schwerin,  Count,  5S2. 

Silesia,  Lutheran,  569s. 

Scotland,  167,  424,  497s.,  597s. 

Scottists,  321s.,  332s.,  467. 

Sootus,  Duns,  321 ;  Erigena,  233s. 

Seckendorf,  360. 

Segarelli,  341. 

Selnecker,  409. 

Semiarians,  113s. 

Semipelagians,  124s. 

Semler,  9,  538. 

Sendomir,  Agreement  at,  420. 

Seniores,  58. 

Separatists  of  Wurtemberg,  557s.; 
of  Prussia,  569s. 

Septimius  Severus,  45. 

Serapeion,  106. 

Sergius  III.,  188;  Patriarch, 
131 ;  Tychicus,  261. 

Sermons,  300,  445,  515s. 

Servetus,  430,  433. 

Servites,  317. 

Sethites,  80. 

Seven  Sleepers,  46. 

Severians,  129,  Irfl. 

Severinus,  709. 

Severus  Alexander,  46. 

Severus,  Gnostic,  83. 

Sextus  Decretalium  Liber,  286. 

Shaftesbury,  499,  610. 

Shakers,  446,  605. 

Sibour,  629. 

Sibylline  books,  97,  693, 704. 

Siccardi,  623s. 

Sicilian  Monarchy,  2GG,  514; 
Vespers,  270. 

Sickingen,  329,  867. 

Sierra  Leone,  616. 

Sieyes,  530. 

Bigbert  of  Gemblours,  182s. 

Sigismund,  Emperor,  277,  348; 
III.,  of  Sweden,  418,  420. 

Simeon  Metaphrastes,  260s. ;  Sty- 
lites,  150s. 

Simon  Magus,  27,  84 ;  de  Mont- 
fort,  256 ;  Stock,  230 ;  of  Tour- 
nay,  267. 

Simonists,  679s. 

Simony,  191,  221 ;  comp.  2SSs. 

Sintenis,  565. 

Siricius,  149, 159. 

Sirmium,  Synod  of,  114. 

Sixtus  IV.,  282, 311 ;  V.,  456, 466. 

Slavery,  Abolition  of,  677s. 

Slaves,  257,  706. 

Slavonic  nations,  248s.,  257. 

Sleidanus,  360. 

Smalcaldic  Articles,  390s. ; 
League,  383s. ;  War,  395s. 

Smith,  Missionary,  678;  Mor- 
mon, 612. 

Socialism,  679. 

Socinians,  434s. 

Socrates,  16;  Scholasticus,  102. 

Soissons,  Synod  of,  239,  242. 

Sollicitudo  omnium,  Bull  of, 
617s. 

Sonderbund,  648. 

Sophronius,  110, 131. 

Sorbonne,  426,  458. 

Soter,  79. 

South  Africa,  616. 

South  America,  475,  522,  632. 

Southcote,  Joanna,  546s. 

South  Sea  Islands,  614. 

Sozomenus,  102. 

Spain.  54, 168, 172,  287,  294,  429, 
527,535,629ss. 


Spalatinus,  360,  871s. 

Spalding,  544. 

Spee,  Fred.,  454. 

Spener.  487. 

Speyer,  Diet  of,  381. 

Spinola,  496. 

Spinoza,  409. 

Spirituals,  298s. 

Spittler,  9. 

Sponsors,  70. 

Stiiudlin,  10. 

Stahl,  590. 

Staroverzi,  666. 

Staupitz,  362,  380. 

Stedinajers,  339s. 

Steinbuhler,  527. 

Stephanus,  25;  of  Tigerno,  227. 

Stephen  I.,  91 ;  II.,  173 ;  VIL, 

187;  IX.,  192;  Botzkai,  417s. ; 

of  Hungary,  250 ;  of  Dresden, 

560. 

Stockholm,  Society  in,  539. 
Stolberg,  11,  672. 
Strasbourg,  Synod,  608 ;  Faculty, 

Strauss,  553. 

Strigelius  Victorians.  403. 
Suarez,  458. 

Subordinationists,  9Ss.,  704s. 
Sulpicius  Severus,  102. 
Sunday,  41,  68,  154. 
Superintendents,  444;  General, 

568. 
Superior    Consistories,    French, 

608;    Prussian,  578;    Eccles. 

Council  of  Prussia,  583. 
Supernaturalism.  544. 
Surplice  Fees,  216. 
Suso,  Henry,  323s. 
Sutri,  Synod  of,  190. 
Sweden,  245,  246. 
Swedenborg,  507. 
Swedenborgians,  507s..  605. 
Switzerland,  3S4ss. 
Sword,  Brethren  of  the,  251. 
Sylvanus  Constantinus,  159s. 
Sylvester  I.,  143,  184;  II.,  190, 

197 ;  III.,  190. 
Symbolik,  671. 
Symbols,  Christian,  69,  691. 
Symbolum   Apostolium,    72; 

Athanasianum,  116. 
Symeon,  45. 
Symmachus,  105. 
Syncretism,  486. 
^vveiffUKToi,  63. 
Swe'/cSTj/uoj,  160. 
Synergistic  Controv.,  405s. 
Synesius,  119, 138,  706. 
Synodal  Constitution,  60s.,  440ss., 

572 ;  Courts,  175,  222,  293. 
Synod,  Holy,  666,  670. 
Syrian  Gnostics,  77ss. 


Taborites,  350. 

Tafel,  507. 

Tagliacozzo,  Battle  of.  26S. 

Tahiti,  614. 

Talleyrand,  529. 

Talmud,  43. 

Tanchelm,  253. 

Tancred,  205. 

Tasso,  Torquato,  464. 

Tatianus,  51,  83. 

Tauler,  322. 

Taxation   of  the   Church,    140, 

216,  530. 

Temperance  Societies,  601. 
Templars,  232,  31Sss.,  663. 
Territorial  System,  492,  572. 
Tertiaries,  296. 


Tertullianus,  52,  6'2,  SSs.  69T. 
701,  702s. 

Test  Act,  498,  599. 

Tetzel,  363,  365. 

Thaddeus,  35. 

Thamerus,  486. 

Theatines,  462. 

Theiner,  653,  659. 

Thek.a,  St,  97. 

Theocracy,  20. 

Theodora,  Empress,  129,  157, 
261 ;  Eoman,  188. 

Theodoretus,  102,  127,  130, 132. 

Theodorus  Ascidas,  180;  Balsa- 
mon,  125;  Lector,  102;  of 
Mopsuestia,  118,  130 ;  of  Tar- 
sus, 179. 

Theodosius  I,  105,  115s.,  188; 
II.,  126. 

Theodotus,  99,  704. 

Theodulph  of  Orleans,  1T9. 

Theopaschites,  128s. 

Theophanes,  Confessor,  102. 

Theophilanthropists,  532,  627. 

Theophilus  of  Alex.,  121 ;  of  An- 
tioch,  51. 

Theophylactus.  261. 

Theosophy,  447ss. 

©eord/cos,  126, 152. 

Therapeutae,  22. 

Theresia,  St.,  461. 

Thesaurus  Supererog.,  311 

Theses  Lutheri,  363. 

Thibet,  522. 

Thiers,  623. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  476s. 

Thomas,  85;  Aquinas,  321,  331 
333, 335 ;  a  Becket,  203 ;  Chris- 
tians, 127;  a  Kempis,  32i 
More,  421. 

Thomasius,  4S7s ,  491. 

Thomists,  321s.,  332,  467. 

Thorn,  Insurrection,  494;  I 'is 
cussion  at,  42*0. 

Thorwaldsen,  674. 

Three  Chapters'  Controv.,  130. 

Thuisto,  162. 

Thurificati,  56. 

Tiberius,  87. 

Tillemont,  8. 

Tindal,  421,  499. 

Tirkler,  834 

Tischendorf,  592. 

Tithes,  139, 171s.,  530,  600,  680. 

Titian)  464. 

Titus,  Emperor,  37. 

Toland,  499. 

Tolbiacum,  Battle  of,  166. 

Toledo,  Synod  of,  116. 

Tolentino,  Peace  of,  532. 

Toleration  Eccles.,  496s. ;  Edict, 
548,  581. 

Toloinei,  317. 

Tongues,  Speaking  with,  24s.,55S. 

Tonsure,  153, 177. 

Torgau,  League  of,  376s. 

Torquemada,  294. 

Tournay,  267,  824 

Tournon,  522. 

Tours,  Synod  of,  235. 

Tradition,  72,  111,  467. 

Traditores,  56. 

Trajan,  44. 

Tranquebar  Mission,  510.    . 

Translatio  prisca,  135. 

Transubstantiation,  153,  224s., 
233. 

Transylvania,  417,  494,  665. 

Trappists,  521. 

Trent,  Council  of,  394,  454s. 

Treves,  Bishop  of,  643;  Coat 
pilgrimage  of,  656. 

Trinitarians,  230s. 


720 


IXDEX. 


Trinity,  93,  116.- 
Trittenheim,  265. 

Vespasianus,  87. 
Veto  Act,  597. 

Wil.lcnspuch  crucifixion,  559. 
Wllboluiina,  Bohemi:i 

Troubadours,  244 
Truce  of  God,  208,  217. 
Trullan  Synod,  184,  143,  156. 
Tubingen,      University,      832  ; 
School,  Older,  545  ;  New,  698s. 

Victor  L.  63,  99,  704  ;  IL,  191  ; 
IIL,  196,  202. 
Vienna  Concordat,    231;    Con- 
gress, 605,  617  ;  Peace  of,  417  ; 
Theol.  Faculty  at,  606. 

William  of  Champeaux,  '24u:  ,.f 
8t   Amour,   'j;»7;    of   llirsau, 
227  ;  of  Occam,  821  ;  of  Orange, 
493;  the  Conqueror,  194 
Wilson,  Bishop,  015. 

Turkey,  670. 

Vigilantiuft,  159. 

Winer,  598. 

Tunis,  268s. 

Vlgiliu*  129s. 

\\'  u    j'r-,-1  J      1  f  >N 

Tl/ITO  V 

Vigils,  67 

Winkelmann,  672,  674 

Tyrannicide,  884,  442*.,  458s. 
Tyrol,  543,  606. 
Tzschirner,  9,  549,  671s. 

Vlllani,  264 
Vilmergen,  Battle  of.  495. 
Vincent  de  Paula.  468. 
Vincentius  Ferreri,  318  ;  of  Beau- 

Wiseman,  651s. 
Wislicenus,  579,  5SO. 
Witches,  175  ;  Trials  of,  810s.,  491. 
Witgensteln,  509* 

u 

vals,264;  of  Lirinnin.  111. 

Witfra,  17.'. 

Uhlich,  578*,  682. 

.  r.93. 

Wittenberg  Univ.,  826;  Theses, 
868;  Fire  signal,  869;  Icono- 

Ulrich'of  Augsb.,218;  of 
tcmb    891. 

Virtflin*  Magidan,  810. 
-.804 

clasm,    872s.  ;    Surrender    of, 
896;  Concordium,  899;   Phil- 

Ultramontanista,  682* 
Uniformity,  Act  of,  428. 
Unigenittu,  Bull  of,  549. 
Union,  468*,  626s.  ;  Evang.,  608*; 
of  the  Ev.  Church,  666*.,  678; 
of  tbe  Cath.  and  Greek  Church- 

.  ..    ;-:,  ,.   .. 

Unitarians,  98*,  488*,  608,  611. 
Universalia,  289. 

Visitation,  Articles  of,  411  ;  Book 

VHu's',  8L,  Dance,  8ia 
Vladimir,  257. 
Vladlslaiw  IV.  of  Poland,  420. 
Voice*  Calling,  in  Sweden,  509. 

V,,lr;i!r...  :.:::.  Mr 

\,.-..i.  I,..,;.- 

l[>l>h>ts  of,  404s.  ;  Luthuranisin, 

.468. 
WUdltnir,  967. 

r.<  >hemia,  850. 
Woolln. 
Wolf,  4S99.;  Peter,  11. 
Wolfcnbattel  FrajAr.,  587. 
Wolfram  of  R-^heiibach,  244 

Unlversalist*  605. 

Vulgate,  111,  466. 

Woltmann,  8Go. 

CTntanttlM,  Mfc  IN 

Women,  89,  140,  tM. 

r;,;,,r  Rhtttt  I'n.v..  47::.  ,',;::. 
Urban  II.,  196,197:   IV.  801; 
V.,275;  VL,  275,  802;   VIII.. 

4.V..1.VJ.  :.;•'.. 
rri:i,,.r.-.T.  :,,-. 

Urlnia%6. 

W 

Walafrid  Strabo,  241 
Waldensct,  254*.  842*,  610. 

Walter,  Hans,  446  :  of  the  Vojwl- 
welde,  244:  of  St.  Vi.-t.>r,  -Jii. 
Wartburg,  Luther  at,  872* 

Works,  Necessity  of,  405s.,  409. 
Worms,  Concordat,  199  ;  Diet  nt, 
871*  ;  Synod  at,  195. 
Worship,  see  Public  Worship. 
WQrtemberg,  891.  657,6788.,  646. 
Wupperthal  in  Africa,  616. 

w,-.-.-:.,...!..r.  :.«»,;  v.j. 

WycUfle,  84C* 

Utraqnists,  880*,  477«. 

w,  _-,•:,  »iv 

Utrecht  Jansenlsts,  519;  Union 
of,  415. 

Weimar  DispnL,  406;    Ecclw. 

«»r-!,r.  :.7t. 

X 
Xavlor,  452,  472. 

WeUliaiipt,  697. 

Xlnienea,  294,  831. 

V 

wSSSS+m 

VateMM  M 

Wenceslaus,  948*  848* 

T 

\V.  :,.:-.  •:;•'. 

Young  Germany,  654. 

Werkmeister.  684. 

Valcntlniantu  II.,  110  ;  IIL,  189, 

Werthelm  Bible.  490. 

Z 

1  it. 

Wesel,  Jobn  of,  851* 

Zablana,  77. 

•  Inus,  Gnostic,  79s,  696. 

Zachariaa,  Pope,  173. 

Yul.-rl.inus,  46. 

\y.  --'•.':•..•::. 

/.  istona,  m. 

Zeno  iMuricn*  128  ;  Stole,  17 

Vsnvnr.m 

u  —  |  ram  •  r  Pnan  r.  ':.  :. 

VaDombro  L  OB*r«Cttfc 

We»t«ras,Dietof.  4ia 

'/.['..•  rtii:i!.  i'."''i. 

ValUhn*  L7& 
Vandals,  Itth 

Westpbal,%7. 

Zlnzendorf,  608* 
Ziska,  850. 

Vasa,  418. 

Westphalia,  Peace  of,  479. 

Zittel,  672. 

Vasart,803. 
Vaud,  Canton  of,  400,  698,  611 

\V,  ••-!.:;,.  r.M. 

Wbltefleld,  606s. 
Wkhtn/ltL 

KOMTM,  ML 

Zosimus,  108,  124. 
Zulpich,  Battle  of,  166. 

Venema,  11. 

\V  l*'I  Vi1  1     «r-  \  ' 

Zurich,  886,  658. 

Vergerin*  469. 
Verschooren,  50». 

Wigand,  408,  411. 
Wllberforce,  506. 

Zw-ickau  Prophets,  872*  43L 
Ewfn^884Mri9l, 

THE  END. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 
LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


C'D  LI 


APR    3  i95i 


UNIV.  OF  CALIF..  BEI 


LD  21A-50m-8/57 
(C8481slO)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


$33337 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


